From bpfk-list+bncCAAQ1oeP6AQaBCcvvYE@googlegroups.com Sat Dec 11 10:34:24 2010 Received: from mail-gx0-f189.google.com ([209.85.161.189]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PRUFm-0001Hg-U2; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 10:34:24 -0800 Received: by gxk19 with SMTP id 19sf3691632gxk.16 for ; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 10:33:01 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:received:mime-version:x-beenthere:received :received:received:received:received:received-spf:received:received :received:date:message-id:to:subject:from:x-spam_score :x-spam_score_int:x-spam_bar:x-spam_report:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=fIAQsE6gP5m2P8sg6sGi7pjHhWPeINNnjsSM4HK8uz4=; b=Ugewg8JVCP19BA0dL3G5vgruVaK2dqZkCEDjZGrX9epAebaeHouDdszNFSGrKleRc+ 6FCzZ6q2Rp7pz3qPfY+TdJUdA435DJ12APPohl+z+eSYosyDm0XoJ/WLc5Bvz6AviM9O ULeamjN35PuTYBwWwRFTD461GpQ69zHOBuyJo= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-spam_score:x-spam_score_int:x-spam_bar:x-spam_report :x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=zjSwuHVu4n0fUV0i7cB8CYgyaQb9ZH6aP4FlTiHx/K7fxRwwb+hBWblt1beh74tWra dP1Jer/61cFE1PZ+BpogR+P/wfSJxMuW2HSmjbN1+56cJS6k0+D4ZJy1L2JeLc/b3dmx hasVlicdi6kDqNl+Uo7U/p+379cuIOT6sB/Ig= Received: by 10.150.72.30 with SMTP id u30mr188422yba.80.1292092374407; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 10:32:54 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.150.201.10 with SMTP id y10ls1915692ybf.6.p; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 10:32:54 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.150.50.14 with SMTP id x14mr4684ybx.17.1292092373974; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 10:32:53 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.177.6 with SMTP id z6mr955591wfe.72.1292088122974; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 09:22:02 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.177.6 with SMTP id z6mr955588wfe.72.1292088122816; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 09:22:02 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTP id p40si4843448wfc.6.2010.12.11.09.22.01; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 09:22:02 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PRT8y-000418-WD for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 09:22:01 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PRT87-000364-Ee for bpfk@lojban.org; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 09:22:00 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PRT86-0002Ef-Bs for bpfk@lojban.org; Sat, 11 Dec 2010 12:21:06 -0500 Date: Sat, 11 Dec 2010 12:21:06 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Sat Dec 11 12:21:06 EST 2010 From: www-data X-Spam_score: 4.5 X-Spam_score_int: 45 X-Spam_bar: ++++ X-Spam_report: Spam detection software, running on the system "chain.digitalkingdom.org", has identified this incoming email as possible spam. The original message has been attached to this so you can view it (if it isn't spam) or label similar future email. If you have any questions, see the administrator of that system for details. Content preview: commit 1d70122859c62fd2a8a56c721996d5da64c6f208 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sat Dec 11 09:15:10 2010 -0800 Semi-automatic creation of tags. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index e88d4fd..839a0e6 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -92,33 +92,72 @@ through are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as through exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.
2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - vi VA short distance - va VA medium distance - vu VA long distance - - zu'a FAhA left - ri'u FAhA right - ga'u FAhA up - ni'a FAhA down - ca'u FAhA front - ne'i FAhA within - be'a FAhA north of - + + + vi + VA + short distance + + + va + VA + medium distance + + + vu + VA + long distance + + + zu'a + FAhA + left + + + ri'u + FAhA + right + + + ga'u + FAhA + up + + + ni'a + FAhA + down + + + ca'u + FAhA + front + + + ne'i + FAhA + [...] Content analysis details: (4.5 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- 0.7 TVD_RCVD_IP TVD_RCVD_IP 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.4993] 1.0 RDNS_DYNAMIC Delivered to internal network by host with dynamic-looking rDNS 2.0 LONGWORDS Long string of long words X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable X-Spam_score: 3.9 X-Spam_score_int: 39 X-Spam_bar: +++ X-Spam_report: Spam detection software, running on the system "chain.digitalkingdom.org", has identified this incoming email as possible spam. The original message has been attached to this so you can view it (if it isn't spam) or label similar future email. If you have any questions, see the administrator of that system for details. Content preview: commit 1d70122859c62fd2a8a56c721996d5da64c6f208 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sat Dec 11 09:15:10 2010 -0800 Semi-automatic creation of tags. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index e88d4fd..839a0e6 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -92,33 +92,72 @@ through are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as through exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.
2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - vi VA short distance - va VA medium distance - vu VA long distance - - zu'a FAhA left - ri'u FAhA right - ga'u FAhA up - ni'a FAhA down - ca'u FAhA front - ne'i FAhA within - be'a FAhA north of - + + + vi + VA + short distance + + + va + VA + medium distance + + + vu + VA + long distance + + + zu'a + FAhA + left + + + ri'u + FAhA + right + + + ga'u + FAhA + up + + + ni'a + FAhA + down + + + ca'u + FAhA + front + + + ne'i + FAhA + [...] Content analysis details: (3.9 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -0.7 RCVD_IN_DNSWL_LOW RBL: Sender listed at http://www.dnswl.org/, low trust [209.85.161.189 listed in list.dnswl.org] 1.7 SINGLE_HEADER_3K A single header contains 3K-4K characters -0.0 SPF_PASS SPF: sender matches SPF record 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.4393] 0.1 DKIM_SIGNED Message has a DKIM or DK signature, not necessarily valid -0.1 DKIM_VALID Message has at least one valid DKIM or DK signature 0.0 RFC_ABUSE_POST Both abuse and postmaster missing on sender domain 2.0 LONGWORDS Long string of long words commit 1d70122859c62fd2a8a56c721996d5da64c6f208 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sat Dec 11 09:15:10 2010 -0800 Semi-automatic creation of tags. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index e88d4fd..839a0e6 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -92,33 +92,72 @@ through=20 are different only= in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as=20 through=20 exhibit, adds emph= asis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more= noticeable.
2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - vi VA short distance - va VA medium distance - vu VA long distance - - zu'a FAhA left - ri'u FAhA right - ga'u FAhA up - ni'a FAhA down - ca'u FAhA front - ne'i FAhA within - be'a FAhA north of - + + + vi + VA + short distance + + + va + VA + medium distance + + + vu + VA + long distance + + + zu'a + FAhA + left + + + ri'u + FAhA + right + + + ga'u + FAhA + up + + + ni'a + FAhA + down + + + ca'u + FAhA + front + + + ne'i + FAhA + within + + + be'a + FAhA + north of + + (The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 .) Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fa= miliar time tenses of=20 , asks the reader? Because = the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space t= han for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 . English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there ar= e plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is abs= olutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel = for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of= view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated id= entically. Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at whic= h it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imagina= ry journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify th= e direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gon= e. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1" /> @@ -238,21 +277,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example3" /> le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites = the dog. Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites th= e dog. - A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct= , without any specified direction. ( + A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct= , without any specified direction. (=20 , with VA alone, i= s really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example4" /> le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. @@ -273,29 +312,52 @@ distance downward from a place a short distance in front of= me, the man bites the dog. Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to= say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter t= he Lojban version of=20 is than the Englis= h version.
4. Temporal tenses: PU and ZI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pu PU past - ca PU present - ba PU future - - zi ZI short time distance - za ZI medium time distance - zu ZI long time distance - + + + pu + PU + past + + + ca + PU + present + + + ba + PU + future + + + zi + ZI + short time distance + + + za + ZI + medium time distance + + + zu + ZI + long time distance + + Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only t= wo main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like t= he spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and = when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense cons= truct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed = before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous= .) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example1" /> le nanmu pu batci le gerku The man [past] bites the dog. The man bit the dog. @@ -364,21 +426,21 @@ le nanmu zu batci le gerku The man [long] bites the dog. A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the d= og. and=20 are perfectly legi= timate, but may not be very much used:=20 ziby itself signals an event that happens at a time clo= se to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the futu= re. A rough translation might be=20 about now, but not exactly now. - Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortabl= e with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction ( + Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortabl= e with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (=20 nearbyor=20 far away), but we live only from past to future, and th= e idea of an event which happens=20 nearby in timeis a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots o= f such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, e= ven though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limit= ation of English. Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial te= nse: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example7" /> @@ -396,29 +458,52 @@ le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. The man bit the dog long ago and far away.
5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ve'i VEhA short space interval - ve'a VEhA medium space interval - ve'u VEhA long space interval - - ze'i ZEhA short time interval - ze'a ZEhA medium time interval - ze'u ZEhA long time interval - + + + ve'i + VEhA + short space interval + + + ve'a + VEhA + medium space interval + + + ve'u + VEhA + long space interval + + + ze'i + ZEhA + short time interval + + + ze'a + ZEhA + medium time interval + + + ze'u + ZEhA + long time interval + + So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought = of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog= at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 spread outthan that:=20 mi vasxu(I breathe) is something which is true during t= he whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the ea= rth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time= ) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to sp= ecify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is c= laimed to be true. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example1" /> le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli @@ -585,26 +670,42 @@ does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that= the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is= , in fact, green may have already started. This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of i= ndicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are= several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 (event contours) and=20 (logical connection betwee= n tenses).
7. Dimensionality: VIhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - vi'i VIhA on a line - vi'a VIhA in an area - vi'u VIhA through a volume - vi'e VIhA throughout a space/time interval - + + + vi'i + VIhA + on a line + + + vi'a + VIhA + in an area + + + vi'u + VIhA + through a volume + + + vi'e + VIhA + throughout a space/time interval + + The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One = fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is mu= lti-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves ove= r a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows= for this. I can specify that a motion=20 in a small spaceis more specifically=20 in a short line,=20 in a small area, or=20 through a small volume. What about the child walking on the ice in=20 through=20 ? Given the nature= of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this= assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: @@ -624,23 +725,27 @@ <quote>vi'u</quote>. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimen= sionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.</para> <para>VIhA has a member=20 <quote>vi'e</quote>which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that = involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to = some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about s= pace-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmavo= of FAhA assigned to=20 <quote>pastward</quote>and=20 <quote>futureward</quote>considered as space rather than time directio= ns - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression = useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with= a=20 <quote>vi'e</quote>interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradic= tory.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8"> <title>8. Movement in space: MOhI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - mo'i MOhI movement flag - + + + mo'i + MOhI + movement flag + + All the information carried by the tense constructs so far prese= nted has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or ot= her in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the tr= uth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents = an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represent= ed by the tense system, using the cmavo=20 mo'i(of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opti= onal distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather tha= n a static direction from the speaker. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example1" /> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. @@ -904,34 +1009,77 @@ says nothing about whether I might go in future. The space equivalent of=20 ze'eis=20 ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a quantif= ied space tense: see=20 for an explanation of spac= e interval modifiers.
10. Event contours: ZAhO and=20 <quote>re'u</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pu'o ZAhO inchoative - ca'o ZAhO continuitive - ba'o ZAhO perfective - co'a ZAhO initiative - co'u ZAhO cessitive - mo'u ZAhO completitive - za'o ZAhO superfective - co'i ZAhO achievative - de'a ZAhO pausative - di'a ZAhO resumptive - - re'u ROI ordinal tense - + + + pu'o + ZAhO + inchoative + + + ca'o + ZAhO + continuitive + + + ba'o + ZAhO + perfective + + + co'a + ZAhO + initiative + + + co'u + ZAhO + cessitive + + + mo'u + ZAhO + completitive + + + za'o + ZAhO + superfective + + + co'i + ZAhO + achievative + + + de'a + ZAhO + pausative + + + di'a + ZAhO + resumptive + + + re'u + ROI + ordinal tense + + The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is = traditionally called=20 aspect. This is not a notion well expressed by English = tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian among Lojban's si= x source languages) consider it more important than the specification of me= re position in time. The=20 event contoursof selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keywo= rds, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, an= occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, and= an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will b= e explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax, = ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are found= in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The im= aginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of t= he event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies. It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other = tense cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen fro= m an essentially timeless perspective. The=20 beginningof an event is the same whether the event is i= n the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not to= confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-rel= ative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses. The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o(etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to= an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, r= espectively: @@ -1113,23 +1261,27 @@ mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci I [one time] [first time] go-to the store. There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first= time.
11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - fe'e FEhE space interval modifier flag - + + + fe'e + FEhE + space interval modifier flag + + Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, dis= continuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma= 'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag=20 fe'eto the cmavo used for time interval properties. A s= pace interval property would be placed just after the space interval size a= nd/or dimensionality cmavo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example3" /> @@ -1349,23 +1501,27 @@ <jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo> <gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] wi= nter.</gloss> <en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as win= ters go, snow falls.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13"> <title>13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - ki KI sticky tense set/reset - + + + ki + KI + sticky tense set/reset + + So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban = provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a si= ngle bridi. This property is known as=20 stickiness: the tense gets=20 stuckand remains in effect until explicitly=20 unstuck. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the = place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way= -station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses= are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than= from the speaker. To make a tense sticky, suffix=20 kito it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example1" /> @@ -1629,21 +1785,21 @@ <jbo>John says that George is going to the market.</jbo> <jbo>John says that George went to the market.</jbo> <jbo>John said that George went to the market.</jbo> <jbo>John said that George had gone to the market.</jbo> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example2" />, the tense of th= e main sentence is the present:=20 <quote>says</quote>. If George goes when John speaks, we get the prese= nt tense=20 - <quote>is going</quote>( + <quote>is going</quote>(=20 <quote>goes</quote>would be unidiomatic); if George goes before John s= peaks, we get the past tense=20 <quote>went</quote>. But if the tense of the main sentence is the past= , with=20 <quote>said</quote>, then the tense required in the subordinate clause= is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past tense=20 <quote>went</quote>; if George goes before John speaks, we get the pas= t-perfect tense=20 <quote>had gone</quote>.</para> <para>The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the ma= in sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative= to the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks= =20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example4" />).</para> <para>Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention.= A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense a= lready set in the main bridi. Thus=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />through=20 @@ -1897,21 +2053,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example3" />respectively. The= =20 <quote>bo</quote>is required for the same reason as in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />: to prevent the= =20 <quote>ba</quote>from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following s= umti (or, in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example5" />, from being atta= ched to the following selbri).</para> <para>In addition to the=20 <quote>bo</quote>construction of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example4" />through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example6" />, there is also a= form of tensed logical connective with=20 - <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>( + <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>(=20 <quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>for sentences). The logical connective sys= tem makes=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example7" />through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example9" />equivalent in mea= ning:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-FgKB"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d9" /> @@ -2044,26 +2200,42 @@ <en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The use of=20 <quote>-nai</quote>on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed= in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section9" />; this use is also a scalar= negation.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19"> <title>19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ca'a CAhA actually is - ka'e CAhA is innately capable of - nu'o CAhA can but has not - pu'i CAhA can and has - + + + ca'a + CAhA + actually is + + + ka'e + CAhA + is innately capable of + + + nu'o + CAhA + can but has not + + + pu'i + CAhA + can and has + + Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to = actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For= example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example1" /> ro datka cu flulimna All ducks are-float-swimmers. All ducks swim by floating. @@ -2311,21 +2483,21 @@ mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allo= wed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to overrid= e simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default. - The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are a= lso permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not b= y size, but by their end-points ( + The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are a= lso permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not b= y size, but by their end-points (=20 bi'obelongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-point= s of an ordered interval, like English=20 from ... to): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example7" /> mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe. @@ -2369,24 +2541,32 @@ George continues to start to write. mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum. On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.
22. Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - jai JAI tense conversion - fai FA indefinite place - + + + jai + JAI + tense conversion + + + fai + FA + indefinite place + + Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the pl= aces of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exch= anging the first place with one of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example2" /> mi cu klama le zarci @@ -2603,23 +2783,27 @@ X .i TENSE bo Y TENSE gi X gi Y Y TENSE le nu X neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentenc= e schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representin= g the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the ten= sed sentences, no such simple rule exists.
24. Tense questions:=20 <quote>cu'e</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - cu'e CUhE tense question - + + + cu'e + CUhE + tense question + + There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main E= nglish tense question words are=20 When?and=20 Where?. These may be paraphrased respectively as=20 At what time?and=20 At what place?In these forms, their Lojban equivalents = simply involve a tense plus=20 ma, the Lojban sumti question: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example1" /> @@ -2834,46 +3018,26 @@ =20 JAI tense conversion jaica =3D the time of, jaivi =3D the place of, etc. </programlisting> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section28"> <title>28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</ti= tle> <para>The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for= the cmavo, first when used without=20 <quote>mo'i</quote>to express a direction, and then when used with=20 <quote>mo'i</quote>to express movement in the direction. When possible= , the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para> - <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> -cmavo gismu without mo'i with mo'i ------ ----- ------------ --------- -ca'u crane in front (of) forward -ti'a trixe behind backward -zu'a zunle on the left (of) leftward -ri'u pritu on the right (of) rightward -ga'u gapru above upward(ly) -ni'a cnita below downward(ly) -ne'i nenri within into -ru'u sruri surrounding orbiting -pa'o pagre transfixing passing through -ne'a next to moving while next to -te'e bordering moving along the border (of) -re'o adjacent (to) along -fa'a farna towards arriving at -to'o away from departing from -zo'i inward (from) approaching -ze'o outward (from) receding from -zo'a tangential (to) passing (by) -bu'u coincident (with) moving to coincide with -be'a berti north (of) northward(ly) -ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly) -du'a stuna east (of) eastward(ly) -vu'a west (of) westward(ly) -</programlisting> + <cmavo-list>ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backward= zu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita b= elow downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o = pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>te'e</cmavo> + <selmaho>bordering</selmaho> + <description>moving along the border (of)</description> + </cmavo-entry>re'o adjacent (to) alongfa'a farna towards arriving atto= 'o away from departing fromzo'i inward (from) approachingze'o outward (from= ) receding fromzo'a tangential (to) passing (by)be'a berti north (of) north= ward(ly)ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly)du'a stuna east (of) eastward(ly= )vu'a west (of) westward(ly)</cmavo-list> <para>Special note on=20 <quote>fa'a</quote>,=20 <quote>to'o</quote>,=20 <quote>zo'i</quote>, and=20 <quote>ze'o</quote>:</para> <para> <quote>zo'i</quote>and=20 <quote>ze'o</quote>refer to direction towards or away from the speaker= 's location, or whatever the origin is.</para> <para> <quote>fa'a</quote>and=20 diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 567986c..cd51721 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -71,23 +71,27 @@ <quote>my going-to the store</quote>rather than=20 <quote>I go-to the store</quote>; likewise, in the glosses of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example3" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example4" />we see=20 <quote>being-a-soldier</quote>rather than=20 <quote>is-a-soldier</quote>. This procedure reflects the desire for mo= re understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban f= orm. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of= an abstraction selbri.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2"> <title>2. Event abstraction The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - nu NU event abstractor - + + + nu + NU + event abstractor + + The examples in=20 made use of=20 nuas the abstractor, and it is certainly the most commo= n abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state o= f the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 ledescription built on a=20 nuabstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 lealone. The following sumti are quite distinct: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example1" /> @@ -171,21 +175,21 @@ <jbo>mi nelci le nu mi limna</jbo> <en>I like the event-of I swim.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In the proper context, of course,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example9" />could refer to the= event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,=20 <quote>I like swimming</quote>, can't be interpreted as=20 <quote>I like Frank's swimming</quote>; this is a fundamental distinct= ion between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatev= er the context indicates that it should mean.</para> <para>Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can someti= mes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example10" />, the appearance = of=20 - <quote>le se nelci</quote>( + <quote>le se nelci</quote>(=20 <quote>that which is liked</quote>) is in effect an abstraction:</para= > <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-sMsx"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example11" /> le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. The thing which I like happens often. @@ -215,26 +219,42 @@ whenof the English would also be appropriate for a cons= truction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than t= hat the studying is concurrent with the ease.) The place structure of a=20 nuabstraction selbri is simply: x1 is an event of (the bridi)
3. Types of event abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - mu'e NU point-event abstractor - pu'u NU process abstractor - zu'o NU activity abstractor - za'i NU state abstractor - + + + mu'e + NU + point-event abstractor + + + pu'u + NU + process abstractor + + + zu'o + NU + activity abstractor + + + za'i + NU + state abstractor + + Event abstractions with=20 nusuffice to express all kinds of events, whether long,= short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discri= minating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other = abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, = or four ways of looking at the same event. An event considered as a point in time is called a=20 point-event, or sometimes an=20 achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in t= his context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event ca= n be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought o= f as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor=20 mu'emeans=20 point-event-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1" /> @@ -329,24 +349,32 @@ <quote>pu'u</quote>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 =20 <quote>za'i</quote>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true =20 <quote>zu'o</quote>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeat= ed actions x2 </programlisting> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4"> <title>4. Property abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ka NU property abstractor - ce'u KOhA abstraction focus - + + + ka + NU + property abstractor + + + ce'u + KOhA + abstraction focus + + The things described by=20 le nudescriptions (or, to put it another way, the thing= s of which=20 nuselbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderate= ly=20 abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in = space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is=20 the property of being blue, or=20 the property of being a go-er? They are what logicians = call=20 intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 the property of having a heartis an abstract object whi= ch, when applied to John, is true. In fact, @@ -537,23 +565,27 @@ </programlisting> <para>The place structure of=20 <quote>ka</quote>abstraction selbri is simply:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi) </programlisting> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5"> <title>5. Amount abstractions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - ni NU amount abstraction - + + + ni + NU + amount abstraction + + Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property = abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted b= ridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example1" /> le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the amount-of (the picture being-blue) the amount of blueness in the picture @@ -690,23 +722,27 @@ Abstractions using=20 jeiare the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 jeiabstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclu= sive (as distinct from=20 niabstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). = The detailed conventions for using=20 jeiin fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establishe= d.
7. Predication/sentence abstraction The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - du'u NU predication abstraction - + + + du'u + NU + predication abstraction + + There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a su= mti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicia= ns call these the=20 propositional attitudes, and they include (in English) = things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Co= nsider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example1" /> I know that Frank is a fool. @@ -820,23 +856,27 @@ le se du'uis much the same as=20 lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but=20 se du'ucan be used as a selbri, whereas=20 lu'eis ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 for a discussion of=20 lu'e.)
8. Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - kau UI indirect question marker - + + + kau + UI + indirect question marker + + There is an alternative type of sentence involving=20 du'uand a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. I= n addition to sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example1" /> I know that John went to the store. @@ -850,21 +890,21 @@ I know who went to the store. This form is called an=20 indirect questionin English because the embedded Englis= h sentence is a question:=20 Who went to the store?A person who says=20 is claiming to kno= w the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other= English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as= know who went to the store. To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a=20 le du'uabstraction, but rather than using a question wo= rd like=20 - who( + who(=20 main Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatical= ly and mark it with the suffix particle=20 kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically= it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 is therefore: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example3" /> mi djuno le du'u @@ -960,25 +1000,37 @@ is at the park. In addition,=20 is only a loose pa= raphrase of=20 , because it is le= ft to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-t= o-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.
9. Minor abstraction types The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - li'i NU experience abstractor - si'o NU concept abstractor - su'u NU general abstractor - + + + li'i + NU + experience abstractor + + + si'o + NU + concept abstractor + + + su'u + NU + general abstractor + + There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little u= sed so far. The abstractor=20 li'iexpresses experience: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example1" /> mi morji le li'i mi verba I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child) @@ -1069,24 +1121,32 @@ Note the importance of using=20 keiafter=20 su'uwhen the x2 of=20 su'u(or any other abstractor) is being specified; other= wise, the=20 be loends up inside the abstraction bridi.
10. Lojban sumti raising The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving - jai JAI abstraction conversion - + + + tu'a + LAhE + an abstraction involving + + + jai + JAI + abstraction conversion + + It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract d= escription is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we= can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example1" /> I try to open the door. @@ -1321,21 +1381,22 @@ le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody kno= ws what uses it may eventually have.
13. Table of abstractors The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for = it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the a= ssociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks th= an for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the fo= llowing line) its place structure. -nu event of fasnu nun +nu event of fasnu nun =20 + x1 is an event of (the bridi) ka property of ckaji kam x1 is a property of (the bridi) ni amount of klani nil x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2 jei truth-value of jetnu jez x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 li'i experience of lifri liz x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2 si'o idea of sidbo siz diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 88b6773..25470fb 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -267,21 +267,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example2" /> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in additi= on to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 tinju'i,=20 - to listen( + to listen(=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirnaand=20 jundiare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example3" /> @@ -294,21 +294,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example4" /> j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays atten= tion) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing = paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard). - A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first= place of the seltau ( + A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first= place of the seltau (=20 gerkuin this case) is equivalent to a place other than = the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 asymmetrical tanruand=20 symmetrical tanruused in=20 .) In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symm= etrical lujvo. Consider=20 gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the= g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligne= d, we could convert=20 zdanito=20 se zdani(or=20 @@ -376,21 +376,21 @@ kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
6. Dependent places In order to understand which places, if any, should be completel= y removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept o= f dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on anothe= r if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other= places. For example, the g2 place of=20 - gerkuis dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we= know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then = we know what fits in the g2 place ( + gerkuis dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we= know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then = we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent p= laces provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzdathe dependent g2 place is removed from the tentat= ive place structure given in=20 , leaving the plac= e structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example1" /> @@ -549,21 +549,21 @@ <para>or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-uL3V"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example3" /> This is a prayer to Dong - We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo ( + We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more neces= sary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessa= ry; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take ad= vantage of any available regularities. We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo a= nd one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like=20 balsoi(from=20 ) has the places of its ter= tau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination proce= ss. For=20 balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banliare b2 and b3, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4" /> @@ -899,21 +899,21 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-0W5t"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example5" /> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) - ( + (=20 wormin Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 xasycakcurnuhas the veljvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example6" /> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm @@ -969,21 +969,21 @@ na'e brablomeans=20 other than a big boat. If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already star= ting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance,=20 gekmaumeans=20 happier than, while=20 selgekmaumeans=20 making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se = gleki' than. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we= can say it is=20 se selgekmau. But we can also say it is=20 selselgekmau. Two=20 - secmavo in a row cancel each other ( + secmavo in a row cancel each other (=20 se se glekimeans the same as just=20 gleki), so there would be no good reason to have=20 selselin a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can fee= l free to interpret=20 selsel-as=20 selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations=20 terter-,=20 velvel-and=20 xelxel-work in the same way. Other SE combinations like=20 selter-, although they might conceivably mean=20 @@ -1002,21 +1002,21 @@ k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. The selbri=20 nu klama [kei]has only one place, the event-of-going, b= ut the full five places exist implicitly between=20 nuand=20 kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed th= ere. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently = the lujvo=20 - nunkla( + nunkla(=20 nun-is the rafsi for=20 nu), needs to have six places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example2" /> nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route= k4 by means k5. @@ -1080,21 +1080,21 @@ nunsoidjimight be someone who is about to enlist, where= as a=20 soidjimight be a camp-follower. One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit= =20 keiin tanru:=20 nunkalri gasnumeans much the same as=20 nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition, many E= nglish words ending in=20 -hoodare represented with=20 nun-lujvo, and other words ending in=20 -nessor=20 -domare often representable with=20 - kam-lujvo ( + kam-lujvo (=20 kam-is the rafsi for=20 ka);=20 kamblais=20 blueness. Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing = the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-s= cope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in=20 . There is also a rafsi for the cmavo=20 jai, namely=20 jax, which allows sentences like @@ -1196,25 +1196,25 @@ , the interpretation of luj= vo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now,= any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnuas its tertau will involve an event abstraction ei= ther implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of=20 gasnuis defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nuis the type of abstraction one would expect to be a= =20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 nunand=20 kezin=20 nunctikezgauare only telling us what we would already h= ave guessed - that the seltau of a=20 gasnulujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and= use instead the shorter lujvo=20 - ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation ( + ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation (=20 someone who both does and eats;=20 an eating doer), we can still deduce that the seltau re= fers to an event. (You can't=20 - do an eater/ + do an eater/=20 gasnu lo citka, with the meaning of=20 doas=20 bring about an event; so the seltau must refer to an ev= ent,=20 nu citka. The English slang meanings of=20 do someone, namely=20 socialize with someoneand=20 have sex with someone, are not relevant to=20 gasnu.) So we can simply use=20 ctigauwith the same place structure as=20 @@ -1763,21 +1763,21 @@ xekri: xe1 is black Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one inte= rpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standard= s here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 xekriis explicitly subjective. Objective color standard= s can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 - ci'u( + ci'u(=20 in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example2" /> jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4<= /jbo> diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index aae26f1..ab11fa8 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -41,25 +41,25 @@ .uu la djan klama [Alas!] John is coming. .a'o la djan klama [Hopefully] John is coming. .ue la djan klama [Wow!] John is coming! .ianai la djan klama [Nonsense!] John is coming. - The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV= or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by th= eir form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the f= orm V'V, the four standard diphthongs ( + The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV= or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by th= eir form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the f= orm V'V, the four standard diphthongs (=20 .ai,=20 .au,=20 .ei, and=20 - .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted on= ly in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings ( + .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted on= ly in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (=20 .ia,=20 .ie,=20 .ii,=20 .io,=20 .iu,=20 .ua,=20 .ue,=20 .ui,=20 .uo, and=20 .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a period before= it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginning with a= vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators described = in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI. @@ -87,21 +87,22 @@ 2. Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicatorsexpress the way the speaker is f= eeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators com= prise the attitudinals which begin with=20 uor=20 oand many of those beginning with=20 i. The cmavo beginning with=20 uare simple emotions, which represent the speaker's rea= ction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be. - .ua discovery confusion + .ua discovery confusion=20 + .u'a gain loss .ue surprise no surprise expectation .u'e wonder commonplace .ui happiness unhappiness .u'i amusement weariness .uo completion incompleteness .u'o courage timidity cowardice .uu pity cruelty .u'u repentance lack of regret innocence @@ -174,21 +175,22 @@ , John's coming ha= s been anticipated by the speaker. In=20 and=20 , no such anticipa= tion has been made, but in=20 the lack-of-antici= pation goes no further - in=20 , it amounts to ac= tual surprise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 oor=20 ifrom those beginning with=20 u, but in general they represent more complex, more amb= ivalent, or more difficult emotions. - .o'a pride modesty shame + .o'a pride modesty shame=20 + .o'e closeness detachment distance .oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure .o'i caution boldness rashness .o'o patience mere tolerance anger .o'u relaxation composure stress Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10" /> @@ -244,21 +246,22 @@ <para>The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 <quote>i</quote>are those which could not be fitted into the=20 <quote>u</quote>or=20 <quote>o</quote>groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a= mixed lot.=20 <quote>.ia</quote>,=20 <quote>.i'a</quote>,=20 <quote>.ie</quote>, and=20 <quote>.i'e</quote>do not appear here, as they belong in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section3" />instead.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .ii fear nervousness security + .ii fear nervousness security=20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> .i'i togetherness privacy .io respect disrespect .i'o appreciation envy .iu love no love lost hatred .i'u familiarity mystery </programlisting> <para>Here are some examples:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-jv9q"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d15" /> @@ -321,21 +324,22 @@ <quote>i</quote>-series as well.</para> <para>In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and propos= itional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:=20 <quote>.u'u</quote>can be seen as a propositional attitude indicator m= eaning=20 <quote>I regret that ...</quote>, and=20 <quote>.a'e</quote>(discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion mea= ning=20 <quote>I'm awake/aware</quote>. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 <quote>logical language</quote>aspect.</para> <para>Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 <quote>a</quote>:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .a'a attentive inattentive avoiding + .a'a attentive inattentive avoiding=20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> .a'e alertness exhaustion .ai intent indecision refusal .a'i effort no real effort repose .a'o hope despair .au desire indifference reluctance .a'u interest no interest repulsion </programlisting> <para>Some examples (of a parental kind):</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-ctin"> <title> @@ -381,21 +385,22 @@ <para>(In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decora= ted by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including=20 <quote>.oicai</quote>, but probably also=20 <quote>.iucai</quote>.)</para> <para>Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular = bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between co= ncepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these= examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unaccep= tably heavyweight grammar.</para> <para>Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 <quote>e</quote>, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginni= ng with=20 <quote>a</quote>as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with=20 <quote>o</quote>do to those beginning with=20 <quote>u</quote>- they are more complex or difficult:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .e'a permission prohibition + .e'a permission prohibition=20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> .e'e competence incompetence .ei obligation freedom .e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint .e'o request negative request .e'u suggestion no suggestion warning </programlisting> <para>More examples (after a good night's sleep):</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-CzYV"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8" /> @@ -423,21 +428,22 @@ <gloss>[request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care.</glos= s> <en>Please take care of yourself!</en> <jbo>.e'u do klama le panka</jbo> <gloss>[suggestion] You go to-the park.</gloss> <en>I suggest going to the park.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 <quote>i</quote>, which are the overflow from the other sets:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .ia belief skepticism disbelief + .ia belief skepticism disbelief=20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> .i'a acceptance blame .ie agreement disagreement .i'e approval non-approval disapproval </programlisting> <para>Still more examples (much, much later):</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Furg"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d14" /> @@ -497,21 +503,22 @@ <quote>virtuous</quote>in most cases than their negative counterparts.= But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful emo= tions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, while= their counterparts are less commonly expressed.</para> <para>(Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and= they will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales a= rbitrarily, we give the monosyllable=20 <quote>nai</quote>a useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to = recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if n= ot the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 <quote>random</quote>orientation, which would have unknown biases and = be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sca= le orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be biase= d in favor of American perceptions of=20 <quote>usefulness</quote>. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.)</para> <para>In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions define= d, three=20 <quote>positive</quote>ones (shown below on the left), three=20 <quote>negative</quote>ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral = one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The follo= wing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cm= avo. All of these cmavo, except=20 <quote>nai</quote>, are in selma'o CAI.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - cai sai ru'e cu'i nairu'e naisai naicai + cai sai ru'e cu'i nairu'e naisai naicai= =20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> [carmi] [tsali] [ruble] [cumki] </programlisting> <para>A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, an= d then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in bec= ause the=20 <quote>negative</quote>emotions take the extra syllable=20 <quote>nai</quote>to indicate their negative position on the axis, and= thus require a bit more effort to express.</para> <para>Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude wit= hout a scale indicator, if you don't want to stop and think about how stron= gly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we've found that either no sca= lar value is used, or=20 <quote>cai</quote>is used to indicate especially high intensity. Less = often,=20 <quote>ru'e</quote>is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and=20 <quote>cu'i</quote>is used in response to the attitudinal question=20 <quote>pei</quote>(see=20 @@ -574,64 +581,67 @@ <quote>I'm awed</quote>is not the same as saying=20 <quote>Wow!!!</quote>. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban.</para> <para>A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or compl= ex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in lea= rning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of a= ttitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As y= ou learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more preci= sely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.</pa= ra> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section6"> <title>6. Emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a lo= ng list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available= VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in t= he list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assig= ned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result= is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express= very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common featurewe identified was that the emotional word= s on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of wh= ich was assigned its own cmavo: - ro'a social asocial antisocial + ro'a social asocial antisocial=20 + ro'e mental mindless ro'i emotional denying emotion ro'o physical denying physical ro'u sexual sexual abstinence re'e spiritual secular sacrilegious Using these, we were able to assign=20 o'uto mark a scale of what we might call=20 generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed,= satisfied, you express comfort with=20 o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate= how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this = scale into six separate ones, should you wish. For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible a= s=20 .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label=20 stressin English are expressed in Lojban with=20 .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be expressed with=20 .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if you say it wit= h feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't know the= answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults can rec= all some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goer who has wand= ered into the wrong kind of religious building. Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categoriz= e it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible = without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotio= ns within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physic= al comfort or vice versa. - Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of wh= ich has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional = expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll nev= er see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban pos= sibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably n= ever had a word for them before, though many have felt them ( + Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of wh= ich has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional = expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll nev= er see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban pos= sibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably n= ever had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=20 .eiro'u, for example - look it up). You can use scale markers and=20 naion these six category words, and you can also use ca= tegory words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentratecould be expressed simply as= =20 ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-sp= ecific way,=20 ro'anaiwill express it. There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based= on moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above = your head and move down your body in sequence. - ro'a hands above head social + ro'a hands above head social=20 + ro'e hands on head intellectual ro'i hands on heart emotional ro'o hands on belly physical ro'u hands on groin sexual re'e hands moving around spiritual The implicit metaphors=20 heartfor emotional and=20 bellyfor physical are not really Lojbanic, but they wor= k fine for English-speakers.
7. Attitudinal modifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness + ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness=20 + rank lack of rank =20 le'o aggressive passive defensive =20 vu'e [vrude] virtue (zabna) sin (mabla) =20 se'i [sevzi] self-orientation other-orient= ation =20 ri'e [zifre] release restraint control =20 @@ -848,23 +858,23 @@ Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of inte= rpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modi= fier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one.= (There is an=20 unspecified emotionword,=20 ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a = modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous= but distinct emotional expression.) For example,=20 .ieru'eexpresses a weak positive value on the scale of = agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with somethi= ng else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But= =20 .ie ge'eru'eexpresses agreement (at an unspecified leve= l), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a weak level. = A rough English equivalent of=20 .ie ge'eru'emight be=20 I agree, but ...where the=20 butis left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always exp= ressed in English by English attitudinals.) A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. Y= ou put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the = latter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of inf= ormation expressible. For example,=20 - .oinaicu'i ro'ucaiexpresses a feeling midway between pa= in ( - .oi) and pleasure ( - .oinai) which is intensely sexual ( + .oinaicu'i ro'ucaiexpresses a feeling midway between pa= in (=20 + .oi) and pleasure (=20 + .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. The cmavo=20 naiis the most tightly bound modifier in the language: = it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words us= ed in indicator constructs,=20 naiis the only one with any meaning outside the indicat= or system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and= its=20 nainegator, the=20 naiwill end up negating the last word of the indicator.= The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section8-example1" /> @@ -935,21 +945,22 @@ <para>can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 <quote>Damn, I snapped at you</quote>; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 <quote>I told you, you pest!</quote></para> <para>Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as= the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla.= Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, = this ambiguity is acceptable.</para> <para>Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impr= actical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in wr= itten expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move w= ords around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of bo= dy language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10"> <title>10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - pei attitude question + pei attitude question=20 + dai empathy bu'o start emotion continue emotion end emotion You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sen= tence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be= true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more = logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate. The word=20 peiis therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked = by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 How are you?coupled with=20 How do you feel?(which has a slightly different range o= f usage). When asked in the context of discourse,=20 peiacts like other Lojban question words - it requests = the respondent to=20 @@ -1099,21 +1110,22 @@ which is a straightforward bridi claim.=20 states that you = have (or have had) certain emotions;=20 expresses those = emotions directly.
11. Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - ja'o [jalge] I conclude + ja'o [jalge] I conclude=20 + ca'e I define ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember su'a [sucta] I generalize I particularize ti'e [tirna] I hear (hearsay) ka'u [kulnu] I know by cultural means se'o [senva] I know by internal experience za'a [zgana] I observe pe'i [pensi] I opine ru'a [sruma] I postulate ju'a [jufra] I state @@ -1260,21 +1272,22 @@ however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emo= tion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that referen= ce the sentence or text they are found in. Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, o= ften attached to the=20 .ithat separates sentences in running discourse, but ca= n (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems nec= essary or useful. The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, r= oughly organized by function. First, the=20 consecutive discoursegroup: - ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast + ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast=20 + ji'a [jmina] additionally si'a [simsa] similarly mi'u [mintu] ditto po'o the only relevant case These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore the= y are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecut= ive discourse. The first,=20 ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argument. The = second,=20 ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The third,= =20 si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerati= ng an additional example. The fourth,=20 mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, an= d can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being re= peated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 @@ -1309,40 +1322,42 @@ I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). Note that=20 onlycan go before or after what it modifies in English,= but=20 po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward. Next, the=20 commentary on wordsgroup: - va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words + va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words=20 + ta'u [tanru] expanding a tanru making a tanru The discursives=20 va'iand=20 ta'uoperate at the level of words, rather than discours= e proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternativ= e English expression for=20 va'iis=20 rephrasing; for=20 va'inai,=20 repeating. Also compare=20 va'iwith=20 ke'u, discussed below. The cmavo=20 ta'uis a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the = particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambiguo= us, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by = expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often inv= olving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The discu= rsive=20 ta'umarks the transition from the use of a brief but po= ssibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive=20 ta'unaimarks a transition in the reverse direction. Next, the=20 commentary on discoursegroup: - li'a [klina] clearly obscurely + li'a [klina] clearly obscurely=20 + obviously ba'u [banli] exaggeration accuracy understatement zo'o humorously dully seriously sa'e [satci] precisely speaking loosely speaking to'u [tordu] in brief in detail do'a [dunda] generously parsimoniously sa'u [sampu] simply elaborating pa'e [pajni] justice prejudice je'u [jetnu] truly falsely @@ -1375,30 +1390,32 @@ je'unaithen serves to mark a logical contradiction. In = addition,=20 je'unaican be used to express one kind of sarcasm or ir= ony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but actually w= ishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of irony can be= marked with=20 zo'o(humor) or=20 .ianai(disbelief). When used as a discursive,=20 su'a(see=20 ) belongs to this group. Next, the=20 knowledgegroup: - ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not + ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not=20 + la'a [lakne] probably improbably These two discursives describe the speaker's state of knowledge = about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the propositio= nal attitudes of=20 , as they create a hypothet= ical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our b= ridi with=20 ju'o; but it may be false all the same. Next, the=20 discourse managementgroup: - ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point + ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point=20 + ra'u [ralju] chiefly equally incidentally mu'a [mupli] for example omitting end examples examples zu'u on the one hand on the other hand ke'u [krefu] repeating continuing da'i supposing in fact This final group is used to perform what may be called=20 managing the discourse: providing reference points to h= elp the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next. Other English equivalents of=20 @@ -1424,24 +1441,24 @@ va'inaiare quite different. Both=20 ke'uand=20 va'iindicate that the same idea is going to be expresse= d using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using=20 ke'uemphasizes that the content is the same; using=20 va'iemphasizes that the words are different. Therefore,= =20 ke'unaishows that the content is new (and therefore the= words are also);=20 va'inaishows that the words are the same (and therefore= so is the content). One English equivalent of=20 ke'unaiis=20 furthermore. The discursive=20 - da'imarks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-w= orld viewpoint ( + da'imarks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-w= orld viewpoint (=20 Supposing that,=20 By hypothesis), whereas=20 - da'inaiinsists on the real-world point of view ( + da'inaiinsists on the real-world point of view (=20 In fact,=20 In truth,=20 According to the facts). A common use of=20 da'iis to distinguish between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example5" /> @@ -1477,21 +1494,22 @@ is the equivalent of either=20 or=20 .)
13. Miscellaneous indicators Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitu= dinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following misc= ellaneous indicators: - ki'a metalinguistic confusion + ki'a metalinguistic confusion=20 + na'i metalinguistic negator jo'a metalinguistic affirmer li'o omitted text (quoted material) sa'a material inserted by editor/narrator xu true-false question pau question premarker rhetorical question pe'a figurative language literal language bi'u new information old information ge'e non-specific indicator @@ -1677,134 +1695,148 @@ Hello, X;=20 Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listener. co'o partings Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate company b= y either the speaker or the listener.=20 coico'omeans=20 greeting in passing. - ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us + ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us=20 + Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X; indicates an i= mportant communication that the listener should listen to. - nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise + nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise=20 + I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener. In s= ome contexts,=20 nu'emay be prefixed to an oath or other formal declarat= ion. - ta'a [tavla] interruption + ta'a [tavla] interruption=20 + I interrupt, X,=20 I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (possib= ly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This c= an be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interrupti= ons will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate respons= e to an interruption might be=20 re'i(or=20 re'inaito ignore the interruption). - pe'u [cpedu] request + pe'u [cpedu] request=20 + Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. It is a= formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 .e'owith a specific recipient being addressed. On the o= ther hand,=20 .e'omay be used when there is no specific listener, but= merely a=20 sense of petition floating in the air, as it were. - ki'e [ckire] appreciation disappreciation + ki'e [ckire] appreciation disappreciation=20 + gratitude ingratitude Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude towar= d the listener. The usual response is=20 je'e, but=20 fi'iis appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanati= on of=20 fi'i. - fi'i [friti] welcome, unwelcome, + fi'i [friti] welcome, unwelcome,=20 + offering inhospitality At your service, X;=20 Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (possibly = in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that=20 fi'iis=20 notthe equivalent of American English=20 You're welcomeas a mechanical response to=20 Thank you; that is=20 je'e, as noted below. - be'e [benji] request to send + be'e [benji] request to send=20 + Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker wishes= to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening.= In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant= (s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 Hello? Can I speak to X?. - re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready + re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready=20 + Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker is atte= ntive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead = of=20 mi'eto respond when called to the telephone. The negati= ve form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk when th= e speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated=20 Hold on!or=20 Just a minute. - mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow + mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow=20 + Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed the c= urrent utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The neg= ative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows doe= s not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,=20 I'm not done talking! - je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt + je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt=20 + Roger, X!,=20 I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt of a = communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to rec= eive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of=20 je'eand=20 je'enaiare the grunt typically written=20 uh-huhand=20 What?/Excuse me?.=20 je'eis also used to mean=20 You're welcomewhen that is a response to=20 Thank you. - vi'o will comply will not comply + vi'o will comply will not comply=20 + Wilco, X,=20 I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 je'ebut signals an intention (similar to=20 .ai) to comply with the other speaker's request. This c= mavo is the main way of saying=20 OKin Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 Agreed!, although=20 .iecarries some of the same meaning. The negative form = indicates that the message was received but that you will not comply: a ver= y colloquial version is=20 No way!. - ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed + ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed=20 + What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or clari= fication due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative= equivalent of=20 ki'a, and is related to=20 je'enai. The negative form may be rendered=20 Okay, already; I get the point! - fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done + fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done=20 + Over and out, X; indicates completion of statement(s) a= nd communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a = letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been i= dentified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 Wait, hold it, we're not done!and differs from=20 mu'onaiin that it means more exchanges are to follow, r= ather than that the current exchange is incomplete. Do not confuse=20 fe'owith=20 fa'o(selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-grammat= ical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 fe'oto one participant of a multi-way conversation and = then go on speaking to the others. - mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification + mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification=20 + And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although gramm= atically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 mi'eis quite different semantically. In particular, rat= her than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or description) fo= llows=20 mi'eis taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using=20 mi'especifies the meaning of the pro-sumti=20 mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close lette= rs, or to identify oneself on the telephone. This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:=20 fe'omi'ewould be an appropriate closing at the end of a= letter;=20 re'imi'ewould be a self-vocative used in delayed respon= ses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as th= e=20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index a71743f..0db3f01 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -93,21 +93,21 @@ John is not a man, or James is not a woman (false, = true ) is true; =20 John is not a man, or James is a woman (false, = false) is false. Note that the kind of=20 orused in this example can also be expressed (in formal= English) with=20 and/or. There is a different truth table for the kind o= f=20 orthat means=20 either ... or ... but not both. To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format he= nceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will a= lways be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentenc= es. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result colu= mn, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third col= umn of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the=20 - ortruth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functi= ons, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function = is, in fact, true ( + ortruth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functi= ons, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function = is, in fact, true (=20 firstrefers to the first sentence, and=20 secondto the second sentence): TTTT (always true) TTTF first is true and/or second is true. TTFT first is true if second is true. TTFF first is true whether or not second is true. TFTT first is true only if second is true. TFTF whether or not first is true, second is true. TFFT first is true if and only if second is true. @@ -808,21 +808,21 @@ and=20 . This rule may be= occasionally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight= ; in writing intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connec= tives marked with=20 boshould be avoided. The use of=20 bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of mo= re than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of=20 and=20 , parentheses were= used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivale= nts, two sets of them actually.=20 tu'eand=20 tu'uare used with ijeks, and=20 keand=20 - ke'ewith eks and other connectives to be discussed late= r. ( + ke'ewith eks and other connectives to be discussed late= r. (=20 keand=20 ke'eare also used in other roles in the language, but a= lways as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example4" /> I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. @@ -1636,27 +1636,47 @@ Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)? Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate= answer would be=20 go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would= be=20 nago'i. But that is not what an English-speaker who utters=20 is asking! The tr= ue significance of=20 is that the speak= er desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (i= t is presupposed that only one is true). Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of quest= ion which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the = truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth functi= on which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: the= re is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by = the following table: - - ge'i GA forethought connective question - gi'i GIhA bridi-tail connective question - gu'i GUhA tanru forethought connective question - je'i JA tanru connective question - ji A sumti connective question - + + + ge'i + GA + forethought connective question + + + gi'i + GIhA + bridi-tail connective question + + + gu'i + GUhA + tanru forethought connective question + + + je'i + JA + tanru connective question + + + ji + A + sumti connective question + + (This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of t= he other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and G= UhA, make use of the cmavo ending in=20 -iwhich is not used for a truth function, but=20 giand=20 .iwere not available, and different cmavo had to be cho= sen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cm= avo assignments.) One correct translation of=20 employs a questio= n gihek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example8" /> @@ -2783,21 +2803,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example4" /> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at= Jupiter - is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other ( + is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=20 jinvirequires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, u= nlike=20 krici).
20. Constructs and appropriate connectives The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that c= an be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connecti= ve is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes.= An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted. A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not po= ssible. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index efda8d9..5b2016a 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -511,26 +511,32 @@ John is moral John is immoral To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies= the opposite condition. Statements like=20 are strong negati= ons which not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. = Since,=20 oppositeimplies a scale, polar negations are a special = variety of scalar negations. To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale= , showing two examples of how the scale is used: - - Affirmations (positive) Negations (negative) - |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------| - All Most Some Few None - Excellent Good Fair Poor Awful - + + + All Most Some + Few + None + + + Excellent Good Fair + Poor + Awful + + Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thu= s we have=20 not necessaryor=20 unnecessarybeing the polar opposite of necessary. Anoth= er scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations= modified by one's philosophy:=20 not truemay be equated with=20 falsein a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tr= i-valued logic an intermediate between=20 trueand=20 falseis permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scal= e exists from true to false. The meaning of=20 not truerequires a knowledge of which variety of truth = scale is being considered. We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indic= ating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not = valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This= is the intent expressed in most contexts by=20 not mild, for example. @@ -697,21 +703,21 @@ mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms. mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e] mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]) I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms). The translations show that the negation in=20 - is more restricte= d in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 ( + is more restricte= d in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=20 mi). Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be= unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of=20 na'eas an operator. Grouping with=20 keand=20 ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advan= tage.=20 na'eis very close binding to its brivla. Internal bindi= ng of tanru, with=20 bo, is not as tightly bound as=20 na'e.=20 co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is lo= nger than all other tanru constructs. In short,=20 @@ -802,22 +808,22 @@ lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without. The current King of France is a non-bald-one. and=20 - express the predi= cate negation forms using a negation word ( - na'e) or rafsi ( + express the predi= cate negation forms using a negation word (=20 + na'e) or rafsi (=20 -nal-); yet they make positive assertions about the cur= rent King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This foll= ows from the close binding of=20 na'eto the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by a= bsorbing the negative marker into the word. Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say tha= t he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him= . Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri ne= gation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbr= i negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is in= variably=20 false, since no affirmative statement about the current= King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce= a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example18" /> @@ -1116,21 +1122,21 @@ , most indicators have an implicit s= cale, and=20 naichanges the indicator to refer to the opposite end o= f the scale. Thus=20 .uinaiexpresses unhappiness, and=20 .ienaiexpresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is= expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 co'ocould be expressed as=20 coinai. However, this is not generally done. Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called proto= col situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversatio= ns, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protoco= l words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as= might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on= =20 nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 - je'enai( + je'enai(=20 I didn't get that). Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 nai, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledge= ment and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 provides more detail on this topic.<= /para> The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai nijust as=20 punai je cacorresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically conn= ected abstractors will be: see=20 . @@ -1256,22 +1262,22 @@ John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome. He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 keand=20 ke'ewould have been essential if the selbri had been a = tanru.
9. Affirmations - There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA ( - ja'a) and selma'o NAhE ( + There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 + ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding n= egator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positiv= e in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assumi= ng the same context as in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example1" /> xu na go'i Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]? @@ -1476,23 +1482,23 @@ le'ahas meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 ci'uhas meaning=20 on scale X, and=20 ci'e, based on=20 ciste, can be used to talk about universes of discourse= defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 .=20 kaiand=20 la'ualso exist in BAI for discussing other quality and = quantity errors. We have to make particular note of potential problems in the are= as of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the rel= ationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It = is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is = colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,=20 - blanu( + blanu(=20 blue) is not explicitly defined as a=20 - skari( + skari(=20 color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite= of=20 goodis=20 bad. This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmaticall= y, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write = dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some= of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these a= ssumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break dow= n (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation= , however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a= presumably obvious scale or category assumption. Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by mar= king the offending word or phrase with=20 na'i(in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this se= nse,=20 na'ibecomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic ma= rker=20 [sic]. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quote= s or=20 sa'a-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unpa= rsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See= =20 for explanations of these usages. diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index e9e3649..9174308 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -506,23 +506,23 @@ ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.<= /en> using the conversion operator=20 se(explained in=20 ) to change the selbri=20 - batci( + batci(=20 bites) into=20 - se batci( + se batci(=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the correspon= ding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in s= trained=20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the va= riables. If a variable occurs more than once, then any=20 roor=20 poidecorations are moved only to the first occurrence o= f the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7" /> diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 2d0ff03..818a965 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -55,33 +55,56 @@ <para>to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add=20 <quote>y</quote>;</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>the lerfu word for=20 <quote>'</quote>is=20 <quote>.y'y</quote>.</para> </listitem> </itemizedlist> <para>Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alpha= bet:</para> - <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ' a b c d e - .y'y. .abu by. cy. dy. .ebu - - f g i j k l - fy. gy. .ibu jy. ky. ly. - - m n o p r s - my. ny. .obu py. ry. sy. - - t u v x y z - ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. -</programlisting> + <cmavo-list> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>' a b c</cmavo> + <selmaho>d</selmaho> + <description>e</description> + </cmavo-entry>.y'y. .abu by. cy. dy. .ebu + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>f g i j</cmavo> + <selmaho>k</selmaho> + <description>l</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>fy. gy. .ibu jy.</cmavo> + <selmaho>ky.</selmaho> + <description>ly.</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>m n o p</cmavo> + <selmaho>r</selmaho> + <description>s</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>my. ny. .obu py.</cmavo> + <selmaho>ry.</selmaho> + <description>sy.</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>t u v x</cmavo> + <selmaho>y</selmaho> + <description>z</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ty. .ubu vy.</cmavo> + <selmaho>xy.</selmaho> + <description>.ybu zy.</description> + </cmavo-entry></cmavo-list> <para>There are several things to note about this table. The consonant= lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 <quote>'</quote>lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by = pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from t= he table but important nonetheless, is that=20 <quote>by</quote>and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is=20 <quote>.y'y</quote>. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are com= pound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 <quote>bu</quote>(which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vo= wel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sepa= rator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 <quote>bu</quote>follows.</para> <para>Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-DMIQ"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1" /> @@ -118,21 +141,21 @@ <quote>y</quote>were written (in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example1" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example2" />) with pauses afte= r them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but f= ailure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-6dMS"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example3" /> mi cy. claxu - I lerfu- + I lerfu-=20 cwithout I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter=20 c. without a pause after=20 cywould be interpreted as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4" /> @@ -458,31 +481,31 @@ <quote>bu</quote>mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for= Lojban users to make up=20 <quote>bu</quote>words without bothering to explain what they mean. Us= ing the=20 <quote>lau</quote>cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonc= e lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same = argument applies to the use of=20 <quote>zai</quote>to signal an alphabet shift or=20 <quote>ce'a</quote>to signal a font shift.)</para> <para>Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, t= he interpretation of a=20 <quote>lau</quote>-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphab= et shift and the current font shift.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8"> <title>8. What about Chinese characters? - Chinese characters ( - han - 4zi + Chinese characters (=20 + han=20 + 4zi=20 4in Chinese,=20 kanjiin Japanese) represent an entirely different appro= ach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanes= e hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoke= n language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of = meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chine= se. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters that= can exist, and many thousands are in regular use. It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift word= s, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there ar= e various possible ways around the problem. First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet re= presentations, known as=20 pinyinfor Chinese and=20 romajifor Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the wo= rd=20 - han - 4zi + han=20 + 4zi=20 4is conventionally written with two= characters, but it may be spelled out as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8-example1" /> .y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo h @@ -816,21 +839,21 @@ vei ... ve'oparentheses): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example6" /> vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu - ( + (=20 n) persons The parentheses are required because=20 ny. lo prenuwould be two separate sumti,=20 ny.and=20 lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expression other= than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the= right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 ve'o, can usually be elided. All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather = than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathemat= ics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or f= unction name: in Lojban,=20 .abu by. cy.is not the multiplication=20 @@ -935,21 +958,21 @@ la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bearwrites. Bear is a writer. - does not of cours= e refer to a bear ( + does not of cours= e refer to a bear (=20 le cribeor=20 lo cribe) but to something else, probably a person, nam= ed=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abuis a predicate which can be used as a nam= e, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual= lerfu words.
13. Computerized character codes Since the first application of computers to non-numerical inform= ation, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called=20 character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punct= uation marks (collectively called=20 characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 @@ -982,62 +1005,120 @@ me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-a= t-peace When a=20 se'estring appears in running discourse, some metalingu= istic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other b= ase, and which character set is in use.
14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo - - cmavo selma'o meaning - - bu BU makes previous word into a lerfu word - - ga'e BY upper case shift - to'a BY lower case shift - tau LAU case-shift next lerfu word only - - lo'a BY Latin/Lojban alphabet shift - ge'o BY Greek alphabet shift - je'o BY Hebrew alphabet shift - jo'o BY Arabic alphabet shift - ru'o BY Cyrillic alphabet shift - - se'e BY following digits are a character code - na'a BY cancel all shifts - - zai LAU following lerfu word specifies alphabet - ce'a LAU following lerfu word specifies font - lau LAU following lerfu word is punctuation - - tei TEI start compound lerfu word - foi FOI end compound lerfu word - + + + bu + BU + makes previous word into a lerfu word + + + ga'e + BY + upper case shift + + + to'a + BY + lower case shift + + + tau + LAU + case-shift next lerfu word only + + + lo'a + BY + Latin/Lojban alphabet shift + + + ge'o + BY + Greek alphabet shift + + + je'o + BY + Hebrew alphabet shift + + + jo'o + BY + Arabic alphabet shift + + + ru'o + BY + Cyrillic alphabet shift + + + se'e + BY + following digits are a character code + + + na'a + BY + cancel all shifts + + + zai + LAU + following lerfu word specifies alphabet + + + ce'a + LAU + following lerfu word specifies font + + + lau + LAU + following lerfu word is punctuation + + + tei + TEI + start compound lerfu word + + + foi + FOI + end compound lerfu word + + Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equiva= lent, where=20 equivalentmeans: either any Lojban word followed by=20 bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 tei ... foicompound cmavo.
15. Proposed lerfu words - introduction The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words fo= r some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The = first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name suf= ficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu= word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based = on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorit= ies within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagre= eing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working= basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of l= erfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat= before settling down into a final, conventional form. For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu).
16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet - alpha .alfas. bu .abu + alpha .alfas. bu .abu=20 + beta .betas. bu by gamma .gamas. bu gy delta .deltas. bu dy epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu zeta .zetas. bu zy eta .etas. bu .e'ebu theta .tetas. bu ty. bu iota .iotas. bu .ibu kappa .kapas. bu ky lambda .lymdas. bu ly @@ -1055,21 +1136,22 @@ psi .psis. bu psis. bu omega .omegas. bu .o'obu rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu
17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet The second column in this listing is based on the historical nam= es of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russia= n are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as n= eeded. - a .azys. bu .abu + a .azys. bu .abu=20 + b .bukys. bu by v .vedis. bu vy g .glagolis. bu gy d .dobros. bu dy e .iestys. bu .ebu zh .jivet. bu jy z .zemlias. bu zy i .ije,is. bu .ibu short i .itord. bu .itord. bu k .kakos. bu ky @@ -1092,21 +1174,22 @@ yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu yu .ius. bu .iubu ya .ias. bu .iabu
18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet - aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu + aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu=20 + bet .bet. bu by gimel .gimel. bu gy daled .daled. bu dy he .xex. bu .y'y vav .vav. bu vy zayin .zai,in. bu zy khet .xet. bu xy. bu tet .tet. bu ty. bu yud .iud. bu .iud. bu kaf .kaf. bu ky @@ -1132,21 +1215,22 @@ sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu kholem .xolem. bu .obu shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu
19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple let= ters This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are = lerfu such as Polish=20 darkl and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols. - acute .akut. bu + acute .akut. bu=20 + or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu] grave .grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu] circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu or .midgal. bu [midju galtu] tilde .tildes. bu macron .makron. bu breve .brevis. bu over-dot .gapmoc. bu [gapru mokca] umlaut/trema .relmoc. bu [re mokca] @@ -1162,21 +1246,22 @@
20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication There is a set of English words which are used, by international= agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in= noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are k= nown as the=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 carlis. bu, not=20 tcarlis. bu). - Alfa .alfas. bu + Alfa .alfas. bu=20 + Bravo .bravos. bu Charlie .carlis. bu Delta .deltas. bu Echo .ekos. bu Foxtrot .fokstrot. bu Golf .golf. bu Hotel .xoTEL. bu India .indias. bu Juliet .juliet. bu Kilo .kilos. bu diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 6483a1b..7aa2c85 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,15 +1,15 @@ Chapter 18 lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban</titl= e> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"> <title>1. Introductory - lojbau mekso ( + lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: representing all the different forms of expression used by m= athematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambi= guously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expec= t a listener to understand it; providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms w= hich can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full r= esources of Lojban; permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, o= f unambiguous mathematical text; @@ -32,32 +32,72 @@ contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other p= ossible interpretations for the strings=20 3xand=20 2ythan as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the L= ojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 must not omit the = multiplication operators. The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is = currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete= as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those compo= nents - as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso= facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clar= ified.
2. Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pa PA 1 - re PA 2 - ci PA 3 - vo PA 4 - mu PA 5 - xa PA 6 - ze PA 7 - bi PA 8 - so PA 9 - no PA 0 - + + + pa + PA + 1 + + + re + PA + 2 + + + ci + PA + 3 + + + vo + PA + 4 + + + mu + PA + 5 + + + xa + PA + 6 + + + ze + PA + 7 + + + bi + PA + 8 + + + so + PA + 9 + + + no + PA + 0 + + The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compo= und cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers g= reater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example1" /> pa re ci one two three 123 ignore @@ -474,24 +514,24 @@ (and=20 )to group expressions in any way desired: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example10" /> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa - The-number ( - nplus one) times ( + The-number (=20 + nplus one) times (=20 nplus one) - equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times- + equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=20 nplus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n There are several new usages in=20 :=20 te'ameans=20 raised to the power, and we also see the use of the ler= fu word=20 ny, representing the letter=20 n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ord= inary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu word= s (called a=20 @@ -552,21 +592,21 @@ , three. How do we= know how many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Loj= ban solution is employed: an elidable terminator, namely=20 ku'e. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example2" /> li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 - pplus negative-of( + pplus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 zequals the-number=20 x. p + -n + z =3D x where we know that=20 va'ais a forethought operator because there is no opera= nd preceding it. va'ais the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU= . In contrast,=20 @@ -647,21 +687,22 @@ li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5. Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: - du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ... + du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 + dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 mleca x1 is less than x2 zmadu x1 is greater than x2 dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equa= l or less] dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equa= l or greater] tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shap= e-equal] turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, stru= cture-equal] cmima x1 is a member of set x2 gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-= part] na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, numb= er-near] @@ -699,46 +740,77 @@ li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5 As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not = say anything about what might be true.
8. Indefinite numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ro PA all - so'a PA almost all - so'e PA most - so'i PA many - so'o PA several - so'u PA a few - no'o PA the typical number of - da'a PA all but (one) of - - piro PA+PA the whole of/all of - piso'a PA+PA almost the whole of - piso'e PA+PA most of - piso'i PA+PA much of - piso'o PA+PA a small part of - piso'u PA+PA a tiny part of - pino'o PA+PA the typical portion of - - rau PA enough - du'e PA too many - mo'a PA too few - - pirau PA+PA enough of - pidu'e PA+PA too much of - pimo'a PA+PA too little of - + + + ro + PA + all + + + so'a + PA + almost all + + + so'e + PA + most + + + so'i + PA + many + + + so'o + PA + several + + + so'u + PA + a few + + + no'o + PA + the typical number of + + + da'a + PA + all but (one) of + + + rau + PA + enough + + + du'e + PA + too many + + + mo'a + PA + too few + + Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathemati= cal sense. For example, the cmavo=20 romeans=20 allor=20 each. This number does not have a definite value in the= abstract:=20 li rois undefined. But when used to count or quantify s= omething, the parallel between=20 roand=20 pais clearer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d1" /> @@ -897,21 +969,21 @@ li ci vu'u re du li ma'u the-number 3 =E2=88=92 2 =3D some-positive-number li ci vu'u vo du li ni'u the-number 3 =E2=88=92 4 =3D some-negative-number mi ponse ma'u rupnu I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units. - All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indef= inite. If there are exactly six superpowers ( + All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indef= inite. If there are exactly six superpowers (=20 rairgugde,=20 superlative-states) in the world, then=20 ro rairgugdemeans the same as=20 xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however, to express s= ubjective indefinite values. The cmavo=20 rau(enough),=20 du'e(too many), and=20 mo'a(too few) are then appropriate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17" /> @@ -984,21 +1056,21 @@ vo no ji'i mu no four zero approximation five zero roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousandis exact, but the=20 fiftyis approximate) If=20 - ji'iappears at the end of a number, it indicates that t= he number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign = cmavo ( + ji'iappears at the end of a number, it indicates that t= he number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign = cmavo (=20 ma'uor=20 ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or ne= gative infinity respectively. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example5" /> @@ -1077,31 +1149,62 @@ <quote>at least some part of</quote>. The quantifiers=20 <quote>ro</quote>,=20 <quote>su'o</quote>,=20 <quote>piro</quote>, and=20 <quote>pisu'o</quote>are particularly important in Lojban, as they are= implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA = and LE, as explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6" />. Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10"> <title>10. Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ju'u VUhU to the base - - dau PA hex digit A =3D 10 - fei PA hex digit B =3D 11 - gai PA hex digit C =3D 12 - jau PA hex digit D =3D 13 - rei PA hex digit E =3D 14 - vai PA hex digit F =3D 15 - pi'e PA compound base point - + + + ju'u + VUhU + to the base + + + dau + PA + hex digit A =3D 10 + + + fei + PA + hex digit B =3D 11 + + + gai + PA + hex digit C =3D 12 + + + jau + PA + hex digit D =3D 13 + + + rei + PA + hex digit E =3D 14 + + + vai + PA + hex digit F =3D 15 + + + pi'e + PA + compound base point + + In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expresse= d in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and m= ay be appropriate in particular circumstances. To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator=20 ju'uis suitable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example1" /> li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no @@ -1235,31 +1338,57 @@ dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. This is Sentence 10.11.
11. Special mekso selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - mei MOI cardinal selbri - moi MOI ordinal selbri - si'e MOI portion selbri - cu'o MOI probability selbri - va'e MOI scale selbri - - me ME make sumti into selbri - - me'u MEhU terminator for ME - + + + mei + MOI + cardinal selbri + + + moi + MOI + ordinal selbri + + + si'e + MOI + portion selbri + + + cu'o + MOI + probability selbri + + + va'e + MOI + scale selbri + + + me + ME + make sumti into selbri + + + me'u + MEhU + terminator for ME + + Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on= mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of = selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serve= s to create number-based selbri with specific place structures. The cmavo=20 meicreates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure i= s: x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh= ich is/are x3 A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of memb= ers, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set = up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logic= al necessity. Some examples: @@ -1490,23 +1619,27 @@ <quote>boi</quote>is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As= a result, the=20 <quote>me'u</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example13" />could also be re= placed by a=20 <quote>boi</quote>, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 <quote>pa</quote>and=20 <quote>moi</quote>from joining into a compound.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12"> <title>12. Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - xo PA number question - + + + xo + PA + number question + + The cmavo=20 xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions wh= ose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blan= k where the answer should go. (See=20 for more on Lojban questions.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example2" /> @@ -1531,23 +1664,27 @@ The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 to which the correct reply would be=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammati= cal Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xoquestions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting o= ff physical objects one by one.)
13. Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - xi XI subscript - + + + xi + XI + subscript + + Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso= ; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammaticall= y a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of= course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example1" /> li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> x @@ -1590,25 +1727,37 @@ See=20 for the standard= method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 .
14. Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - tu'o PA null operand - ge'a VUhU null operator - gei VUhU exponential notation - + + + tu'o + PA + null operand + + + ge'a + VUhU + null operator + + + gei + VUhU + exponential notation + + The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two= operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been req= uired. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even thoug= h it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tric= ks: the null operand=20 tu'oand the null operator=20 ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few oper= ands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to= express the numerical negation operator=20 va'ain infix form. We would use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example1" /> @@ -1663,26 +1812,42 @@ papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 .1010
15. Vectors and matrices The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - jo'i JOhI start vector - te'u TEhU end vector - pi'a VUhU matrix row combiner - sa'i VUhU matrix column combiner - + + + jo'i + JOhI + start vector + + + te'u + TEhU + end vector + + + pi'a + VUhU + matrix row combiner + + + sa'i + VUhU + matrix column combiner + + A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical m= atrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out o= f vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands. jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector ind= icator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very= high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full e= xpressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of componen= ts;=20 te'uis the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example1" /> @@ -1730,23 +1895,27 @@ ma'o. Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using eithe= r=20 pi'aor=20 sa'iwith an appropriate subscript numbering the dimensi= on. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 pi'aand=20 sa'i.
16. Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - fu'a FUhA reverse Polish flag - + + + fu'a + FUhA + reverse Polish flag + + So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly fam= iliar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may= have seemed odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 fthey appear as the usual functional notation. Now come= s a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complete= ly different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses = of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation = of some programming languages.) In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notat= ion, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethou= ght mekso of the kind explained in=20 .) The number of operands p= er operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In L= ojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 fu'aat the beginning of the expression; there is no ter= minator. Here is a simple example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example1" /> @@ -1987,36 +2156,52 @@ <para>You can also combine two operands with=20 <quote>ce'o</quote>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-eMsd"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example10" /> xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] - xsub ( + xsub (=20 bsequence=20 d) x
18. Using Lojban resources within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - na'u NAhU selbri to operator - ni'e NIhE selbri to operand - mo'e MOhE sumti to operand - te'u TEhU terminator for all three - + + + na'u + NAhU + selbri to operator + + + ni'e + NIhE + selbri to operand + + + mo'e + MOhE + sumti to operand + + + te'u + TEhU + terminator for all three + + One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use o= f Lojban's vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in cmavo f= or operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all three s= hare the elidable terminator=20 te'u(which is also used to terminate vectors marked wit= h=20 jo'i) The cmavo=20 na'umakes a selbri into an operator. In general, the fi= rst place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the other= unfilled places specify the operands: 18.1) li na'u tanjo= te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i The-number the-operator tangent (=20 =CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. @@ -2071,27 +2256,47 @@ mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. I see a pride of lions.
19. Other uses of mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - me'o LI the mekso - nu'a NUhA operator to selbri - mai MAI utterance ordinal - mo'o MAI higher order utterance ordinal - roi ROI quantified tense - + + + me'o + LI + the mekso + + + nu'a + NUhA + operator to selbri + + + mai + MAI + utterance ordinal + + + mo'o + MAI + higher order utterance ordinal + + + roi + ROI + quantified tense + + So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with=20 li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI a= nd ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.<= /para> The cmavo=20 me'ohas the same grammatical use as=20 libut slightly different semantics.=20 limeans=20 the number which is the value of the mekso ..., whereas= =20 me'ojust means=20 the mekso ...So it is true that: @@ -2341,23 +2546,23 @@ frinu, meaning=20 fraction; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you= can use any of the rafsi for=20 frinuto indicate a fraction slash. A similar convention is used for the cmavo=20 cu'oof selma'o MOI, which is closely related to=20 cunso(probability); use a rafsi for=20 cunsoin order to create lujvo based on=20 cu'o. The cmavo=20 meiand=20 moiof MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact:=20 - mem/ + mem/=20 meiand=20 - mom/ + mom/=20 moirespectively. The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinc= tion between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda ca= lculus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a= method of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with= =20 ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a matching= selbri and then the selbri into an operand. To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu= string such as=20 fy.into an operator. In fact,=20 ma'ocan be followed by any mekso operand, using the eli= dable terminator=20 te'uif necessary. There is a potential semantic ambiguity in=20 ma'o fy. [te'u]if=20 @@ -2547,42 +2752,46 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (fro= m frinu; see =20 ki'o, ra'e thousands comma, repeating-decimal indicator =20 ji'i, ka'o approximation sign, complex number separator Indefinite numbers:=20 - - ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, so'u= , da'a - all, almost all, most, many, several, few,= all but -rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, sot, daz - - su'e, su'o - at most, at least -rafsi: su'e, su'o - - me'i, za'u - less than, more than - - no'o - the typical number - + + + ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, + so'u, + da'a + + + all, almost all, most, many, several, + few, + all but + + + rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, + sot, + daz + + Subjective numbers:=20 - - rau, du'e, mo'a - enough, too many, too few - + + + rau, + du'e, + mo'a + enough, too many, too few Miscellaneous:=20 xo, tu'o number question, null operand
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index a77bb0d..81a2107 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1,23 +1,27 @@ Chapter 19 Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Loj= ban Texts
1. Introductory This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo = that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragra= phs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are foun= d in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described= are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents. This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).
2. Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - .i I sentence separator - + + + .i + I + sentence separator + + Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a s= poken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of t= he following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spok= en English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or som= etimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo=20 .i(of selma'o I): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section2-example1" /> mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice. @@ -54,26 +58,37 @@ .i. Grouping with=20 tu'eand=20 tu'uis analogous to grouping with=20 keand=20 ke'eto establish the scope of logical or non-logical co= nnectives (see=20 ).
3. Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ni'o NIhO new topic - no'i NIhO old topic - - da'o DAhO cancel cmavo assignments - + + + ni'o + NIhO + new topic + + + no'i + NIhO + old topic + + + da'o + DAhO + cancel cmavo assignments + + The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purpo= ses: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appeara= nce of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented= in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 no'i, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two,=20 ni'ois the more common. By convention, written Lojban i= s broken into paragraphs just before any=20 ni'oor=20 no'i, but a very long passage on a single topic might b= e paragraphed before an=20 .i. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to= start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this conv= ention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of the= se conventions affect meaning in any way. A=20 ni'ocan take the place of an=20 .ias a sentence separator, and in addition signals a ne= w topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of=20 @@ -105,23 +120,27 @@ no'ialso resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments droppe= d at the previous=20 ni'o. If a=20 ni'ois subscripted, then a=20 no'iwith the same subscript is assumed to be a continua= tion of it. A=20 no'imay also have a negative subscript, which would spe= cify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found= thereby.
4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - zo'u ZOhU topic/comment separator - + + + zo'u + ZOhU + topic/comment separator + + The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the norm= al English sentence which has a subject and a predicate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I went to the market @@ -130,22 +149,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example2" /> zhe The wide space in the first two versions of=20 - separate the topic= ( - this news) from the comment ( + separate the topic= (=20 + this news) from the comment (=20 I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 zo'u(of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from = comment (a bridi): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example3" /> le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno @@ -269,35 +288,87 @@ are inherently vag= ue, and this difference between=20 ponse(which expects a physical object in x2) and=20 djicais ignored. See=20 for another topic/= comment sentence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subjectin the English sense.
5. Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - xu UI truth question - ma KOhA sumti question - mo GOhA bridi question - xo PA number question - ji A sumti connective question - ge'i GA forethought connective question - gi'i GIhA bridi-tail connective question - gu'i GUhA tanru forethought connective question - je'i JA tanru connective question - pei UI attitude question - fi'a FA place structure question - cu'e CUhE tense/modal question - pau UI question premarker - + + + xu + UI + truth question + + + ma + KOhA + sumti question + + + mo + GOhA + bridi question + + + xo + PA + number question + + + ji + A + sumti connective question + + + ge'i + GA + forethought connective question + + + gi'i + GIhA + bridi-tail connective question + + + gu'i + GUhA + tanru forethought connective question + + + je'i + JA + tanru connective question + + + pei + UI + attitude question + + + fi'a + FA + place structure question + + + cu'e + CUhE + tense/modal question + + + pau + UI + question premarker + + Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There ar= e two basic types: truth questions, of the form=20 Is it true that ..., and fill-in-the-blank questions. T= ruth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of = it specifically questioned, with the cmavo=20 xu(of selma'o UI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example1" /> xu do klama le zarci @@ -509,23 +580,27 @@ nai(to vaguely negate something or other, see=20 ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.
6. Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - xi XI subscript - + + + xi + XI + subscript + + The cmavo=20 xi(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number,= a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attac= hed to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (o= r its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either= to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refine= d distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this = section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. Lojban gismu have at most five places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example1" /> mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce @@ -706,24 +781,32 @@ Finally, as mentioned in=20 ,=20 ni'oand=20 no'icmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and t= he continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assi= gned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.
7. Utterance ordinals: MAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - mai MAI utterance ordinal, -thly - mo'o MAI higher order utterance ordinal - + + + mai + MAI + utterance ordinal, -thly + + + mo'o + MAI + higher order utterance ordinal + + Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 firstly,=20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 maior=20 mo'oof selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here = are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section7-example1" /> @@ -745,24 +828,32 @@ mo'oenumerates larger subdivisions of a text;=20 maiwas designed for lists of numbered items, whereas=20 mo'owas intended to subdivide structured works. If this= chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with=20 mo'o: this section would then be introduced with=20 zemo'o, or=20 Section 7.
8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - fu'e FUhE open attitudinal scope - fu'o FUhO close attitudinal scope - + + + fu'e + FUhE + open attitudinal scope + + + fu'o + FUhO + close attitudinal scope + + Lojban has a complex system of=20 attitudinals, words which indicate the speaker's attitu= de to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, i= ntensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and = evidentials (which indicate=20 how the speaker knows). Most of these words belong to s= elma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reaso= ns, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo o= f UI and CAI are discussed in=20 ; only the rules for applying them i= n discourse are presented here. Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. How= ever, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a wh= ole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudin= al: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d2" /> @@ -825,26 +916,42 @@ <quote>blanu zdani</quote>portion of the three-part tanru=20 <quote>blanu zdani ponse</quote>is marked as a belief of the speaker. = Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interp= reting multi-part tanru:=20 <quote>blanu zdani</quote>groups first because tanru group from left t= o right unless overridden with=20 <quote>ke</quote>or=20 <quote>bo</quote>.</para> <para>Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudi= nals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active at= titudinals rather than superseding them.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9"> <title>9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - lu LU begin quotation - li'u LIhU end quotation - lo'u LOhU begin error quotation - le'u LEhU end error quotation - + + + lu + LU + begin quotation + + + li'u + LIhU + end quotation + + + lo'u + LOhU + begin error quotation + + + le'u + LEhU + end error quotation + + Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them= are sumti, and they all mean something like=20 the piece of text here quoted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example1" /> mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u] I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote] @@ -888,22 +995,22 @@ lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. In the sentence=20 le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 viska leshould be replaced by=20 viska lo. - Note the topic-comment formulation ( - ) and the indicator applyin= g to the selbri only ( + Note the topic-comment formulation (=20 + ) and the indicator applyin= g to the selbri only (=20 ). Neither=20 viska lenor=20 viska lois a valid Lojban utterance, and both require= =20 lo'uquotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 lu ... li'uis used, but not when=20 lo'u ... le'uis used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d4" /> @@ -956,25 +1063,37 @@ <quote>lo'u</quote>quotation. However, it is possible for a=20 <quote>le'u</quote>to occur within a=20 <quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote>quotation by preceding it with the cmavo= =20 <quote>zo</quote>, discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10" />. Note that=20 <quote>le'u</quote>is not an elidable terminator; it is required.</par= a> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10"> <title>10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - zo ZO quote single word - zoi ZOI non-Lojban quotation - la'o ZOI non-Lojban name - + + + zo + ZO + quote single word + + + zoi + ZOI + non-Lojban quotation + + + la'o + ZOI + non-Lojban name + + The cmavo=20 zo(of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the si= ngle following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other u= ses,=20 zoallows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without= having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically = legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo a= re not permitted. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example1" /> zo si cu lojbo valsi @@ -1132,24 +1251,32 @@ Using=20 la'ofor all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, mak= es for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 la'omight be=20 la me zoi.
11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ba'e BAhE emphasize next word - za'e BAhE next word is nonce - + + + ba'e + BAhE + emphasize next word + + + za'e + BAhE + next word is nonce + + English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for = contrastive emphasis, thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example1" /> I saw George. @@ -1238,28 +1365,42 @@ marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in Albania= n. Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 za'eindicates that the word has been made up on the spo= t and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary= (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).
12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</ti= tle> <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para> - <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - to TO open parenthesis - to'i TO open editorial parenthesis - - toi TOI close parenthesis - - sei SEI metalinguistic bridi marker -</programlisting> + <cmavo-list> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>to</cmavo> + <selmaho>TO</selmaho> + <description>open parenthesis</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>to'i</cmavo> + <selmaho>TO</selmaho> + <description>open editorial parenthesis</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>toi</cmavo> + <selmaho>TOI</selmaho> + <description>close parenthesis</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>sei</cmavo> + <selmaho>SEI</selmaho> + <description>metalinguistic bridi marker</description> + </cmavo-entry> + </cmavo-list> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>to</quote>and=20 <quote>toi</quote>are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for i= nserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the paren= theses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, ref= er to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been= assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, b= ut the reverse is not true.</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-FHJi"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example1" /> doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska= le mlatu @@ -1398,25 +1539,37 @@ seiand its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not p= art of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 sa'acmavo would probably be dropped. The elidable terminator for=20 seiis=20 se'u(of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to s= eparate a selbri within the=20 seicomment from an immediately following selbri (or com= ponent) outside the comment.
13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - si SI erase word - sa SA erase phrase - su SU erase discourse - + + + si + SI + erase word + + + sa + SA + erase phrase + + + su + SU + erase discourse + + The cmavo=20 si(of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that era= ses the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example1" /> ti gerku si mlatu This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat. @@ -1584,39 +1737,47 @@ su(of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operato= r that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple speak= ers, then=20 suwill only erase the remarks made by the one who said = it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 susuis needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conver= sation. Note: The current machine parser does not implement either=20 suor=20 susuerasure.
14. Hesitation: Y The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - .y. Y hesitation noise - + + + .y. + Y + hesitation noise + + Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or = for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban:= to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo=20 .y.(of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English = hesitation noise written=20 uh(or=20 er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses = before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having not= hing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is= not significant in Lojban, the=20 ysound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Fur= thermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respe= cted. - Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal lang= uage, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers o= f other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, rep= eating) a word ( + Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal lang= uage, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers o= f other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, rep= eating) a word (=20 estein some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning=20 that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism require= s a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,=20 .y.has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywh= ere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.
15. No more to say: FAhO The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - fa'o FAhO end of text - + + + fa'o + FAhO + end of text + + The cmavo=20 fa'o(of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker for= the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the = end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a disc= ussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it = as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with=20 zoor with=20 lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at the end= of subordinate texts quoted with=20 lu ... li'uor parenthesized with=20 to ... toi.
16. List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. @@ -1703,35 +1864,119 @@ da'o,=20 fu'e, and=20 fu'oare the same as UI, but do not absorb a followi= ng=20 nai.
17. List of Elidable Terminators The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban.= The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that = starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kin= ds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cm= avo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo. - - be'o BE sumti attached to a tanru unit - boi PA/BY number or lerfu string - do'u COI/DOI vocative phrases - fe'u FIhO ad-hoc modal tags - ge'u GOI relative phrases - kei NU abstraction bridi - ke'e KE groups of various kinds - ku LE/LA description sumti - ku'e PEhO forethought mekso - ku'o NOI relative clauses - li'u LU quotations - lo'o LI number sumti - lu'u LAhE/NAhE+BO sumti qualifiers - me'u ME tanru units formed from sumti - nu'u NUhI forethought termsets - se'u SEI/SOI metalinguistic insertions - te'u various mekso conversion constructs - toi TO parenthetical remarks - tu'u TUhE multiple sentences or paragraphs - vau (none) simple bridi or bridi-tails - ve'o VEI mekso parentheses - + + + be'o + BE + sumti attached to a tanru unit + + + boi + PA/BY + number or lerfu string + + + do'u + COI/DOI + vocative phrases + + + fe'u + FIhO + ad-hoc modal tags + + + ge'u + GOI + relative phrases + + + kei + NU + abstraction bridi + + + ke'e + KE + groups of various kinds + + + ku + LE/LA + description sumti + + + ku'e + PEhO + forethought mekso + + + ku'o + NOI + relative clauses + + + li'u + LU + quotations + + + lo'o + LI + number sumti + + + lu'u + LAhE/NAhE+BO + sumti qualifiers + + + me'u + ME + tanru units formed from sumti + + + nu'u + NUhI + forethought termsets + + + se'u + SEI/SOI + metalinguistic insertions + + + te'u + various + mekso conversion constructs + + + toi + TO + parenthetical remarks + + + tu'u + TUhE + multiple sentences or paragraphs + + + vau + (none) + simple bridi or bridi-tails + + + ve'o + VEI + mekso parentheses + +
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 6d1b49d..cff8c80 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -37,29 +37,26 @@ [svg version] - - bridi (predicate) - ______________|________________ - | | - John is the father of Sam - |___| |______________| |___| - | | | - sumti selbri sumti (argument) - + John is the father of Sam| | | + + sumti + selbri + sumti (argument) + In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being r= elated. In English, for example,=20 givehas three places: the donor, the recipient and the = gift. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example4" /> John gives Sam the book. @@ -311,21 +308,21 @@ =20 5.7) =20 mi=20 tavla=20 zo'e=20 tu=20 ti I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. - ( + (=20 is a bit unusual, a= s there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of= this book, and hope the meaning gets across!) When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo=20 zo'eat the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a proce= ss called=20 ellipsis.=20 and=20 may be expressed th= us: 5.8) =20 mi=20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 2d5e14d..2f04302 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1,1194 +1,1194 @@ Chapter 20 A Catalogue of selma'o
<!-- <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br /> mkhtml: 1.1</h6> --> <para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a = brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter n= umber where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are g= iven in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the capital of= =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often th= e most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given o= f each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is= shown.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"A" />selma'o A ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"A" />selma'o A (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D), usually between sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci John and/or Jane goes to the store. </programlisting> <para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with =E2=80= =9Cbu=E2=80=9D.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BAI" />selma'o BAI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BAI" />selma'o BAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not o= therwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a s= ingle place of some other selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi tavla bau la lojban. I speak in-language Lojban. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE" />selma'o BAhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE" />selma'o BAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (on= e invented for the occasion).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci =20 <emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store. It is George who goes to the store. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BE" />selma'o BE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BE" />selma'o BE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit m= aking up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, an= d successive places in that order.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />is most useful in descriptions formed with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEI" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be ta troci I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier. I try to go to that place. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BEI" />selma'o BEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BEI" />selma'o BEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates multiple sumti attached by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />to a tanru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier. I try to go from the home to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO" />selma'o BEhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO" />selma'o BEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru= unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be le zarci be'o troci I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier. I try to go to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE" />selma'o BIhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE" />selma'o BIhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priorit= y than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI" />selma'o BIhI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI" />selma'o BIhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to for= m intervals. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GAhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BO" />selma'o BO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BO" />selma'o BO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section3" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section6" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to b= ind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />is always high precedence and right-grouping.</= para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). That is a small school for girls. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BOI" />selma'o BOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BOI" />selma'o BOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PA" />or=20 <xref linkend=3D"BY" />. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric= cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immedi= ately follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li re du li vu'u voboi re The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BU" />selma'o BU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BU" />selma'o BU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word rep= resenting a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a sym= bol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to singl= e-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu a, e, i, o, u, y. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BY" />selma'o BY ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"BY" />selma'o BY (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus vari= ous shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termi= nated by BOI.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. A talks to B about IBM computers. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CAI" />selma'o CAI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CAI" />selma'o CAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or= not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion= .</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .ei cai mi klama le zarci [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. I must go to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA" />selma'o CAhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA" />selma'o CAhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section19" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential = (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ro datka ka'e flulimna All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers. All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CEI" />selma'o CEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CEI" />selma'o CEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: = =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, = =E2=80=9Cbrodo=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D, for later use.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE" />selma'o CEhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE" />selma'o CEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CO" />selma'o CO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CO" />selma'o CO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so = that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"COI" />selma'o COI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"COI" />selma'o COI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOhU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> coi .djan. Greetings, John. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CU" />selma'o CU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CU" />selma'o CU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it.= Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable t= erminators.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le gerku cu klama le zarci The dog goes to-the store. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE" />selma'o CUhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE" />selma'o CUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section24" />)</bridgehead> <para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the res= t of the bridi is true. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"PU" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"CAhA" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE" />, and=20 <xref linkend=3D"BAI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> do cu'e klama le zarci You [When/Where?] go to-the store? When are you going to the store? </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO" />selma'o DAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO" />selma'o DAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o= =20 <xref linkend=3D"KOhA" />) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOhA" />).</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DOI" />selma'o DOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"DOI" />selma'o DOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 <xref linkend=3D"COI" />. No pause is required between =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2= =80=9D and a following name. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi frank. mi tavla do O Frank, I speak-to you. Frank, I=E2=80=99m talking to you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU" />selma'o DOhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU" />selma'o DOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"COI" />or=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI" />. Signals the end of a vocative.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> coi do'u Greetings [terminator] Greetings, O unspecified one! </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FA" />selma'o FA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FA" />selma'o FA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place= structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car. I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhA" />selma'o FAhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhA" />selma'o FAhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked w= ith=20 <xref linkend=3D"MOhI" />) or along which (when prefixed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhA" />or=20 <xref linkend=3D"VIhA" />) the action of the bridi takes place.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. To my left, the man bites the dog. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhO" />selma'o FAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhO" />selma'o FAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section15" />)</bridgehead> <para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there = is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE" />selma'o FEhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE" />selma'o FEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using=20 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"ROI" />, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"ZAhO" />) refers to space rather than time.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain. Sow the grain in a line and evenly! </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU" />selma'o FEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU" />selma'o FEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"FIhO" />. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: t= he tagged sumti immediately follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing I see you with the left eye. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FIhO" />selma'o FIhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FIhO" />selma'o FIhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal = tag, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"BAI" />. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"FEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle I see you with eye the left-thing I see you with my left eye. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FOI" />selma'o FOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FOI" />selma'o FOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins w= ith=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEI" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA" />selma'o FUhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA" />selma'o FUhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four 2 + 2 =3D 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE" />selma'o FUhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE" />selma'o FUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI" />affect not the preceding word, as usual, but ra= ther all following words until a=20 <xref linkend=3D"FUhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO" />selma'o FUhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO" />selma'o FUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Cancels all indicators of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI" />which are in effect.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GA" />selma'o GA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GA" />selma'o GA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-= tails, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth .= .. and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2= =80=9D, and so on. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO" />selma'o GAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO" />selma'o GAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies whether an interval specified by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI" />includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in p= airs before and after the=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI" />cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left= - and the right-hand endpoints.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt= . I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU" />selma'o GEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU" />selma'o GEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI" />. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GI" />selma'o GI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GI" />selma'o GI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru = units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought conne= ctive involving=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"GUhA" />, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA" />selma'o GIhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA" />selma'o GIhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connective (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-t= ail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any = preceding sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GOI" />selma'o GOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GOI" />selma'o GOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a= subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"GEhU" />See=20 <xref linkend=3D"NOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu John (referred to as it-1) is blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GOhA" />selma'o GOhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GOhA" />selma'o GOhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of briv= la. There are several groups of these.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> A: mi klama le zarci B: mi go'i =20 A: I=E2=80=99m going to the market. B: Me, too. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA" />selma'o GUhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA" />selma'o GUhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. = Takes the place of=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA" />when forming logically-connected tanru. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu Alice is both rich and blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"I" />selma'o I ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"I" />selma'o I (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates two sentences from each other.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani I go-to the market. I go-to the office. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JA" />selma'o JA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"JA" />selma'o JA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two tanru units, mathemati= cal operands, tenses, or abstractions.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ti blanu je zdani This is-blue and a-house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JAI" />selma'o JAI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"JAI" />selma'o JAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator= attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place o= f the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place = of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of= the abstracted-over bridi.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. I act so as to modify the wall color. I change the color of the wall. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI" />selma'o JOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI" />selma'o JOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI" />, provides forethought non-logical connection a= nalogous to=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI" />selma'o JOhI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI" />selma'o JOhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list termi= nated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional= array).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KE" />selma'o KE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KE" />selma'o KE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Groups everything between itself and a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEhE" />for purposes of logical connection, tanru con= struction, or other purposes.=20 <xref linkend=3D"KE" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEhE" />are not used for mathematical (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEI" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhO" />) or discursive (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"TO" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"TOI" />) purposes.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KEI" />selma'o KEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KEI" />selma'o KEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NU" />. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE" />selma'o KEhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE" />selma'o KEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"KE" />. Marks the end of a grouping.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KI" />selma'o KI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KI" />selma'o KI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it =E2=80=9Csticky=E2= =80=9D, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appe= arance of=20 <xref linkend=3D"KI" />. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.</pa= ra> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KOhA" />selma'o KOhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KOhA" />selma'o KOhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute = for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-than= this-thing. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KU" />selma'o KU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KU" />selma'o KU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE" />and some uses of=20 <xref linkend=3D"LA" />. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Als= o used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the= compound=20 - <xref linkend=3D"NA" />+ + <xref linkend=3D"NA" />+=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU" />to indicate natural language-style negation.</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le prenu ku le zdani ku klama The person, to-the house, goes. The person goes to the house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE" />selma'o KUhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE" />selma'o KUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PEhO" />: indicates the end of a forethought mathemat= ical expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-numbe= r six. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO" />selma'o KUhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO" />selma'o KUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NOI" />. Indicates the end of a relative clause.</par= a> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda The house which is-blue is-big. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LA" />selma'o LA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LA" />selma'o LA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which= identify people or things by name. Similar to=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE" />. May be terminated with=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU" />if followed by a description selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la kikeros. du la tulis. Cicero is Tully. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LAU" />selma'o LAU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LAU" />selma'o LAU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a sin= gle marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, e= tc.)</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tau sy. .ibu [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D Si (chemical symbol for silicon) </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE" />selma'o LAhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE" />selma'o LAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into anoth= er sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from = selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE" />plus=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska la'e zoi kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot I see that-represented-by the-text =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80= =9D. I see the book =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80=9D. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LE" />selma'o LE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LE" />selma'o LE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or speci= fy things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"LA" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le gerku cu klama le zdani The dog goes-to the house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LEhU" />selma'o LEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LEhU" />selma'o LEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the end of a quotation begun with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhU" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LI" />selma'o LI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LI" />selma'o LI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU" />selma'o LIhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU" />selma'o LIhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LU" />. Indicates the end of a text quotation.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO" />selma'o LOhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO" />selma'o LOhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI" />. Indicates the end of a mathematical expressio= n used in a=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI" />description.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. 4 > 3 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU" />selma'o LOhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU" />selma'o LOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they= form a text or not. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote]. You said, =E2=80=9Cmi du do du ko'a=E2=80=9D. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LU" />selma'o LU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LU" />selma'o LU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Ter= minated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LIhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU" />selma'o LUhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU" />selma'o LUhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE" />and=20 - <xref linkend=3D"NAhE" />+ + <xref linkend=3D"NAhE" />+=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.</para= > <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI" />selma'o MAI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI" />selma'o MAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> pamai mi pu klama le zarci 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. First, I went to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO" />selma'o MAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO" />selma'o MAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand.= Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ma'o fy. boi xy. [operator] f x =20 <emphasis>f(x)</emphasis> </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ME" />selma'o ME ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ME" />selma'o ME (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section10" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the t= hings referenced by the sumti. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"MEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta me la ford. karce That is-a-Ford-type car That=E2=80=99s a Ford car. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MEhU" />selma'o MEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MEhU" />selma'o MEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>The elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"ME" />. Indicates the end of a sumti converted to a t= anru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta me mi me'u zdani That=E2=80=99s a me type of house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI" />selma'o MOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI" />selma'o MOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various n= umerically-based selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome. John and Frank are two brothers. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE" />selma'o MOhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE" />selma'o MOhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimen= sioned units. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI" />selma'o MOhI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI" />selma'o MOhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specif= ied by a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"FAhA" />cmavo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NA" />selma'o NA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NA" />selma'o NA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (o= r true).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi na klama le zarci It is not true that I go to the market. </programlisting> <para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAI" />selma'o NAI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAI" />selma'o NAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain sel= ma'o as specified by the grammar.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE" />selma'o NAhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE" />selma'o NAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other = than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with fo= llowing=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />to construct a sumti qualifier; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta na'e blanu zdani That is-a-non- blue house. That is a house which is other than blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU" />selma'o NAhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU" />selma'o NAhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i The-number the-operator tangent (=20 <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase> / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. tan( <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE" />selma'o NIhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE" />selma'o NIhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a =E2=80= =9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO" />selma'o NIhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO" />selma'o NIhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it= contains old or new subject matter.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NOI" />selma'o NOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NOI" />selma'o NOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the pr= eceding sumti. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu The house which is blue is small. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NU" />selma'o NU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NU" />selma'o NU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction = selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA" />selma'o NUhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA" />selma'o NUhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19" />)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI" />selma'o NUhI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI" />selma'o NUhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultan= eous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated = by=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU" />selma'o NUhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU" />selma'o NUhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhI" />. Marks the end of a termset.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PA" />selma'o PA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"PA" />selma'o PA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminat= ed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi speni re ninmu I am-married-to two women. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE" />selma'o PEhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE" />selma'o PEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two term= sets. Termsets (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"CEhE" />) are used to associate several terms for log= ical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in = tenses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO" />selma'o PEhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO" />selma'o PEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhE" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PU" />selma'o PU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"PU" />selma'o PU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. I went to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO" />selma'o RAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO" />selma'o RAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicit= ly attached to a pro-bridi (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOhA" />) to fit the current context rather than the = original context.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> A: mi ba lumci le mi karce B: mi go'i =20 A: I [future] wash my car. B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A=E2=80=99s car). =20 A: mi ba lumci le mi karce B: mi go'i ra'o =20 A: I [future] wash my car. B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=E2=80=99s car). </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ROI" />selma'o ROI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ROI" />selma'o ROI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once= , twice, many times).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi reroi klama le zarci I twice go-to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SA" />selma'o SA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SA" />selma'o SA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Erases the previous phrase or sentence.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama sa do klama le zarci I go, er, you go-to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SE" />selma'o SE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SE" />selma'o SE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section1" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging= the x1 place with a specified numbered place.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by me. </programlisting> <para>Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.</= para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SEI" />selma'o SEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SEI" />selma'o SEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment o= n the main bridi. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"SEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU" />selma'o SEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU" />selma'o SEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"SEI" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"SOI" />. Ends metalinguistic insertions.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SI" />selma'o SI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SI" />selma'o SI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Erases the previous single word.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi si do klama le zarci I, er, you go to-the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SOI" />selma'o SOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SOI" />selma'o SOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2= =80=9D in English).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi prami do soi mi I love you [reciprocally] me. I love you and vice versa. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SU" />selma'o SU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"SU" />selma'o SU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE" />selma'o TAhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE" />selma'o TAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba ta'e klama le ckule The child habitually goes to-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TEI" />selma'o TEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TEI" />selma'o TEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"FOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU" />selma'o TEhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU" />selma'o TEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOhI" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MOhE" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhU" />, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"NIhE" />. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion = construct.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals the-number array( four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TO" />selma'o TO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TO" />selma'o TO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Term= inated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TOI" />selma'o TOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TOI" />selma'o TOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"TO" />. The right discursive parenthesis.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhE" />selma'o TUhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhE" />selma'o TUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Ter= minated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu= 'u] Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [i= s best]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhU" />selma'o TUhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhU" />selma'o TUhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"TUhE" />. Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.= </para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"UI" />selma'o UI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"UI" />selma'o UI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Particles which indicate the speaker=E2=80=99s emotional state o= r source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .ui la djan. klama [Happiness!] John is-coming. Hurrah! John is coming! </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VA" />selma'o VA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VA" />selma'o VA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU" />selma'o VAU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU" />selma'o VAU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 <xref linkend=3D"GIhA" />logical connection.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI" />selma'o VEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI" />selma'o VEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. T= erminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA" />selma'o VEhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA" />selma'o VEhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short).</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO" />selma'o VEhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO" />selma'o VEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEI" />: right mathematical parenthesis.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA" />selma'o VIhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA" />selma'o VIhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO" />selma'o VUhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO" />selma'o VUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connec= ted) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU" />selma'o VUhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU" />selma'o VUhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Mathematical operators (e.g. +, =E2=88=92). See=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li mu vu'u re du li ci The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3. 5 =E2=88=92 2 =3D 3 </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"XI" />selma'o XI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"XI" />selma'o XI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a = subscript for whatever precedes it.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> xy. xi re x sub 2 x <subscript>2</subscript> </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"Y" />selma'o Y ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"Y" />selma'o Y (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi .y. .y. .djan O, uh, uh, John! </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO" />selma'o ZAhO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO" />selma'o ZAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI" />selma'o ZEI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI" />selma'o ZEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta xy. zei kantu kacma That is-an-(X - ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA" />selma'o ZEhA ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA" />selma'o ZEhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi puze'a citka I [past] [short interval] eat. I ate for a little while. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZI" />selma'o ZI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZI" />selma'o ZI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short tim= e ago or in the future).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi puzi citka I [past] [short distance] eat. I ate a little while ago. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZIhE" />selma'o ZIhE ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZIhE" />selma'o ZIhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the sa= me sumti. Although generally translated with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, it is n= ot considered a logical connective.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love = it. I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love. I own a white dog, which I love. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZO" />selma'o ZO ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZO" />selma'o ZO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.<= /para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> zo si cu lojbo valsi The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI" />selma'o ZOI ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI" />selma'o ZOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (w= hich can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The d= elimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the = text by pauses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence. </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU" />selma'o ZOhU ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU" />selma'o ZOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section2" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to= which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment s= entences.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves= Y There is a man who loves all fish. </programlisting> </section> </chapter> diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index fa14e42..f261cd6 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -5,25 +5,25 @@ <para>The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.</para> <para>/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc.</para> <para>grammar.300 */</para> <para>/* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing.</para> <bridgehead>Step 1 - Lexing</bridgehead> <para>From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failure= s of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a tex= t file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules.</para> <para>The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm.</para> <bridgehead>Step 2 - Filtering</bridgehead> <para>From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict:</para> <para>a. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZOI) is ide= ntified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with= a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening d= elimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter rec= urs=20 - <emphasis>after a pause</emphasis>, as grammatically a single token (l= abelled =E2=80=99 + <emphasis>after a pause</emphasis>, as grammatically a single token (l= abelled =E2=80=99=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-699" />=E2=80=99 in this grammar). There is = no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the clo= sing delimiter.</para> - <para>b. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZO) is ident= ified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99 + <para>b. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZO) is ident= ified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-698" />=E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by it= s normal grammatical function.</para> - <para>c. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o LOhU) is i= dentified, search for the closing delimiter =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o= LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two s= teps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token= =E2=80=99 + <para>c. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o LOhU) is i= dentified, search for the closing delimiter =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o= LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two s= teps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token= =E2=80=99=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-697" />=E2=80=99.</para> <para>d. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o cate= gory, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In = all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each= word.</para> <para>e. If the word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D (selma'o SI) is identified, = erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been con= densed into a single token by one of the above rules).</para> <para>f. If the word =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D (selma'o SA) is identified, = erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follo= ws attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive= further definition later.)</para> <para>g. If the word =E2=80=99su=E2=80=99 (selma'o SU) is identified, = erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding t= oken word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, = if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginn= ing of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of = a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, tw= o adjacent uses of =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D are required to erase the entire co= nversation.</para> <bridgehead>Step 3 - Termination</bridgehead> <para>If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it.</para> <bridgehead>Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens</bridgehead> <para>In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed).</para> <para>a. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where ther= e may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIV= LA.</para> @@ -6900,21 +6900,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ </para> </listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter21-section2"> <title>2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain = by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization a= t: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273= ) Explanation of notation: All rules have the form: - name + name=20 number=3D bnf-expression which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80= =9D is defined by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-refere= nces this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are = the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled wit= h A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. I= n addition, rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar bu= t =E2=80=9Cstag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearanc= e. Names in lower case are grammatical constructs. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are term= inals. @@ -6940,904 +6940,904 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (wi= thout change of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results. - text + text=20 0=3D [NAI ...] [CMENE ... # | (indicators & free ...)] [joi= k-jek] text-1=20 - text-1 + text-1=20 2=3D [(I [jek | joik] [[stag] BO] #) ... | NIhO ... #] [paragra= phs]=20 - paragraphs + paragraphs=20 4=3D paragraph [NIhO ... # paragraphs]=20 - paragraph + paragraph=20 10=3D (statement | fragment) [I # [statement | fragment]] ...=20 - statement + statement=20 11=3D statement-1 | prenex statement=20 - statement-1 + statement-1=20 12=3D statement-2 [I joik-jek [statement-2]] ...=20 - statement-2 + statement-2=20 13=3D statement-3 [I [jek | joik] [stag] BO # [statement-2]]=20 - statement-3 + statement-3=20 14=3D sentence | [tag] TUhE # text-1 /TUhU#/=20 - fragment + fragment=20 20=3D ek # | gihek # | quantifier | NA # | terms /VAU#/ | prenex= | relative-clauses | links | linkargs=20 - prenex + prenex=20 30=3D terms ZOhU #=20 - sentence + sentence=20 40=3D [terms [CU #]] bridi-tail=20 - subsentence + subsentence=20 41=3D sentence | prenex subsentence=20 - bridi-tail + bridi-tail=20 50=3D bridi-tail-1 [gihek [stag] KE # bridi-tail /KEhE#/ tail-te= rms]=20 - bridi-tail-1 + bridi-tail-1=20 51=3D bridi-tail-2 [gihek # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] ...=20 - bridi-tail-2 + bridi-tail-2=20 52=3D bridi-tail-3 [gihek [stag] BO # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms]= =20 - bridi-tail-3 + bridi-tail-3=20 53=3D selbri tail-terms | gek-sentence=20 - gek-sentence + gek-sentence=20 54=3D gek subsentence gik subsentence tail-terms | [tag] KE # ge= k-sentence /KEhE#/ | NA # gek-sentence=20 - tail-terms + tail-terms=20 71=3D [terms] /VAU#/=20 - terms + terms=20 80=3D terms-1 ...=20 - terms-1 + terms-1=20 81=3D terms-2 [PEhE # joik-jek terms-2] ...=20 - terms-2 + terms-2=20 82=3D term [CEhE # term] ...=20 - term + term=20 83=3D sumti | (tag | FA #) (sumti | /KU#/) | termset | NA KU #= =20 - termset + termset=20 85=3D NUhI # gek terms /NUhU#/ gik terms /NUhU#/ | NUhI # terms = /NUhU#/=20 - sumti + sumti=20 90=3D sumti-1 [VUhO # relative-clauses]=20 - sumti-1 + sumti-1=20 91=3D sumti-2 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # sumti /KEhE#/]=20 - sumti-2 + sumti-2=20 92=3D sumti-3 [joik-ek sumti-3] ...=20 - sumti-3 + sumti-3=20 93=3D sumti-4 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # sumti-3]=20 - sumti-4 + sumti-4=20 94=3D sumti-5 | gek sumti gik sumti-4=20 - sumti-5 + sumti-5=20 95=3D [quantifier] sumti-6 [relative-clauses] | quantifier selbr= i /KU#/ [relative-clauses]=20 - sumti-6 + sumti-6=20 97=3D (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) [relative-clauses] sumti /LUhU#/ | KO= hA # | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | LA # [relative-clauses] CMENE ... # | (LA | LE= ) # sumti-tail /KU#/ | LI # mex /LOhO#/ | ZO any-word # | LU text /LIhU#/ |= LOhU any-word ... LEhU # | ZOI any-word anything any-word #=20 - sumti-tail + sumti-tail=20 111=3D [sumti-6 [relative-clauses]] sumti-tail-1 | relative-claus= es sumti-tail-1=20 - sumti-tail-1 + sumti-tail-1=20 112=3D [quantifier] selbri [relative-clauses] | quantifier sumti= =20 - relative-clauses + relative-clauses=20 121=3D relative-clause [ZIhE # relative-clause] ...=20 - relative-clause + relative-clause=20 122=3D GOI # term /GEhU#/ | NOI # subsentence /KUhO#/=20 - selbri + selbri=20 130=3D [tag] selbri-1=20 - selbri-1 + selbri-1=20 131=3D selbri-2 | NA # selbri=20 - selbri-2 + selbri-2=20 132=3D selbri-3 [CO # selbri-2]=20 - selbri-3 + selbri-3=20 133=3D selbri-4 ...=20 - selbri-4 + selbri-4=20 134=3D selbri-5 [joik-jek selbri-5 | joik [stag] KE # selbri-3 /K= EhE#/] ...=20 - selbri-5 + selbri-5=20 135=3D selbri-6 [(jek | joik) [stag] BO # selbri-5]=20 - selbri-6 + selbri-6=20 136=3D tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6] | [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik sel= bri-6=20 - tanru-unit + tanru-unit=20 150=3D tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ...=20 - tanru-unit-1 + tanru-unit-1=20 151=3D tanru-unit-2 [linkargs]=20 - tanru-unit-2 + tanru-unit-2=20 152=3D BRIVLA # | GOhA [RAhO] # | KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/ | ME # su= mti /MEhU#/ [MOI #] | (number | lerfu-string) MOI # | NUhA # mex-operator |= SE # tanru-unit-2 | JAI # [tag] tanru-unit-2 | any-word (ZEI any-word) ...= | NAhE # tanru-unit-2 | NU [NAI] # [joik-jek NU [NAI] #] ... subsentence /= KEI#/=20 - linkargs + linkargs=20 160=3D BE # term [links] /BEhO#/=20 - links + links=20 161=3D BEI # term [links]=20 - quantifier + quantifier=20 300=3D number /BOI#/ | VEI # mex /VEhO#/=20 - mex + mex=20 310=3D mex-1 [operator mex-1] ... | FUhA # rp-expression=20 - mex-1 + mex-1=20 311=3D mex-2 [BIhE # operator mex-1]=20 - mex-2 + mex-2=20 312=3D operand | [PEhO #] operator mex-2 ... /KUhE#/=20 - rp-expression + rp-expression=20 330=3D rp-operand rp-operand operator=20 - rp-operand + rp-operand=20 332=3D operand | rp-expression=20 - operator + operator=20 370=3D operator-1 [joik-jek operator-1 | joik [stag] KE # operato= r /KEhE#/] ...=20 - operator-1 + operator-1=20 371=3D operator-2 | guhek operator-1 gik operator-2 | operator-2 = (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1=20 - operator-2 + operator-2=20 372=3D mex-operator | KE # operator /KEhE#/=20 - mex-operator + mex-operator=20 374=3D SE # mex-operator | NAhE # mex-operator | MAhO # mex /TEhU= #/ | NAhU # selbri /TEhU#/ | VUhU #=20 - operand + operand=20 381=3D operand-1 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # operand /KEhE#/]=20 - operand-1 + operand-1=20 382=3D operand-2 [joik-ek operand-2] ...=20 - operand-2 + operand-2=20 383=3D operand-3 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # operand-2]=20 - operand-3 + operand-3=20 385=3D quantifier | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | NIhE # selbri /TEhU#/ |= MOhE # sumti /TEhU#/ | JOhI # mex-2 ... /TEhU#/ | gek operand gik operand-= 3 | (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) operand /LUhU#/=20 - number + number=20 812=3D PA [PA | lerfu-word] ...=20 - lerfu-string + lerfu-string=20 817=3D lerfu-word [PA | lerfu-word] ...=20 - lerfu-word + lerfu-word=20 987=3D BY | any-word BU | LAU lerfu-word | TEI lerfu-string FOI= =20 - ek + ek=20 802=3D [NA] [SE] A [NAI]=20 - gihek + gihek=20 818=3D [NA] [SE] GIhA [NAI]=20 - jek + jek=20 805=3D [NA] [SE] JA [NAI]=20 - joik + joik=20 806=3D [SE] JOI [NAI] | interval | GAhO interval GAhO=20 - interval + interval=20 932=3D [SE] BIhI [NAI]=20 - joik-ek + joik-ek=20 421=3D joik # | ek #=20 - joik-jek + joik-jek=20 422=3D joik # | jek #=20 - gek + gek=20 807=3D [SE] GA [NAI] # | joik GI # | stag gik=20 - guhek + guhek=20 808=3D [SE] GUhA [NAI] #=20 - gik + gik=20 816=3D GI [NAI] #=20 - tag + tag=20 491=3D tense-modal [joik-jek tense-modal] ...=20 - stag + stag=20 971=3D simple-tense-modal [(jek | joik) simple-tense-modal] ...= =20 - tense-modal + tense-modal=20 815=3D simple-tense-modal # | FIhO # selbri /FEhU#/=20 - simple-tense-modal + simple-tense-modal=20 972=3D [NAhE] [SE] BAI [NAI] [KI] | [NAhE] (time [space] | space = [time]) & CAhA [KI] | KI | CUhE=20 - time + time=20 1030=3D ZI & time-offset ... & ZEhA [PU [NAI]] & inter= val-property ...=20 - time-offset + time-offset=20 1033=3D PU [NAI] [ZI]=20 - space + space=20 1040=3D VA & space-offset ... & space-interval & (MOhI= space-offset)=20 - space-offset + space-offset=20 1045=3D FAhA [NAI] [VA]=20 - space-interval + space-interval=20 1046=3D ((VEhA & VIhA) [FAhA [NAI]]) & space-int-props=20 - space-int-props + space-int-props=20 1049=3D (FEhE interval-property) ...=20 - interval-property + interval-property=20 1051=3D number ROI [NAI] | TAhE [NAI] | ZAhO [NAI]=20 - free + free=20 32=3D SEI # [terms [CU #]] selbri /SEhU/ | SOI # sumti [sumti] /= SEhU/ | vocative [relative-clauses] selbri [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | voca= tive [relative-clauses] CMENE ... # [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | vocative [s= umti] /DOhU/ | (number | lerfu-string) MAI | TO text /TOI/ | XI # (number |= lerfu-string) /BOI/ | XI # VEI # mex /VEhO/=20 - vocative + vocative=20 415=3D (COI [NAI]) ... & DOI=20 - indicators + indicators=20 411=3D [FUhE] indicator ...=20 - indicator + indicator=20 413=3D (UI | CAI) [NAI] | Y | DAhO | FUhO The following rules are non-formal: - word + word=20 1100=3D [BAhE] any-word [indicators] any-word =3D =E2=80=9Cany single word (no compound cmavo)=E2=80=9D @@ -7845,21 +7845,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ anything =3D =E2=80=9Cany text at all, whether Lojban or not=E2=80=9D= =20 - null + null=20 1101=3D any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable i= nput.
3. EBNF Cross-Reference diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 5bd54e7..77751ad 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -237,24 +237,24 @@ Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with eit= her rounded or unrounded lips; typically=20 oand=20 uare rounded and the others are not, as in English, but= this is not a requirement; some people round=20 yas well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspir= ated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, = is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following=20 imay cause it. The sounds represented by the letters=20 c,=20 g,=20 j,=20 s, and=20 - xrequire special attention for speakers of English, eit= her because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English ( + xrequire special attention for speakers of English, eit= her because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=20 c,=20 g,=20 - s), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban = ( + s), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban = (=20 c,=20 j,=20 x). The English=20 crepresents three different sounds,=20 [k]in=20 catand=20 [s]in=20 cent, as well as the=20 [=CA=83]of=20 ocean. Similarly, English=20 @@ -404,25 +404,25 @@ uu =20 [wu] a back close vowel with labial on-gli= de =20 iy =20 [j=C9=99] a central mid vowel with palatal= on-glide uy =20 [w=C9=99] a central mid vowel with labial = on-glide (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 for examples.) - The first four diphthongs above ( + The first four diphthongs above (=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, and=20 - au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most t= ypes of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone w= ords and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two ( + au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most t= ypes of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone w= ords and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 iyand=20 uy) are used only in Lojbanized names. The syllabic consonants of Lojban,=20 [l=CC=A9],=20 [m=CC=A9],=20 [n=CC=A9], and=20 [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 [l],=20 [m],=20 [n], and=20 @@ -607,34 +607,31 @@ kl kr ml mr pl pr sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st tc tr ts vl vr xl xr zb zd zg zm zv Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoi= ced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in lear= ning: - - pl pr fl fr - bl br vl vr - - cp cf ct ck cm cn cl cr - jb jv jd jg jm - sp sf st sk sm sn sl sr - zb zv zd zg zm - - tc tr ts kl kr - dj dr dz gl gr - - ml mr xl xr - + cp cf ct ck cm cn cl crsp sf st sk sm sn sl sr + + tc tr + ts + kl kr + + + dj dr + dz + gl gr + Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the = unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronoun= ced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true:=20 cnis a permissible initial pair, but=20 jnis not.) Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are s= ubject to the following rules: The first two consonants must constitute a permissible conso= nant pair; The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initia= l consonant pair; @@ -805,21 +802,21 @@ This word contains the permissible initial pair=20 zb, and so may be syllabicated either between=20 zand=20 bor before=20 zb. Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a= word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphtho= ng or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel so= und itself, the terms=20 stressed syllableand=20 stressed vowelare largely interchangeable concepts. Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penul= timate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is= =20 - yor which contain a syllabic consonant ( + yor which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate = stress is=20 da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created solely = by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. There are actually three levels of stress - primary, secondary, = and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at = all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban= content words (called=20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllab= le, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable = (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural w= ords (called=20 @@ -1623,17 +1620,17 @@ annaare used for=20 uand=20 ionly when those letters are used to represent glides. = Of the additional letters,=20 r,=20 l,=20 s, and=20 zare written with=20 r=C3=B3men,=20 lambe,=20 silme, and=20 - =C3=A1re/ + =C3=A1re/=20 esserespectively; the inverted forms are used as free v= ariants. Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for=20 y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by=20 halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or pe= riod.
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index a03abe4..525f0e0 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -24,27 +24,47 @@ u. 2) VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:=20 ai ei oi au or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separatin= g the vowels, one of the following:=20 - - a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u - e'a e'e e'i e'o e'u - i'a i'e i'i i'o i'u - o'a o'e o'i o'o o'u - u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u - + + + a'a a'e a'i + a'o + a'u + + + e'a e'e e'i + e'o + e'u + + + i'a i'e i'i + i'o + i'u + + + o'a o'e o'i + o'o + o'u + + + u'a u'e u'i + u'o + u'u + + 3) C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the = apostrophe, one of=20 b,=20 c,=20 d,=20 f,=20 @@ -122,42 +142,66 @@ Pope John Paul II.
2. cmavo The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are th= e cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language togethe= r. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affec= t the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the= equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and p= unctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as= =20 selma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical= usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 to=20 and summarized in=20 . Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structu= re. Here are some examples of the various forms: - - V-form .a .e .i .o .u - CV-form ba ce di fo gu - VV-form .au .ei .ia .o'u .u'e - CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o coi cu'u - + + + V-form .a .e .i + .o + .u + + + CV-form ba ce di + fo + gu + + + VV-form .au .ei + .ia + .o'u .u'e + + + CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o + coi + cu'u + + In addition, there is the cmavo=20 .y.(remember that=20 yis not a V), which must have pauses before and after i= t. A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two v= owels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words= consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followe= d by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for exp= erimental use: a few examples are=20 ku'a'e,=20 sau'e, and=20 bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter=20 xare also reserved for experimental use. In general, th= ough, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical= use. Experimental usemeans that the language designers will = not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usag= es coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for t= he indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for ad= ding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for = which was not foreseen. The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel p= airs listed in=20 , but also the following ten= additional diphthongs: - - .ia .ie .ii .io .iu - .ua .ue .ui .uo .uu - + + + .ia .ie .ii + .io + .iu + + + .ua .ue .ui + .uo + .uu + + In addition, cmavo can have the form=20 Cy, a consonant followed by the letter=20 y. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet= , and are discussed in detail in=20 . Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form = a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and = in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it = is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual= space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component c= mavo are acting together. Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, = can be readily identified by two characteristics: 1) @@ -300,21 +344,21 @@ always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) sy= llable; this implies that they have two or more syllables. The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo= and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, whic= h always end in a consonant. Thus=20 da'ameimust be a compound cmavo because it lacks a cons= onant pair;=20 lojban.must be a name because it lacks a final vowel. Thus,=20 bisyclahas the consonant pair=20 - scin the first five non- + scin the first five non-=20 yletters even though the=20 scactually appears in the form of=20 syc. Similarly, the word=20 ro'inre'ocontains=20 nrin the first five letters because the apostrophes are= not counted for this purpose. The three subtypes of brivla are: gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivl= a are built; @@ -437,23 +481,23 @@ barda bloti representing roughly the same concept as the English word=20 ship. The binary metaphor=20 - father mothercan refer to a paternal grandmother ( + father mothercan refer to a paternal grandmother (=20 a father-ly type of mother), while=20 - mother fathercan refer to a maternal grandfather ( + mother fathercan refer to a maternal grandfather (=20 a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become th= e tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example3" /> patfu mamta @@ -610,59 +654,111 @@ vancysanmi from=20 vanci sanmi evening mealor=20 supper In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three = additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the= forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned = to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in mak= ing lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi. For example,=20 - zmadu( + zmadu(=20 more than) has the two short rafsi=20 zmaand=20 mau(in addition to its unreduced rafsi=20 zmadand=20 zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have been create= d based on=20 zmadu, corresponding in general to English comparative = adjectives ending in=20 -ersuch as=20 whiter(Lojban=20 labmau). On the other hand,=20 - bakri( + bakri(=20 chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo. There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form r= afsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form = and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of shor= t rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fa= irly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-for= m rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at th= e end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assi= gnment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu. The intention was to use the available=20 rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = - in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used luj= vo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while kee= ping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For = this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the = five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited s= et of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven pos= sible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three c= an be used, as explained above). Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for = gismu of the form CVC/CV, like=20 sakli. The digits in the second column represent the gi= smu letters used to form the rafsi. - - CVC 123 -sak- - CVC 124 -sal- - CVV 12'5 -sa'i- - CVV 125 -sai- - CCV 345 -kli- - CCV 132 -ska- - + + + CVC + 123 + -sak- + + + CVC + 124 + -sal- + + + CVV + 12'5 + -sa'i- + + + CVV + 125 + -sai- + + + CCV + 345 + -kli- + + + CCV + 132 + -ska- + + (The only actual short rafsi for=20 sakliis=20 -sal-.) For gismu of the form CCVCV, like=20 blaci, the only short rafsi forms that can exist are: - - CVC 134 -bac- - CVC 234 -lac - CVV 13'5 -ba'i- - CVV 135 -bai- - CVV 23'5 -la'i- - CVV 235 -lai- - CCV 123 -bla- - + + + CVC + 134 + -bac- + + + CVC + 234 + -lac + + + CVV + 13'5 + -ba'i- + + + CVV + 135 + -bai- + + + CVV + 23'5 + -la'i- + + + CVV + 235 + -lai- + + + CCV + 123 + -bla- + + (In fact,=20 blacihas none of these short rafsi; they are all assign= ed to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafs= i; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen i= n the first place.) There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostr= ophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, or=20 au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two co= nsonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see=20 ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 @@ -738,53 +834,53 @@ As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi = in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla,= a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letter= s - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course= , all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, ea= ch at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu. When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert= a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term=20 hyphenalways refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 yor one of the consonants=20 rand=20 n. (The letter=20 lcan also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.= ) The=20 y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it= with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, = or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either= cmavo or gismu). Thus, the tanru=20 - pante tavla( + pante tavla(=20 protest talk) cannot produce the lujvo=20 patta'a, because=20 ttis not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must b= e=20 patyta'a. Similarly, the tanru=20 - mudri siclu( + mudri siclu(=20 wooden whistle) cannot form the lujvo=20 mudsiclu; instead,=20 mudysiclumust be used. (Remember that=20 yis not counted in determining whether the first five l= etters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.) The=20 y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, forme= d by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This pro= cedure was shown, but not explained, in=20 to=20 .) The lujvo forms=20 zunlyjamfu,=20 zunlyjma,=20 zuljamfu, and=20 zuljmaare all legitimate and equivalent forms made from= the tanru=20 - zunle jamfu( + zunle jamfu(=20 left foot). Of these,=20 zuljmais the preferred one since it is the shortest; it= thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary. The=20 r-hyphen and its close relative, the=20 n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. = A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since = otherwise there would be no consonant cluster. An=20 r-hyphen or=20 n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of a= ny lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall = apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two pa= rts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a = hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broke= n into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would b= e interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo th= at is one rafsi shorter. An=20 n-hyphen is only used in place of an=20 r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with=20 r. For example, the tanru=20 - rokci renro( + rokci renro(=20 rock throw) cannot be expressed as=20 ro'ire'o(which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be= =20 ro'irre'o(which has an impermissible double consonant);= the=20 n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphe= nated lujvo is=20 ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be expressed witho= ut hyphenation as=20 rokre'o. There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phras= es which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can ma= ke a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with th= e special cmavo=20 zei. Thus, @@ -993,90 +1089,90 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example5" /> brie (from French) bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi) where=20 cirl-represents=20 - cirla( + cirla(=20 cheese). <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example6" /> cobra kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi) where=20 sinc-represents=20 - since( + since(=20 snake). <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example7" /> quark kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi) where=20 sask-represents=20 - saske( + saske(=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 aadded to the end of the word, and the diphthong=20 ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appe= ar in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example8" /> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi) where=20 ler-represents=20 - lerfu( + lerfu(=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible = meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,=20 spagetiand=20 kuarkaare valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xacerulooks like a compound cmavo, and=20 kobralike a gismu. For another example,=20 integralhas a specific meaning to a mathematician. But = the Lojban fu'ivla=20 integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not c= onvey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with= an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 integral- has various other specialized meanings in oth= er fields. Left uncontrolled,=20 integralealmost certainly would eventually come to mean= the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates wi= th=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 iof=20 integraleis removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to the beg= inning;=20 cmac-is the rafsi for=20 - cmaci( + cmaci(=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integralmight be conveyed with=20 djinrnintegraleor=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinjuand=20 tarmimean=20 buildingand=20 formrespectively. Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, = shown with more than one rafsi prefix: @@ -1595,31 +1691,62 @@ r-, and=20 n-hyphens; call it=20 H. 4) For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 R:=20 - - CVC/CV (final) (-sarji) 1 - CVC/C (-sarj-) 2 - CCVCV (final) (-zbasu) 3 - CCVC (-zbas-) 4 - CVC (-nun-) 5 - CVV with an apostrophe (-ta'u-) 6 - CCV (-zba-) 7 - CVV with no apostrophe (-sai-) 8 - =20 - + + + CVC/CV (final) + (-sarji) + 1 + + + CVC/C + (-sarj-) + 2 + + + CCVCV (final) + (-zbasu) + 3 + + + CCVC + (-zbas-) + 4 + + + CVC + (-nun-) + 5 + + + CVV with an apostrophe + (-ta'u-) + 6 + + + CCV + (-zba-) + 7 + + + CVV with no apostrophe + (-sai-) + 8 + + 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. @@ -1657,21 +1784,21 @@ zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976
13. lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 - gerku zdani( + gerku zdani(=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 , using every possible rafs= i. The rafsi for=20 gerkuare: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 zdaniare: @@ -1708,76 +1835,81 @@ ge'u-part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of th= e lujvo is=20 ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are=20 gerkyzdaand=20 gerkyzdanirespectively. The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujv= o, so we might expect that=20 gerzdawould win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, it= s H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score = of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 r= espectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictiona= ry in the form=20 gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 - bloti klesi( + bloti klesi(=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. The rafsi for=20 blotiare=20 -lot-,=20 -blo-, and=20 -lo'i-; for=20 klesithey are=20 -kle-and=20 -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru: - lotkle blokle lo'ikle + lotkle blokle lo'ikle=20 + lotlei blolei lo'irlei Only=20 lo'irleirequires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with t= he cmavo sequence=20 lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujv= o, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algo= rithm produces the following results: - lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367 + lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 + lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 So the form=20 bloleiis preferred, but only by a tiny margin over=20 blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;= =20 lo'iklesuffers because of its apostrophe, and=20 lo'irleibecause of having both apostrophe and hyphen. Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 logji bangu girzu, or=20 - logical-language groupin English. ( + logical-language groupin English. (=20 The Logical Language Groupis the name of the publisher = of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) The available rafsi are=20 -loj-and=20 -logj-;=20 -ban-,=20 -bau-, and=20 -bang-; and=20 -gri-and=20 -girzu, and (for name purposes only)=20 -gir-and=20 -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are: - loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri + loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri=20 + logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu and the 12 name possibilities are: - loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir. + loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.=20 + logj-ban-gir. logj-bau-gir. logj-bang-gir. loj-ban-girz. loj-bau-girz. loj-bang-girz. logj-ban-girz. logj-bau-girz. logj-bang-girz. After hyphenation, we have: - lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri + lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri=20 + logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu =20 lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 @@ -1799,32 +1931,32 @@ nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctuis the shortest and is preferred by the sc= oring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a l= ujvo for=20 cinse ctuca(which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely importan= t. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 - nakni cinctu( + nakni cinctu(=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 kerequired for grouping need not be expressed.
14. The gismu creation algorithm The gismu were created through the following process: 1) - At least one word was found in each of the six source lang= uages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to = the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather lib= erally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding frica= tive were simplified to just the fricative ( + At least one word was found in each of the six source lang= uages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to = the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather lib= erally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding frica= tive were simplified to just the fricative (=20 tcbecame=20 c,=20 djbecame=20 j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban = ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rul= es were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency. 2) All possible gismu forms were matched against the six sour= ce-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 3e98786..cbfdb30 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -224,23 +224,27 @@ prenuis the same as that between=20 cmaluand=20 prenu.=20 and=20 contain a partial listing o= f some types of tanru, with examples.
3. Three-part tanru grouping with=20 <quote>bo</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - bo BO closest scope grouping - + + + bo + BO + closest scope grouping + + Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example1" /> That's a little girls' school. @@ -442,24 +446,32 @@ could have=20 boinserted between=20 melbiand=20 cmaluwith no change in meaning.
5. Complex tanru with=20 <quote>ke</quote>and=20 <quote>ke'e</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ke KE start grouping - ke'e KEhE end grouping - + + + ke + KE + start grouping + + + ke'e + KEhE + end grouping + + There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 pretty little girls' schoolthat cannot be expressed wit= h the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the group= ing parentheses cmavo,=20 keand=20 ke'e(belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). An= y portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a s= ingle tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 can be rewritten in= any of the following ways: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d2" /> @@ -898,25 +910,37 @@ <quote>mlatu</quote>outside the=20 <quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>construction. The scope of the=20 <quote>gi</quote>arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more= brivla connected with=20 <quote>bo</quote>or=20 <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7"> <title>7. Linked sumti:=20 <quote>be=E2=80=93bei=E2=80=93be'o</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - be BE linked sumti marker - bei BEI linked sumti separator - be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator - + + + be + BE + linked sumti marker + + + bei + BEI + linked sumti separator + + + be'o + BEhO + linked sumti terminator + + The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 . One grammatical structure related t= o places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 , the place structu= re of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu=20 mamta. What about more complex selbri? For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structu= re of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place = structure of=20 blanu zdaniis that of=20 zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 blanuhas only one place, and this is merged, as it were= , with the x1 place of=20 @@ -1123,23 +1147,27 @@ be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 be, the=20 be'omust match it, whereas it may be confusing which oc= currence of=20 lethe=20 kuterminates (in fact the second one is correct).
8. Inversion of tanru:=20 <quote>co</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - co CO tanru inversion marker - + + + co + CO + tanru inversion marker + + The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precede= s what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of=20 blue houses, not of=20 houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the sa= me thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example1" /> @@ -1150,24 +1178,24 @@ <jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo> <gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss> <en>That is a blue house.</en> <jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo> <gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss> <en>That is a blue house.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>This change is called=20 <quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 - <quote>co</quote>( + <quote>co</quote>(=20 <quote>zdani</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the tertau, an= d the element following=20 - <quote>co</quote>( + <quote>co</quote>(=20 <quote>blanu</quote>) in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the seltau.</p= ara> <para>The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a ta= nru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of=20 <quote>zdani co blanu</quote>is still that of=20 <quote>zdani</quote>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />, we saw how to fill interio= r places with=20 <quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote>, and in fact=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example3" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />have the same meani= ng:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-8GVP"> @@ -1326,29 +1354,57 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo> <gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss> <en>I go to the store quickly.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9"> <title>9. Other kinds of simple selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - go'i GOhA repeats the previous bridi - du GOhA equality - nu'a NUhA math operator to selbri - moi MOI changes number to ordinal selbri - mei MOI changes number to cardinal selbri - nu NU event abstraction - kei KEI terminator for NU - + + + go'i + GOhA + repeats the previous bridi + + + du + GOhA + equality + + + nu'a + NUhA + math operator to selbri + + + moi + MOI + changes number to ordinal selbri + + + mei + MOI + changes number to cardinal selbri + + + nu + NU + event abstraction + + + kei + KEI + terminator for NU + + So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from bri= vla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Loj= ban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either d= irectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple= selbri are discussed at length in=20 ,=20 , and=20 ; but for completeness these types a= re mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in s= elbri. The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-brid= i, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a = fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example1" /> @@ -1762,21 +1818,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example2" /> la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. - meaning that Alice does go there in some way ( + meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 klamais not negated), but by a means other than that of= walking.=20 negates both=20 cadzuand=20 klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 may be used in place of briv= la in any of these examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example3" /> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 2794823..6a7a245 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -112,26 +112,42 @@ <para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18" />, and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19" />respectively, so this chapter only g= ives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section13" />through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section15" />for these summaries.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2"> <title>2. The three basic description types The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - le LE the, the one(s) described as - lo LE some, some of those which really are - la LA the one(s) named - ku KU elidable terminator for LE, LA - + + + le + LE + the, the one(s) described as + + + lo + LE + some, some of those which really are + + + la + LA + the one(s) named + + + ku + KU + elidable terminator for LE, LA + + The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it = can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in = particular, are discussed in=20 . However, most descriptions have jus= t two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri.= (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until= =20 .) Furthermore, the selbri = is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example1" /> le zarci @@ -155,22 +171,22 @@ le zarci cu barda One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as=20 marketsis/are-big. The market is big. The markets are big. - Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to mar= kets is to just one ( - the market) or to more than one ( + Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to mar= kets is to just one (=20 + the market) or to more than one (=20 the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 are valid. Only the= context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban h= as no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanis= m is explained in=20 .) Now consider the following strange-looking example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example3" /> @@ -337,25 +353,37 @@ kuunnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 ku: in the compound negator=20 naku(discussed in=20 ) and to terminate place-structure, = tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 and=20 ).
3. Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - lei LE the mass I describe as - loi LE part of the mass of those which really ar= e - lai LA the mass of those named - + + + lei + LE + the mass I describe as + + + loi + LE + part of the mass of those which really are + + + lai + LA + the mass of those named + + All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of = three types of objects, known as=20 individuals,=20 masses, and=20 sets. The term=20 individualis misleading when used to refer to more than= one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the desc= riptions in=20 and=20 refer to individuals, whethe= r one or more than one. Consider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1" /> @@ -386,22 +414,22 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but = as a so-called=20 <quote>mass entity</quote>, or just=20 <quote>mass</quote>. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 <quote>lei</quote>signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appli= cable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiariti= es may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the comp= onent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that= a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of t= he parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para> <para>The descriptors=20 <quote>loi</quote>and=20 <quote>lai</quote>are analogous to=20 <quote>lo</quote>and=20 - <quote>la</quote>respectively, but refer to masses either by property = ( - <quote>loi</quote>) or by name ( + <quote>la</quote>respectively, but refer to masses either by property = (=20 + <quote>loi</quote>) or by name (=20 <quote>lai</quote>). A classic example of=20 <quote>loi</quote>use is:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-T1pF"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example3" /> loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. @@ -470,25 +498,37 @@ in a context where=20 la cribewould be understood as plural, would mean that = either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the= book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using= =20 lainstead of=20 laiin=20 would give the impl= ication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.=
4. Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - le'i LE the set described as - lo'i LE the set of those which really are - la'i LA the set of those named - + + + le'i + LE + the set described as + + + lo'i + LE + the set of those which really are + + + la'i + LA + the set of those named + + Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are = easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a = set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the= properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the indi= viduals that compose it. Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the = set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set= inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which - the superset = =E2=80=93 contains all the elements of the other - the subset). The set des= criptors=20 le'i,=20 lo'iand=20 la'icorrespond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 laiexcept that normally we talk of the whole of a set, = not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 loi, and=20 @@ -536,24 +576,32 @@ Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 lo'iwere changed to=20 loin=20 , the meaning would= be something like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.
5. Descriptors for typical objects The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - lo'e LE the typical - le'e LE the stereotypical - + + + lo'e + LE + the typical + + + le'e + LE + the stereotypical + + As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for di= scriminating between=20 the lionwho lives in Africa and=20 the Englishmanwho, generally speaking, doesn't live in = Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 lo'emeans=20 the typical, as in <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example1" /> @@ -616,24 +664,32 @@ <para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para> <para>Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 <quote>lo'e</quote>and=20 <quote>le'e</quote>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 <quote>typical George</quote>or a=20 <quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</pa= ra> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6"> <title>6. Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ro PA all of/each of - su'o PA at least (one of) - + + + ro + PA + all of/each of + + + su'o + PA + at least (one of) + + Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, = a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the si= mple Lojban numbers=20 pa,=20 re,=20 ci,=20 vo, and=20 mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 @@ -762,24 +818,27 @@ mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss.
7. Quantified descriptions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - piro PA the whole of - pisu'o PA a part of - + + + piro + PA + the whole of + + Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantif= ier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing = before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those = referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular b= ridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 le gerkurefers to three dogs. Then we can say that exac= tly two of them are white as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example1" /> re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. @@ -1081,36 +1140,62 @@ In each case,=20 le ci criberestricts the bears (or alleged bears) being= talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.=20 says that two of th= em (which two is not stated) are brown.=20 says that a specifi= c pair of them are brown.=20 says that of a spec= ific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is = brown.
10. sumti qualifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - la'e LAhE something referred to by - lu'e LAhE a reference to - tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving - lu'a LAhE an individual/member/component of - lu'i LAhE a set formed from - lu'o LAhE a mass formed from - vu'i LAhE a sequence formed from - - na'ebo NAhE+BO something other than - to'ebo NAhE+BO the opposite of - no'ebo NAhE+BO the neutral form of - je'abo NAhE+BO that which indeed is - - lu'u LUhU elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO - + + + la'e + LAhE + something referred to by + + + lu'e + LAhE + a reference to + + + tu'a + LAhE + an abstraction involving + + + lu'a + LAhE + an individual/member/component of + + + lu'i + LAhE + a set formed from + + + lu'o + LAhE + a mass formed from + + + vu'i + LAhE + a sequence formed from + + + lu'u + LUhU + elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO + + Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the=20 sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 boof selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti = qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to a= dd the elidable terminator=20 lu'uto show where the qualified sumti ends.) Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain = common special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 The Red Ponyis the title of a book. How about: @@ -1151,22 +1236,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example3" /> mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. So when=20 la'eis prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it pr= oduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargo= n,=20 la'edereferences a pointer.) - By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence ( - ), which too close= ly resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence ( + By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 + ), which too close= ly resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having = to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most = of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. The sumti qualifier=20 lu'eprovides the converse operation: it can be prefixed= to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign = or symbol for the thing. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example4" /> mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta @@ -1516,29 +1601,37 @@ James(because=20 mzis invalid):=20 djeimyzwill suffice. Similarly,=20 lamay be replaced by=20 ly,=20 laiby=20 ly'i,=20 doiby=20 do'ior=20 dai. Here are a few examples: - - English name invalid Lojban name valid Lojban names - - Doyle *doi,l do'il or dai,l - Lyra *lairas ly'iras - Lottie *latis LYtis. or lotis. - - (American pronunciation) - + + + Doyle + *doi,l + do'il or dai,l + + + Lyra + *lairas + ly'iras + + + Lottie + *latis + LYtis. or lotis. + + Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitraril= y. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end wit= h a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj-for=20 logji(logical) and=20 ban-for=20 bangu(language) unite to form the name of this language= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example7" /> @@ -1556,21 +1649,21 @@ lafollowed by a selbri.
13. Pro-sumti summary The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall in= to several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-= counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. Mo= re details are given in=20 ; this section mostly duplicates info= rmation found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each p= ro-sumti. The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless ot= herwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro(all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other = sumti, the=20 rosignifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. - Personal pro-sumti ( + Personal pro-sumti (=20 mi,=20 do,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 ma'a,=20 do'o,=20 ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1" /> @@ -1581,21 +1674,21 @@ <en>I love you.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either r= epresenting individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 <quote>pisu'o</quote>rather than=20 <quote>ro</quote>: in particular,=20 <quote>mi'o</quote>,=20 <quote>mi'a</quote>,=20 <quote>ma'a</quote>, and=20 <quote>do'o</quote>specifically represent mass combinations of the ind= ividuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) th= at make them up.</para> - <para>Definable pro-sumti ( + <para>Definable pro-sumti (=20 <quote>ko'a</quote>,=20 <quote>ko'e</quote>,=20 <quote>ko'i</quote>,=20 <quote>ko'o</quote>,=20 <quote>ko'u</quote>,=20 <quote>fo'a</quote>,=20 <quote>fo'e</quote>,=20 <quote>fo'i</quote>,=20 <quote>fo'o</quote>,=20 <quote>fo'u</quote>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 @@ -1604,109 +1697,109 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-8whK"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example2" /> le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. - Quantificational pro-sumti ( + Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 da,=20 de,=20 di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example3" /> ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. All persons love a fish (each his/her own). (This is not the same as=20 All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 . Roughly speaking, the quantifier i= s=20 su'o(at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, an= d=20 ro(all) thereafter. - Reflexive pro-sumti ( + Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 vo'a,=20 vo'e,=20 vo'i,=20 vo'o,=20 vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example4" /> le cribe cu batci vo'a The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. The bear bites itself. - Back-counting pro-sumti ( + Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 ri,=20 ra,=20 ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example5" /> mi klama la frankfurt. ri I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route). - Indefinite pro-sumti ( + Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 zo'e,=20 zu'i,=20 zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example6" /> mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-un= specified. The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indef= inite. It might be=20 ro(all) or=20 su'o(at least one) or conceivably even=20 no(none), though=20 nowould require a very odd context indeed. - Demonstrative pro-sumti ( + Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 ti,=20 ta,=20 tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example7" /> ko muvgau ti ta tu You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-plac= e. Move this from there to over there! - Metalinguistic pro-sumti ( + Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 di'u,=20 de'u,=20 da'u,=20 di'e,=20 de'e,=20 da'e,=20 dei,=20 do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. @@ -1716,37 +1809,37 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>li re su'i re du li vo</jbo> <gloss>.i la'e di'u jetnu</gloss> <gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four.</gloss> <en>The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 <quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because they are considered analogo= us to=20 <quote>lo</quote>descriptions: they refer to things which really are p= revious, current, or following utterances.</para> - <para>The relative pro-sumti ( + <para>The relative pro-sumti (=20 <quote>ke'a</quote>) is used within relative clauses (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8" />for a discussion of relative clauses)= to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-sf2T"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example9" /> mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. I see the cat(s) made of plastic. - The question pro-sumti ( + The question pro-sumti (=20 ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example10" /> do klama ma You go to-what-sumti? Where are you going? diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 5895c86..f72bf01 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -62,21 +62,22 @@ the antecedent of=20 himselfis=20 John; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in t= his case). John, the person, would be the referent of=20 himself. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedent= s, but all of them have referents.
2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - mi KOhA mi-series I, me + mi KOhA mi-series I, me=20 + do KOhA mi-series you mi'o KOhA mi-series you and I mi'a KOhA mi-series I and others, we but not you ma'a KOhA mi-series you and I and others do'o KOhA mi-series you and others ko KOhA mi-series you-imperative The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, a= nd others in various combinations.=20 mirefers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the= speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 dorefers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 @@ -207,21 +208,22 @@ Show me the person who loves you! As mentioned in=20 , some pro-sumti series have= corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-= series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.
3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - ti KOhA ti-series this here, a nearby object + ti KOhA ti-series this here, a nearby object=20 + ta KOhA ti-series that there, a medium-distant object tu KOhA ti-series that yonder, a far-distant object It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by = some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words=20 thisand=20 thatserve this function among others:=20 thisrefers to something pointed at that is near the spe= aker, and=20 thatrefers to something further away. The Lojban pro-su= mti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo= =20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 @@ -286,21 +288,22 @@ ti noi bloti this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-ser= ies: you can't point to a relationship.
4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance + di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance=20 + de'u KOhA di'u-series an earlier utterance da'u KOhA di'u-series a much earlier utterance di'e KOhA di'u-series the next utterance de'e KOhA di'u-series a later utterance da'e KOhA di'u-series a much later utterance dei KOhA di'u-series this very utterance do'i KOhA di'u-series some utterance The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that= have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use=20 thisand=20 @@ -330,26 +333,26 @@ You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-= false-sentence. Using=20 tainstead of=20 di'uwould cause the listener to look around to see what= the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. As with=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a clos= e utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either i= n the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the=20 - i/ - a/ + i/=20 + a/=20 uvowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 without causing collisions w= ith other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 - i/ - e/ + i/=20 + e/=20 aconvention in the first vowel of the cmavo. Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been= said), so=20 di'e,=20 de'e, and=20 da'eare not very useful when speaking. In writing, they= are frequently handy: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example3" /> @@ -420,21 +423,22 @@ I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.
5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the = broda-series The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: - ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1 + ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1=20 + ko'e KOhA ko'a-series it-2 ko'i KOhA ko'a-series it-3 ko'o KOhA ko'a-series it-4 ko'u KOhA ko'a-series it-5 fo'a KOhA ko'a-series it-6 fo'e KOhA ko'a-series it-7 fo'i KOhA ko'a-series it-8 fo'o KOhA ko'a-series it-9 fo'u KOhA ko'a-series it-10 broda BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-1 @@ -619,21 +623,22 @@ This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even = that the speaker usually calls the woman=20 Sam.=20 Samis simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in= the current context only.
6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'= i-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti) + ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti)=20 + ra KOhA ri-series (repeats previous sumti) ru KOhA ri-series (repeats long-ago sumti) =20 go'i GOhA go'i-series (repeats last bridi) go'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats previous bridi) go'u GOhA go'i-series (repeats long-ago bridi) go'e GOhA go'i-series (repeats last-but-one bridi) go'o GOhA go'i-series (repeats future bridi) nei GOhA go'i-series (repeats current bridi) no'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats outer bridi) @@ -903,21 +908,21 @@ Here the=20 go'irepeats=20 le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since=20 lemakes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pla= ce of this bridi is=20 le xekri mlatu,=20 le go'imeans=20 le xekri mlatu. The cmavo=20 go'o,=20 nei, and=20 - no'ahave been little used so far. They repeat respectiv= ely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the c= urrent bridi ( + no'ahave been little used so far. They repeat respectiv= ely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the c= urrent bridi (=20 no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example13" /> mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu @@ -1117,21 +1122,21 @@ I build using wood. mi zbasu le dinju zi'o I make the building [without-material]. I make the building. If=20 is true, then=20 through=20 must be true also. = However,=20 - does not correspond= to any sentence with three regular (non- + does not correspond= to any sentence with three regular (non-=20 zi'o) sumti. The pro-bridi=20 co'e(which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of sel= ma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow = the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti= may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use o= f=20 co'eas a selbri place-holder: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example8" /> @@ -1146,21 +1151,22 @@ zo'e; the cmavo=20 do'eof selma'o BAI (see=20 ) also belongs to the same group of c= mavo. Note that=20 do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance.
8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi + vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi=20 + vo'e KOhA vo'a-series x2 of this bridi vo'i KOhA vo'a-series x3 of this bridi vo'o KOhA vo'a-series x4 of this bridi vo'u KOhA vo'a-series x5 of this bridi =20 soi SOI reciprocity =20 se'u SEhU soi terminator The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those = of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the ot= her places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places.= The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some = examples: @@ -1244,24 +1250,32 @@ I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.
9. sumti and bridi questions:=20 <quote>ma</quote>and=20 <quote>mo</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ma KOhA sumti question - mo GOhA bridi question - + + + ma + KOhA + sumti question + + + mo + GOhA + bridi question + + Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 , but=20 maand=20 moare listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmav= o=20 maasks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example1" /> @@ -1340,23 +1354,27 @@ ma djuno ma [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? Who knows what?
10. Relativized pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ke'a</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ke'a KOhA relativized sumti - + + + ke'a + KOhA + relativized sumti + + This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 ) to indicate how the sumti being rel= ativized fits within the clause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section10-example1" /> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi @@ -1389,23 +1407,27 @@ ke'aappears. Note that=20 ke'ais used only with relative clauses, and not with ot= her embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative c= lauses within relative clauses,=20 ke'amay be subscripted to make the difference clear (se= e=20 ).
11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ce'u</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ce'u KOhA abstraction focus - + + + ce'u + KOhA + abstraction focus + + The cmavo=20 ce'uis used within abstraction bridi, particularly prop= erty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 . In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one= of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1" /> @@ -1428,21 +1450,22 @@ <jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo> <gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss> <en>the property of being that which someone is happy about</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section12"> <title>12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and t= he bu'a-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - da KOhA da-series something-1 + da KOhA da-series something-1=20 + de KOhA da-series something-2 di KOhA da-series something-3 =20 bu'a GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-1 bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2 bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3 Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, an= d are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in=20 . It is worth mentioning that the Lo= jban translation of=20 is: @@ -1454,46 +1477,54 @@ la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. John picked up a stick and shook it.
13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - da'o DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi - + + + da'o + DAhO + cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi + + How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other w= ords, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can w= e be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The an= swer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to. Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker= or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro= -bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 goior=20 cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 . Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in whic= h they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the br= idi in which they appear; and=20 ke'ais stable only within its relative clause. Anaphori= c pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on= the rules for the particular cmavo. Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and= sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are= used. However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, s= o that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as=20 mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are = used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything i= s with the cmavo=20 da'oof selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purp= ose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts cont= aining it. One use of=20 da'ois when entering a conversation, to indicate that o= ne's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already = made by other participants in the conversation. In addition, the cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 no'iof selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indica= te shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro= -bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explana= tions of NIhO can be found in=20 .
14. The identity predicate: du The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - du GOhA identity - + + + du + GOhA + identity + + The cmavo=20 duhas the place structure: du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is no= t a pro-bridi.=20 duserves as mathematical=20 =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 . The main difference between @@ -1707,20 +1738,44 @@ com/ co'e) mo bridi question du identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi:=20 dub/ du'o)
18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter - - goi GOI pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) - cei CEI pro-bridi assignment (broda-series) - ra'o RAhO pro-sumti/pro-bridi update - soi SOI reciprocity - se'u SEhU soi terminator - da'o DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi - + + + goi + GOI + pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) + + + cei + CEI + pro-bridi assignment (broda-series) + + + ra'o + RAhO + pro-sumti/pro-bridi update + + + soi + SOI + reciprocity + + + se'u + SEhU + soi terminator + + + da'o + DAhO + cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi + +
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index c4ac4d7..8617a9e 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1,20 +1,32 @@ Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicate= d
1. What are you pointing at? The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - poi NOI restrictive relative clause introducer - ke'a GOhA relative pro-sumti - ku'o KUhO relative clause terminator - + + + poi + NOI + restrictive relative clause introducer + + + ke'a + GOhA + relative pro-sumti + + + ku'o + KUhO + relative clause terminator + + Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 tiif it is nearby, or=20 taif it is somewhat further away, or=20 tuif it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in= =20 .) However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or point= ing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often = hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is p= ointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), a= nd says: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example1" /> @@ -166,23 +178,27 @@ <quote>who was going to the store</quote>, and in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example11" />it is=20 <quote>that the school was located in</quote>. Sometimes=20 <quote>who</quote>,=20 <quote>which</quote>, and=20 <quote>that</quote>are used in literal translations in this chapter in= order to make them read more smoothly.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2"> <title>2. Incidental relative clauses The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - noi NOI incidental relative clause introducer - + + + noi + NOI + incidental relative clause introducer + + There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relat= ive clauses introduced by=20 poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 are restrictive relative cla= uses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification= . (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)<= /para> Consider the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example1" /> @@ -267,30 +283,57 @@ <en>Do you see my car, the white one?</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can o= ften mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,=20 <quote>blabi karce</quote>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in prin= ciple, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express = some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restric= tive relative clause of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />can only refer to a= car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3"> <title>3. Relative phrases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pe GOI restrictive association - po GOI restrictive possession - po'e GOI restrictive intrinsic possession - po'u GOI restrictive identification - ne GOI incidental association - no'u GOI incidental identification - - ge'u GEhU relative phrase terminator - + + + pe + GOI + restrictive association + + + po + GOI + restrictive possession + + + po'e + GOI + restrictive intrinsic possession + + + po'u + GOI + restrictive identification + + + ne + GOI + incidental association + + + no'u + GOI + incidental identification + + + ge'u + GEhU + relative phrase terminator + + There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain = selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a= shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmav= o of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti. Here is an example of=20 pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example2" /> @@ -325,21 +368,21 @@ and=20 contrast with=20 and=20 : the chair is more= permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only p= ossible) contrast between=20 and=20 is that=20 pe miwould be appropriate for a chair the speaker is cu= rrently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and=20 po mifor a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not h= e or she was currently occupying it). As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by=20 pois usually called=20 - possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity ( + possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (=20 steciin Lojban). Here is an example of=20 po'e, as well as another example of=20 po: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example6" /> @@ -529,23 +572,27 @@ </example> <para>is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his ha= nds into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact c= an be specified.</para> <para>Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is=20 <quote>ge'u</quote>of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howev= er, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relat= ive phrase, then an explicit=20 <quote>ge'u</quote>is needed to allow the connective to affect the rel= ativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about th= e cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7" />, as it is not semantically akin to t= he other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)</para= > </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section4"> <title>4. Multiple relative clauses:=20 <quote>zi'e</quote> - - zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner - + + + zi'e + ZIhE + relative clause joiner + + Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one rela= tive clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 zi'e(of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mor= e relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to t= he same sumti. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section4-example1" /> le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. @@ -624,23 +671,27 @@ I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.<= /en>
5. Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 <quote>voi</quote> - - voi NOI non-veridical relative clause introducer - + + + voi + NOI + non-veridical relative clause introducer + + There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 voiare restrictive, like those introduced by=20 poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between= =20 poiand=20 voirelative clauses. A=20 poirelative clause is said to be veridical, in the same= sense that a description using=20 loor=20 loiis: it is essential to the interpretation that the b= ridi actually be true. For example: @@ -686,21 +737,21 @@ mean essentially the same thing (except that=20 involves pointing t= hanks to the use of=20 ti, whereas=20 doesn't), and neith= er one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe somethi= ng as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actuall= y is a woman.
6. Relative clauses and descriptors So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. - There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor ( + There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 le,=20 lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 ku), and after the=20 ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out wi= th all elidable terminators, would appear as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example1" /> @@ -731,22 +782,22 @@ le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes. le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama The (dog) which is-white goes. will seem most natu= ral to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative claus= es after the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 , on the other hand= , may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relativ= e clause first. Note that in=20 , the elidable term= inator=20 - ku'omust appear, or the selbri of the relative clause ( - blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description ( + ku'omust appear, or the selbri of the relative clause (= =20 + blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description (= =20 gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The pur= pose of the form appearing in=20 will be apparent sh= ortly. As is explained in detail in=20 , two different numbers (known as the= =20 inner quantifierand the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example4" /> @@ -841,21 +892,21 @@ <quote>la</quote>, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 <quote>ku</quote>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 <quote>ku</quote>is not. Therefore,</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-JYj4"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example10" /> mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] - I see that-named ( + I see that-named (=20 man which fears the of-IT horse). I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who = does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example11" /> @@ -865,21 +916,21 @@ Man) which fears the of-IT horse. I see the person named=20 Manwho is afraid of his horse. refers to one (or more) of those named=20 Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 re karce, which means almost the same as=20 re lo karce(which in turn means the same as=20 - re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses attached; th= ese are taken to be of the outside-the- + re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses attached; th= ese are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 kuvariety. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example12" /> mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri I possess two cars which-are black. @@ -1000,23 +1051,27 @@ Note that=20 uses=20 vaurather than=20 ku'oat the end of the relative clause: this terminator = ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though= , it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 ku'o.
8. Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 <quote>vu'o</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher - + + + vu'o + VUhO + relative clause attacher + + Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example1" /> li pai noi na'e frinu namcu The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= The irrational number pi @@ -1114,21 +1169,21 @@ English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case= of=20 and=20 by making use of nu= mber:=20 who israther than=20 who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular an= d plural verbs:=20 nanmucan mean=20 is a manor=20 are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 nanmu(meaning=20 is-a-man) were replaced with=20 - pu bajra( + pu bajra(=20 ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example8" /> la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 57d5c57..dee4c77 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -17,23 +17,27 @@ The=20 x1 ... x5indicates that=20 klamais a five-place predicate, and show the natural or= der (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destina= tion, origin, route, means. The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects= of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic p= lace structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of act= ual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevi= tably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.
2. Standard bridi form:=20 <quote>cu</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - cu CU prefixed selbri separator - + + + cu + CU + prefixed selbri separator + + The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as= =20 klamaand an appropriate number of sumti is to place the= sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti= in order after the selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example1" /> mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. @@ -146,28 +150,52 @@ Here the sumti cmavo=20 zo'eis used to explicitly fill the x4 place;=20 zo'emeans=20 the unspecified thingand has the same meaning as leavin= g the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context= .
3. Tagging places: FA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - fa FA tags x1 place - fe FA tags x2 place - fi FA tags x3 place - fo FA tags x4 place - fu FA tags x5 place - fi'a FA place structure question - + + + fa + FA + tags x1 place + + + fe + FA + tags x2 place + + + fi + FA + tags x3 place + + + fo + FA + tags x4 place + + + fu + FA + tags x5 place + + + fi'a + FA + place structure question + + In sentences like=20 , it is easy to get= lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti = are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure= tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five = cmavo=20 fa,=20 fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fumay be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5= places respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1" /> @@ -357,26 +385,42 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />, but it is actual= ly not necessary, because=20 <quote>fi'a</quote>does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 <quote>le vi rozgu</quote>would necessarily be in the x2 place even if= no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.</para> <para>There is also another member of FA, namely=20 <quote>fai</quote>, which is discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section12" />.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4"> <title>4. Conversion: SE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - se SE 2nd place conversion - te SE 3rd place conversion - ve SE 4th place conversion - xe SE 5th place conversion - + + + se + SE + 2nd place conversion + + + te + SE + 3rd place conversion + + + ve + SE + 4th place conversion + + + xe + SE + 5th place conversion + + So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, bu= t the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. T= he conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself= , and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different pla= ce structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the num= ber and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been e= xchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 = depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when=20 seis used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place. Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in a= lphabetical order. There is no=20 1st place conversioncmavo, because exchanging the x1 pl= ace with itself is a pointless maneuver. Here are the place structures of=20 se klama: x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5 and=20 @@ -526,24 +570,32 @@ (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps wort= h noting that compound conversions of the form=20 setese, where the first and third cmavo are the same, e= ffectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1= , alone:=20 setese(or equivalently=20 tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 texete(or=20 xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)
5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - fi'o FIhO modal place prefix - fe'u FEhU modal terminator - + + + fi'o + FIhO + modal place prefix + + + fe'u + FEhU + modal terminator + + Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 viska, whose place structure is: viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking = to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 I see you with the left eye.There is no place in the pl= ace structure of=20 viskasuch as=20 with eye x4or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the = problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: @@ -667,21 +719,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example2" /> la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. - ( + (=20 may seem a bit stra= ined, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 vecnuin this case, may have a place added to it which m= ight otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example5" /> @@ -727,26 +779,42 @@ <quote>nanmu</quote>, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 <quote>of</quote>.=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example7" />also illustrates a = modal place bound into a selbri with=20 <quote>be</quote>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 <quote>be</quote>are more fully explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5" />.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7"> <title>7. Modal sentence connection: the causals The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ri'a BAI rinka modal: physical cause - ki'u BAI krinu modal: justification - mu'i BAI mukti modal: motivation - ni'i BAI nibli modal: logical entailment - + + + ri'a + BAI + rinka modal: physical cause + + + ki'u + BAI + krinu modal: justification + + + mu'i + BAI + mukti modal: motivation + + + ni'i + BAI + nibli modal: logical entailment + + This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the = grammatical construct called=20 modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies= some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo= which have causal implications:=20 ja'emeans=20 with result, and so=20 seja'emeans=20 with cause of unspecified nature; likewise,=20 gaumeans=20 with agentand=20 tezu'emeans=20 with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) @@ -1093,21 +1161,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example3" /> mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank= . - We are also free to move the modal-plus- + We are also free to move the modal-plus-=20 kuaround the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example4" /> bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. @@ -1192,26 +1260,42 @@ means the same thing as=20 . Note: Either BAI modals or=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of= the constructions discussed in this section.
10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pe GOI restrictive relative phrase - ne GOI incidental relative phrase - mau BAI zmadu modal - me'a BAI mleca modal - + + + pe + GOI + restrictive relative phrase + + + ne + GOI + incidental relative phrase + + + mau + BAI + zmadu modal + + + me'a + BAI + mleca modal + + Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 . However, there is a construction wh= ich combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapt= er. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example2" /> @@ -1323,21 +1407,21 @@ semau, and=20 using=20 maurather than=20 seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing= . Like many BAI cmavo,=20 mauand=20 me'aare more useful when converted with=20 se. If the=20 newere omitted in=20 and=20 - , the modal sumti = ( + , the modal sumti = (=20 la meiris.and=20 la betis.respectively) would become attached to the bri= di as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 would become: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example9" /> la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. @@ -1355,27 +1439,27 @@ le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelci la meiris. The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary. The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many= modals other than=20 semauand=20 seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated wit= h relative phrases are:=20 - seba'i( + seba'i(=20 instead of),=20 - ci'u( + ci'u(=20 on scale),=20 - de'i( + de'i(=20 dated),=20 - du'i( + du'i(=20 as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
11. Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 ) with modal connection, in a way th= at simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship= . Consider the sentences: @@ -1484,24 +1568,32 @@ <quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>portion was an effect, but would not pin d= own the=20 <quote>mi bevri le dakli</quote>portion as the cause. It is legal for = a modal (or a tense; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10" />) to modify the whole of a=20 <quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>construct.</para> <para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 <quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12"> <title>12. Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - jai JAI modal conversion - fai FA modal place structure tag - + + + jai + JAI + modal conversion + + + fai + FA + modal place structure tag + + So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addi= tion of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. H= owever, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than = exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place= . For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example1" /> mi cusku bau la lojban. I express [something] in-language Lojban. @@ -1601,23 +1693,27 @@ says that the rela= tionship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of moti= vation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something whi= ch can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship betwe= en watering and growth exists, but=20 doesn't say what i= t is (presumably=20 ri'a). Note: Modals made with=20 fi'oplus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbr= i can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, = however.
14. Sticky modals The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - ki KI stickiness flag - + + + ki + KI + stickiness flag + + Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in whi= ch they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this=20 stickinessis to make the modal, along with its followin= g sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put= into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the = cmavo=20 kiof selma'o KI. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14-example1" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. @@ -1639,21 +1735,21 @@ I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of Frank. In=20 ,=20 baiis made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made ap= plicable to every following bridi.=20 bauis not sticky, and so the language may vary from bri= di to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can = safely be made about its value. To cancel stickiness, use the form=20 - BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the specifie= d BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all mod= als simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist ( + BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the specifie= d BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all mod= als simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (=20 kiis used for both modals and tenses), use=20 kiby itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14-example3" /> mi ki tavla @@ -1696,21 +1792,21 @@ Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin = the-house. The cmavo=20 ce'ecreates a termset containing two terms (termsets ar= e explained in=20 and=20 ). When a termset contains more than= one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two ta= gs are derived from a common event.
16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms - There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one ( + There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 do'e, discussed in=20 ), are derived directly from= selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the fo= rm CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the= Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irr= egular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is d= ivided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo= appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted. cmavo gismu comments =20 Monosyllables of the form CVV: =20 bai bapli bau bangu cau claxu @@ -1761,21 +1857,22 @@
17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents<= /title> <para>The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI= , and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second co= lumn is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase wh= ich indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its= meaning when preceded by=20 <quote>se</quote>.</para> <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 <quote>te</quote>,=20 <quote>ve</quote>, and even=20 <quote>xe</quote>conversions (depending on the number of places of the= underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra row= s following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> <para>It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu c= ontrol the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are on= ly suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify w= hat the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ba'i basti replaced by instead of + ba'i basti replaced by instead of=20 +<!-- skip cmavo list automation --> bai bapli compelled by compelling bau bangu in language in language of be'i benji sent by transmitting te=3Dsent to ve=3Dwith transmit or= igin xe=3Dtransmitted via ca'i catni by authority of with authority over cau claxu lacked by without ci'e ciste in system with system function te=3Dof system components ci'o cinmo felt by feeling emotion diff --git a/todocbook/Makefile b/todocbook/Makefile index 3e0b4ea..b98915b 100644 --- a/todocbook/Makefile +++ b/todocbook/Makefile @@ -1,25 +1,25 @@ =20 web: html/index.html - cp docbook2html.css html + cp docbook2html.css html/ rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test =20 html/index.html: cll.xml xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_pos= tproc.xml xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html cll_postproc.xml 2>&1 | gr= ep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".' =20 cll.xml: 1.xml 2.xml 3.xml 4.xml 5.xml 6.xml 7.xml 8.xml 9.xml 10.xml 11.x= ml 12.xml 13.xml 14.xml 15.xml 16.xml 17.xml 18.xml 19.xml 20.xml 21.xml merge.sh =20 webt: webt.touch - cp docbook2html.css html + cp docbook2html.css html/ rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test touch webt.touch =20 webt.touch: testing.xml xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl testing.xml > tes= ting2.xml xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html testing2.xml =20 me: testing.xml xsltproc --path . --novalid make_examples.xsl testing.xml | \ diff --git a/todocbook/README b/todocbook/README index b64f600..29aac60 100644 --- a/todocbook/README +++ b/todocbook/README @@ -62,11 +62,17 @@ There is now a =20 to do all the steps to turn the N.xml files into html/. There is actually an extra XSLT preprocessing step now. The makefile relies on: =20 docbook2html.css docbook2html_config.xsl docbook2html_preprocess.xsl identity.xsl =20 +The third pass was pretty limited, and was basically just: =20 + make_cmavo.pl + massage2.sh + +(with the .orig trick as above). It create the <cmavo-list> +entries. diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl b/todocbook/docbook2html= _preprocess.xsl index 0209d89..70c5eaa 100644 --- a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl +++ b/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl @@ -6,52 +6,69 @@ version=3D"1.0"> =20 <!-- Import the identity transformation. --> <xsl:import href=3D"identity.xsl"/> =20 <xsl:output method=3D"xml" doctype-system=3D"dtd/docbook-5.0.dtd" doctyp= e-public=3D"-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V5.0//EN" /> =20 <xsl:template name=3D"counted_table"> <xsl:param name=3D"maximal" select=3D"''"/> <xsl:param name=3D"items" select=3D"''"/> - <informaltable> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + <informaltable> <tgroup> <xsl:attribute name=3D"cols"> <xsl:value-of select=3D"count(str:tokenize($maximal))"/> </xsl:attribute> <xsl:for-each select=3D"str:tokenize($maximal)"> <colspec> <xsl:attribute name=3D"colname"> <xsl:value-of select=3D"concat('col',position())"/> </xsl:attribute> - </colspec> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + </colspec> </xsl:for-each> - <tbody> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + <tbody> <xsl:for-each select=3D"$items/jbo"> - <row> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + <row> <xsl:for-each select=3D"str:tokenize(.)"> - <entry><xsl:value-of select=3D"."/></entry> <xsl:text> = ;</xsl:text> + <entry><xsl:value-of select=3D"."/></entry> </xsl:for-each> </row> </xsl:for-each> <xsl:for-each select=3D"$items/gloss"> - <row> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + <row> <xsl:for-each select=3D"str:tokenize(.)"> - <entry><xsl:value-of select=3D"."/></entry> <xsl:text> = ;</xsl:text> + <entry><xsl:value-of select=3D"."/></entry> </xsl:for-each> </row> </xsl:for-each> <xsl:for-each select=3D"$items/en"> <xsl:variable name=3D"startcol" select=3D"concat('col',1)" /> <xsl:variable name=3D"endcol" select=3D"concat('col',count(str= :tokenize($maximal)))" /> - <row> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> - <entry namest=3D"{$startcol}" nameend=3D"{$endcol}"><xsl:val= ue-of select=3D"."/></entry> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> + <row> + <entry namest=3D"{$startcol}" nameend=3D"{$endcol}"><xsl:val= ue-of select=3D"."/></entry> + </row> + </xsl:for-each> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + </xsl:template> + + <!-- Turn cmavo-list nodes into tables. --> + <xsl:template match=3D"cmavo-list"> + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols=3D"3"> + <tbody> + <xsl:for-each select=3D".//cmavo-entry"> + <row> + <xsl:for-each select=3D"cmavo|selmaho|description"> + <entry><xsl:value-of select=3D"."/></entry> + </xsl:for-each> </row> </xsl:for-each> </tbody> </tgroup> </informaltable> </xsl:template> =20 <!-- Turn interlinear-gloss nodes into tables. =20 Such a node must have at least one jbo entry and at least one en e= ntry. diff --git a/todocbook/make_cmavo.pl b/todocbook/make_cmavo.pl new file mode 100755 index 0000000..9e41eb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/make_cmavo.pl @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +#!/usr/bin/perl + +local $/=3Dundef; +my $string =3D <STDIN>; +close STDIN; + +$string =3D~ s{<programlisting\s*[^>]*>([^<]+)</programlisting>}{ +#print "1: $1\n"; + +my $matched=3D0; +my $crap=3D''; +foreach my $line (split /\n/, $1) { +$line =3D~ s{^\s+}{}; +$line =3D~ s{\s+$}{}; +if( $line =3D~ m{^.+\s\s\s\s+\S+.*\s\s\s\s+.+$} ) { +$matched=3D1; +my $newline =3D $line; +$newline =3D~ s{^(.+\S+)\s\s\s\s+(\S+)\s\s\s\s+(.+)$}{<cmavo-entry><cmavo>= \1</cmavo><selmaho>\2</selmaho><description>\3</description></cmavo-entry>}= ; +$crap .=3D $newline; +}; +}; +if( $matched ) { +"<cmavo-list>\n". +"$crap\n". +"</cmavo-list>\n"; +} else { +$&; +} +}egs; + +print $string; diff --git a/todocbook/massage2.sh b/todocbook/massage2.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000..5a1a090 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/massage2.sh @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +#!/bin/sh + +randnum=3D0 + +for file in [0-9]*.xml.orig +do + short=3D$(echo $file | sed 's/\.orig$//') + + echo "*********************************************************** $short= " + + cat $short.orig | make_cmavo.pl | \ + tidy -config massage.tidy -xml - | \ + sed -e '/xml version/d' -e '/DOCTYPE book PUBLIC/d' -e '/docbook-5.0.d= td/d' > $short + +done --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. 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