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What is Lojban? Lojban (pronounced=20 LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions= of the language were called=20 Loglanby Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan = Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for = the language were first described in the open literature in the article=20 + +Brown + +article Loglan, published in=20 Scientific American, June, 1960. Made well-known = by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notab= ly in Robert Heinlein's novel=20 + +article The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress) and computer public= ations, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of wo= rkers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Gr= oup (who are the publishers of this book). There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto = is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique= in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban: Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication wit= h each other, and possibly in the future with computers. Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures. @@ -42,103 +50,141 @@ Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original = works of prose and poetry.
2. What is this book? This book is what is called a=20 reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Loj= ban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban= is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to dis= cover the functions of those features. The word=20 + +reference grammar discoveris used advisedly; Lojban was not=20 inventedby any one person or committee. Often, grammati= cal features were introduced into the language long before their usage was = fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to pr= ove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time. By intention, this book is complete in description but not in ex= planation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in=20 ), there is a bit of explanation and= an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. = In essence,=20 gives a brief overview of the languag= e,=20 gives the formal structure of the la= nguage, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bone= s. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even cor= recting) the explanations in this book will become available. Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the= completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a= possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until f= ive years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to c= orrect outright errors, the language described in this book will not be cha= nging by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change = will take place in the form of new vocabulary - Lojban does not yet have ne= arly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern wo= rld, as=20 explains - and through the irregular= natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Tea= ch your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with as= surance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as mos= t other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by= language-meisters. It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somew= hat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojb= an topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger struct= ure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-refe= rences as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as c= omprehensive as possible. Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play = on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title= of=20 (which you are now reading), for exam= ple, is an allusion to the book=20 English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce= , which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.=20 + +reference grammar Lojbanistanis both an imaginary country where Lojban is= the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speaker= s, scattered over the world. Why=20 + +Lojbanistan mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. + +Lojbanistan
3. What are the typographical conventions of this book? + +typographical conventions Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used= throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the se= lf-same sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter1-section3-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. I go to the store. will become wearisomely familiar before=20 is reached. This method is deliberat= e; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever p= ossible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of = course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbo= ok (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rath= er, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be L= ojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the us= ual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. It is useful to talk further about=20 for what it illustr= ates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The = first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translati= on of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The sec= ond and third lines are sometimes called the=20 + +examples in this book literal translationand the=20 colloquial translationrespectively. Sometimes, when cla= rity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more t= han one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning= . Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban tex= ts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context o= f the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal transla= tions, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of spe= cific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the En= glish word would suggest. In=20 + +square brackets , square brackets surround phonetic r= epresentations in the International Phonetic Alphabet. + +square brackets Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of vario= us sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words d= iscussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical catego= ry (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, an= d the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typic= ally a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context. A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All= of these are explained in=20 + +technical terms , except for a few used only in singl= e chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapt= ers.
4. Disclaimers It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this boo= k do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any = such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intend= ed to give offense. When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially o= f lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the En= glish-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). = If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given= here.
5. Acknowledgements and Credits Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Langu= age Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authori= al=20 + +LLG I, certain chapters were first written by others and th= en heavily edited by me to fit into this book. In particular:=20 is a fusion of originally separate do= cuments, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChe= valier;=20 and=20 were originally written by Bob LeChev= alier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 was originally written (in much long= er form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChe= valier;=20 and parts of=20 were originally by Bob LeChevalier; = and the YACC grammar in=20 + +YACC grammar is the work of several hands, but is= primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is al= so in=20 , was originally written by me, then= rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. The research into natural languages from which parts of=20 draw their material was performed by = Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of = his research. + +LLG The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier,= except for the picture appearing in=20 + +pictures , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.= The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. I would like to thank the following people for their detailed re= views, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors= in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoul= son, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Pa= ulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Der= zhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (als= o known as=20 pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 manskapidilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even m= ore extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was incli= ned to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encou= ragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened w= ith for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting = old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors;= and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmica= lly, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujv= o classes. + +converting Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to= James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier co= ntributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Do= ug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Fina= l responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.<= /para> + +Brown
6. Informal Bibliography The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book= is one of the products, is=20 Loglan 1: A Logical Languageby James Cooke Brown = (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.) The lang= uage described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be co= nsidered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that no= thing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existe= nce of Lojban is disapproved of by him. + +Brown The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Amer= ican philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially=20 Word and Object(1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quin= e's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like= a literal translation from Lojban. + +observation The theory of negation expounded in=20 is derived from a reading of Larry H= orn's work=20 The Natural History of Negation. Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way respon= sible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works. + +Brown Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be t= hree other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dicti= onary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can prob= ably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place wher= e you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exi= st. + +books about Lojban
7. Captions to Pictures The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translati= on, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has= no caption,=20 (none)is specified instead. @@ -232,20 +278,22 @@ Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them). The picture for chapter 7 has the following text: ma drani danfu .i di'e + +di'e .i di'u .i dei .i ri .i do'i which has the following translation: [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer? The-next-sentence. The-previous-sentence. @@ -262,20 +310,22 @@ An-unspecified-utterance. has the following text: ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. which has the following translation: [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa. + +brothers The picture for chapter 9 @@ -285,25 +335,29 @@ ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. The picture for chapter 10 has the following text: za'o klama + +za'o which has the following translation: [superfective] come/go Something goes (or comes) for too long. + +too long The picture for chapter 11 @@ -330,20 +384,26 @@ The concept-of emptiness The picture for chapter 13 has the following text: .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o + +ro'o + +ro'i + +ro'a which has the following translation: [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical] @@ -393,20 +453,22 @@ Another example, John, please! The picture for chapter 17 has the following text: zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny. + +zai which has the following translation: [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n "Lojban" in a manual alphabet diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 839a0e6..ade4eb0 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -1,26 +1,44 @@ Chapter 10 Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System=
1. Introductory This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time ten= se system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the for= m=20 + +tense system How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting t= o educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is = understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the read= er should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being co= rrectly understood. + +tense system The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really compl= ex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is t= he longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language= . In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreig= n languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached= an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, = allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on h= ow they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on prese= nting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how th= ey may be creatively and productively combined. What is=20 tense? Historically,=20 tenseis the attribute of verbs in English and related l= anguages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses ar= e traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, an= d the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. = However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English ten= se and the time actually expressed: + +verbs I go to London tomorrow. + +tomorrow I will go to London tomorrow. + +tomorrow I am going to London tomorrow. + +tomorrow all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the= present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound ten= se usually called=20 + + +tense in scope of sticky tense + +multiple tenses +compound tense present progressive. Likewise, a newspaper headline say= s=20 JONES DIES, although it is obvious that the time referr= ed to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every = sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, beca= use every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojba= n brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them. In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not mer= ely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information a= bout location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optiona= l in Lojban: a sentence like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example1" /> mi klama le zarci @@ -140,30 +158,40 @@ FAhA front ne'i FAhA within be'a + +be'a FAhA north of (The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 .) Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fa= miliar time tenses of=20 + +time tenses , asks the reader? Because = the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space t= han for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 + +time tenses + +resume . English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there ar= e plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is abs= olutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel = for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of= view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated id= entically. + +time tenses Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at whic= h it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imagina= ry journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify th= e direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gon= e. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example1" /> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. @@ -179,20 +207,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example2" /> le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location = to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left = (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reason= able translation is: + +reference frame To my left, the man bites the dog. The=20 mydoes not have an explicit equivalent in the Lojban, b= ecause the speaker's location is understood as the starting point. (Etymologically, by the way,=20 zu'ais derived from=20 zunle, the gismu for=20 left, whereas=20 vi,=20 @@ -232,36 +262,44 @@
3. Compound spatial tenses Humph, says the reader: this talk of=20 imaginary journeysis all very well, but what's the poin= t of it? -=20 zu'ameans=20 on the leftand=20 vimeans=20 nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: + + +tense in scope of sticky tense + +multiple tenses +compound tense <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example1" /> le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku The man [up] [left] bites the dog. The proper interpretation of=20 is that the imagin= ary journey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, = and then to the left. A translation might read: Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-= biting is going on at the edge of the street.) + +manhole In the English translation, the keywords=20 leftand=20 aboveoccur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This e= ffect is typical of what happens when we=20 unfoldLojban compound tenses into their English equival= ents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojb= an tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. The opposite order also makes sense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example2" /> @@ -291,20 +329,26 @@ le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with o= r without specified distances for each: + + +tense in scope of sticky tense + +multiple tenses +compound tense <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example5" /> le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [wit= hin] bites the dog. @@ -345,53 +389,71 @@ ZI medium time distance zu ZI long time distance Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only t= wo main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like t= he spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and = when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense cons= truct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed = before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous= .) + +temporal tenses + +temporal tense <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example1" /> le nanmu pu batci le gerku The man [past] bites the dog. The man bit the dog. means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary j= ourney through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of c= ourse, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in th= e previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 pufor the past,=20 cafor the present, and=20 bafor the future. (Etymologically, these derive from th= e corresponding gismu=20 purci,=20 cabna, and=20 balvi. See=20 for an explanation of the = exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more sp= atial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative= directions as well as=20 + +spatial directions direction-like relationshipslike=20 surrounding,=20 within,=20 touching, etc. (See=20 for a complete list.) But = there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward = the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o= PU? The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive sp= ace and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measur= ements. We have a sense of=20 + +measurements nowwhich includes part of the objective past and part o= f the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into thre= e parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a sep= arate time-direction cmavo for the=20 zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for th= e zero space direction:=20 bu'u, which means something like=20 + +bu'u coinciding. (Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: T= he Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed t= o be a=20 + +time tenses + + +tense system +relativity theory point-like observerin the relativistic sense: they do n= ot say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, stil= l less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective= but also observer-based.) Here are some examples of temporal tenses: + +temporal tenses <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example4" /> @@ -430,20 +492,22 @@ and=20 are perfectly legi= timate, but may not be very much used:=20 ziby itself signals an event that happens at a time clo= se to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the futu= re. A rough translation might be=20 about now, but not exactly now. Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortabl= e with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (=20 nearbyor=20 far away), but we live only from past to future, and th= e idea of an event which happens=20 nearby in timeis a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots o= f such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, e= ven though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limit= ation of English. + +nearby in time Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial te= nse: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example7" /> le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog. Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog. @@ -452,20 +516,22 @@ Alternatively, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example8" /> le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. The man bit the dog long ago and far away. + +long ago and far away
5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ve'i VEhA @@ -493,20 +559,22 @@ ze'u ZEhA long time interval So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought = of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog= at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 spread outthan that:=20 mi vasxu(I breathe) is something which is true during t= he whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the ea= rth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time= ) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to sp= ecify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is c= laimed to be true. + +breathe <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example1" /> le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. In a small space, the child walks on the ice. The child walks about a small area of the ice. @@ -627,21 +695,25 @@ ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe That-there [right] [short space interval =E2=80=93 front] i= s-a-fish. That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish. Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a poin= t on my right to another point in front of the first point.
6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size = of the type discussed in=20 + +interval size ? The Lojban rule is that i= f no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left= vague by the speaker. For example: + +interval size <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section6-example1" /> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. @@ -651,286 +723,388 @@ well, the event=20 I went to the market was in progress. The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the spe= aker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole inter= val is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval dur= ing which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's= present or even future. points up a fundam= ental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-= tense sentence like=20 I went to the marketgenerally signifies that the going-= to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete = at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 puhas no such implication. This property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tense = system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property,= however: + +tense system + +aorist <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section6-example3" /> le tricu ba crino The tree [future] is-green. The tree will be green. does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that= the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is= , in fact, green may have already started. This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of i= ndicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are= several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 (event contours) and=20 + + +tense direction +event contours (logical connection betwee= n tenses).
7. Dimensionality: VIhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: vi'i VIhA on a line vi'a + +vi'a VIhA in an area vi'u VIhA through a volume vi'e + +vi'e VIhA throughout a space/time interval The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One = fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is mu= lti-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves ove= r a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows= for this. I can specify that a motion=20 in a small spaceis more specifically=20 in a short line,=20 in a small area, or=20 through a small volume. What about the child walking on the ice in=20 through=20 ? Given the nature= of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this= assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section7-example1" /> le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli + +vi'a The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on = the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if = both, VEhA must come first, as=20 shows. The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Reader= s who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-dimens= ional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is three-= dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojban tens= e comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the third= dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on a mou= ntain could be called=20 + +irrelevant + +dimension vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is assoc= iated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not conf= ined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensiona= l network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single m= ountain) would be properly described with=20 + +vi'a vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimen= sionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. + +dimensionality VIhA has a member=20 vi'ewhich indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that = involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to = some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about s= pace-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmavo= of FAhA assigned to=20 + +vi'e + +temporal tenses + +Einsteinian pastwardand=20 + +pastward futurewardconsidered as space rather than time directio= ns - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression = useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with= a=20 + +temporal tense + +futureward vi'einterval, the resulting tense may be self-contradic= tory. + +vi'e
8. Movement in space: MOhI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: mo'i MOhI movement flag All the information carried by the tense constructs so far prese= nted has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or ot= her in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the tr= uth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents = an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represent= ed by the tense system, using the cmavo=20 + +tense system mo'i(of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opti= onal distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather tha= n a static direction from the speaker. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example1" /> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. + +toward my right This is quite different from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example2" /> le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [right] walks-on the ice. To the right of me, the child walks on the ice. In either case, however, the reference frame for defining=20 + +reference frame rightand=20 leftis the speaker's, not the child's. This can be chan= ged thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example3" /> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a + +ma'i The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-= frame the-x1-place. The child walks toward her right on the ice. + +toward her right is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 ma'ibelongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 + +ma'i ), and allows specifying a reference = frame. + +reference frame Both a regular and a=20 mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 mo'iconstruct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example4" /> le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on= the ice. Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward= my right on the ice. + +toward my right It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 zu'a ca'uafter=20 mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separ= ate bridi. + +complex movements Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently= involving movement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example5" /> mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. (Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.) There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressin= g movement in time - time travel - but one could be added easily if it ever= becomes useful. + +time travel
9. Interval properties: TAhE and=20 <quote>roi</quote> + +roi The following cmavo are discussed in this section: di'i TAhE regularly + +di'i na'o TAhE typically + +na'o ru'i TAhE continuously + +ru'i ta'e TAhE habitually + +ta'e =20 di'inai TAhE irregularly na'onai TAhE atypically ru'inai TAhE intermittently + +intermittently ta'enai TAhE contrary to habit =20 roi ROI =20 + +roi n times roinai ROI other than=20 n times =20 ze'e ZEhA whole time interval + +ze'e + +whole time interval ve'e VEhA whole space interval + +ve'e Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time.= Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is invo= lved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lo= jban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or= non-continuous actions. + +continuous <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example1" /> mi puzu ze'u velckule I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attend= ee (pupil). Long ago I attended school for a long time. probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throu= ghout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school ever= y day, except for school holidays. More explicitly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example2" /> mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule + +di'i I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-p= upil. Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows:=20 ru'icovers the entirety of the interval,=20 + +ru'i di'icovers the parts of the interval which are systemat= ically spaced subintervals;=20 + +di'i na'ocovers part of the interval, but exactly which part= is determined by context;=20 + +na'o ta'ecovers part of the interval, selected with referenc= e to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x= 1 place of the bridi). + +ta'e Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time d= irection or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they ar= e vague). For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example3" /> mi ba ta'e klama le zarci + +ta'e I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. I will habitually go to the market. I will make a habit of going to the market. specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefi= nite. Similarly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example4" /> mi na'o klama le zarci + +na'o I [typically] go-to the market. I typically go/went/will go to the market. illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no dist= ance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is = no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-= to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine t= hese vague values. Intermittentlyis the polar opposite notion to=20 continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, = but by adding the negation suffix=20 -nai(which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 ru'i. For example: + +ru'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example5" /> le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. The child intermittently walks on the ice. + +intermittently As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be = negated with=20 -nai;=20 ru'inaiand=20 di'inaiare probably the most useful. An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the numb= er of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 roi(which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a = number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English,= but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 + +roi + +adverbs never,=20 once,=20 twice,=20 thrice, ...=20 always, and by the related phrases=20 many times,=20 a few times,=20 too many times, and so on. All of these are handled in = Lojban by a number plus=20 -roi: + +roi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example7" /> mi paroi klama le zarci I [one time] go-to the market. @@ -949,79 +1123,111 @@ mi pu reroi klama le zarci I [past] [two times] go-to the market. I went to the market twice. The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both= goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the= Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the inter= val may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future. Adding=20 -naito=20 roiis also permitted, and has the meaning=20 + +roi other than (the number specified): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example9" /> le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese. The rat eats the cheese other than twice. This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more = times, or not at all. It is necessary to be careful with sentences like=20 and=20 , where a quantifi= ed tense appears without an interval. What=20 really says is tha= t during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in= the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example = says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is = often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market = once and only once, we can use the cmavo=20 + +only once ze'ewhich represents the=20 + +ze'e whole time interval: conceptually, an interval which st= retches from time's beginning to its end: + +whole time interval <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example10" /> mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci + +ze'e I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market. Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,=20 might in appropria= te context mean the same as=20 after all - but= =20 allows us to be s= pecific when specificity is necessary. + +specificity A PU cmavo following=20 ze'ehas a slightly different meaning from one that foll= ows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo=20 + +ze'e ze'epusignifies the interval stretching from the infini= te past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken yo= u);=20 + +ze'epu ze'ebais the interval stretching from the reference poi= nt to the infinite future. The remaining form,=20 + +ze'eba ze'eca, makes specific the=20 + +ze'eca whole of timeinterpretation just given. These compound = forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without = asserting that it never will. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example11" /> mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci + +ze'epu I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market. I have never gone to the market. + +have never says nothing about whether I might go in future. The space equivalent of=20 ze'eis=20 + +ze'e ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a quantif= ied space tense: see=20 + +ve'e + +quantified space for an explanation of spac= e interval modifiers.
10. Event contours: ZAhO and=20 <quote>re'u</quote> + +re'u The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pu'o ZAhO inchoative ca'o ZAhO @@ -1042,90 +1248,130 @@ ZAhO cessitive mo'u ZAhO completitive za'o + +za'o ZAhO superfective co'i + +co'i ZAhO achievative de'a + +de'a ZAhO pausative di'a + +di'a ZAhO resumptive re'u + +re'u ROI ordinal tense + +ordinal tense The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is = traditionally called=20 aspect. This is not a notion well expressed by English = tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian among Lojban's si= x source languages) consider it more important than the specification of me= re position in time. + +source languages + +aspect The=20 event contoursof selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keywo= rds, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, an= occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, and= an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will b= e explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax, = ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are found= in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The im= aginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of t= he event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies. + + +tense direction +event contours It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other = tense cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen fro= m an essentially timeless perspective. The=20 beginningof an event is the same whether the event is i= n the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not to= confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-rel= ative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses. + +speaker-relative viewpoint + +PU tenses + + +speaker-relative viewpoint +event-relative viewpoint The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o(etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to= an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, r= espectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example3" /> mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I'm on the verge of fighting. la stiv. ca'o bacru Steve [continuitive] utters. Steve continues to talk. + +continues le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli The child [perfective] walks-on the ice. The child is finished walking on the ice. + +finished As discussed in=20 , the simple PU cmavo make = no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event = extends into one of the other tenses as well.=20 + +future event through=20 illustrate that t= hese ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has no= t yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.<= /para> Note that in=20 and=20 ,=20 pu'oand=20 ba'omay appear to be reversed:=20 pu'o, although etymologically connected with=20 pu, is referring to a future event; whereas=20 + +future event ba'o, connected with=20 ba, is referring to a past event. This is the natural r= esult of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or=20 + +past event pu'o, part of an event, is in the=20 pastwardportion of that event, when seen from the persp= ective of the event itself. It is only by inference that we suppose that=20 + +pastward refers to the spe= aker's future: in fact, no PU tense is given, so the inchoative part of the= event need not be coincident with the speaker's present:=20 pu'ois not necessarily, though in fact often is, the sa= me as=20 ca pu'o. The cmavo in=20 through=20 refer to spans of= time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated wi= th an event: the beginning, marked by=20 co'a, and the end, marked by=20 co'u. Specifically,=20 co'amarks the boundary between the=20 pu'oand=20 @@ -1151,91 +1397,125 @@ Compare=20 with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example6" /> mi ba di'i co'a bajra + +di'i I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run. I will regularly begin to run. which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO. A process can have two end points, one reflecting the=20 natural end(when the process is complete) and the other= reflecting the=20 + +natural end actual stopping point(whether complete or not).=20 may be contrasted= with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example7" /> mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi I [past] [completitive] eat my meal. I finished eating my meal. + +finished In=20 , the meal has re= ached its natural end; in=20 + +natural end , the meal has me= rely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end. + +natural end A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uni= nterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events:= the point just before the interruption, marked by=20 de'a, and the point just after the interruption, marked= by=20 + +de'a di'a. Some examples: + +di'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example9" /> mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi + +de'a I [past] [pausative] eat my meal. I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming). mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi + +di'a I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal. I will resume eating my meal. + +resume In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its= natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end point= s is represented by=20 + +natural end za'o: + +za'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example10" /> le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri + +za'o The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics= problem to the student-group. The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the = class too long. + +too long That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already = understood the problem. An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmav= o=20 co'i: + +co'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example11" /> la djan. pu co'i catra la djim + +co'i John [past] [achievative] kills Jim. John was at the point in time where he killed Jim. Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can = be referred to using a number followed by=20 re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI: + +re'u <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example12" /> mi pare'u klama le zarci I [first time] go-to the store. I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval)= . @@ -1269,81 +1549,111 @@ 11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE The following cmavo is discussed in this section: fe'e FEhE space interval modifier flag Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, dis= continuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma= 'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag=20 + +interval properties + +continuous fe'eto the cmavo used for time interval properties. A s= pace interval property would be placed just after the space interval size a= nd/or dimensionality cmavo: + +interval size + +interval properties + +dimensionality <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example3" /> ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni + +di'i You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the= grain. Sow the grain in a line and evenly! mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta I [space:] [three places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredi= ents. I buy salad ingredients in three locations. + +salad ingredients ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku + +ze'e + +ve'e li re su'i re du li vo [whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places= ] The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. Always and everywhere, two plus two is four. As shown in=20 , when a tense co= mes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri = (in this case=20 du), it is emphasized. The=20 fe'emarker can also be used for the same purpose before= members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 be'abelongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction = meaning=20 + +be'a north of.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example4" /> tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci That-yonder [medium space interval =E2=80=93 north] [space]= [initiative] is-a-rock. That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north. That is the south face of a rock. + +south face Here the notion of a=20 beginning pointrepresented by the cmavo=20 + +beginning point co'ais transferred from=20 beginning in timeto=20 beginning in spaceunder the influence of the=20 fe'eflag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time= , which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientatio= n is necessary, and the=20 ve'abe'aprovides an orientation in which the south face= is the=20 + +south face beginningand the north face is the=20 end, since the rock extends from south (near me) to nor= th (away from me). Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor:= in English, what is past is said to be=20 behind us. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed= . Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a tim= e-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicat= es which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather = than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.) If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval= modifiers, the=20 fe'eflag must be prefixed to each.
12. Tenses as sumti tcita So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equ= ivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with=20 ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as= sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or tempo= ral information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: + +temporal information + +argument tags <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example1" /> mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the hou= se. I go to the market when you go to the house. @@ -1382,39 +1692,47 @@ le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. The rat eats the cheese near the park. + +near the park le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the [long distance= ] park The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park. le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance= ] park The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park. The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents,= prefixed with=20 + + +tense direction +event contours fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretatio= n of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. T= he event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of t= he main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, = or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is= seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the = main bridi is intended. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example6" /> mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live. I die in the aftermath of my living. + +in the aftermath Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my liv= ing-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast=20 with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example7" /> @@ -1441,51 +1759,69 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example9" /> mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating= . + +finished Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and sp= atial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example10" /> le bloti pu za'o xelklama + +za'o fe'e ba'o le lalxu The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism [space] [perfective] the lake. The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake. + +too long + +boat sailed Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification:= although=20 xelklamaappears to mean simply=20 is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not - the bridi of=20 has four omitted= arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as p= art of its meaning. + +too long The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, = dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the = sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates: + +interval size + +dimension <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example11" /> mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day. I go/went/will go to the market twice today. + +twice today Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a t= ense used within a seltcita sumti: + +seltcita sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example12" /> loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [pr= esent] winter. Snow falls during this winter. @@ -1497,23 +1833,27 @@ loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] wi= nter. Snow falls in the long winter. claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as win= ters go, snow falls. + +snow falls
13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI + +multiple tenses The following cmavo is discussed in this section: ki KI sticky tense set/reset So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban = provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a si= ngle bridi. This property is known as=20 stickiness: the tense gets=20 @@ -1531,20 +1871,22 @@ I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.<= /gloss> I went to the market. The man bit the dog. Here the use of=20 pukirather than just=20 puensures that the tense will affect the next sentence = as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be = no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might hap= pen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence. (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form p= art of a narrative. See=20 for an explanation of=20 story time, which employs a different set of convention= s.) + +story time What if the second sentence has a tense anyway? <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example2" /> mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the d= og. @@ -1552,20 +1894,22 @@ Here the second=20 pudoes not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in= the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be = the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example3" /> I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog. + +had earlier and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation fr= om any other sentences) to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example4" /> mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku @@ -1647,58 +1991,72 @@ Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another brid= i: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions = contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate b= ridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the= tense of the main bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example10" /> mi pu klama le ba'o zarci I [past] go-to the [perfective] market I went to the former market. + +former market The significance of the=20 ba'oin=20 is that the spea= ker's destination is described as being=20 in the aftermath of being a market; that is, it is a ma= rket no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market = is in the speaker's past, because the=20 + +in the aftermath ba'ois interpreted relative to the=20 putense of the main bridi. Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi: + +abstraction bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example11" /> mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead. I now believe that I will be dead. Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with re= spect to the opinion, which is in the present. + +opinion kimay also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels a= ll stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker'= s location in both space and time. In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then u= sed by adding a subscript to=20 + +multiple tenses ki. A time made sticky with=20 kixipa(ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying=20 kixipaas a tense by itself. In the case of written expr= ession, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and= a pair of subscripted=20 kitenses could be used to distinguish the two.
14. Story time Making strict use of the conventions explained in=20 would be intolerably awkwa= rd when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the nar= rator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time= within the story itself. The term=20 storyin this section refers to any series of statements= related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one. Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly cal= led=20 story time, for inferring tense within a story. It is p= resumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time mor= e or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are impli= citly tensed as=20 + +story time what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setti= ng is advanced by each sentence. The following mini-story illustrates the important features of s= tory time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows: + +story time <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example4" /> @@ -1706,50 +2064,66 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example7" /> puzuki ku ne'iki le kevna le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci [past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave, + +cave the woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock. + +cave .i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu She-1 [tenseless] eat some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh. She was eating goat's meat. .i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method the wood-fire.= She had cooked the meat over a wood fire. .i lei rectu cu zanglare The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm. The meat was pleasantly warm. .i le labno goi ko'e bazaki nenri klama le kevna The wolf defined-as it-2 [future] [medium] [sticky] within-= came to-the cave. + +cave A while later, a wolf came into the cave. + +cave .i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a It-2 [tenseless] takes the-mass-of flesh from-her-1. It took the meat from her. .i ko'e bartu klama It-2 out ran It ran out. sets both the tim= e (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using=20 + +cave ki, just like the sentence sequences in=20 . No further space cmavo a= re used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchang= ed. The English translation of=20 is marked for pas= t tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequen= tly, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (W= e don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are writt= en in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojba= n narratives. + +stories is tenseless. Out= side story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously = with that of=20 + +story time , since a sticky = tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event = occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the stick= y time set in=20 + +story time ). has an explicit t= ense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; ther= efore, the event of=20 happens before th= at of=20 . It cannot be de= termined if=20 happens before or= after=20 . is again tenseles= s. Story time was not changed by the flashback in=20 , so=20 @@ -1758,25 +2132,31 @@ specifies the fut= ure (relative to=20 ) and makes it st= icky. So all further events happen after=20 . and=20 are again tensele= ss, and so happen after=20 . (Story time is = changed.) So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium inte= rval) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14= .1. If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set = at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an a= rbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stor= ies that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifie= s the sticky time sufficiently. + +stories + +jokes
15. Tenses in subordinate bridi English has a set of rules, formally known as=20 sequence of tense rules, for determining what tense sho= uld be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the mai= n sentence. Here are some examples: + +sequence of tense rules <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example4" /> @@ -1825,42 +2205,58 @@ <jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci</jb= o> <en>John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the = market.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example7" />. The=20 <quote>ca</quote>looks quite odd, as if George were going to the marke= t right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this=20 <quote>ca</quote>is really a=20 <quote>ca</quote>with respect to a reference point specified by the ou= ter=20 <quote>pu</quote>. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior = of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in=20 +<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 --> +<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section13" />.</para> <para>There is a special cmavo=20 <quote>nau</quote>(of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override thes= e rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds l= ike English=20 +<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 --> +<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm> <quote>now</quote>.) It is not grammatical to combine=20 <quote>nau</quote>with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a = logical or non-logical connection (see=20 +<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in = mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of = sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of= modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing= from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 --> +<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 --> +<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section20" />). Here is a convoluted se= ntence with several nested bridi which uses=20 <quote>nau</quote>at the lowest level:</para> +<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 --> +<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Yjop"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example9" /> la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci= + +nau John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the s= tatement-that George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to th= e market. John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said tha= t Mary is now going to the market. + +had earlier The use of=20 naudoes not affect sticky tenses. + +nau
16. Tense relations between sentences The sumti tcita method, explained in=20 , of asserting a tense rel= ationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example1" /> @@ -1888,30 +2284,34 @@ .izu'abois a compound cmavo: the=20 .iseparates the sentences and the=20 zu'ais the tense. The=20 bois required to prevent the=20 zu'afrom gobbling up the following sumti, namely=20 le verba. Note that the bridi in=20 appear in the rev= erse order from their appearance in=20 . With=20 .izu'abo(and all other afterthought tense connectives) = the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a na= tural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between t= his form and the sumti tcita form. + +converting means the same th= ing as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example3" /> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli + +la'edi'u The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on= the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the chil= d walks on the ice. If the=20 bois omitted in=20 , the meaning cha= nges: @@ -1939,20 +2339,34 @@ <jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bis= li</jbo> <gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</= gloss> <en>The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.= </en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example5" />, the origin poin= t is the speaker, as is usual with=20 <quote>zu'aku</quote>.=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />makes the origin = point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.</para> <para>Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense re= lationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense conn= ection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space= relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sente= nces describe.</para> +<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ forethought tense connection: contrasted with afterthought in li= keness to modal connection, 249 --> +<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>forethought tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ afterthought tense connection: contrasted with forethought in li= keness to modal connection, 249 --> +<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>afterthought tense connection</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm> <para>The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus=20 <quote>gi</quote>. Another=20 <quote>gi</quote>is used to separate the sentences:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-9cXU"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example6" /> pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani @@ -1965,20 +2379,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example7" /> mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani I go-to [past] the market [,] the house. Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a ten= se-like relationship between nouns,=20 + +nouns cannot be express= ed in English without paraphrasing it either into=20 or else into=20 I go to the house before the market, which is ambiguous= - is the market going? Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense rela= tionship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known = as a=20 bridi-tailis explained fully in=20 ; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, = possibly with following sumti.)=20 is equivalent in = meaning to=20 and=20 : @@ -2000,20 +2416,22 @@ Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate = with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms = are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo): subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
17. Tensed logical connectives The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connec= tive system. That system is a separate topic, explained in=20 + +tense system and touched on only in summary here.= By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 through 17.3 are = equivalent in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example3" /> @@ -2034,39 +2452,49 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example6" /> la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu + +ijebabo Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit. la teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit. la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit. through 17.6 are = equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to=20 through=20 respectively. The= =20 bois required for the same reason as in=20 : to prevent the= =20 bafrom functioning as a sumti tcita for the following s= umti (or, in=20 , from being atta= ched to the following selbri). In addition to the=20 boconstruction of=20 through=20 , there is also a= form of tensed logical connective with=20 + +tensed logical connective + + +tensed logical connective +tensed logical connective + +tensed logical connective ke ... ke'e(=20 tu'e ... tu'ufor sentences). The logical connective sys= tem makes=20 through=20 equivalent in mea= ning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example8" /> @@ -2182,20 +2610,24 @@ <jbo>mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo> <gloss>I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of you go-to = the house.</gloss> <en>I went to the market at a time other than the time at which yo= u went to the house.</en> <jbo>mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive</jbo> <gloss>I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.</gloss= > <en>I am dead other than during my life.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Unlike=20 <quote>-nai</quote>contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses i= s not limited to PU and FAhA:</para> +<!-- ^^ scalar negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 --> +<indexterm><primary>scalar negation of tenses</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ negation of tenses: meaning of, 241 --> +<indexterm><primary>negation of tenses</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-THJJ"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example9" /> le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice The child walks on the ice other than to my right. @@ -2203,49 +2635,63 @@ The use of=20 -naion cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed= in=20 ; this use is also a scalar= negation.
19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ca'a + +ca'a CAhA actually is ka'e + +ka'e CAhA is innately capable of nu'o + +nu'o CAhA can but has not pu'i + +pu'i CAhA can and has Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to = actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For= example: + +potential events + +actual events <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example1" /> ro datka cu flulimna All ducks are-float-swimmers. All ducks swim by floating. + +ducks swim is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translatio= n is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi= doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or e= ven at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example2" /> @@ -2257,159 +2703,221 @@ the resulting=20 might still be co= nsidered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely= to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not= exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of=20 All ducks are now swimming, we must append a marker fro= m selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example3" /> ro datka ca ca'a flulimna + +ca'a All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are now actually swimming by floating. A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, wheth= er for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before=20 ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky. is false in both = Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present= fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least on= e duck that is not swimming now. Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some duck= s have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have = been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at al= l). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming - = it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 + +innate capability ka'eexpresses this notion of innate capability: + +ka'e + +innate capability <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example4" /> ro datka ka'e flulimna + +ka'e All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are innately capable of swimming. Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in = order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals= belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themse= lves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example: + +innate capability <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example5" /> la djan. ka'e viska + +ka'e John [capable] sees. John is innately capable of seeing. John can see. + +can see might be true about a human being named John, even though he has= been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into = his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions m= ight occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for ex= ample). On the other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example6" /> le cukta ka'e viska + +ka'e The book [capable] sees. The book can see. + +can see is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is = not part of the innate nature of a book. Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. T= hey have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that pote= ntial. This may be expressed using=20 nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential: + +undemonstrated potential + +nu'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example7" /> ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna + +nu'o All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers. All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimm= ing by floating. + +undemonstrated potential + +infant ducks Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet. Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then=20 pu'iis appropriate: + +pu'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example8" /> la frank. pu'i viska + +pu'i Frank [can and has] sees. Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing. Frank can see and has seen. + +can see Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for= =20 ca'a,=20 + +ca'a nu'o, and=20 + +nu'o pu'iincorporate=20 + +pu'i cainto their meaning, and are really correct for=20 ca ca'a,=20 + +ca'a ca nu'o, and=20 + +nu'o ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningf= ul with other tenses than the present: + +pu'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example10" /> mi pu ca'a klama le zarci + +ca'a I [past] [actual] go-to the store. I actually went to the store. la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani + +nu'o Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store. Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store (at some understood moment in the future). As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indetermi= nate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example11" /> ta jelca That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn. with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different Engl= ish sentences=20 That is on fireand=20 That is inflammable.The first demands immediate action = (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be = disambiguated with: + +inflammable <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example12" /> ta ca ca'a jelca + +ca'a That [present] [actual] burns. That is on fire. and <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example13" /> ta ka'e jelca + +ka'e That [capable] burns. That is capable of burning. That is inflammable. + +inflammable When no indication is given, as in the simple observative + +observative <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example14" /> jelca It burns! @@ -2494,72 +3002,100 @@ bi'obelongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-point= s of an ordered interval, like English=20 from ... to): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example7" /> mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe. + +breathe I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come. + +breathe (It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.) One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is d= iscussed in=20 . Other uses will probably= be identified in future.
21. Sub-events Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk a= bout sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six= bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine = twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus: + +six-shooter <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example1" /> mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti + +pi'u I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-= launcher. + +cross-product On two occasions, I fire the gun six times. It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the=20 reroiand the=20 xaroidirectly together. However, the non-logical connec= tive=20 pi'uexpresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cros= s product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each of= which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (hence= the name=20 + +pi'u + +cross product + +Cartesian product product: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifi= es very precisely what occurs. In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and even= t contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logica= l connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type: + +interval properties + + +tense direction +event contours <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example3" /> la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska George [continuitive] [initiative] writes. George continues to start to write. + +continues mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum. On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.
22. Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: jai JAI tense conversion + +tense conversion fai FA indefinite place Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the pl= aces of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exch= anging the first place with one of the others: @@ -2621,33 +3157,41 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example7" /> mi cu klama le zarci in which the place structure is determined by position.) Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in= descriptions with LE selma'o: + +tense conversion + + +name-words +LE selma'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example8" /> mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla I saw the place-of eating the cheese. Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no=20 faiappears. Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI: + +temporal tenses <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example9" /> mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan. I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. I know the time of John's death. @@ -2660,28 +3204,32 @@ Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly parall= eled by some use of modals as explained in=20 . Modals and tenses alike can be foll= owed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed = connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect= . However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs = and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two fo= rms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier= versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically intercha= ngeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.<= /para> The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example1" /> mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi + +mu'i I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me. I like you because you like me. places the=20 le nusumti in the x1 place of the gismu=20 mukti(which underlies the modal=20 mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi + +mu'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example2" /> mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi I like you after the event-of you like me. I like you after you like me. @@ -2741,20 +3289,22 @@ , the order of th= e two bridi=20 mi nelci doand=20 do nelci miis the same as in=20 . In=20 , however, the or= der is reversed: the origin point=20 do nelci miphysically appears before the future-time ev= ent=20 mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi characterizing th= e event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event i= n the x1 place of=20 muktior=20 balvi. In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modal= s and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of=20 + +forethought connections and=20 are <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example7" /> mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do Because you like me, I like you. @@ -2878,30 +3428,34 @@ cu'ewith other tense cmavo is through logical connectio= n, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example9" /> do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain? You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow i= t? + +when else Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a= question word: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example10" /> la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru + +je'i Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king Was Arthur a king or will he be? Answers to=20 would be logical= connectives such as=20 je, meaning=20 both,=20 najemeaning=20 the latter, or=20 @@ -2930,20 +3484,28 @@ Here the termset extends from the=20 nu'ito the implicit=20 nu'uat the end of the sentence, and includes the terms= =20 la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point, and the= tagged sumti=20 lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 la'u(of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 ) marks as a quantity. Both terms are= governed by the tag=20 zu'a It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 + +magnitude + + +magnitude +explicit magnitude + +magnitude is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section25-example2" /> la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u lo mitre be li mu Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity] @@ -2954,93 +3516,153 @@
26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e26d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section26-example1" /> .a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe + +a'o fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste
27. Summary of tense selma'o + +tense selma'o PU temporal direction + + +ze'e +temporal direction pu =3D past, ca =3D present, ba =3D future =20 ZI temporal distance zi =3D short, za =3D medium, zu =3D long =20 ZEhA temporal interval ze'i =3D short, ze'a =3D medium, ze'u =3D long, ze'e =3D infin= ite + +ze'e =20 ROI objective quantified tense flag noroi =3D never, paroi =3D once, ..., roroi =3D always, etc. pare'u =3D the first time, rere'u =3D the second time, etc. =20 TAhE subjective quantified tense di'i =3D regularly, na'o =3D typically, ru'i =3D continuously,= ta'e =3D habitually + +ta'e + +ru'i + +na'o + +di'i =20 ZAhO event contours + + +tense direction +event contours see=20 =20 FAhA spatial direction see=20 =20 VA spatial distance vi =3D short, va =3D medium, vu =3D long =20 VEhA spatial interval + +spatial interval ve'i =3D short, ve'a =3D medium, ve'u =3D long, ve'e =3D infin= ite + +ve'e =20 VIhA spatial dimensionality + +dimensionality vi'i =3D line, vi'a =3D plane, vi'u =3D space, vi'e =3D space-= time + +vi'e + +vi'a =20 FEhE spatial interval modifier flag + +spatial interval fe'enoroi =3D nowhere, fe'eroroi =3D everywhere, fe'eba'o =3D = beyond, etc. =20 MOhI spatial movement flag mo'i =3D motion; see=20 =20 KI set or reset sticky tense tense+ ki =3D set,=20 ki alone =3D reset =20 CUhE tense question, reference point cu'e =3D asks for a tense or aspect, nau =3D use speaker's ref= erence point + +nau + +aspect =20 JAI tense conversion + +tense conversion jaica =3D the time of, jaivi =3D the place of, etc.
28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</ti= tle> +<!-- ^^ spatial directions: list of, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>spatial directions</primary></indexterm> <para>The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for= the cmavo, first when used without=20 <quote>mo'i</quote>to express a direction, and then when used with=20 <quote>mo'i</quote>to express movement in the direction. When possible= , the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para> <cmavo-list>ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backward= zu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita b= elow downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o = pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>te'e</cmavo> <selmaho>bordering</selmaho> <description>moving along the border (of)</description> </cmavo-entry>re'o adjacent (to) alongfa'a farna towards arriving atto= 'o away from departing fromzo'i inward (from) approachingze'o outward (from= ) receding fromzo'a tangential (to) passing (by)be'a berti north (of) north= ward(ly)ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly)du'a stuna east (of) eastward(ly= )vu'a west (of) westward(ly)</cmavo-list> +<!-- ^^ be'a, 231 --> +<indexterm><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm> <para>Special note on=20 <quote>fa'a</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>fa'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>to'o</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>to'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>zo'i</quote>, and=20 +<!-- ^^ zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>zo'i</primary></indexterm> <quote>ze'o</quote>:</para> +<!-- ^^ ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>ze'o</primary></indexterm> <para> <quote>zo'i</quote>and=20 +<!-- ^^ zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>zo'i</primary></indexterm> <quote>ze'o</quote>refer to direction towards or away from the speaker= 's location, or whatever the origin is.</para> +<!-- ^^ ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>ze'o</primary></indexterm> <para> <quote>fa'a</quote>and=20 +<!-- ^^ fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>fa'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>to'o</quote>refer to direction towards or away from some other = point.</para> +<!-- ^^ to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 --> +<indexterm><primary>to'o</primary></indexterm> </section> </chapter> diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index cd51721..c82461e 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -31,20 +31,22 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumt= i, as here. It is important to beware of eliding=20 <quote>kei</quote>improperly, as many of the common uses of abstractio= n selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of = the abstraction if=20 <quote>kei</quote>had been elided.</para> <para>(Technically,=20 <quote>kei</quote>is never necessary, because the elidable terminator= =20 <quote>vau</quote>that closes every bridi can substitute for it; howev= er,=20 <quote>kei</quote>is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost = always clearer.)</para> <para>The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the sa= me as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be us= ed as observatives, as in=20 +<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 --> +<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />, or used in tanru= :</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-0Ff4"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example3" /> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. @@ -81,20 +83,22 @@ nu NU event abstractor The examples in=20 made use of=20 nuas the abstractor, and it is certainly the most commo= n abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state o= f the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 + +common abstractor ledescription built on a=20 nuabstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 lealone. The following sumti are quite distinct: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d3" /> @@ -104,23 +108,27 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example6" /> le klama the comer, that which comes le se klama the destination + +the destination le te klama the origin le ve klama + +ve klama the route le xe klama the means of transportation le nu klama the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by som= e route using some means through=20 are descriptions t= hat isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri=20 @@ -132,34 +140,46 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example7" /> le nu mi vasxu the event-of my breathing is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal c= ircumstances). On the other hand, + +normal circumstances <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example8" /> le nu la djan. cinba la djein. the event-of John kissing Jane + +kissing Jane is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumsta= nces). + +normal circumstances + +comparison We can see from=20 + +can see through=20 that ellipsis of s= umti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi= of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to= figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recogni= ze that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 + +ellipsis nuabstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ell= ipsized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example9" /> mi nelci le nu limna I like the event-of swimming. I like swimming. @@ -218,180 +238,252 @@ (The=20 whenof the English would also be appropriate for a cons= truction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than t= hat the studying is concurrent with the ease.) The place structure of a=20 nuabstraction selbri is simply: x1 is an event of (the bridi)
3. Types of event abstractions + +event abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mu'e + +mu'e NU point-event abstractor + +point-event abstractor pu'u + +pu'u NU process abstractor + +process abstractor zu'o + +zu'o NU activity abstractor + +activity abstractor za'i + +za'i NU state abstractor + +state abstractor Event abstractions with=20 nusuffice to express all kinds of events, whether long,= short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discri= minating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other = abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, = or four ways of looking at the same event. An event considered as a point in time is called a=20 point-event, or sometimes an=20 achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in t= his context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event ca= n be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought o= f as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor=20 + +triumph mu'emeans=20 + +mu'e point-event-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example1" /> le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri + +mu'e The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.= + +killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a b= eginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a= =20 process. The abstractor=20 pu'umeans=20 + +pu'u process-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example2" /> ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a + +pu'u cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu selcatra + +so'i [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaki= ng-up ) many state-rulers were-killed During the fall of the Roman Empire, + +Roman Empire many Emperors were killed. An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive= is called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 zu'omeans=20 + +zu'o activity-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example3" /> mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe + +zu'o I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump). I am tired because I jump. An event considered as something that is either happening or not= happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a=20 state. The abstractor=20 za'imeans=20 + +za'i state-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example4" /> le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do + +za'i The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. My being alive is dangerous to you. + +being alive The abstractors in=20 through=20 could all have bee= n replaced by=20 nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allow= s every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: the=20 state of runningbegins when the runner starts and e= nds when the runner stops; the=20 activity of runningconsists of the cycle=20 lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...= (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition = of the cycle); the=20 process of runningputs emphasis on the initial spri= nt, the steady speed, and the final slowdown; + +steady speed + +slowdown the=20 achievement of runningis most alien to English, but= sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like=20 + +indivisible Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens(the origi= nal marathon). + +Pheidippides + +marathon + +Athens Further information on types of events can be found in=20 . The four event type abstractors have the following place structu= res: =20 mu'e: x1 is a point event of (the bridi) + +mu'e =20 pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 + +pu'u =20 za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true + +za'i + +continuous =20 zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeat= ed actions x2 + +zu'o
4. Property abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ka NU property abstractor + +property abstractor ce'u KOhA abstraction focus The things described by=20 le nudescriptions (or, to put it another way, the thing= s of which=20 nuselbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderate= ly=20 abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in = space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is=20 the property of being blue, or=20 the property of being a go-er? They are what logicians = call=20 intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 + +has a heart the property of having a heartis an abstract object whi= ch, when applied to John, is true. In fact, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example1" /> la djan. cu se risna zo'e John has-as-heart something-unspecified. John has a heart. + +has a heart has the same truth conditions as <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example2" /> la djan. cu ckaji @@ -415,37 +507,47 @@ do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei] You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red. You are new to me in redness. (The English suffix=20 -nessoften signals a property abstraction, as does the = suffix=20 + + +relationship abstraction +property abstraction -ity.) We can also move the property description to the x1 place of=20 + +property description , producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example4" /> le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi The property-of your being-red is-new to me. Your redness is new to me. It would be suitable to use=20 and=20 to someone who has= returned from the beach with a sunburn. + +sunburn + +beach There are several different properties that can be extracted fro= m a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is=20 understoodas being specified externally. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example5" /> ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei] a-property-of me loving something-unspecified @@ -478,25 +580,29 @@ I love John more than I love George. la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me). John loves me more than George loves me. The=20 Xused in the glosses of=20 through=20 as a place-holder = cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means th= at there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned = in=20 + +ellipsis . Instead, the cmavo=20 ce'uof selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti = is wanted. (The form=20 Xwill be used in literal translations.) Therefore, an explicit equivalent of=20 , with no ellipsis= , is: + +ellipsis <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example9" /> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X). @@ -514,20 +620,22 @@ This convention allows disambiguation of cases like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example11" /> le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of giving the horse + +giving the horse into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example12" /> le ka ce'u dunda le xirma @@ -549,20 +657,26 @@ le xirma ce'u [kei] the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the horse to X) the property of being one to whom the horse is given which is also a possible interpretation. It is also possible to have more than one=20 ce'uin a=20 kaabstraction, which transforms it from a property abst= raction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions=20 + +relationship abstraction + + +relationship abstraction +property abstraction package upa complex relationship for future use; such a= n abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 = place of the selbri=20 bridi, whose place structure is: =20 bridi: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3 The place structure of=20 kaabstraction selbri is simply: @@ -570,59 +684,75 @@
5. Amount abstractions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: ni NU amount abstraction + +amount abstraction + + +amount abstraction +amount abstraction + +amount abstraction Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property = abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted b= ridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example1" /> le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the amount-of (the picture being-blue) the amount of blueness in the picture because=20 bluenesscould be measured with a colorimeter or a simil= ar device. However, + +colorimeter <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example2" /> le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei] the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother) the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?) the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?) makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply d= o not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother. + +measurement scale Semantically, a sumti with=20 le niis a number; however, it cannot be treated grammat= ically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo= =20 mo'e: + +mo'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example3" /> li pa vu'u mo'e + +mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue) 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 ce'ujust like property abstractors. Thus, @@ -658,20 +788,22 @@ niabstraction selbri is: ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2 Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is= to use something like=20 le ni ... kei be. See=20 for the use of thi= s construction.
6. Truth-value abstraction:=20 +<!-- ^^ value abstraction, 262 --> +<indexterm><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexterm> <quote>jei</quote> The=20 blueness of the picturediscussed in=20 refers to the measurable am= ount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of tr= uth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in= Lojban using=20 jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 ni. In the simplest cases,=20 le jeiproduces not a number but a truth value: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1" /> @@ -708,129 +840,159 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi ba jdice le jei</jbo> <gloss>la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</gloss> <gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of</gloss> <gloss>(George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss> <en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section6-example3" />does not imply tha= t George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal syste= m I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,=20 +<!-- ^^ legal system, 262 --> +<indexterm><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm> <quote>jei</quote>requires an x2 place analogous to that of=20 <quote>ni</quote>:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 </programlisting> <para>Abstractions using=20 <quote>jei</quote>are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 <quote>jei</quote>abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclu= sive (as distinct from=20 <quote>ni</quote>abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). = The detailed conventions for using=20 <quote>jei</quote>in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establishe= d.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7"> <title>7. Predication/sentence abstraction + +sentence abstraction The following cmavo is discussed in this section: du'u NU predication abstraction + +predication abstraction There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a su= mti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicia= ns call these the=20 propositional attitudes, and they include (in English) = things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Co= nsider the English sentence: + +propositional attitudes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example1" /> I know that Frank is a fool. + +Frank is a fool How's that in Lojban? Let us try: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example2" /> mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the event of Frank being a fool. Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, an= d can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feel= ing, and the like;=20 comes close to cla= iming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of = the speaker. (In fact,=20 + +mental activity is an instance of = improperly marked=20 sumti raising, a concept discussed further in=20 + +sumti raising ). Try again: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example3" /> mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool. Closer.=20 says that I know w= hether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as=20 + +Frank is a fool does. To catch tha= t nuance, we must say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example4" /> mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the predication that Frank is a fool. + +Frank is a fool Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion=20 Frank is a foolis not a property of=20 + +Frank is a fool le du'uabstraction, but of=20 djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a res= ult,=20 djunolike=20 jeihas a place for epistemology, which specifies how we= know.)=20 has no such implie= d assertion: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example5" /> mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. + +Frank is a fool + +curious and here=20 du'ucould probably be replaced by=20 jeiwithout much change in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example6" /> mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. + +Frank is a fool + +curious As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,=20 du'uhas been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (pi= ece of language) expressing the bridi: du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2 and=20 le se du'u ...is very useful in filling places of selbr= i which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding = bridi: + +linguistic behavior <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example7" /> la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei] John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to = the store John says that George goes to the store. @@ -859,22 +1021,26 @@ lu'eis ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 for a discussion of=20 lu'e.)
8. Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: kau + +kau UI indirect question marker + +indirect question There is an alternative type of sentence involving=20 du'uand a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. I= n addition to sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example1" /> @@ -882,74 +1048,102 @@ we can also say things like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example2" /> I know who went to the store. + +know who This form is called an=20 indirect questionin English because the embedded Englis= h sentence is a question:=20 + +indirect question Who went to the store?A person who says=20 is claiming to kno= w the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other= English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as= know who went to the store. + +verbs + +know who To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a=20 + + +kau +indirect questions le du'uabstraction, but rather than using a question wo= rd like=20 who(=20 main Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatical= ly and mark it with the suffix particle=20 kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically= it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 + +kau is therefore: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example3" /> mi djuno le du'u makau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of X [indirect question] [past] going to the store. + +indirect question In=20 , we have chosen t= o use=20 maas the word marked by=20 kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:= =20 + +kau zo'eor=20 daor even=20 la djan.. Using=20 la djan.would suggest that it was John who I knew had g= one to the store, however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example4" /> mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu + +kau klama le zarci I know the predication-of/fact-that John [indirect question] [past] + +indirect question going to the store. I know who went to the store, namely John. + +know who I know that it was John who went to the store. Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as=20 + +indefinite pro-sumti ma,=20 zo'e, or=20 dadoes not suggest any particular value. Why does Lojban require the=20 kaumarker, rather than using=20 + +kau maas English and Chinese and many other languages do? B= ecause=20 maalways signals a direct question, and so <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example5" /> mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci @@ -963,130 +1157,162 @@ Who is it that I know goes to the store? It is actually not necessary to use=20 le du'uand=20 kauat all if the indirect question involves a sumti; th= ere is generally a paraphrase of the type: + +kau + +indirect question <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example7" /> mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci I know about the [past] goer to-the store. I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, = his identity). because the x3 place of=20 djunois the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fac= t that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a = logical connection, then there is no good alternative to=20 kau: + +kau <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example8" /> mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le panka I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [connective indirect question] George + +indirect question is-at the park. I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park. In addition,=20 is only a loose pa= raphrase of=20 , because it is le= ft to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-t= o-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.
9. Minor abstraction types The following cmavo are discussed in this section: li'i + +li'i NU experience abstractor + +experience abstractor si'o NU concept abstractor + +concept abstractor su'u NU general abstractor There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little u= sed so far. The abstractor=20 li'iexpresses experience: + +li'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example1" /> mi morji le li'i mi verba + +li'i I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child) The abstractor=20 si'oexpresses a mental image, a concept, an idea: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example2" /> mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete. Finally, the abstractor=20 su'uis a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be graspe= d from context: + +vague abstractor <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example3" /> ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running + +mice See how the three mice run! + +mice All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience r= equires an experiencer, so the place structure of=20 li'iis: + +li'i li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2 + +li'i + +experienced Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place stru= cture of=20 si'ois: si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2 Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort= of abstraction=20 su'uis representing, so its place structure is: su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2 The x2 place of=20 su'uallows it to serve as a substitute for any of the o= ther abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example, + +template <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example4" /> le nu mi klama the event-of my going @@ -1106,48 +1332,66 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example6" /> le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape + +Jesus + +intersect type-of-killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race= + +Jesus Note the importance of using=20 keiafter=20 su'uwhen the x2 of=20 su'u(or any other abstractor) is being specified; other= wise, the=20 be loends up inside the abstraction bridi. + +abstraction bridi
10. Lojban sumti raising + +sumti raising The following cmavo are discussed in this section: tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving jai JAI abstraction conversion + +abstraction conversion It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract d= escription is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we= can say: + + +pro-sumti for we +English we + +abstract description <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example1" /> I try to open the door. which in Lojban is: @@ -1159,63 +1403,73 @@ mi troci le nu [mi] gasnu le nu le vorme cu karbi'o I try the event-of (I am-agent-in the event-of (the door open-becomes)). which has an abstract description within an abstract description= , quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), w= e may also say: + +abstract description <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example3" /> I try the door. + +try the door where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door = itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in L= ojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo i= s=20 tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equival= ent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example4" /> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-action-to-do-with the door. The term=20 sumti-raising, as in the title of this section, signifi= es that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even with= in an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is=20 + +intermediate abstraction raisedto the main bridi level. This transformation from= =20 to=20 loses information= : nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was. Using=20 tu'ais a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at = the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepa= red for the listener to respond something like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example5" /> tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a + +lu'u something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!] which indicates that=20 tu'a le vormecannot be understood. (The terminator for= =20 tu'ais=20 lu'u, and is used in=20 + +lu'u to make clear jus= t what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word=20 vormeas such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti m= ight be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example6" /> tu'a la djan. cu cafne something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs @@ -1294,78 +1548,122 @@ (the event-of your death)
11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses This section is a logical continuation of=20 . There exists a relationship between the four types of events exp= lained in=20 and the event contour tense= cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually i= nterdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU even= t types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 + +event types , and only summarized here. The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'orepresent spans of time: before an event begins= , while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. The cmavo=20 co'a,=20 de'a,=20 + +de'a di'a, and=20 + +di'a co'urepresent points of time: the start of an event= , the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event after a st= op, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have breaks i= n them, in which case=20 de'aand=20 + +de'a di'ado not apply. + +di'a The cmavo=20 mo'uand=20 za'ocorrespond to=20 + +za'o co'uand=20 ba'orespectively, in the case of those events which= have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actual ending = point:=20 mo'urefers to the natural ending point, and=20 za'oto the time between the natural ending point an= d the actual ending point (the=20 + +za'o excessiveor=20 superfectivepart of the event). The cmavo=20 co'irepresents an entire event considered as a poin= t-event or achievement. + +co'i All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and a= bstracted with=20 pu'u. Only processes have enough internal structure to = make all these points and spans of time meaningful. + +pu'u For events seen as states and abstracted with=20 za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + +za'i + + +tense direction +event contours pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o; the starting and ending points=20 co'aand=20 co'u, and the achievement contour=20 co'i. States do not have natural endings distinct from = their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped= and resumed.) + +co'i For events seen as activities and abstracted with=20 zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + +zu'o + + +tense direction +event contours pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o, and the achievement contour=20 co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repe= titive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not kn= ow whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat. + +co'i For events seen as point-events and abstracted with=20 mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + +mu'e + + +tense direction +event contours pu'oand=20 ba'obut not=20 ca'o(a point-event has no duration), and the achievemen= t contour=20 co'i. + +co'i Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be = treated as such. The points in time may be seen as=20 mu'epoint-events; the spans of time may constitute proc= esses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes with= in processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract= things. + +mu'e
12. Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 . The connection can be expanded to = one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent in= meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d1" /> @@ -1373,46 +1671,58 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section12-example2" /> le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad. le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. + +quality and quantity This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody kno= ws what uses it may eventually have.
13. Table of abstractors The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for = it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the a= ssociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks th= an for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the fo= llowing line) its place structure. nu event of fasnu nun =20 x1 is an event of (the bridi) ka property of ckaji kam x1 is a property of (the bridi) ni amount of klani nil x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2 jei truth-value of jetnu jez x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 li'i experience of lifri liz + +li'i x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2 si'o idea of sidbo siz x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2 du'u predication of ----- dum x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2 su'u abstraction of sucta sus x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) za'i state of zasti zam + +za'i x1 is a state of (the bridi) zu'o activity of zukte zum + +zu'o x1 is an activity of (the bridi) pu'u process of pruce pup + +pu'u x1 is a process of (the bridi) mu'e point-event of mulno mub + +mu'e x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 25470fb..4c137cd 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1,15 +1,31 @@ Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Str= uctures
1. Why have lujvo? The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu,= made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not = intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal = list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for = the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in = certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, fo= ods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mi= llion or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken togethe= r. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures = and function as selbri. + +world's languages + +word lists + +semantic primitives + +plants + +minimal list + +lists + +compound words + +basis There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, = lujvo are condensed forms of tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section1-example1" /> ti fagri festi That is-fire waste. @@ -29,52 +45,66 @@ Although the lujvo=20 fagyfestiis derived from the tanru=20 fagri festi, it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In = particular,=20 fagyfestihas a distinct place structure of its own, not= the same as that of=20 festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place= structure as=20 festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places o= f=20 fagrias well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there = is no equivalent of=20 be ... bei ... be'o(described in=20 ) to incorporate sumti into the middl= e of the lujvo. So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On he= aring a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tan= ru might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one s= ense, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another = sense, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous= significance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure= and a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo rel= ieves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lu= jvo are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru. + +creative understanding There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly= created lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the com= ponents of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can= be removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented = as one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possib= le standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for thes= e guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should s= uch alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting = any guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for decid= ing on a likely place structure - one that others seeing the same word can = also arrive at by similar consideration. + +alternative guidelines + +absolute laws If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as=20 bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as=20 seor=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo= as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo= may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru cou= ld produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tan= ru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 .
2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour + +necessary detour The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as= - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru= corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvoin Lojban, and since there is no concise English = equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (= modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the s= eltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the v= eljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifierfor=20 seltauand=20 modifiedfor=20 tertaumay help.) The place structure of a tanru is always the same as the place s= tructure of its tertau. As a result, the meaning of the tanru is a modified= version of the meaning of the tertau; the tanru will typically, but not al= ways, refer to a subset of the things referred to by the tertau. The purpose of a tanru is to join concepts together without nece= ssarily focusing on the exact meaning of the seltau. For example, in the=20 Iliad, the poet talks about=20 the wine-dark sea, in which=20 + +wine-dark sea wineis a seltau relative to=20 dark, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to=20 sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or col= or. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in w= hich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of t= he time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or colo= r will be rejected as irrelevant. + +irrelevant As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru=20 klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 + +goer-house zdanihas two places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section2-example1" /> x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 @@ -91,69 +121,89 @@ The tanru=20 klama zdaniwill also have two places, namely those of= =20 zdani. Since a=20 klama zdaniis a type of=20 zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses - whatever th= ey may be - are also houses. But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is neede= d to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a = less unlikely tanru:=20 gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 + +dog house gerku zdaniis a house that has something to do with som= e dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left unstated. Thus, t= he meaning of=20 lo gerku zdanican include all of the following: houses = occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also houses (e.g. h= ouses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is essential= is that the place structure of=20 + +fleas zdanicontinues to apply. + +continues For something (call it z1) to qualify as a=20 gerku zdaniin Lojban, it's got to be a house, first of = all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call that z2). Furthe= rmore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to count as a = dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (called g2). And fi= nally, for z1 to be in the first place of=20 gerku zdani, as opposed to just=20 zdani, there's got to be some relationship (called r) b= etween some place of=20 + +some relationship zdaniand some place of=20 gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there= 's a relationship between some place of=20 zdaniand any place of=20 gerku, then that relationship can be compounded with th= e relationship between the places of=20 gerku- namely,=20 gerkuitself - to reach any of the other=20 gerkuplaces. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be = between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:=20 the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do wit= h the occupant of the house z1. Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here's an illustration. W= e want to find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S. Pres= ident lives, that is) counts as a=20 gerku zdani. We go through the five variables. The Whit= e House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this writing, so it = counts as a=20 + +Bill Clinton zdani. Let's take a dog - say, Spot (g1). Spot has to h= ave a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White House coun= ts as a=20 gerku zdaniif there is any relationship (r) at all betw= een the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate = by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a di= fferent relationship.) The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as=20 The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea = Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White Ho= use)or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take anothe= r dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say= that the White House cannot fit into the first place of=20 + +Chelsea Clinton + +Bill Clinton gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the= dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the = relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambi= guous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if = it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, = can be expressed - thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section2-example3" /> la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o zdani la bil. klinton. The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. + +Bill Clinton Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or E= nglish. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White Hous= e,=20 is arguably true. = If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru=20 gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 gerku zdanichanges. So if we understand=20 gerku zdanias having the same meaning as the English wo= rd=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 gerku zdaniwith respect to Spot, because as far as we k= now Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is = not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding). + +derogatory terms
3. The meaning of lujvo This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say= =20 doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru - the one left deliberately vague - is the precise relation between the = tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving= an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru= . That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we = don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the selta= u. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by t= he specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure = of the lujvo itself. + +disambiguated instance Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujv= o and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more s= pecific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one wil= l be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r. The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the = relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks,= above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should = be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language = compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau pla= ce and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship=20 dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in houseis too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a= single short word; the relationship=20 dog lives in houseis not. From all the various interpre= tations of=20 gerku zdani, the person creating=20 gerzdashould pick the most useful value of r. The most = useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and the most obviou= s one is usually the closest one. In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that th= e predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate = itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like=20 zdaniin Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express relat= ions; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together=20 le zdaniand=20 le gerku, the most obvious relation to pick is the very= relation named by the tertau,=20 @@ -166,20 +216,22 @@ se zdani, turned out to be identical to the dog, the=20 gerku. We can proceed as follows: (The notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) The place structure of=20 zdaniis given as=20 , but is repeated = here using the new notation: + +new notation <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example1" /> z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 @@ -238,81 +290,97 @@ . However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.
5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-maki= ng creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 + +great soldier banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structures are:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example1" /> banli: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3 sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 In this case the s1 place of=20 sonciis redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 pla= ce of=20 banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 balsoineed not include places for both s1 and b1, as th= ey refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 balsoiis at most + +at most <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example2" /> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 + +great soldier Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in additi= on to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 + +symmetrical veljvo tinju'i,=20 to listen(=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirnaand=20 jundiare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example3" /> tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t= 3 + +background noise jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 and the place structure of the lujvo is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example4" /> j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 + +background noise Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays atten= tion) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing = paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard). A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first= place of the seltau (=20 gerkuin this case) is equivalent to a place other than = the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 asymmetrical tanruand=20 + +asymmetrical tanru symmetrical tanruused in=20 + +symmetrical tanru .) In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symm= etrical lujvo. Consider=20 gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the= g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligne= d, we could convert=20 zdanito=20 se zdani(or=20 selzdawhen expressed as a lujvo). The place structure o= f=20 selzdais @@ -333,24 +401,28 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</jbo> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>However, although=20 <quote>gerselzda</quote>is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate=20 <quote>doghouse</quote>; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse.= Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;=20 <quote>gerzda</quote>is simpler than=20 <quote>gerselzda</quote>.</para> <para>From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru.</para> +<!-- ^^ plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284 --> +<indexterm><primary>plausibility</primary></indexterm> <para>The lujvo=20 <quote>karcykla</quote>, for example, is based on=20 <quote>karce klama</quote>, or=20 <quote>car goer</quote>. The place structure of=20 +<!-- ^^ car goer: example, 279 --> +<indexterm><primary>car goer</primary></indexterm> <quote>karce</quote>is:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-S7W3"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example7" /> karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 @@ -376,20 +448,24 @@ kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
6. Dependent places In order to understand which places, if any, should be completel= y removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept o= f dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on anothe= r if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other= places. For example, the g2 place of=20 + + +notation conventions +lujvo place structure gerkuis dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we= know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then = we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent p= laces provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzdathe dependent g2 place is removed from the tentat= ive place structure given in=20 , leaving the plac= e structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1" /> @@ -401,183 +477,251 @@ </example> <para>Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a = lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the dog= house, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-PI6B"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example2" /> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. + +Mon Repos really means <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example3" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. + +Mon Repos since that is the interpretation we have given=20 gerzda. But that in turn means <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example4" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified bree= d. + +unspecified breed + +Mon Repos Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example5" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNAR= D. Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernar= d. + +Mon Repos and in that case, it makes little sense to say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example6" /> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. = Bernard, + +Mon Repos of breed St. Bernard. employing the over-ample place structure of=20 . The dog breed is= redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and = (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed = is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. + +supplementary information As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 + +beetle calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example7" /> calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3 cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2 + +arthropod This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of o= ne gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, becau= se all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits = into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insec= t has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equi= valent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is + +cross-dependency <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example8" /> ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 + +beetle with not a single place of=20 calkusurviving independently! (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us ju= st why=20 cakcinkimeans=20 beetle(member of Coleoptera), since all insects in thei= r adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no w= ay predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature= of beetles in particular.) + +Coleoptera + +beetles + +beetle What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle be= longs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of=20 + +beetle cakcinkicould be eliminated on the same reasoning that = allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of=20 gerzdaabove. However, it is a rule that dependent place= s are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from the tertau of = its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structures of lujvo from= drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a place is necessary = in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as well. In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau i= s a sign that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structur= es imply different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn = the wrong concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is = obvious when someone tries to shoehorn a=20 + +wrong concept + +shoehorn klamatertau into a=20 litruor=20 clivaconcept, for example: these gismu differ in their = number of arguments, and suppressing places of=20 klamain a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resulting= modified place structure is that of=20 litruor=20 cliva. Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau= and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed furt= her in=20 . Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the seltau can be saf= ely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the lujvo's meaning= in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed of dog inhabit= s it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the construction of a sc= hool building what kind of school is in it! Music schools need auditoriums = and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and so on: therefor= e, the place structure of=20 + +school building + +recital rooms + +playgrounds + +elementary schools + +auditoriums kuldi'u(from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be + +school building <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example9" /> d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to aud= ience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem= to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. + +school building
7. Ordering lujvo places. So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into = the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In us= ing selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the su= mti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical:= the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader u= nfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which. If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the= order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this do= es not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo= =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example1" /> di'e jdaselsku la dong. + +di'e This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. + +Dong we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer,= giving the meaning + +Dong <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example2" /> This is a prayer by Dong + +Dong or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example3" /> This is a prayer to Dong + +Dong We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 + +basis discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more neces= sary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessa= ry; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take ad= vantage of any available regularities. + + +multiple SE +lujvo creation We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo a= nd one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like=20 balsoi(from=20 ) has the places of its ter= tau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination proce= ss. For=20 + +elimination process balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banliare b2 and b3, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example4" /> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 + +great soldier just what appears in=20 . In fact, all pla= ce structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the convent= ions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now. The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujv= o bridi-schema <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example5" /> @@ -598,60 +742,80 @@ where=20 gi'eis the Lojban word for=20 andwhen placed between two partial bridi, as explained = in=20 . Asymmetrical lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The= seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rath= er immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first plac= e of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 + +veterinarian danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : + +animal doctor <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example7" /> danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 = using treatment m4 + +ailment and the lujvo place structure is: + + +notation conventions +lujvo place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example8" /> m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment m= 3 + +ailment using treatment m4 Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, the remai= ning seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then t= he remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo. + +animal patient
8. lujvo with more than two parts. The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with t= wo parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An examp= le is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 + +tomorrow future,=20 adjacent, and=20 day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 bavlamdeias having two components:=20 bavla'i,=20 next, and=20 djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure f= or the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usua= l way. + + +notation conventions +lujvo place structure In this case,=20 bavla'iis given the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example1" /> b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 @@ -661,101 +825,117 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example2" /> duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places = before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept= than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of=20 + +tomorrow bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidelines pre= sented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that= must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in orde= r of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example3" /> d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defau= lt 1) by standard d3 Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:=20 cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: + +medieval weapon + +long-sword <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example4" /> clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3 dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made= of d3 xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wield= er xa3 Since=20 cladakyxa'iis a symmetrical lujvo based on=20 cladakfu xarci, and=20 cladakfuis itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the ne= cessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), = and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cu= t) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swor= ds are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is = always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is depen= dent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right= -to-left order we get: + +sword blade <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example5" /> xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wie= lder xa3, + +long-sword with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 cladakyxa'imay not often be explicitly filled, but it i= s still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best t= hat it be last.
9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of= selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo constructio= n for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on = the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word = should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lu= jvo refers to a rare or unusual concept. Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: + +proposed law <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example1" /> stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audien= ce st3 flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 u= nder conditions f4 by lawgiver f5 This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the sec= ond seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, name= ly f1. However, if we understand=20 ti'iflaas an abbreviation for the lujvo=20 selti'ifla, then we get the first places of seltau and = tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 + +lined up selti'iis: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example2" /> selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 = to audience se3 Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1= (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structur= e is: + +can see <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example3" /> f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 @@ -767,34 +947,48 @@ f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.= Abbreviated lujvo like=20 ti'iflaare more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than th= eir more explicit counterparts like=20 selti'ifla(as well as shorter). They don't require the = coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and= the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the luj= vo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then th= e precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbrev= iated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the mos= t straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo= -making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage ana= lyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 + + +y-hyphen + +r-hyphen + + +r-hyphen +n-hyphen +lujvo form ti'iflaare given the place structure they would have wi= th the appropriate SE added to the seltau. Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE inse= rtion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely t= o be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists sho= uld be aware of the risk of ambiguity. + +implausible
10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To = understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some ty= pe of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,=20 posydjidescribes a type of=20 djica,=20 gerzdadescribes a type of=20 zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 gerzdadoes not describe a=20 se zdani- it is not a word that could be used to descri= be an inhabitant such as a dog. Now consider how we would translate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 + +blue-eyed blakanla(from=20 blanu kanla, meaning=20 blue eye). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot= say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10-example1" /> la djak. cu blakanla @@ -838,44 +1032,54 @@
11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as po= ssible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. T= he first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually=20 keand=20 ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We c= an usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau wit= h=20 keand=20 ke'emissing is less plausible than that with the cmavo = inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is + +beefsteak <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example1" /> [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo ( bovine meat ) slice + +bovine because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn'= t seem to be much difference between that veljvo and <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example2" /> bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e] bovine ( meat slice ) + +meat slice + +bovine On the other hand, the lujvo=20 zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o + +sneak in <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example3" /> zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e] crime ( inside go ) to go within, criminally @@ -889,45 +1093,59 @@ [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost i= dentical with=20 anyway?) There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can = produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,=20 xaskemcakcurnumeans=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo + +shellfish <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example5" /> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) + +shell worm (=20 wormin Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 + +invertebrate xasycakcurnuhas the veljvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example6" /> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm + +ocean shell and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells. + +parasitic worms + +clamshells Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starti= ng with=20 + +misinterpretation sel-(from=20 se),=20 nal-(from=20 na'e) or=20 tol-(from=20 to'e): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presume= d to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only = to the following brivla or=20 ke ... ke'egroup. For that reason, if we want to modify= an entire lujvo by putting=20 se,=20 na'eor=20 to'ebefore it, it's better to leave the result as two w= ords, or else to insert=20 @@ -959,44 +1177,52 @@ se dzukla, but we cannot directly make=20 se dzuklainto=20 seldzukla, which would represent the veljvo=20 selcadzu klamaand plausibly mean something like=20 to go to a walking surface. Instead, we would need=20 selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for=20 ke. Similarly,=20 nalbrablo(from=20 na'e barda bloti) means=20 non-big boat, whereas=20 + +big boat na'e brablomeans=20 other than a big boat. + +big boat If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already star= ting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance,=20 gekmaumeans=20 happier than, while=20 selgekmaumeans=20 making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se = gleki' than. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we= can say it is=20 se selgekmau. But we can also say it is=20 selselgekmau. Two=20 secmavo in a row cancel each other (=20 se se glekimeans the same as just=20 gleki), so there would be no good reason to have=20 selselin a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can fee= l free to interpret=20 selsel-as=20 selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations=20 terter-,=20 velvel-and=20 xelxel-work in the same way. Other SE combinations like=20 selter-, although they might conceivably mean=20 se te, more than likely should be interpreted in the sa= me way, namely as=20 + +se te se ke te, since there is no need to re-order places in = the way that=20 se teprovides. (See=20 + +se te .)
12. Abstract lujvo The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of = a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard e= xample,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example1" /> @@ -1058,35 +1284,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example5" /> d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for p= urpose d3 where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by= the places of the seltau. As shown in=20 , the ordering fo= llows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point= where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau. The lujvo=20 nunsoidjiis quite different from the ordinary asymmetri= c lujvo=20 + +asymmetric lujvo soidji, a=20 soldier desirer, whose place structure is just <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example6" /> d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 A=20 nunsoidjimight be someone who is about to enlist, where= as a=20 soidjimight be a camp-follower. One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit= =20 + +abstract lujvo keiin tanru:=20 nunkalri gasnumeans much the same as=20 nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition, many E= nglish words ending in=20 -hoodare represented with=20 nun-lujvo, and other words ending in=20 -nessor=20 -domare often representable with=20 kam-lujvo (=20 kam-is the rafsi for=20 ka);=20 @@ -1118,32 +1348,44 @@ mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying. In making a lujvo that contains=20 jax-for a selbri that contains=20 jai, the rule is to leave the=20 faiplace as a=20 faiplace of the lujvo; it does not participate in the r= egular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 + + +notation conventions +lujvo place structure faiis also explained in=20 .)
13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo + +abstraction lujvo Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producing a clas= s of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. + +implicit-abstraction lujvo + +abstraction lujvo Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 nunctikezgau, meaning=20 to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwi= nded, be patient.) The veljvo of=20 + +feed nunctikezgauis=20 nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structures are:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example1" /> nu: n1 is an event @@ -1174,34 +1416,40 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example3" /> g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depe= nd on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the selta= u, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 + + +notation conventions +lujvo place structure nunctikezgauis: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example4" /> g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoiin=20 , the interpretation of luj= vo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now,= any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnuas its tertau will involve an event abstraction ei= ther implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of=20 + +event abstraction gasnuis defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nuis the type of abstraction one would expect to be a= =20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 nunand=20 kezin=20 nunctikezgauare only telling us what we would already h= ave guessed - that the seltau of a=20 gasnulujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and= use instead the shorter lujvo=20 ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation (=20 someone who both does and eats;=20 @@ -1223,20 +1471,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example5" /> agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 g1 feeds c2 to c1. This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau = serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is c= alled an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an= abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit). + +implicit-abstraction lujvo + +abstraction lujvo To give another example: the gismu=20 basti, whose place structure is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example6" /> b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 @@ -1252,54 +1504,72 @@ g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 where both=20 bastiand=20 basygauare translated=20 replacein English, but represent different relations:= =20 bastimay be used with no mention of any agent doing the= replacing. In addition,=20 gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we would consi= der nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, s= o adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is cons= istent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For ex= ample, the gismu=20 + +verbs + +nouns + +adjectives litki, meaning=20 liquid, with the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example8" /> l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions= l3 can give=20 likygau, meaning=20 to liquefy: + +liquefy <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example9" /> g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of compositio= n l2 under conditions l3. While=20 likygaucorrectly represents=20 causes to be a liquid, a different lujvo based on=20 galfi(meaning=20 modify) may be more appropriate for=20 causes to become a liquid. On the other hand,=20 fetsygauis potentially confusing, because it could mean= =20 agent in the event of something becoming female(the imp= licit-abstraction interpretation) or simply=20 female agent(the parallel interpretation), so using imp= licit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misun= derstood. + +implicit-abstraction lujvo + +abstraction lujvo Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and = therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction luj= vo. For example, lujvo based on=20 + +implicit-abstraction lujvo + +event abstractions + +abstraction lujvo rinka, with its place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example10" /> event r1 causes event r2 to occur @@ -1316,24 +1586,30 @@ event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. + +expressive power + +abstraction lujvo
14. Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 + +unusual position jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example1" /> @@ -1388,34 +1664,42 @@ jdaselskuis a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo. However, there is a further problem with=20 jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gismu=20 lijdaand=20 cuskucan fully express the relationship implicit in pra= yer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor= is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rat= her, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using the= religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion,= or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical. As a result, both=20 seljdaskuand=20 jdaselskubelong to the second class of anomalous lujvo:= the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires. Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the = tanru lists in=20 + +lists , is=20 lange'u, meaning=20 sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sh= eep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed= (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no ove= rlap in the places of=20 + +sheepdog + +sheep breed lanmeand=20 gerkuat all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which co= ntrols sheep flocks, a=20 terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is=20 terlantroge'uwith place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example5" /> g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up of= sheep l1 + +sheep flock in activity j3 of dog breed g2 based on the gismu place structures <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example6" /> @@ -1430,37 +1714,45 @@ Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between=20 lantro(sheep-controller) and=20 gerku, but=20 lantrois itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, th= e breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo=20 lange'uis both shorter than=20 terlantroge'uand sufficiently clear to warrant its use:= its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer luj= vo, for which=20 lange'ucan be understood as an abbreviation. Another example is=20 xanmi'e,=20 to command by hand, to beckon. The component place stru= ctures are: + +beckon <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example7" /> xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happe= n + +commands The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for t= here to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (th= e one who commands). But interpreting=20 + +commands xanmi'eas a symmetrical lujvo with an elided=20 sel-in the seltau, as if from=20 se xance minde, misses the point: the real relation exp= ressed by the lujvo is not just=20 one who commands and has a hand, but=20 + +commands to command using the hand. The concept of=20 usingsuggests the gismu=20 pilno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example8" /> p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 @@ -1491,31 +1783,37 @@ minde ke xance pilno [ke'e] commander type-of (hand user) which lead to the three different lujvo=20 xanplimi'e,=20 mi'erxanpli, and=20 minkemxanplirespectively. Does this make=20 xanmi'ewrong? By no means. But it does mean that there = is a latent component to the meaning of=20 + +latent component xanmi'e, the gismu=20 pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also= means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, ra= ther than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivati= on for=20 xancyplimindeor one of the other possibilities that is = analogous to the analysis of=20 terlantroge'uabove, even if he or she decides to stick = with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the possibilities of e= lliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously - an unavoida= ble fact which should be borne in mind.
15. Comparatives and superlatives English has the concepts of=20 comparative adjectivesand=20 + +adjectives superlative adjectiveswhich can be formed from other ad= jectives, either by adding the suffixes=20 + +adjectives -erand=20 -estor by using the words=20 moreand=20 most, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can= be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau=20 zmadu,=20 mleca,=20 zenba,=20 jdika, and=20 traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to= make, certain special guidelines are imposed. We will begin with lujvo based on=20 @@ -1541,74 +1839,100 @@ citno: c1 is young The comparative concept=20 youngercan be expressed by the lujvo=20 + +younger citmau(based on the veljvo=20 citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example3" /> mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six. + +younger I am six years younger than you. + +younger The place structure for=20 citmauis <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example4" /> z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 + +younger Similarly, in Lojban you can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example5" /> do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six. You are six years less young than me. In English,=20 morecomparatives are easier to make and use than=20 + +comparatives lesscomparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equal= ly easy. + +comparatives Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in= =20 -mauand=20 + +mau -me'aare in fact used much more frequently than=20 + +me'a zmaduand=20 mlecathemselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for su= ch lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo.= But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which = has to do with what is being compared. + +implicit-abstraction lujvo + +abstraction lujvo For example, does=20 nelcymaumean=20 X likes Y more than X likes Z, or=20 X likes Y more than Z likes Y? Does=20 klamaumean:=20 X goes to Y more than to Z,=20 X goes to Y more than Z does,=20 X goes to Y from Z more than from W, or what? We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considera= tions of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared a= lways fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the diff= erent possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau= , and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get th= e following comparative lujvo place structures: + +converting + + +former state +comparative lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example6" /> nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4 selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in am= ount z4 @@ -1625,26 +1949,40 @@ (See=20 for the way in which this problem is= resolved when lujvo aren't used.) The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and th= e other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresse= s by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place= whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while=20 nelcymauhas z4 as its fourth place,=20 klamauhas it as its sixth place. In any sentence where = a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with=20 vemau(for=20 zmadu) or=20 veme'a(for=20 mleca) to help make the speaker's intention clear. It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not pr= esuppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than s= omeone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogen= arian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year= -old has a greater=20 + +younger + +octogenarian + +nonagenarian + + +former state +comparative lujvo ni citnothan the 90-year-old. Similarly, a 5-year-old i= s older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered=20 oldby most standards. There are some comparative concepts which are in which the=20 se zmaduis difficult to specify. Typically, these invol= ve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, where statin= g a z2 place explicitly would be problematic. + +former state In such cases, it is best not to use=20 zmaduand leave the comparison hanging, but to use inste= ad the gismu=20 + +comparison zenba, meaning=20 increase(and=20 jdika, meaning=20 decrease, in place of=20 mleca). The gismu=20 zenbawas included in the language precisely in order to= capture those notions of increase which=20 zmaducan't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have = to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in wit= h a value anyway. So we can translate=20 I'm stronger nownot as @@ -1697,61 +2035,73 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example11" /> z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 We would expect the place structure of=20 xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, g= iven that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting = in: + +comparatives <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example12" /> xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3. The t2 place in=20 traji, normally filled by a property abstraction, is re= placed by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of=20 + + +relationship abstraction +property abstraction traji(whether the most or the least, that is) is presum= ed by default to be=20 the most. But the set against which the t1 place of=20 trajiis compared is not the t2 place (which would make = the place structure of=20 trajifully parallel to that of=20 zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a spe= cial exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of=20 traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo= . Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example14" /> la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists. + +Judy la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka Einstein was the greatest of all scientists. + +Einstein
16. Notes on gismu place structures Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gi= smu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-c= ase analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list = is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, ce= rtain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ord= ering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, an= d which are therefore discussed here. The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of f= our different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and = regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lu= jvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implica= tions of each are roughly as follows: Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has= , the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in= =20 , a brivla with fewer p= lace structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, beca= use they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space. + +virtue Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a con= cept can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need t= o make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it. Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease place= s: it is a pressure tending to provide the=20 right numberof places. If something is part of the = essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the oth= er hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then this= pressure will tend to remove the place. Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or d= ecrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantic= ally related to it are likely to have the place also. @@ -1762,22 +2112,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example1" /> xekri: xe1 is black Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one inte= rpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standard= s here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 + +color standards xekriis explicitly subjective. Objective color standard= s can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 + +color standards ci'u(=20 + +ci'u in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example2" /> jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4<= /jbo> @@ -1795,37 +2151,49 @@ rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 The place structure of=20 rinkadoes not have a place for the agent, the one who c= auses, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-e= ffect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as sno= w melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding o= f the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. + +melting Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from mo= st gismu except for a few such as=20 gasnuand=20 zuktewhich are then used as tertau in order to restore = the agent place when needed: see=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example4" /> cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 The c2 place of=20 cinfois provided as a result of the pressure toward reg= ularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there i= s in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, = aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place m= ust exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like= =20 + +general terms + +diversified species cinki(insect), and are provided for all other animals a= nd plants as a matter of regularity. + +plants Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some = regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of= psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the p= lace structure of=20 klama, for example, that=20 lo klama(the one going) will be talked about more often= , and is thus more important, than=20 lo se klama(the destination), which is in turn more imp= ortant than=20 + +the destination lo xe klama(the means of transport). Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed= . For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place= . Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the dest= ination is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as=20 + +the destination under conditionsand=20 by standard, which often go unfilled, are moved to near= the end of the place structure.
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index ab11fa8..74ebba2 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,117 +1,167 @@ Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Ind= icators
1. What are attitudinal indicators? + +attitudinal indicators This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words + +tone of voice <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example1" /> John is coming. can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's fee= ling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of= tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with var= ious sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the=20 + +tone of voice + +happiness Oooh!,=20 Arrgh!,=20 Ugh!, and=20 Yecch!in the title. These are part of the English langu= age; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't find= any of these words in a dictionary. In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Th= erefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known a= s=20 attitudinal indicators, or just=20 + +attitudinal indicators attitudinals. This rule seems awkward and clunky to Eng= lish-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doi= ng things. The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them = at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevai= ling attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentio= ned following=20 + +attitudinal indicators : <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example6" /> .ui la djan klama [Whee!] John is coming! .uu la djan klama [Alas!] John is coming. .a'o la djan klama + +a'o [Hopefully] John is coming. .ue la djan klama + +ue [Wow!] John is coming! .ianai la djan klama + +ianai [Nonsense!] John is coming. The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV= or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by th= eir form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the f= orm V'V, the four standard diphthongs (=20 + +vowel pairs .ai,=20 .au,=20 .ei, and=20 .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted on= ly in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (=20 + +borrowings + +attitudinal indicators .ia,=20 .ie,=20 .ii,=20 .io,=20 .iu,=20 .ua,=20 .ue,=20 + +ue .ui,=20 .uo, and=20 .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a period before= it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginning with a= vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators described = in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI. Attitudinals can also be compound cmavo, of the types explained = in Sections 4-8;=20 illustrates one su= ch possibility, the compound attitudinal=20 .ianai. In attitudinals,=20 + +ianai -naiindicates polar negation: the opposite of the simpl= e attitudinal without the=20 -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 .iaexpresses belief, since=20 .ianaiexpresses disbelief. + +ianai In addition to the attitudinals, there are other classes of indi= cators: intensity markers, emotion categories, attitudinal modifiers, obser= vationals, and discursives. All of them are grammatically equivalent, which= is why they are treated together in this chapter. + +attitudinal modifiers Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respec= t to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indic= ators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. I= ndicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they ap= ply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in=20 . Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in= four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a= corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fou= rth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the appr= oximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with=20 -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omitted, ind= icates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and shows the= approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with=20 -cu'i. The cmavo=20 + +cu'i cu'ibelongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more fully= in=20 + +cu'i . One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is= that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing yo= ur feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource = of the written word. So the gloss for=20 + +feelings .uishould not really be=20 happinessbut some sound or tone that expresses happines= s. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or ob= vious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emo= tions Lojban speakers can readily express. + +happiness Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific g= ismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of= the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, t= hus: [gismu]. + +square brackets
2. Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. + +real world Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicatorsexpress the way the speaker is f= eeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators com= prise the attitudinals which begin with=20 uor=20 oand many of those beginning with=20 i. The cmavo beginning with=20 uare simple emotions, which represent the speaker's rea= ction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be. .ua discovery confusion=20 .u'a gain loss .ue surprise no surprise expectation + +ue .u'e wonder commonplace .ui happiness unhappiness + +happiness .u'i amusement weariness .uo completion incompleteness .u'o courage timidity cowardice .uu pity cruelty .u'u repentance lack of regret innocence + +u'u Here are some typical uses of the=20 uattitudinals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d3" /> @@ -123,79 +173,99 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example6" /> .ua mi facki fi le mi mapku [Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat= ] .u'a mi facki fi le mi mapku [Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]<= /en> .ui mi facki fi le mi mapku [Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness] + +happiness .uo mi facki fi le mi mapku [At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is com= plete] .uu do cortu [Pity!] You feel-pain. [expresses speaker's sympathy] + +sympathy .u'u do cortu + +u'u [Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels gui= lty] In=20 , note that the at= titudinal=20 .uois translated by an English non-attitudinal phrase:= =20 + +attitudinal phrase At last!It is common for the English equivalents of Loj= ban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less normal= grammar, but actually expressions of emotion. In particular, both=20 .uuand=20 .u'ucan be translated into English as=20 + +u'u I'm sorry; the difference between these two attitudes f= requently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, lead= ing to responses like=20 Why are you sorry? It's not your fault! It is important to realize that=20 .uu, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used = sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation=20 Pity!is just as likely to be ironically intended, but t= his usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally) = as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps wo= rse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than mi= sunderstood statements. The following examples display the effects of=20 naiand=20 cu'iwhen suffixed to an attitudinal: + +cu'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example9" /> .ue la djan. klama + +ue [Surprise!] John comes. .uecu'i la djan. klama [Ho hum.] John comes. .uenai la djan. klama [Expected!] John comes. In=20 , John's coming ha= s been anticipated by the speaker. In=20 + +anticipated and=20 , no such anticipa= tion has been made, but in=20 the lack-of-antici= pation goes no further - in=20 , it amounts to ac= tual surprise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 oor=20 ifrom those beginning with=20 u, but in general they represent more complex, more amb= ivalent, or more difficult emotions. .o'a pride modesty shame=20 .o'e closeness detachment distance .oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure .o'i caution boldness rashness + +o'i .o'o patience mere tolerance anger .o'u relaxation composure stress + +o'u Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example10" /> .oi la djan. klama [Complaint!] John is coming. @@ -204,60 +274,70 @@ Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming= . The word=20 .oiis derived from the Yiddish word=20 oyof similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddi= sh origin. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example11" /> .o'onai la djan. klama + +o'onai [Anger!] John is coming! Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example12" /> .o'i la djan. klama + +o'i [Beware!] John is coming. Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example14" /> .o'ecu'i la djan. klama + +o'ecu'i [Detachment!] John is coming. .o'u la djan. klama + +o'u [Phew!] John is coming. In=20 and=20 , John's arrival = is no problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance = from the situation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a reli= ef of some kind. The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 iare those which could not be fitted into the=20 uor=20 ogroups because there was a lack of room, so they are a= mixed lot.=20 .ia,=20 .i'a,=20 .ie, and=20 .i'edo not appear here, as they belong in=20 + +i'e instead. .ii fear nervousness security=20 .i'i togetherness privacy .io respect disrespect .i'o appreciation envy .iu love no love lost hatred .i'u familiarity mystery @@ -271,25 +351,29 @@ .ii smacu [Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse Eek! A mouse! la djan. .iu klama John [love!] is coming. la djan. .ionai klama + +ionai John [disrespect!] is coming. shows an attitude= -colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by t= he observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaki= ng toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like=20 + +observative a lot. and=20 use attitudinals = that follow=20 la djan.rather than being at the beginning of the sente= nce. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the = event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Co= mpare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example18" /> @@ -301,49 +385,67 @@ where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. is a compact way = of swearing at John: you could translate it as=20 That good-for-nothing John is coming.
3. Propositional attitude indicators As mentioned at the beginning of=20 , attitudinals may be divid= ed into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, = and a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 + + +real world +hypothetical world what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in Engl= ish) something like=20 I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The em= otion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically in= dependent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like=20 I intend to go to the market, where the main claim is l= ogically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually= going to the market, but merely that I intend to. There is no sharp distinction between attitudinals beginning wit= h=20 aand those beginning with=20 e; however, the original intent (not entirely realized = due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was to ma= ke the members of the=20 a-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a pot= ential world, while the members of the=20 e-series were more ambivalent or complex about the spea= ker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship between th= e=20 a-series and the=20 e-series is similar to that between the=20 u-series and the=20 o-series, respectively. A few propositional attitude in= dicators overflowed into the=20 i-series as well. In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and propos= itional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:=20 + +propositional attitudes .u'ucan be seen as a propositional attitude indicator m= eaning=20 + +u'u I regret that ..., and=20 .a'e(discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion mea= ning=20 I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 logical languageaspect. + +logical language + +aspect Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 a: .a'a attentive inattentive avoiding=20 + +a'a .a'e alertness exhaustion .ai intent indecision refusal .a'i effort no real effort repose + +a'i .a'o hope despair + +a'o .au desire indifference reluctance .a'u interest no interest repulsion Some examples (of a parental kind): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example2" /> @@ -353,143 +455,187 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example7" /> .a'a do zgana le veltivni + +a'a [attentive] you observe the television-receiver. + +television I'm noticing that you are watching the TV. .a'enai do ranji bacru + +a'enai [exhaustion] you continuously utter. I'm worn out by your continuous talking. + +continuous .ai mi benji do le ckana [intent] I transfer you to-the bed. I'm putting you to bed. .a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo + +a'i [effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-= ly become. It'll be hard for me to wake you up. .a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei + +a'o [hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-da= y. I hope I feel better tomorrow! + +tomorrow .au mi sipna [desire] I sleep. I want to sleep. .a'ucu'i do pante + +a'ucu'i [no interest] you complain I have no interest in your complaints. (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decora= ted by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including=20 .oicai, but probably also=20 .iucai.) Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular = bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between co= ncepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these= examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unaccep= tably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 e, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginni= ng with=20 aas the pure-emotion indicators beginning with=20 odo to those beginning with=20 u- they are more complex or difficult: .e'a permission prohibition=20 + +e'a .e'e competence incompetence + +e'e .ei obligation freedom .e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint .e'o request negative request + +e'o .e'u suggestion no suggestion warning More examples (after a good night's sleep): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example12" /> .e'a do sazri le karce + +e'a [permission] You drive the car. Sure, you can drive the car. .e'e mi lifri tu'a do + +e'e [competence] I experience something-related-to you I feel up to dealing with you. .ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau [obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container. I should fill the car's gas tank. + +tank .e'o ko ko kurji + +e'o [request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care. Please take care of yourself! .e'u do klama le panka [suggestion] You go to-the park. I suggest going to the park. Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 i, which are the overflow from the other sets: .ia belief skepticism disbelief=20 .i'a acceptance blame .ie agreement disagreement .i'e approval non-approval disapproval + +i'e Still more examples (much, much later): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example16" /> .ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi + +ianai [disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me. I can't believe you thought you could fool me. do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani + +i'anai You [blame] did-not return you to-the house I blame you for not coming home. .ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika be le nu xruti [agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day<= /gloss> of the event-of (you return) It's true I didn't tell you when to come back. .i'enai do .i'e zukte + +i'enai + +i'e [disapproval] you [approval] act I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you. illustrates the u= se of a propositional attitude indicator,=20 i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the b= ridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to=20 + +i'e do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapprov= ed of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely= the listener) is approved of. To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not= meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to s= plit the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of=20 which actually cla= imed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example17" /> do sazri le karce .i .e'a + +e'a You drive the car. [Permission]. You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.
4. Attitudes as scales In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales r= un from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 @@ -499,35 +645,59 @@ negativeare put into quotation marks because they are l= oaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects t= his loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positivewords, namely=20 .ii(fear) and=20 .oi(pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly though= t of as less=20 virtuousin most cases than their negative counterparts.= But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful emo= tions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, while= their counterparts are less commonly expressed. (Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and= they will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales a= rbitrarily, we give the monosyllable=20 naia useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to = recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if n= ot the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 randomorientation, which would have unknown biases and = be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sca= le orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be biase= d in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions define= d, three=20 + +emotional scale positiveones (shown below on the left), three=20 negativeones (shown below on the right), and a neutral = one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The follo= wing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cm= avo. All of these cmavo, except=20 nai, are in selma'o CAI. cai sai ru'e cu'i nairu'e naisai naicai= =20 + +sai + +ru'e + +naisai + +nairu'e + +naicai + +cu'i + +cai [carmi] [tsali] [ruble] [cumki] A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, an= d then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in bec= ause the=20 + +scalar attitude negativeemotions take the extra syllable=20 naito indicate their negative position on the axis, and= thus require a bit more effort to express. Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude wit= hout a scale indicator, if you don't want to stop and think about how stron= gly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we've found that either no sca= lar value is used, or=20 caiis used to indicate especially high intensity. Less = often,=20 + +cai ru'eis used for a recognizably weak intensity, and=20 + +ru'e cu'iis used in response to the attitudinal question=20 + +cu'i pei(see=20 ) to indicate that the emo= tion is not felt. The following shows the variations resulting from intensity vari= ation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d3" /> @@ -537,201 +707,339 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example6" /> .ei I ought to (a non-specific obligation) .eicai + +eicai I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)<= /en> .eisai + +eisai I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not= formal requirement) + +formal requirement .eiru'e + +eiru'e I might (a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permission an= d desire) + +mixed with .eicu'i + +eicu'i No matter (no particular obligation) .einai + +einai I need not (a non-obligation) You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion.= This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about wh= ich you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicato= r=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 + +cai cu'iby itself. + +cu'i
5. The space of emotions Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimen= sional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-= dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are repres= ented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicator= s serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inven= tory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of= the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as = a distinct single point, which is our attitude. + +dimension Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudina= ls to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more t= han one or two emotions at a time - usually the ones that are strongest or = which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system p= rovides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might= be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists expres= s compound emotions when they do recognize them. + +compound emotions The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion.= We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in=20 that multiply the set of sc= ales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale,= which might be expressed by=20 + +magnitude + +feelings cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both the=20 + +cu'i positiveand=20 negativescale emotions at once. One expression of=20 fortitudemight be=20 .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects= several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of= importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression ref= lects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to = us is also revealing - of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. T= here is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express= them; the=20 vector sumnaturally expresses the result. This is vital= to their nature as attitudinals - if you had to stop and think about them,= or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.= People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi jus= t like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying= =20 I'm awedis not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or compl= ex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in lea= rning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of a= ttitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As y= ou learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more preci= sely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.
6. Emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a lo= ng list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available= VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in t= he list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assig= ned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result= is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express= very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common featurewe identified was that the emotional word= s on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of wh= ich was assigned its own cmavo: ro'a social asocial antisocial=20 + +ro'a ro'e mental mindless + +ro'e ro'i emotional denying emotion + +ro'i ro'o physical denying physical + +ro'o ro'u sexual sexual abstinence + +ro'u re'e spiritual secular sacrilegious + +re'e Using these, we were able to assign=20 o'uto mark a scale of what we might call=20 + +o'u generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed,= satisfied, you express comfort with=20 o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate= how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this = scale into six separate ones, should you wish. + +o'u For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible a= s=20 + +embarrassment .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label=20 stressin English are expressed in Lojban with=20 .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be expressed with=20 .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if you say it wit= h feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't know the= answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults can rec= all some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 + +sexual discomfort o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goer who has wand= ered into the wrong kind of religious building. Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categoriz= e it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible = without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotio= ns within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physic= al comfort or vice versa. Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of wh= ich has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional = expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll nev= er see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban pos= sibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably n= ever had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=20 .eiro'u, for example - look it up). + +eiro'u You can use scale markers and=20 naion these six category words, and you can also use ca= tegory words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentratecould be expressed simply as= =20 ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-sp= ecific way,=20 + +ro'e ro'anaiwill express it. + +ro'anai There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based= on moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above = your head and move down your body in sequence. ro'a hands above head social=20 + +ro'a ro'e hands on head intellectual + +ro'e ro'i hands on heart emotional + +ro'i ro'o hands on belly physical + +ro'o ro'u hands on groin sexual + +ro'u re'e hands moving around spiritual + +re'e The implicit metaphors=20 heartfor emotional and=20 bellyfor physical are not really Lojbanic, but they wor= k fine for English-speakers.
7. Attitudinal modifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness=20 + +ga'i rank lack of rank =20 le'o aggressive passive defensive + +le'o =20 vu'e [vrude] virtue (zabna) sin (mabla) + +vu'e + +virtue =20 se'i [sevzi] self-orientation other-orient= ation + +self-orientation + +se'i =20 ri'e [zifre] release restraint control + +ri'e =20 fu'i [frili] with help without help with opposit= ion + +fu'i easily with difficu= lty =20 be'u lack/need presence satiation + +be'u need satisfaction =20 se'a [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency + +se'a It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion categori= es, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. These tende= d to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be though= t of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to= be placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the= attitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understand thes= e modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the attitudi= nals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emotional pi= ctures you can build: + +pictures The cmavo=20 ga'iexpresses the scale used to indicate condescension = or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 + +ga'i + +deference + +condescension .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being belo= w (for=20 ga'i) or above (for=20 + +ga'i ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position. Note th= at it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked= : in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, = as with=20 + +ga'inai doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a statement addre= ssed to a social superior. + +ga'inai <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example1" /> ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani + +ga'inai You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.<= /gloss> I would be honored if you would enter my residence. Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Correspon= ding examples with=20 + +imperatives ga'icu'iand=20 ga'inai: + +ga'inai <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example3" /> ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house= . Come on in to my place. ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani + +ga'i You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.= You! Get inside! Since=20 ga'iexpresses the relative rank of the speaker and the = referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to=20 + +ga'i mi, unless the speaker is using=20 mito refer to a group (as in English=20 we), or a past or future version of himself with a diff= erent rank. It is also possible to attach=20 ga'ito a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the sp= eaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to: + +ga'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example4" /> ga'i le xarju pu citka + +ga'i [High-rank!] the pig [past] eats The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice). When used without being attached to any bridi,=20 ga'iexpresses the speaker's superiority to things in ge= neral, which may represent an absolute social rank:=20 + +ga'i ga'icaiis an appropriate opening word for an emperor's = address from the throne. + +ga'icai The cmavo=20 le'orepresents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom o= vertly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps i= n counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express th= ese feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their c= oach using=20 + +le'o + +feelings ro'ole'o.=20 le'ois also useful in threats as an alternative to=20 + +le'o o'onai, which expresses anger. + +o'onai The cmavo=20 vu'erepresents ethical virtue or its absence. An excess= of almost any emotion is usually somewhat=20 + +vu'e + +virtue sinfulin the eyes of most ethical systems. On the other= hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings - what we call righteous i= ndignation might be=20 + +sinful + +righteous indignation + +feelings o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lack of gui= lt:=20 .u'unai. The cmavo=20 se'iexpresses the difference between selfishness and ge= nerosity, for example (in combination with=20 + +se'i .au): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example6" /> .ause'i @@ -741,71 +1049,99 @@ [desire] [other] I want you to have it! In both cases, the English=20 itis vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi.=20 and=20 are pure expressio= ns of attitude. Analogously,=20 .uuse'iis self-pity, whereas=20 .uuse'inaiis pity for someone else. + +uuse'inai The modifier=20 ri'eindicates emotional release versus emotional contro= l.=20 + +ri'e I will not let him know how angry I am, you say to your= self before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example7" /> .o'onai ri'enai + +o'onai [anger] [control] On the other hand,=20 ri'ecan be used by itself to signal an emotional outbur= st. + +ri'e The cmavo=20 fu'imay express a reason for feeling the way we do, as = opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionally= determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between th= e mental discomfort mentioned in=20 + +mental discomfort + +fu'i when it is felt on an easy = test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, = you could use=20 .o'ufu'ito show appreciation for the assistance in your= comfort. The cmavo=20 be'uexpresses, roughly speaking, whether the emotion it= modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, something y= ou have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more or less th= e attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo=20 + +be'u mo'a,=20 + +mo'a rau, and=20 + +rau du'e(these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in= =20 + +du'e ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example8" /> .uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!] might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.= + +large meal Like all modifiers,=20 be'ucan be used alone: + +be'u <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example9" /> le cukta be'u cu zvati ma + +be'u The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?] Where's the book? - I need it! Lastly, the modifier=20 se'ashows whether the feeling is associated with self-s= ufficiency or with dependence on others. + +se'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example10" /> .e'ese'a [I can!] [self-sufficient!] I can do it all by myself! @@ -817,20 +1153,22 @@ .e'ese'anai [I can!] [dependent] I can do it if you help me. from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss = of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the=20 .e'ein=20 + +e'e and=20 , leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example12" /> .e'enaise'a [I can't!] [self-sufficient] @@ -850,32 +1188,40 @@ I can't do it by myself! Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to us= e. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combination= s will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, ano= ther person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what= emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known= and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations w= ill come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.
8. Compound indicators The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are= optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still gram= matical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of = the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed i= s presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo= has some meaning. Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of inte= rpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modi= fier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one.= (There is an=20 unspecified emotionword,=20 + +unspecified emotion ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a = modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous= but distinct emotional expression.) + +ge'e For example,=20 .ieru'eexpresses a weak positive value on the scale of = agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with somethi= ng else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But= =20 .ie ge'eru'eexpresses agreement (at an unspecified leve= l), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a weak level. = A rough English equivalent of=20 + +unstated emotion .ie ge'eru'emight be=20 I agree, but ...where the=20 butis left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always exp= ressed in English by English attitudinals.) A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. Y= ou put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the = latter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of inf= ormation expressible. For example,=20 .oinaicu'i ro'ucaiexpresses a feeling midway between pa= in (=20 .oi) and pleasure (=20 .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. + +ro'u The cmavo=20 naiis the most tightly bound modifier in the language: = it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words us= ed in indicator constructs,=20 naiis the only one with any meaning outside the indicat= or system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and= its=20 nainegator, the=20 naiwill end up negating the last word of the indicator.= The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section8-example1" /> @@ -906,73 +1252,97 @@ attitudinal=20 nai intensity-word=20 nai modifier=20 nai intensity-word=20 nai (possibly repeated) ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an at= titudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2= nd or greater position, either=20 + +ge'e ge'eor a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers = from modifying the previous attitudinal. + +ge'e
9. The uses of indicators The behavior of indicators in the=20 outside grammaris nearly as simple as their internal st= ructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalingu= istic erasers=20 + +metalinguistic erasers si,=20 sa, and=20 suand some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The de= tails of such interactions are discussed in=20 . A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicato= r may, except in those few situations (as in=20 zoquotation, explained in=20 ) where compound cmavo may not be us= ed. At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything followi= ng them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, = and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentence= s. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches = to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is bei= ng expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers. If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a= cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct = pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism= , discussed in=20 , for explicitly marking the range o= f words to which an indicator applies. More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they inte= ract with other specialized cmavo, are given in=20 . It is worth mentioning that real-w= orld interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rul= es. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a mini= mum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional= expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a s= ystematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive leve= l. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator h= as some uncertainty. For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together,= the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to = interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, o= r to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For = example, in + +multiple indicators <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section9-example1" /> mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi + +o'onai I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!] can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 Damn, I snapped at you; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 I told you, you pest! Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as= the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla.= Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, = this ambiguity is acceptable. Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impr= actical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in wr= itten expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move w= ords around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of bo= dy language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.
10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours + +empathy The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pei attitude question=20 dai empathy + +empathy + +dai bu'o start emotion continue emotion end emotion + +bu'o You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sen= tence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be= true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more = logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate. The word=20 peiis therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked = by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 How are you?coupled with=20 How do you feel?(which has a slightly different range o= f usage). When asked in the context of discourse,=20 peiacts like other Lojban question words - it requests = the respondent to=20 fill in the blank, in this case with an appropriate att= itudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression.= As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irr= elevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the = questioner. (A=20 + +plausibility + +irrelevant ge'e, however, is always in order - you are not require= d to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 + +ge'e .i'inai, which is privacy as the reverse of convivialit= y.) Most often, however, the asker will use=20 peias a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a res= ult,=20 peiis placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would = have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference betw= een UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usage= s in natural languages: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example2" /> @@ -1022,83 +1392,119 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example8" /> pei.o'u + +o'u [question] [comfort] Are you comfortable? pei.o'ucu'i [question] [comfort] [neutral] Are you no longer in pain? pei.o'usai [question] [comfort] [strong] Are you again healthy? + +healthy Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the ind= icator=20 dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is=20 + +sympathy + +empathy + +dai .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you wa= nt to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi cla= im that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use = of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 + +uuse'inai dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else - exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use= =20 + +dai daiconversationally when you empathize, or feel someone= else's emotion as if it were your own: + +dai <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example9" /> .oiro'odai [Pain!] [physical] [empathy] + +empathy Ouch, that must have hurt! It is even possible to=20 empathizewith a non-living object: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example10" /> le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean= -floor. + +empathy Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank. suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction,= and simultaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it. + +and simultaneously Both=20 peiand=20 dairepresent exceptions to the normal rule that attitud= inals reflect the speaker's attitude. + +dai Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing.= If our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Ther= efore,=20 .ui .ui .uiis not the same as=20 .uicai, but simply means that we are continuing to be h= appy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, continuing to fe= el, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal contour cmavo= =20 bu'o. + +bu'o When attached to an attitudinal,=20 bu'omeans that you are starting to have that attitude,= =20 + +bu'o bu'ocu'ithat you are continuing to have it, and=20 bu'onaithat you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:<= /para> + +bu'onai <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example12" /> .o'onai bu'o + +o'onai + +bu'o [Anger!] [start emotion] I'm getting angry! .iu bu'onai .uinai + +bu'onai [Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!] I don't love you any more; I'm sad. Note the difference in effect between=20 and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example13" /> @@ -1113,381 +1519,673 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example13" />states that you = have (or have had) certain emotions;=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />expresses those = emotions directly.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11"> <title>11. Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ja'o [jalge] I conclude=20 ca'e I define + +ca'e ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember + +ba'a su'a [sucta] I generalize I particularize ti'e [tirna] I hear (hearsay) + +ti'e + +hearsay ka'u [kulnu] I know by cultural means se'o [senva] I know by internal experience za'a [zgana] I observe + +za'a pe'i [pensi] I opine + +pe'i ru'a [sruma] I postulate + +ru'a ju'a [jufra] I state + +ju'a Now we proceed from the attitudinal indicators and their relativ= es to the other, semantically unrelated, categories of indicators. The indi= cators known as=20 + +attitudinal indicators evidentialsshow how the speaker came to say the utteran= ce; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of eviden= tials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages. = Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language L=C3=A1adan, des= igned by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. L=C3=A1adan's set o= f indicators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator sy= stem. + +lists + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials + + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials +Elgin It is important to realize, however, that evidentials are not so= me odd system used by some strange people who live at the other end of nowh= ere: although their English equivalents aren't single words, English-speake= rs have vivid notions of what constitutes evidence, and of the different ki= nds of evidence. + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma= 'o UI, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of the= m are not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated sc= ales. + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials + +attitudinal indicators A bridi with an evidential in it becomes=20 indisputable, in the sense that the speaker is saying= =20 how it is with him or her, which is beyond argument. Cl= aims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly sub= ject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive,= or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discours= e that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than di= scourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogue= s or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices. + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials Evidentials are most often placed at the beginning of sentences,= and are often attached to the=20 .ithat separates sentences in connected discourse. It i= s in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is = placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect th= e claim made by the main bridi. A bridi marked by=20 ja'ois a conclusion by the speaker based on other (stat= ed or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of=20 ja'oare=20 thusand=20 therefore. A bridi marked by=20 ca'eis true because the speaker says so. In addition to= definitions of words,=20 + +ca'e ca'eis also appropriate in what are called performative= s, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English exa= mple is=20 + +ca'e I now pronounce you husband and wife, where the very ac= t of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban= translation might be: + +husband and wife <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example1" /> ca'e le re do cu simxu speni + +ca'e [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses. The three scale positions of=20 ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is bas= ed on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus=20 + +real world + +ba'a ba'ameans that the statement represents a future event = as anticipated by the speaker;=20 + +future event + +ba'a + +anticipated ba'acu'i, a present event as experienced by the speaker= ;=20 + +experienced + +ba'acu'i ba'anai, a past event as remembered by the speaker. It = is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to f= uture. + +remembered + +past event + +ba'anai <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example2" /> ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu + +ba'acu'i [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain. My leg hurts. A bridi marked by=20 su'ais a generalization by the speaker based on other (= stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between=20 su'aand=20 ja'ois that=20 ja'osuggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not n= ecessarily rigorous), whereas=20 + +deduction su'asuggests some sort of induction or pattern recognit= ion from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). + +induction The opposite point of the scale,=20 su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing specific concl= usions from general premises or patterns. + +su'anai + +abduction This cmavo can also function as a discursive (see=20 ), in which case=20 su'ameans=20 abstractlyor=20 in general, and=20 su'anaimeans=20 + +su'anai concretelyor=20 in particular. A bridi marked by=20 ti'eis relayed information from some source other than = the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was rel= ayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally good= example of=20 + +ti'e ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.= + +ti'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example3" /> ti'e la .uengas cu zergau + +ti'e [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. I hear that Wenga is a crook. A bridi marked by=20 ka'uis one held to be true in the speaker's cultural co= ntext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should b= e agreed on by a community of people - you cannot just make up your own cul= tural context - although=20 + +myth objectivityin the sense of actual correspondence with t= he facts is certainly not required. On the other hand,=20 se'omarks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speake= r as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, s= uch as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line = between=20 + +revelation + +dream ka'uand=20 se'ois fuzzy or even nonexistent. A bridi marked by=20 za'ais based on perception or direct observation by the= speaker. This use of=20 + +za'a + +observation observeis not connected with the Lojban=20 observative, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The= latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclu= sion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view. + +opinion + +observative + +observation + +aspect <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example4" /> za'a do tatpi + +za'a [I observe!] You are-tired. I see you are tired. A bridi marked by=20 pe'iis the opinion of the speaker. The form=20 + +pe'i + +opinion pe'ipeiis common, meaning=20 + +pe'ipei Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be=20 + +opinion peipe'i, in accordance with the distinction explained i= n Examples 10.6-10.8, but since=20 pe'iis not really a scale, there is no real difference = between the two orders.) + +pe'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example5" /> pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo + +pe'i [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed. In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. + +opinion A bridi marked by=20 ru'ais an assumption made by the speaker. This is simil= ar to one possible use of=20 + +ru'a .e'u. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example6" /> ru'a doi livinston. + +ru'a Dr. Livingstone, I presume? (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) + +rhetorical question Finally, the evidential=20 ju'ais used to avoid stating a specific basis for a sta= tement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is n= ot covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 + +ju'a + +basis ju'ais equivalent to using no evidential at all, but in= question form it can be useful:=20 + +ju'a ju'apeimeans=20 + +ju'apei What is the basis for your statement?and serves as an e= vidential, as distinct from emotional, question. + +basis
12. Discursives The term=20 discursiveis used for those members of selma'o UI that = provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utte= rance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular = bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that=20 I also came, we would have to say=20 I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional in= stance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence, whic= h is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are wor= ds or phrases like=20 however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emo= tion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that referen= ce the sentence or text they are found in. Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, o= ften attached to the=20 .ithat separates sentences in running discourse, but ca= n (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems nec= essary or useful. The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, r= oughly organized by function. First, the=20 consecutive discoursegroup: ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast=20 + +ku'i ji'a [jmina] additionally + +ji'a si'a [simsa] similarly + +si'a mi'u [mintu] ditto + +mi'u + +mintu + +ditto po'o the only relevant case + +po'o These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore the= y are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecut= ive discourse. The first,=20 ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argument. The = second,=20 + +ku'i ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The third,= =20 + +ji'a si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerati= ng an additional example. The fourth,=20 + +si'a mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, an= d can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being re= peated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 + +mi'u go'i(of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 ), which is a non-discursive version = of=20 dittothat explicitly repeats the claim of the previous = bridi. + +ditto Lastly,=20 po'ois used when there is no other comparable case, and= thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 + +po'o only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example4" /> mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi + +po'o I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose. Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose. mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi + +po'o I hit [only] my cousin at-locus the nose. I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).<= /en> mi darxi le mi tamne po'o fo le nazbi + +po'o I hit my cousin [only] at-locus the nose. I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else). mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o + +po'o I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). Note that=20 onlycan go before or after what it modifies in English,= but=20 po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward. + +po'o Next, the=20 commentary on wordsgroup: va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words=20 ta'u [tanru] expanding a tanru making a tanru + +ta'u The discursives=20 va'iand=20 ta'uoperate at the level of words, rather than discours= e proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternativ= e English expression for=20 + +ta'u va'iis=20 rephrasing; for=20 va'inai,=20 + +va'inai repeating. Also compare=20 va'iwith=20 ke'u, discussed below. + +ke'u The cmavo=20 ta'uis a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the = particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambiguo= us, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by = expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often inv= olving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The discu= rsive=20 + +ta'u ta'umarks the transition from the use of a brief but po= ssibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive=20 + +ta'u ta'unaimarks a transition in the reverse direction. + +ta'unai Next, the=20 commentary on discoursegroup: li'a [klina] clearly obscurely=20 + +li'a obviously ba'u [banli] exaggeration accuracy understatement + +ba'u zo'o humorously dully seriously + +zo'o sa'e [satci] precisely speaking loosely speaking + +sa'e to'u [tordu] in brief in detail + +to'u do'a [dunda] generously parsimoniously + +do'a sa'u [sampu] simply elaborating + +sa'u pa'e [pajni] justice prejudice + +pa'e je'u [jetnu] truly falsely This group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of = the discourse, so as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that lis= teners often fail to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, = or miss an exaggeration, or try to read more into a statement than the spea= ker intends to put there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the n= ecessary cue, but the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discours= e is often simply clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmav= o may seem fussy to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that=20 + +tone of voice zo'o, for example, is the equivalent of smiling while y= ou speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like=20 + +zo'o What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny. A few additional English equivalents: for=20 sa'enai,=20 + +sa'enai roughly speakingor=20 approximately speaking; for=20 sa'unai,=20 furthermore; for=20 to'u,=20 + +to'u in shortor=20 skipping details; for=20 do'a,=20 + +do'a broadly construed; for=20 do'anai(as you might expect),=20 narrowly construed. The cmavo=20 pa'eis used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is bei= ng fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas=20 + +pa'e pa'enaiadmits (or proclaims) a bias in favor of one par= ty. + +pa'enai The scale of=20 je'uand=20 je'unaiis a little different from the others in the gro= up. By default, we assume that people speak the truth - or at least, that i= f they are lying, they will do their best to conceal it from us. So under w= hat circumstances would=20 je'unaibe used, or=20 je'ube useful? For one thing,=20 je'ucan be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that is= a truth of logic, like=20 All cats are cats.Its counterpart=20 je'unaithen serves to mark a logical contradiction. In = addition,=20 je'unaican be used to express one kind of sarcasm or ir= ony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but actually w= ishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of irony can be= marked with=20 + +sarcasm + +opinion + +irony zo'o(humor) or=20 + +zo'o .ianai(disbelief). + +ianai When used as a discursive,=20 su'a(see=20 ) belongs to this group. Next, the=20 knowledgegroup: ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not=20 + +ju'o la'a [lakne] probably improbably + +la'a These two discursives describe the speaker's state of knowledge = about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the propositio= nal attitudes of=20 + +speaker's state of knowledge + +propositional attitudes , as they create a hypothet= ical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our b= ridi with=20 + + +real world +hypothetical world ju'o; but it may be false all the same. + +ju'o Next, the=20 discourse managementgroup: ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point=20 + +ta'o ra'u [ralju] chiefly equally incidentally + +ra'u mu'a [mupli] for example omitting end examples + +mu'a examples zu'u on the one hand on the other hand + +zu'u ke'u [krefu] repeating continuing + +ke'u da'i supposing in fact + +da'i This final group is used to perform what may be called=20 managing the discourse: providing reference points to h= elp the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next. Other English equivalents of=20 ta'onaiare=20 anyway,=20 anyhow,=20 in any case,=20 in any event,=20 as I was saying, and=20 continuing. The scale of=20 ra'uhas to do with the importance of the point being, o= r about to be, expressed:=20 + +ra'u ra'uis the most important point,=20 + +ra'u ra'ucu'iis a point of equal importance, and=20 ra'unaiis a lesser point. Other English equivalents of= =20 ra'uare=20 + +ra'u above alland=20 primarily. The cmavo=20 ke'uis very similar to=20 + +ke'u va'i, although=20 ke'unaiand=20 + +ke'unai va'inaiare quite different. Both=20 + +va'inai ke'uand=20 + +ke'u va'iindicate that the same idea is going to be expresse= d using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using=20 ke'uemphasizes that the content is the same; using=20 + +ke'u va'iemphasizes that the words are different. Therefore,= =20 ke'unaishows that the content is new (and therefore the= words are also);=20 + +ke'unai va'inaishows that the words are the same (and therefore= so is the content). One English equivalent of=20 + +va'inai ke'unaiis=20 + +ke'unai furthermore. The discursive=20 da'imarks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-w= orld viewpoint (=20 + +da'i Supposing that,=20 By hypothesis), whereas=20 da'inaiinsists on the real-world point of view (=20 In fact,=20 In truth,=20 According to the facts). A common use of=20 da'iis to distinguish between: + +da'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example5" /> ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno + +ju'o + +da'i le du'u ri pazvau If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know= she is pregnant. + +younger and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example6" /> ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno + +ju'o le du'u ri pazvau If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that she is-pregnant. If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is = pregnant. + +younger It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, = and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese alw= ays leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example7" /> ru @@ -1498,27 +2196,43 @@ .)
13. Miscellaneous indicators Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitu= dinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following misc= ellaneous indicators: ki'a metalinguistic confusion=20 na'i metalinguistic negator jo'a metalinguistic affirmer + +jo'a li'o omitted text (quoted material) + +li'o sa'a material inserted by editor/narrator + +sa'a xu true-false question pau question premarker rhetorical question + +rhetorical question + +pau pe'a figurative language literal language + +pe'a bi'u new information old information + +bi'u ge'e non-specific indicator + +ge'e The cmavo=20 ki'ais one of the most common of the miscellaneous indi= cators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what ha= s been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is=20 .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning of a wo= rd or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of = the uses of English=20 whichcorresponds to=20 ki'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example1" /> @@ -1526,340 +2240,500 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi nelci le ctuca</jbo> <gloss>.i le ki'a ctuca</gloss> <gloss>I like the teacher</gloss> <en>Which teacher?</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the= sumti=20 <quote>le ctuca</quote>, and so echoes back the sumti with the confusi= on marker.</para> <para>The metalinguistic negation cmavo=20 +<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 --> +<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm> <quote>na'i</quote>and its opposite=20 <quote>jo'a</quote>are explained in full in=20 +<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15" />. In general,=20 <quote>na'i</quote>indicates that there is something wrong with a piec= e of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or somet= hing else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to the= marked word or construct.</para> <para>Similarly,=20 <quote>jo'a</quote>marks something which looks wrong but is in fact co= rrect. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reaso= ns:=20 +<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>na'inai</quote>means the same as=20 <quote>jo'a</quote>, but would be too confusing as an affirmation;=20 +<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>jo'anai</quote>means the same as=20 <quote>na'i</quote>, but is too long to serve as a convenient metaling= uistic negator.</para> +<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 --> +<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm> <para>The next two cmavo are used to assist in quoting texts written o= r spoken by others. It is often the case that we wish to quote only part of= a text, or to supply additional material either by way of commentary or to= make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo=20 +<!-- ^^ fragmentary text, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>fragmentary text</primary></indexterm> <quote>li'o</quote>serves the former function. It indicates that words= were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation must be gra= mmatical, however, as=20 +<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>li'o</quote>does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot,= for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the = missing tail of a description sumti:=20 +<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>le li'o</quote>in isolation is not grammatical.</para> +<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>sa'a</quote>indicates in a quotation that the marked word or co= nstruct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial, narrativ= e, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a=20 +<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing s= a'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interactio= n with to'i, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>li'o</quote>should appear in the form=20 +<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>li'osa'a</quote>, since the=20 <quote>li'o</quote>was not part of the original quotation. In practice= , this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic exp= ressions, such as=20 +<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>sei</quote>(of selma'o SEI) or=20 <quote>to'i</quote>(of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where con= fusion might result.</para> <para>In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one o= r more instances of=20 <quote>sa'a</quote>, they can be changed to=20 +<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing s= a'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interactio= n with to'i, 321 --> +<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>sa'asa'a</quote>.</para> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>xu</quote>marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail = in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15" />. In general,=20 <quote>xu</quote>may be translated=20 <quote>Is it true that ... ?</quote>and questions whether the attached= bridi is true. When=20 <quote>xu</quote>is attached to a specific word or construct, it direc= ts the focus of the question to that word or construct.</para> <para>Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do no= t stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo=20 <quote>pau</quote>at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener reali= ze that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of writte= n Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The liste= ner is then warned to watch for the actual question word.</para> +<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm> <para>Although=20 <quote>pau</quote>is grammatical in any location (like all indicators)= , it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bridi. Its s= calar opposite,=20 +<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm> <quote>paunai</quote>, signals that a bridi is not really a question d= espite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical question: an = example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 +<!-- ^^ rhetorical question, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>rhetorical question</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ paunai, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>paunai</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section11" />.</para> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>pe'a</quote>is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating t= hat the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:</= para> +<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ figurative speech, 322 --> +<indexterm><primary>figurative speech</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-rXiR"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example2" /> mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani + +pe'a I see the blue [figurative] house. I see the=20 bluehouse. Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some ot= her sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of=20 pe'aunambiguously marks a cultural reference:=20 + +pe'a blanuin=20 could mean=20 sad(as in English) or something completely different. The negated form,=20 pe'anai, indicates that what has been said is to be int= erpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition= is to be ignored. + +pe'anai Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 pe'ahas a rafsi, namely=20 + +pe'a pev. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (cultural= ly dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the= place structure of the components. Thus=20 risnyjelca(heart burn) might have a place structure lik= e: x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 whereas=20 pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figurative, might h= ave the place structure: x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 + +heartburn which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either=20 risnaor=20 jelca. The uses of=20 bi'uand=20 + +bi'u bi'unaicorrespond to one of the uses of the English art= icles=20 + +bi'unai + +articles theand=20 a/an. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with= =20 I saw a man who .... Later in the story, the same man w= ill be referred to with the phrase=20 the man. Lojban does not use its articles in the same w= ay: both=20 + +articles a manand=20 the manwould be translated=20 le nanmu, since the speaker has in mind a specific man.= However, the first use might be marked=20 le bi'u nanmu, to indicate that this is a new man, not = mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged=20 + +bi'u le bi'unai nanmu. + +bi'unai Most of the time, the distinction between=20 bi'uand=20 + +bi'u bi'unaineed not be made, as the listener can infer the = right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still later in= the story,=20 + +bi'unai le bi'u nanmuwould clearly show that this man was diffe= rent from the previous one. + +bi'u Finally, the indicator=20 ge'ehas been discussed in=20 + +ge'e and=20 . It is used to express an= attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing = any attitude. Another use for=20 ge'eis to explicitly avoid expressing one's feeling on = a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o CAI:=20 + +ge'e .iige'emeans roughly=20 I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not. kau indirect question + +kau + +indirect question This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 . It marks the word it is attached t= o as the focus of an indirect question: + +indirect question <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example3" /> mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. + +know who
14. Vocative scales Vocativesare words used to address someone directly; th= ey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 + +direct address la(and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name use= d to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in fact, dis= cursives - but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of list= eners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of = UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negatedwith=20 naito get the opposite part of the scale. Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lo= jban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales= . Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 + +redundancy + +noisy environments naitoo often vital to interpretation of a protocol sign= al, as explained later in this section. + +protocol The grammar of vocatives is explained in=20 ; but in brief, a vocative may be fol= lowed by a name (without=20 la), a description (without=20 leor its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at al= l (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable term= inator,=20 do'u(of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required un= less no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative. + +do'u Using any vocative except=20 mi'e(explained below) implicitly defines the meaning of= the pro-sumti=20 do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the l= istener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired listener= isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speakerand=20 listenerfor clarity, although in written Lojban the app= ropriate terms would be=20 writerand=20 reader. In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the= symbol X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whateve= r) of the listener. The cmavo=20 doiis the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the cmavo of= selma'o COI, explained below,=20 doican precede a name directly without an intervening p= ause. It is not considered a scale, and=20 doinaiis not grammatical. In general,=20 doineeds no translation in English (we just use names b= y themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we somet= imes say=20 Oh X, which is equivalent to=20 doi). One may attach an attitudinal to=20 doito express various English vocatives. For example,= =20 doi .iomeans=20 Sir/Madam!, whereas=20 doi .ionaimeans=20 + +ionai You there!. All members of selma'o COI require a pause when used immediately= before a name, in order to prevent the name from absorbing the COI word. T= his is unlike selma'o DOI and LA, which do not require pauses because the s= yllables of these cmavo are not permitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. = When calling out to someone, this is fairly natural, anyway.=20 Hey! John!is thus a better translation of=20 ju'i .djan.than=20 + +ju'i Hey John!. No pause is needed if the vocative reference= is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal,=20 ju'i lobypli. + +ju'i (Alternatively,=20 doican be inserted between the COI cmavo and the name, = making a pause unnecessary:=20 coi doi djan.) coi greetings Hello, X;=20 Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listener. co'o partings Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate company b= y either the speaker or the listener.=20 coico'omeans=20 greeting in passing. ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us=20 + +ju'i Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X; indicates an i= mportant communication that the listener should listen to. nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise=20 + +nu'e I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener. In s= ome contexts,=20 nu'emay be prefixed to an oath or other formal declarat= ion. + +nu'e ta'a [tavla] interruption=20 I interrupt, X,=20 I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (possib= ly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This c= an be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interrupti= ons will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate respons= e to an interruption might be=20 re'i(or=20 + +re'i re'inaito ignore the interruption). pe'u [cpedu] request=20 Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. It is a= formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 .e'owith a specific recipient being addressed. On the o= ther hand,=20 + +e'o .e'omay be used when there is no specific listener, but= merely a=20 + +e'o sense of petition floating in the air, as it were. ki'e [ckire] appreciation disappreciation=20 + +ki'e gratitude ingratitude Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude towar= d the listener. The usual response is=20 je'e, but=20 + +je'e fi'iis appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanati= on of=20 + +fi'i fi'i. + +fi'i fi'i [friti] welcome, unwelcome,=20 + +fi'i offering inhospitality At your service, X;=20 Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (possibly = in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that=20 + +hospitality fi'iis=20 + +fi'i notthe equivalent of American English=20 You're welcomeas a mechanical response to=20 Thank you; that is=20 je'e, as noted below. + +je'e be'e [benji] request to send=20 + +be'e Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker wishes= to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening.= In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant= (s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 + +telephone conversation Hello? Can I speak to X?. re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready=20 + +re'i Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker is atte= ntive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead = of=20 mi'eto respond when called to the telephone. The negati= ve form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk when th= e speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated=20 Hold on!or=20 Just a minute. mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow=20 + +mu'o Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed the c= urrent utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The neg= ative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows doe= s not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,=20 I'm not done talking! je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt=20 + +je'e Roger, X!,=20 I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt of a = communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to rec= eive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of=20 + +ke'o je'eand=20 + +je'e je'enaiare the grunt typically written=20 uh-huhand=20 What?/Excuse me?.=20 je'eis also used to mean=20 + +je'e You're welcomewhen that is a response to=20 Thank you. vi'o will comply will not comply=20 Wilco, X,=20 I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 je'ebut signals an intention (similar to=20 + +je'e .ai) to comply with the other speaker's request. This c= mavo is the main way of saying=20 OKin Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 Agreed!, although=20 .iecarries some of the same meaning. The negative form = indicates that the message was received but that you will not comply: a ver= y colloquial version is=20 No way!. ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed=20 + +ke'o What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or clari= fication due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative= equivalent of=20 ki'a, and is related to=20 je'enai. The negative form may be rendered=20 Okay, already; I get the point! fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done=20 Over and out, X; indicates completion of statement(s) a= nd communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a = letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been i= dentified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 Wait, hold it, we're not done!and differs from=20 mu'onaiin that it means more exchanges are to follow, r= ather than that the current exchange is incomplete. Do not confuse=20 fe'owith=20 fa'o(selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-grammat= ical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 + +fa'o fe'oto one participant of a multi-way conversation and = then go on speaking to the others. mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification=20 And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although gramm= atically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 mi'eis quite different semantically. In particular, rat= her than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or description) fo= llows=20 mi'eis taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using=20 mi'especifies the meaning of the pro-sumti=20 mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close lette= rs, or to identify oneself on the telephone. + +introduce oneself This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:=20 fe'omi'ewould be an appropriate closing at the end of a= letter;=20 + +fe'omi'e re'imi'ewould be a self-vocative used in delayed respon= ses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as th= e=20 + +re'imi'e mi'ecomes last, the following name is that of the speak= er; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listene= r. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocativ= e expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one vocat= ive expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear. The negative form denies an identity which someone else has attr= ibuted to you;=20 mi'enai .djan.means that you are saying you are not Joh= n. + +mi'enai Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations which a= re drawn from radio use:=20 roger,=20 + +roger wilco,=20 over and out. This form of translation does not mean th= at Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural = languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in speci= fic domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Loj= ban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener ma= y not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protoc= ol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compu= ter communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the = protocol question=20 + +protocol ta'apeiwould mean=20 + +ta'apei Will the speaker yield?
15. A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 + +protocol sei ... se'uindicate the speaker of each sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d4" /> @@ -1905,114 +2779,162 @@ la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar. Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar. .i sei la rik. cusku se'u ta'a ro zvati be ti mi baza speni t= i .iu [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Interrupt] all at this-= place, I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love]. Rick said,=20 Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting marri= ed to my love here. .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u .a'o ko gleki doi ma + +a'o [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Hope] [You-imperative= ] are-happy, O [who?]. George said,=20 I hope you'll be happy, um, ...? .i sei la pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis. xu mi ba terfriti le nu= nspenybi'o [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice, [Is it tr= ue?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-becoming? Pam said,=20 Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding? .i sei la mark. cusku se'u coi baza speni a'o le re do lifri = le ka gleki + +a'o [Comment] Mark says, [end-comment] [Greetings] [future] [me= dium] spouse(s), [Hope] the two of-you experience the-property-of being-hap= py Mark said,=20 Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy= . .i sei la rik. cusku se'u mi'e .rik. doi terpreti [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [I am] Rick, O questione= rs. Rick said,=20 My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.= .i sei la .alis. cusku se'u nu'e .pam. .o'ero'i do ba zvati + +nu'e [Comment] Alice says, [end-comment] [Promise-to] Pam, [clos= eness] [emotional] you [future] are-at. Alice said,=20 I promise you'll be there, Pam honey. .i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i mi ji'a prami la .al= is. fe'o .rik. + +ji'a [Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic]= [emotional] I [additionally] love Alice. [Over and out to] Rick. I love Alice too,said Fred miserably.=20 Have a nice life, Rick. .i la fred. cliva Fred leaves. And he left. .i sei la rik. cusku se'u fi'i ro zvati ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'= o pleji mi + +fi'i [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Welcome-to] all at-plac= e, [You-imperative] drink one coffee with-payer me. Rick said, raising his voice,=20 A cup of coffee for the house, on me. .i sei la pam. cusku se'u be'e selfu + +be'e [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Request to speak to] ser= ver. Pam said,=20 Waiter! .i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i [end-comment] + +re'i [Comment] The server says, [Ready to receive]. The waiter replied,=20 May I help you? .i sei la pam. cusku se'u .e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi = le baza speni fi'o pleji mi + +e'o [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Petition] [You-imperativ= e] serve the (superlatively good) coffee to-the [future] [medium] spouse wi= th-payer me. Pam said,=20 One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.= .i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o [Comment] The server says, [end-comment] [Will comply]. Gotcha, said the waiter. .i sei la rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam. + +ki'e [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks O] Pam. Thanks, Pam, said Rick. .i sei la pam. cusku se'u je'e + +je'e [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge]. Sure, said Pam. .i sei la djan. cusku se'u .y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y. le nu l= e speni si .y. ba speni .y. .y. su .yyyyyy. mu'o + +mu'o [Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Uh] I [uh] very [nonexi= stent gismu] [uh] the event-of the spouse [erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh]= [uh] [erase all] [uh] [over] John said,=20 I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, f= orget it. Er, later. .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u ke'o .djan. zo'o + +zo'o + +ke'o [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Repeat O] John [humor= ]. How's that again, John?said George. .i sei la pam. cusku se'u ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi= farlu + +ju'i [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Attention] George, [Warn= ing] the cup [future] [short] falls George, watch out!said Pam.=20 The cup's falling! .i le kabri cu je'a farlu The cup indeed falls. The cup fell. .i sei la djan. cusku se'u e'o doi djordj. zo'o rapygau + +zo'o + +e'o [Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Petition] O George [hum= or] repeat-cause. John said,=20 Try that again, George! .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. = ga'i + +ga'i [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Partings] all at-plac= e without John [superiority] Goodbye to all of you,said George sneeringly,=20 except John. .i la djordj. cliva George leaves. George left.
16. Tentative conclusion The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage = are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language befo= re. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transc= ription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. Whe= n communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are = often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we e= ver ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could = be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven= , is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, = noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent t= o attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot iden= tify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things = like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed. + +Sapir-Whorf effects + +Kzinti + +anticipated We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinct= ions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. B= ut it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to = choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances = in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using= the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic comments = that act like indicators. We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the syst= em is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try pla= ying around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out w= hat emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may= even find an expression for which there currently is no good English word = and start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? + +feelings There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly =E2=80=93 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity marke= rs. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious l= evel. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of= new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify wi= th those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.<= /para> + +pictures + +at most Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions - words that cannot be defined wi= th the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickl= y take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into = a true system of emotions. There are several theories as to the nature of emotion, and they= change from year to year as we learn more about ourselves. Whether or not = Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an accurate model for human emo= tions, it does support the linguistic needs for expressing those emotions. = Researchers may learn more about the nature of human emotions by exploring = the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They also may be able to use the = Lojban system as a means for more clearly recording emotions. The full list of scales and attitudes will probably not be used = until someone speaks the language from birth. Until then, people will use t= he attitudes that are important to them. In this way, we counter cultural b= ias - if a culture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotio= ns more than others, its members will use only those out of the enormous se= t available. If a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't = express them. Perhaps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear a= bout their emotions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more = strongly than others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; = any difference from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psych= ologists have devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personali= ty; this may be the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural= effect of the type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we alread= y have tools in existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among langua= ges in having such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a= Sapir-Whorf effect will occur and will be recognized. It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system = like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-= cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in = the realm of emotional communication=20 at our mother's knee. Such children will have a Lojban = system that has stronger reinforcement than any typical culture system. The= second generation of such children, then, could be said to be the start of= a true Lojbanic culture. We shouldn't need to wait that long to detect significant effect= s. Emotion is so basic to our lives that even a small change or improvement= in emotional communication would have immediately noticeable effects. Perh= aps it will be the case that the most important contribution of our=20 logical languagewill be in the non-logical realm of emo= tion! + +logical language
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 0db3f01..2e7de67 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -1,16 +1,22 @@ Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section1"> <title>1. Logical connection and truth tables + +truth tables Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself me= ans=20 + +logical language logical language. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t= here are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the n= otions of a=20 + +logical language sentence(sometimes called a=20 statementor=20 proposition), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a= small set of=20 truth functions, which combine two sentences to create = a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that th= e truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only= on the truth value of the component sentences. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section1-example1" /> @@ -19,35 +25,41 @@ is true if=20 John is a manis true, or if=20 James is a womanis true. If we know whether John is a m= an, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether=20 John is a man or James is a womanis true, provided we k= now the meaning of=20 or. Here=20 John is a manand=20 James is a womanare the component sentences. We will use the phrase=20 negating a sentenceto mean changing its truth value. An= English sentence may always be negated by prefixing=20 + +negating a sentence It is false that ..., or more idiomatically by insertin= g=20 notat the right point, generally before the verb.=20 James is not a womanis the negation of=20 James is a woman, and vice versa. Recent slang can also= negate a sentence by following it with the exclamation=20 Not! Words like=20 orare called=20 logical connectives, and Lojban has many of them, as be= fits a logical language. This chapter is mostly concerned with explaining t= he forms and uses of the Lojban logical connectives. There are a number of = other logical connectives in English such as=20 + +logical language and,=20 and/or,=20 if,=20 only if,=20 whether or not, and others; however, not every use of t= hese English words corresponds to a logical connective. This point will be = made clear in particular cases as needed. The other English meanings are su= pported by different Lojban connective constructs. The Lojban connectives form a system (as the title of this chapt= er suggests), regular and predictable, whereas natural-language connectives= are rather less systematic and therefore less predictable. There exist 16 possible different truth functions. A truth table= is a graphical device for specifying a truth function, making it clear wha= t the value of the truth function is for every possible value of the compon= ent sentences. Here is a truth table for=20 + +truth table or: first second @@ -77,36 +89,44 @@ This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and = the second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function i= s also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth= values except the one where both the first and the second sentences are fa= lse, in which case the truth value of the result is also false. Suppose that=20 John is a manis true (and=20 John is not a manis false), and that=20 James is a womanis false (and=20 James is not a womanis true). Then the truth table tell= s us that + +truth table =20 John is a man, or James is not a woman (true = true ) is true; =20 John is a man, or James is a woman (true , = false) is true; =20 John is not a man, or James is not a woman (false, = true ) is true; =20 John is not a man, or James is a woman (false, = false) is false. Note that the kind of=20 orused in this example can also be expressed (in formal= English) with=20 and/or. There is a different truth table for the kind o= f=20 + +truth table orthat means=20 either ... or ... but not both. To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format he= nceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will a= lways be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentenc= es. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result colu= mn, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third col= umn of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the=20 + +truth tables + +truth table ortruth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functi= ons, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function = is, in fact, true (=20 firstrefers to the first sentence, and=20 secondto the second sentence): TTTT (always true) TTTF first is true and/or second is true. TTFT first is true if second is true. TTFF first is true whether or not second is true. TFTT first is true only if second is true. TFTF whether or not first is true, second is true. @@ -116,28 +136,32 @@ FTTT first and second are not both true. FTTF first or second is true, but not both. FTFT whether or not first is true, second is false. FTFF first is true, but second is false. FFTT first is false whether or not second is true. FFTF first is false, but second is true. FFFT neither first nor second is true. FFFF (always false) Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.<= /para> + +truth tables
2. The Four basic vowels Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, = and assigns them the four vowels=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U. These letters do not repres= ent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual= logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. H= ere are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:= + +truth tables A TTTF or, and/or =20 E TFFF and =20 O TFFT if and only if =20 U TTFF whether or not More precisely: @@ -177,32 +201,36 @@ E with second sentence negated FFTT =20 U with first sentence negated FFTF =20 E with first sentence negated FFFT =20 E with both sentences negated Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with=20 U. The three other basic truth= functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of= the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some= of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employe= d. + +truth tables
3. The six types of logical connectives In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section3-example1" /> Mary went to the window and ... + +window where the last word could be followed by=20 the door, a noun phrase, or by=20 saw the horses, a sentence with subject omitted, or by= =20 John went to the door, a full sentence, or by one of a = variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate = such grammatical looseness. Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for lo= gical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cm= avo, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel i= n the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo. Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 Ais=20 a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with=20 @@ -215,27 +243,37 @@ Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth fun= ctions explained in=20 . Therefore, compound cmavo= must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has o= ne cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may als= o contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo=20 se,=20 na, or=20 nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical conn= ection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the f= ollowing sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its= other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar. For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for lo= gical connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by cha= nging the final=20 -Aof the selma'o name to=20 -ek; the reasons for using=20 -ekare buried deep in the history of the Loglan Project= . Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those based= on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventio= nal to use=20 eksas the plural of=20 + +plural ek.) When the term=20 logical connectiveis used in this chapter, it refers to= one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo. Why does the title of this section refer to=20 six typeswhen there are only five selma'o? A jek may be= preceded by=20 .i, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences= . The compound produced by=20 .ifollowed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful t= o think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, je= ks, geks, giheks, and guheks. + +guheks + +giheks There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not= logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be i= ntroduced later. + +joigiks + +giks
4. Logical connection of bridi Now we are ready to express=20 in Lojban! The kin= d of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect= them logically is an ijek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example1" /> @@ -262,27 +300,31 @@ la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man and James is-a-woman. la djan. nanmu .ijo la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman. To obtain the other truth tables listed in=20 + +truth tables , we need to know how to ne= gate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate= them directly by inserting=20 nabefore the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place= the negation within the connective itself. To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix=20 nato the JA cmavo but after the=20 .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix=20 -naito the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word = is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being = negated. So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires=20 + +truth table Owith either of the two bridi = negated (not both), we can say either: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example6" /> la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -332,27 +374,33 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example9" /> la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu John is a woman if James is a woman. This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be= paraphrased as follows:=20 + +principle of consistency If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it.All uses of English=20 + +false statement ifmust be considered very carefully when translating in= to Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold. , which uses the = TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT= as=20 only ifworks naturally only when the right-hand bridi i= s false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. Th= e last gloss of=20 illustrates the u= se of=20 if ... thenas a more natural substitute for=20 + +if ... then only if. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example10" /> la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. @@ -379,114 +427,140 @@ nawould come before=20 se. The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is: .i [na] [se] JA [nai] where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
5. Forethought bridi connection + + +imperatives +bridi connection Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, g= enerally referred to as=20 afterthoughtand=20 forethought.=20 discussed what is called=20 afterthought bridi logical connection. The word=20 + +bridi logical connection afterthoughtis used because the connective cmavo and th= e second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the = form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a sta= tement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been c= ompleted. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example1" /> la djan. nanmu is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to ma= ke + +afterthought connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example2" /> la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu John is a man or James is a woman (or both) provides additional information without requiring any change in = the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or prac= tical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the= use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible t= o construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety o= f ways. In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expr= essing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Foreth= ought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The= forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are ge= ks: + +forethought logical connectives <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example3" /> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). gais the cmavo which represents the=20 Atruth function in selma'o GA.= The word=20 gidoes not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own= selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any conte= nt of its own. The English translation of=20 ga ... giis=20 either ... or, but in the English form the truth functi= on is specified both by the word=20 eitherand by the word=20 or: not so in Lojban. Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not = have any=20 + +giks .iin them. The forethought construct binds up the two b= ridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned. Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are: + +forethought bridi connection + + +imperatives +bridi connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example5" /> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman= . It is worth emphasizing that=20 does not assert th= at James is (or is not) a woman. The=20 guwhich indicates that=20 la djeimyz. ninmumay be true or false is unfortunately = rather remote from the bridi thus affected. Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expre= ssed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as=20 if ... then ...: + +if ... then <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example6" /> ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is not a man, or James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. Note the placement of the=20 naiin=20 . When added to af= terthought selma'o such as JA, a following=20 nainegates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. S= ince GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following=20 nainegates the first bridi instead. Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of=20 ? Possibly because= it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it cond= itional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth funct= ions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to th= e Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought. It must be reiterated here that not every use of English=20 if ... thenis properly translated by=20 + +if ... then .inajaor=20 ganai ... gi; anything with implications of time needs = a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in=20 . Causal sentences like=20 If you feed the pig, then it will groware not logical c= onnectives of any type, but rather need a translation using=20 + +feed rinkaas the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus= : + +event abstractions <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example7" /> le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (i= t will grow). @@ -515,20 +589,22 @@ go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman. Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. A compound cmavo based on=20 giis called a gik; the only giks are=20 + +giks giitself and=20 ginai. Further examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example11" /> @@ -537,26 +613,34 @@ John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman. ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman. The syntax of geks is: [se] GA [nai] and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of t= he machinery of forethought connection) is: + +giks + + +observatives +forethought connection gi [nai]
6. sumti connection + +sumti connection Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical co= nnection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to= be logically connected have one or more portions in common: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example1" /> la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market. @@ -597,20 +681,26 @@ la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does. The second line of=20 is highly stilted = English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excel= lent Lojban. What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for brid= i connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of foreth= ought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones. + +sumti connection + + +imperatives +bridi connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example5" /> ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. @@ -659,20 +749,22 @@ mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man. means that one or more of the component sentences is true. O, however, is different. Work= ing out the truth table for + +truth table <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example3" /> mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man. @@ -780,37 +872,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example2" /> mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris. Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with=20 bo, for every use of forethought connectives clearly in= dicates the intended pattern of grouping. + +forethought connectives What happens if=20 bois used on both connectives, giving them the same hig= h precedence, as in=20 ? <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example3" /> mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris. Does this wind up meaning the same as=20 and=20 ? Not at all. A se= cond rule relating to=20 bois that where several=20 bo-marked connectives are used in succession, the norma= l Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a resu= lt,=20 + +right-grouping rule in fact means the = same as=20 and=20 . This rule may be= occasionally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight= ; in writing intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connec= tives marked with=20 boshould be avoided. The use of=20 bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of mo= re than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of=20 and=20 , parentheses were= used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivale= nts, two sets of them actually.=20 tu'eand=20 tu'uare used with ijeks, and=20 @@ -871,20 +967,22 @@ mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me ). What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider + +sumti connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example8" /> I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and = the office. Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to=20 @@ -916,50 +1014,66 @@ [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u] ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ). The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all = three component sentences are true or all three are false. + +truth table
9. Compound bridi So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have n= o similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical exc= ept for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural= to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for ha= ving different selbri. + +sumti connection + + +imperatives +bridi connection Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed= to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided = as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called=20 compound bridi. Compound bridi result from logically co= nnecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their s= umti. + +compound bridi The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common p= oint: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example1" /> mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan. I go to the market, and I like John. is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi: + +compound bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example2" /> mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. As=20 indicates, giheks = are used in afterthought to create compound bridi;=20 + +giheks + +compound bridi gi'eis the gihek corresponding to=20 and. The actual phrases=20 klama le zarciand=20 nelci la djan.that the gihek connects are known as=20 bridi-tails, because they represent (in this use) the= =20 tail endof a bridi, including the selbri and any follow= ing sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example3" /> @@ -1009,20 +1123,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example6" /> mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.<= /en> The=20 vau(of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail f= rom the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable=20 vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it e= ver necessary to express this=20 + +compound bridi vau. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example7" /> mi klama le zarci [vau] I go-to the market. @@ -1036,32 +1152,38 @@ mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau] where the double=20 vauat the end of=20 terminates both th= e right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms. A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete= sentences, the Lojban observative: + +observative + +giheks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example9" /> klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying=20 , this compound br= idi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. O= nly the presence of an explicit x1 (other than=20 + +compound bridi zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can force the go= er and the walker to be identical. A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of= the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example10" /> klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Ro= me. @@ -1076,60 +1198,68 @@ da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome. The syntax of giheks is: + +giheks [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.
10. Multiple compound bridi + +compound bridi Giheks can be combined with=20 boin the same way as eks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example1" /> mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris= . I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ). is equivalent in meaning to=20 and=20 . Likewise,=20 ke ... ke'egrouping can be used after giheks: + +giheks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example2" /> mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e] I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, or walk-to the school and walk-to the office. is the gihek version of=20 . The same rule ab= out using=20 ke ... ke'ebracketing only just after a connective appl= ies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 cannot be explici= tly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them. Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can h= ave its own set of tail-terms: + +giheks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example3" /> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.<= /jbo> .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the boo= k to John or I take the book from John. @@ -1176,20 +1306,22 @@ mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan. I both go to the market and like John. is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:= + +giheks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example7" /> mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan. I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like Joh= n. @@ -1211,20 +1343,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example9" /> mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/f= rom you. Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equi= valent of=20 + +observatives : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example10" /> ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. @@ -1238,103 +1372,127 @@ mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.= I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).<= /en>
11. Termset logical connection So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and= require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and per= mit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly = one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connec= tives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not= in the selbri, such as: + +sumti connection + + +imperatives +bridi connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example1" /> I go to the market from the office and to the house from the = school. + +to the market from the office The Lojban version of=20 requires two term= sets joined by a logical connective. A=20 termis either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or= modal tag such as=20 puor=20 bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms = together by inserting the cmavo=20 ce'e(of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore= , the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo=20 pe'e(of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combinati= on of=20 + +pe'e pe'eand a jek as a=20 + +pe'e pehejek, I suppose.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example2" /> mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je + +pe'e le zdani ce'e le ckule I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-the house [plus] from-the school. The literal translation uses=20 [plus]to indicate the termset connective, and=20 [joint]to indicate the position of the logical connecti= ve joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example3" /> mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from= -the school. which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 pla= ces only. What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal leng= th? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in= which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 = place of one bridi and the x3 place of another: + + +imperatives +bridi connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example4" /> mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju + +pe'e I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office. can be clearly understood by expansion to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example5" /> mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office. So=20 le brijuis your origin but my destination, and thus fal= ls in the x2 and x3 places of=20 klamasimultaneously! This is legal because even though = there is only one selbri,=20 klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In = addition,=20 miin=20 is serving as a t= ermset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound b= ridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected brid= i-tails: + +compound bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example6" /> mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office. means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the= office;=20 + +to the market from the office le brijuis the x3 place of=20 klamaand the x2 place of=20 dzukla. Forethought termsets also exist, and use=20 nu'iof selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and=20 nu'uof selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal = the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit = side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a = gek, with the gek just after the=20 nu'i, and an extra=20 nu'ujust before the gik: @@ -1356,20 +1514,22 @@ </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12"> <title>12. Logical connection within tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical conne= ctive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is po= ssible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru= that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ba= ll, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue= and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within the tanru= . (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were = always prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: + +pe'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example2" /> ti blanu zdani This is-a-blue type-of house. @@ -1408,52 +1568,64 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example5" /> ti blanu .ije ti zdani the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always= work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blu= e houses, then + +tanru connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example6" /> la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person. would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher prec= edence than unmarked tanru grouping, but: + + +tanru inversion +tanru grouping <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example7" /> la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blu= e team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make s= uch logical manipulations impossible. + +ambiguity of tanru It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points = about tanru logical connection.=20 + +tanru logical connection bomay be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rule= s: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example8" /> la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi + +jabo Terry is rich and ( male or female ). The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 keboth before and after a logical connective: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example9" /> @@ -1463,36 +1635,54 @@ where the first=20 ke ... ke'epair may be omitted altogether by the rule o= f left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instanc= e of=20 ke'emay be elided. The syntax of jeks is: [na] [se] JA [nai] parallel to eks and giheks. + +giheks Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks = instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks: + +tanru connection + +guheks [se] GUhA [nai] Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves wha= t would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru= connection: + +tanru connection + +guheks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example10" /> la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi Alice is both rich and female. Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they= are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanr= u grouping does: + + +tanru inversion +tanru grouping + +guheks + +giks <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example11" /> la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person. @@ -1532,20 +1722,22 @@ But=20 means that you s= ee one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A=20 nanmu je ninmuis a manwoman, a presumably non-existent = creature who is both a=20 nanmuand a=20 ninmu.
13. Truth questions and connective questions + +connective questions So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. The simplest kind of question is of the type=20 Is it true that ...where some statement follows. This t= ype is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example1" /> @@ -1572,40 +1764,44 @@ and=20 are equivalent in= meaning. A truth question can be answered=20 yesor=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of= the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yesin Lojban is=20 go'iand of saying=20 nois=20 nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explained in=20 + +nago'i .) In answer to=20 , the possible an= swers are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example3" /> go'i Fido is a dog. and <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example4" /> nago'i + +nago'i Fido is not a dog. Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth= questions so far discussed. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example5" /> @@ -1632,42 +1828,56 @@ xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)? Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate= answer would be=20 go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would= be=20 nago'i. + +nago'i But that is not what an English-speaker who utters=20 is asking! The tr= ue significance of=20 is that the speak= er desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (i= t is presupposed that only one is true). Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of quest= ion which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the = truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth functi= on which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: the= re is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by = the following table: ge'i + +ge'i GA forethought connective question + +forethought connective gi'i + +gi'i GIhA bridi-tail connective question gu'i + +gu'i GUhA tanru forethought connective question + +forethought connective je'i + +je'i JA tanru connective question ji A sumti connective question (This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of t= he other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and G= UhA, make use of the cmavo ending in=20 @@ -1676,20 +1886,22 @@ .iwere not available, and different cmavo had to be cho= sen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cm= avo assignments.) One correct translation of=20 employs a questio= n gihek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example8" /> la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu + +gi'i Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat? Here are some plausible answers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example10" /> @@ -1708,48 +1920,60 @@ <jbo>nagi'o</jbo> <gloss>gi'onai</gloss> <en>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which)= .</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example12" />is correct but u= ncooperative.</para> <para>As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank = left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore= it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without any= thing for it to connect.</para> <para>The answer=20 <quote>gi'e</quote>, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impo= ssible in the real world, but for:</para> +<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 --> +<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-xtIf"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example13" /> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? + +coffee or tea the answer=20 .e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, i= f not necessarily polite. The forethought questions=20 ge'iand=20 + +ge'i gu'iare used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the= use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the s= tart of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 + +gu'i + +forethought connectives is the forethoug= ht version of=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example14" /> do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi + +ge'i gi loi tcati You desire something-about [truth function?] a-mass-of coffee [or] a-mass-of tea? the answer must be in afterthought form. There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the L= ojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence @@ -1762,56 +1986,68 @@ </example> <para>means=20 <quote>Do you walk or run?</quote>, and is exactly parallel to the Loj= ban:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-3jIq"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example16" /> do cadzu gi'i bajra + +gi'i You walk [or?] run? However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply t= o such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of se= ntence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the convent= ion that a truth question is true if the answer is=20 + + +imperatives +bridi connection yesand false if the answer is=20 no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the = special pro-sumti=20 ko, which means=20 youbut marks the sentence as a command) is true if the = command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may = be translated thus: + +Abraham Lincoln <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example17" /> ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me= . If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me = coffee. In logical terms, however,=20 butis the same as=20 and; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 butis felt to be in tension or opposition to the senten= ce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive c= mavo=20 ku'i(of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 + +ku'i , to the logical=20 .ije.)
14. Non-logical connectives Way back in=20 , the point was made that n= ot every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 + +if ... then andof: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example1" /> John and Alice carried the piano. @@ -1829,24 +2065,28 @@ mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 joi(of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more compone= nts into a mass: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example3" /> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. + +carry the piano covers the case m= entioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that Jo= hn did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility aris= es because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, w= hich can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is lar= ge, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed = in=20 + +supervising . Grammatically,=20 joican appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between= two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in th= e form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example4" /> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci @@ -1856,126 +2096,180 @@ The cmavo=20 kuis the elidable terminator for=20 le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 kuwere elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see=20 le nanmu joiand assume that another tanru component is = to follow; since the second=20 lecannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. N= o such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a = following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are ca= lled joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not gr= ammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails. In tanru,=20 joihas the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: + +mixed with <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example5" /> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball. This is a blue and red ball. + +blue and red Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly = blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue so= mething has to be to count as=20 wholly blueis an unsettled question, though. A=20 blanu zdanimay be so even though not every part of it i= s blue.) There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used i= n the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as y= et in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those = definitions are shown in the following table: A joi B the mass with components A and B A ce B the set with elements A and B A ce'o B the sequence with elements A and B in order + +ce'o A sece'o B the sequence with elements B and A in order + +sece'o A jo'u B A and B considered jointly + +jo'u A fa'u B A and B respectively A sefa'u B B and A respectively + +sefa'u A jo'e B the union of sets A and B + +union of sets + +union + +jo'e A ku'a B the intersection of sets A and B + +ku'a + +intersection of sets + +intersection A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B + +pi'u + +cross product A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A + +sepi'u + +cross product The cmavo=20 seis grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful = with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example6" /> mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. The x3 place of=20 cuxnais a set from which the choice is being made. A se= t is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unli= ke those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' p= roperties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the ra= ts themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theor= y (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logi= c is quite enough for one chapter! + +set of all rats In=20 we specify that s= et by listing the members with=20 cejoining them. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example7" /> ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan. + +ce'o This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John. This is a list of you, me, and John. The x2 place of=20 listeis a sequence of the things which are mentioned in= the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 lo listemeans a physical object such as a grocery list:= a purely abstract list is=20 lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sumti connected b= y=20 ce'oare in a definite order, not just lumped together i= n a set or a mass. + +ce'o So=20 joi,=20 ce, and=20 ce'oare parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken= to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a s= equence respectively. The cmavo=20 + +ce'o jo'userves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sum= ti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals - but ins= eparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brot= hers is: + +jo'u + +brothers <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example8" /> la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. James is-the-brother-of George. possibly adding a discursive element meaning=20 and vice versa. However,=20 James and George are brotherscannot be correctly transl= ated as: + +brothers <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example9" /> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna James and George is-a-brother. since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brothe= r and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the=20 .eis changed to=20 jo'u, however, the meaning of=20 + +jo'u is preserved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example10" /> la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna + +jo'u James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers. + +brothers The tanru=20 remei brunais not strictly necessary in this sentence, = but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are = both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could t= urn the tanru around: the x1 place of=20 + +brothers remeiis a mass with two components, leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example11" /> la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome. @@ -2027,58 +2321,90 @@ which represents quite a different state of affairs from=20 . The meaning of= =20 can also be conv= eyed by a termset: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example15" /> la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas.= prami + +pe'e James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves. at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make th= e pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is onl= y described rather than enumerated: + +lists <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example16" /> la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi James and-respectively George love two sisters. which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, = though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.
15. More about non-logical connectives The final three JOI cmavo,=20 jo'e,=20 + +jo'e ku'a, and=20 + +ku'a pi'u, are probably only useful when talking explicitly = about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called=20 + +pi'u union,=20 + +union intersection, and=20 + +intersection cross product(also known as=20 + +cross product Cartesian product). The union of two sets is a set cont= aining all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets= is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross produ= ct of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered= pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single ele= ment from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following= examples will help: + +union + +intersection + +cross product + +Cartesian product <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example2" /> lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda + +jo'e The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large= . + +union lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu + +ku'a The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things i= s small. + +intersection There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes= =20 and=20 equivalent respec= tively to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example3" /> @@ -2100,22 +2426,26 @@ The following example uses=20 se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example5" /> la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.<= /jbo> + +pi'u cu prami se remei James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha + +cross-product are-lover type-of-pairs. means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Mart= ha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning t= o=20 ; however, that = example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa. Joiks may be combined with=20 boor with=20 kein the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping= of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete para= llelism with logical connections: @@ -2124,95 +2454,119 @@ mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass type-of-two-set asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; t= his is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each= side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of=20 + +non-logical connection casnuis: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example7" /> mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu + +pe'e ( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss. Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in=20 cannot be mechani= cally converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in= the bridi. The forethought equivalent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example8" /> nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la gliban. nu'u casnu Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things= to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI)= tags: + +forethought termsets <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example9" /> la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u] John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-lan= guage Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George. John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, = respectively. associates speaki= ng in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. = We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyon= e's compulsion. + +anyone Joiks may be prefixed with=20 .ito produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically conne= ct sentences. The ijoik=20 + +ijoik .ice'oindicates that the event of the second bridi foll= ows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (whi= ch is handled with a tense): + +ice'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example10" /> mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki + + +syllabaries + +romaji +kanji .ice'o lumci le karce + +ice'o .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u + +ice'o I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. ) List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. represents a lis= t of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the= need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time = order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 tu'eand=20 tu'uas general brackets around the whole list. This is = related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 , because there is no logic= al connective between the introductory phrase=20 mi ba gasnu la'edi'eand the rest. The brackets effectiv= ely show how large an utterance the word=20 di'e, which means=20 + +di'e the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 .ijoiis used to connect sentences that represent the co= mponents of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of= =20 Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned= would join the events=20 Fran hit her headand=20 Fran fell out of the boatwith=20 .ijoi. The following=20 nai, if present, does not negate either of the things t= o be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical o= r non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation: @@ -2220,69 +2574,87 @@ mi jo'unai do cu remei I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome The result of=20 mi jo'u dowould be two individuals, not a mass, therefo= re=20 + +jo'u jo'uis not applicable;=20 + +jo'u joiwould be the correct connective. There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoi= ks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question= , as in the following exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example13" /> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? + +coffee or tea joi Mixed-mass-and. Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together). Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)
16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection= + +non-logical connection In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explai= ned in=20 and=20 , there are three other co= nnectives which can appear in joiks:=20 bi'i,=20 bi'o, and=20 mi'i, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used= to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo= =20 + +mi'i bi'iis correct if the endpoints are independent of orde= r, whereas=20 bi'oor=20 sebi'oare used when order matters. + +sebi'o An example of=20 bi'iin sumti connection: + +sumti connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example1" /> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. + +between Dresden and Frankfurt In=20 , it is all the s= ame whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfur= t and Dresden, so=20 + +between Dresden and Frankfurt bi'iis the appropriate interval connective. The sumti= =20 la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.falls into the x2 place of= =20 sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval sp= ecifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the wh= ole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 sanlispecifies a surface which is typically larger in e= xtent than just the size of the stander's feet.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example2" /> @@ -2297,34 +2669,42 @@ la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) in= terval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the who= le interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example3" /> mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac. + +sebi'o I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First= -hour. English cannot readily express=20 sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by reversing = the two sumti. + +sebi'o The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a different viewp= oint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For examp= le: + +mi'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example4" /> le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno + +mi'i The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose di= stance, or radius, is fifty miles. In=20 , is it possible = that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives o= f selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are inc= luded in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo=20 ga'oand=20 ke'i(of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of = the endpoints:=20 ga'omeans that the endpoint is included,=20 @@ -2337,112 +2717,136 @@ mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both= . + +between Dresden and Frankfurt mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclu= sive). mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both= . + +between Dresden and Frankfurt As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies= to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the = left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand end= point by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO. (Etymologically,=20 ga'ois derived from=20 ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 ke'ifrom=20 kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, includ= ing in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have= been found for these uses. + +tanru connection Negated intervals, marked with a=20 -naifollowing the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that= includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to som= e understood scale): <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example9" /> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. + +e'a You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. + +except from 10 to 12 The complete syntax of joiks is: [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO Notice that the colloquial English translations of=20 bi'iand=20 bi'ohave forethought form:=20 between ... andfor=20 bi'i, and=20 from ... tofor=20 bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be exp= ressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethough= t logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixi= ng=20 + +forethought logical connectives gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a= =20 joigik; the syntax of joigiks is any of: + +joigiks + +joigik [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and b= ridi-tails; and also in termsets. in forethought be= comes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example10" /> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. + +carry the piano The first=20 giis part of the joigik; the second=20 + +joigik giis the regular gik that separates the two things bein= g connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed = in forethought as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example11" /> mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separ= ated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers t= o the first endpoint.
17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar f= or representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 + +mathematical expressions 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are = operands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethoug= ht with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected = in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru c= omponents. (However, jeks and joiks with=20 + +guheks boare not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is n= o accident. In addition, eks with=20 boand with=20 ke ... ke'eare allowed for grouping logically connected= operands, and=20 ke ... ke'eis allowed for grouping logically connected = operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 , and contain many mekso features no= t explained in this chapter. exhibits aftertho= ught logical connection between operands: @@ -2450,20 +2854,24 @@ vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. is equivalent in = meaning, but uses forethought connection: + + +observatives +forethought connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example2" /> vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. @@ -2492,42 +2900,54 @@ li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted b= etween operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to con= nect operands with=20 + +joigiks bi'ito create mathematical intervals: + +mathematical intervals <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example5" /> li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one + +zero to one You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: + +compound subscript + +ce'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example6" /> xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] + +ce'o xsub (=20 bsequence=20 d) x Note that the=20 boiin=20 is not elidable, = because the=20 @@ -2535,20 +2955,24 @@
18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical = connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, = so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with e= mphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapte= r, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI = are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, a= nd the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time = when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses);= preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, = simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generall= y a=20 le nuabstraction; see=20 ). The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connecti= ves are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The form= er are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two c= onnected bridi that differ only in tense: + +logically connected tenses + +connected tenses <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example1" /> la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor. @@ -2572,26 +2996,34 @@ are equivalent in= meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now. Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tense= s: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example3" /> mi pu bi'o ba vasxu I [past] from ... to [future] breathe. + +breathe I breathe from a past time until a future time. + +breathe The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals exp= ressible, such as=20 + +tense system from a medium time ago until a long time from now. No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the g= rammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; th= ese limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can= be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating t= he time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at= least some complications. + +forethought connections Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more import= ant than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example4" /> I went to the market, and I bought food. @@ -2614,29 +3046,37 @@ bais inserted between=20 .ijeand=20 bo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example6" /> mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja + +ijebabo I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of f= ood. Here the=20 pucmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of both= actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The=20 barelates the two items to one another: the second item= is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the=20 bo; if it were omitted, the=20 baand the second=20 puwould run together to form a compound tense=20 + + +tense in scope of sticky tense + +multiple tenses +compound tense bapuapplying to the second bridi-tail only. Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is per= mitted only in the following situations: Between an ek (or joik) and=20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example7" /> @@ -2678,33 +3118,39 @@ mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. Between an ijek (or ijoik) and=20 + +ijoik bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example11" /> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu + +ijebabo I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. Between an ijek (or ijoik) and=20 + +ijoik tu'e, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example12" /> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. @@ -2743,52 +3189,62 @@ vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room. Three and, later, four students were in the room. is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use= when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail con= nection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tens= e. For example: + +pu ge I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food I went to the market and bought some food. is similar to=20 . There is no tim= e relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply = set in the past.
19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</t= itle> <para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is al= lowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection c= an be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in= abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.=20 +<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth quest= ions in, 353 --> +<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted w= ith Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; = with ko, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />are equivalent in= meaning:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-C7PL"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example2" /> le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu = xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Fra= nk's writing is bad. le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. + +quality and quantity As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to= override the left-grouping rule. Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way a= s well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a= logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi in= to two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example3" /> @@ -3044,67 +3500,77 @@ Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, exce= pt for the prefixed=20 .i.
22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title= > <para>The full set of rules for inserting=20 <quote>na</quote>,=20 <quote>se</quote>, and=20 <quote>nai</quote>into any connective is:</para> <para>Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):</pa= ra> +<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 --> +<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para>Negate first construct: Place=20 <quote>na</quote>before the connective cmavo (but after the=20 <quote>.i</quote>of an ijek).</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Negate second construct: Place=20 <quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Exchange constructs: Place=20 <quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo (after=20 <quote>na</quote>if any).</para> </listitem> </itemizedlist> <para>Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks):</para> +<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 --> +<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para>Negate first construct: Place=20 <quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Negate second construct: Place=20 <quote>nai</quote>after the=20 <quote>gi</quote>.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Exchange constructs: Place=20 <quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo.</para> </listitem> </itemizedlist> <para>Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks):</para> +<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 --> +<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para>Negate connection: Place=20 <quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo (but before the=20 <quote>gi</quote>of a joigik).</para> +<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 --> +<indexterm><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Exchange constructs: Place=20 <quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo.</para> </listitem> </itemizedlist> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section23"> <title>23. Locations of other tables : a table explaining the me= aning of each truth function in English. : a table relating the trut= h functions to the four basic vowels. : a table of the connectiv= e question cmavo. + +connective question cmavo : a table of the meanings = of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 5b2016a..1e4b1d9 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,19 +1,21 @@ Chapter 15=20 <quote>No</quote>Problems: On Lojban Negation
1. Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 notwith different grammatical effect must be different = words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. + +logical language In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subjectand=20 predicate. In the statement <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example1" /> John goes to the store @@ -105,20 +107,22 @@ In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both = of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico. The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model= of negation.
2. bridi negation In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical = negation that simply denies the truth of a statement=20 bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the eq= uivalent of=20 I haven't stopped beating my wifewithout implying that = I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply=20 It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.Since= Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negati= on is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level. For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence be= ing negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a neg= ative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradicto= ry, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to + +negative answer <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example1" /> Did you go to the store? is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to @@ -155,20 +159,22 @@ mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. Note that we have used a special convention to show in the Engli= sh that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word=20 not, because this highlights the naturalness of putting= the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to l= earn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with= =20 naand natural language negation with=20 not. In English, the word=20 notcan apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an Engli= sh predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,=20 notmay indicate either contradictory negation or anothe= r form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi nega= tion, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a= contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bri= di. + +internal bridi negation Because of the ambiguity of English=20 not, we will use=20 [false]in the translation of Lojban examples to remind = the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more e= xamples of bridi negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d7" /> @@ -177,23 +183,29 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci</jbo> <gloss>I [false] now am-a-go-er to the market.</gloss> <en>I am not going to the market now.</en> <jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo> <gloss>The-actual present noblest-governor of the French country [= false] is-hair-without.</gloss> <en>The current king of France isn't bald.</en> <jbo>ti na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo> <gloss>This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me).</gl= oss> <en>This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.</en> +<!-- ^^ big person: example, 169 --> +<indexterm><primary>big person</primary></indexterm> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's i= nternal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, es= pecially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo= =20 +<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 40= 1; definition, 401 --> +<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 --> +<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm> <quote>da</quote>,=20 <quote>de</quote>, and=20 <quote>di</quote>of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16" />) in the bridi, you can indeed trans= late Lojban=20 <quote>na</quote>as=20 <quote>not</quote>(or=20 <quote>isn't</quote>or=20 <quote>doesn't</quote>, as appropriate).</para> <para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para> <para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 @@ -207,20 +219,22 @@ <jbo>mi na gleki le nu</jbo> <gloss>na klama le nu dansu</gloss> <gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of</gloss> <gloss>([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss> <gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being</glos= s> <gloss>the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss> <en>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstracti= on bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. Fo= r example:</para> +<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bri= di in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 --> +<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-N65f"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example9" /> mi nelci le na melbi I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful). I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful. @@ -232,33 +246,39 @@ mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the Fr= ench-country). I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France. The claim of=20 could apply to an= yone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation withi= n the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these s= ituations in colloquial English. + +anyone Negation with=20 naapplies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a= selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put=20 nainside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does n= ot allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involv= ing GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you mi= ght want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. Thi= s grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate= from other forms of negation. + +connector The grammar of=20 naallows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out,= as in normal logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example11" /> ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me)= . + +big person which is the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example12" /> ti barda prenu co melbi mi @@ -267,45 +287,51 @@ When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with= =20 nais permitted in two positions: before or after the ta= g. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but thi= s is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals a= nd bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains t= o be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example13" /> mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci + +ta'e I habitually go to the market. mean the same thing with=20 nabefore the=20 ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let= future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other= . + +ta'e A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example14" /> I do not go to the market because the car is broken. as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example15" /> mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu + +ki'u I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken. It is false that:=20 I go to the market because the car is broken. you end up negating too much. Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compou= nded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation o= f the normal interpretation of=20 is: @@ -315,21 +341,25 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu</jbo> <gloss>lenu le karce cu spofu</gloss> <gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified = by</gloss> <gloss>the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss> <en>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example16" />, the negation is= clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not ex= tend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by t= wo separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go int= o here).</para> +<!-- ^^ event abstraction(s): types, 257 --> +<indexterm><primary>event abstraction</primary></indexterm> <para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:<= /para> +<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause an= d/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 --> +<indexterm><primary>causals</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-MGvB"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example17" /> I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle= the Senator. we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We= must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sente= nces. The event-clause version would look like: @@ -385,20 +415,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example4" /> Is the chair green? No, it is in the kitchen. we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur= . But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can= 't say it is entirely irrelevant! + +irrelevant What is going on in these statements is something called=20 scalar negation. As the name suggests, scalar negation = presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one= scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be= true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems = reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversa= tion will help): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example5" /> That isn't a blue house. Right! That is a green house. @@ -530,20 +562,22 @@ Awful Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thu= s we have=20 not necessaryor=20 unnecessarybeing the polar opposite of necessary. Anoth= er scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations= modified by one's philosophy:=20 not truemay be equated with=20 falsein a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tr= i-valued logic an intermediate between=20 trueand=20 falseis permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scal= e exists from true to false. The meaning of=20 + +continuous not truerequires a knowledge of which variety of truth = scale is being considered. We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indic= ating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not = valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This= is the intent expressed in most contexts by=20 not mild, for example. Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive = than scalar negation - it says that the point or value stated is incorrect = (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value= , whether or not on the scale. In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such a= s=20 other than,=20 reverse of, or=20 opposite fromexpressions and their equivalents. More co= mmonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes=20 non-,=20 un-,=20 @@ -568,20 +602,28 @@ mi klama le zarci I go to the market. mi na'e klama le zarci I non-go to the market. Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being use= d in=20 + + +subtraction operator + + +subtraction operator +negative sign +negation operator is=20 na'e. But what exactly does=20 na'enegate? Does the negation include only the gismu=20 klama, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does= it include the=20 le zarcias well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously= =20 only the gismu. The cmavo=20 na'ealways applies only to what follows it. looks as if it wer= e parallel to: @@ -621,20 +663,22 @@ mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market. mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market. These negations show the default scope of=20 na'eis close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru= .=20 + +close-binding says that I am goi= ng to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most t= anru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this= one - see=20 for a discussion of tanru meaning). In neither=20 nor=20 does the=20 na'enegate the entire selbri. While both sentences cont= ain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they a= lso have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship= . This is clearer in=20 , which says that = I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In=20 , we have claimed = that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walkin= g, but is not one of=20 going to(perhaps we are walking around the market, or w= alking-in-place while at the market). The=20 @@ -713,20 +757,22 @@ is more restricte= d in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=20 mi). Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be= unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of=20 na'eas an operator. Grouping with=20 keand=20 ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advan= tage.=20 na'eis very close binding to its brivla. Internal bindi= ng of tanru, with=20 bo, is not as tightly bound as=20 na'e.=20 co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is lo= nger than all other tanru constructs. + +tanru inversion In short,=20 na'eand=20 na'ekedefine a type of negation, which is shorter in sc= ope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The res= ult of=20 na'enegation remains an assertion of some specific trut= h and not merely a denial of another claim. The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafs= i=20 -nal-, representing=20 na'ewhen a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an ex= act parallel to the English usage of=20 non-. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo = gives: @@ -737,20 +783,22 @@ <jbo>na'e klama becomes nalkla</jbo> <gloss>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</gloss> <gloss>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</gloss> <en>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note:=20 <quote>-kem-</quote>is the rafsi for=20 <quote>ke</quote>, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous= -=20 <quote>ke'e</quote>is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo im= plies a=20 +<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 --> +<indexterm><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm> <quote>ke</quote>after the=20 <quote>-nal-</quote>, since it needs to close something; only a=20 <quote>ke</quote>immediately after the negation would make the=20 <quote>ke'e</quote>meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.</p= ara> <para>In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate=20 <quote>-nal-</quote>as=20 <quote>non-</quote>, to match the English combining forms, except when= the=20 <quote>na'e</quote>has single word scope and English uses=20 <quote>un-</quote>or=20 <quote>im-</quote>to negate that single word. Translation style should= determine the use of=20 @@ -812,20 +860,30 @@ <gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without.</gloss> <en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example16" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example17" />express the predi= cate negation forms using a negation word (=20 <quote>na'e</quote>) or rafsi (=20 <quote>-nal-</quote>); yet they make positive assertions about the cur= rent King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This foll= ows from the close binding of=20 <quote>na'e</quote>to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by a= bsorbing the negative marker into the word.</para> +<!-- ^^ lujvo form: consonant cluster requirement in, 59; final letter o= f, 59; hierarchy of priorities for selection of, 72; number of letters in, = 59; requirements for hyphen insertion in, 59; requirements for n-hyphen ins= ertion in, 60; requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for= y-hyphen insertion in, 59 --> +<!-- ^^ y-hyphen: and consonant cluster determination, 56; and stress de= termination, 56; use of, 56 --> +<indexterm><primary>y-hyphen</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; = use of, 56, 60 --> +<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; = use of, 56, 60 --> +<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; = use of, 56, 60 --> +<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm> <para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say tha= t he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him= . Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri ne= gation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbr= i negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is in= variably=20 <quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current= King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce= a truth:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Bwdy"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example18" /> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [f= alse] is-hair-without. @@ -875,31 +933,35 @@ The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something u= nder some conditions). We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the= two trailing sumti values explicit (the=20 as perceived byand=20 under conditionsplaces have been added to the place str= ucture of=20 xunre). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (= an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinter= pret=20 even with three sp= ecific sumti provided. In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita=20 ci'u, which translates roughly as=20 + +ci'u on a scale of X, where=20 Xis the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti ca= n be bound into the negated selbri with=20 be. To clarify=20 , we might say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example4" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari + +ci'u The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing. We can alternately use the sumti tcita=20 teci'e, based on=20 ciste, which translates roughly as=20 of a system of components X, for universes of discourse= ; in this case, we would express=20 as: @@ -941,20 +1003,22 @@ <quote>na'e</quote>is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want = to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo=20 <quote>to'e</quote>, which is grammatically equivalent to=20 <quote>na'e</quote>:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-RuvP"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example8" /> le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari + +ci'u The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-= ness. Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmav= o=20 no'e, also grammatically equivalent to=20 na'e. Here are some parallel examples of=20 na'e,=20 no'e, and=20 to'e: @@ -995,58 +1059,70 @@ nalmle,=20 normle, and=20 tolmlerespectively. This large variety of scalar negations is provided because diffe= rent scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both d= irections: there is no=20 ultimately uglyor=20 ultimately beautiful. Other scales, like temperature, a= re open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature = (so-called=20 absolute zero) but no maximum temperature. Still other = scales are closed at both ends. Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious=20 to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others hav= e more than one, and need=20 ci'uto specify which opposite is meant. + +ci'u
6. sumti negation There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choi= ce of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator=20 na'ebobefore the sumti. It turns out that a zero quanti= fication serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,=20 + +na'ebo na'eboforms a scalar negation. + +na'ebo Let us show examples of each. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example1" /> no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the Fr= ench country are-hair-without. No current king of France is bald. Is=20 true? Yes, because= it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there m= ay be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such curren= t Kings of France. Now let us look at the same sentence using=20 na'ebonegation: + +na'ebo <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example2" /> na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau + +na'ebo [Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the= French country) is-hair-without. Something other than the current King of France is bald. is true provided t= hat something reasonably describable as=20 other than a current King of France, such as the King o= f Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald. In place of=20 na'ebo, you may also use=20 + +na'ebo no'eboand=20 to'ebo, to be more specific about the sumti which would= be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to com= e by, but here's a valiant try: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example3" /> mi klama to'ebo la bastn. I go to the-opposite-of Boston. @@ -1118,27 +1194,37 @@ not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 never- that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 naidenotes a polar negation. As discussed in=20 , most indicators have an implicit s= cale, and=20 naichanges the indicator to refer to the opposite end o= f the scale. Thus=20 .uinaiexpresses unhappiness, and=20 .ienaiexpresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is= expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 + + +pause before name +COI selma'o co'ocould be expressed as=20 coinai. However, this is not generally done. Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called proto= col situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversatio= ns, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protoco= l words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as= might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on= =20 + +protocol nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 je'enai(=20 I didn't get that). Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 + +protocol + +attitudinal indicators nai, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledge= ment and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 provides more detail on this topic.<= /para> The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai nijust as=20 punai je cacorresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically conn= ected abstractors will be: see=20 . A=20 naiattached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI= or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the = specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical c= onnectives are discussed in=20 @@ -1155,20 +1241,22 @@ xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom. Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rom= e.) You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've disc= ussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each a= nswer). The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent = to the expanded sentence with the=20 + +negative answer naimmediately after the=20 cu(and before any tense/modal): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example2" /> na go'i [false] [repeat previous] @@ -1321,20 +1409,22 @@ na go'i [false] [repeat previous] as a response to a negative question like=20 , Lojban designers= had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite = effects. Does=20 create a double ne= gative in the sentence by adding a new=20 nato the one already there (forming a double negative a= nd hence a positive statement), or does the=20 nareplace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchan= ged? It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japane= se, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as pos= itive. + +Navajo The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can= also replace the=20 nain the context, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example5" /> ja'a go'i (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) @@ -1373,25 +1463,29 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example1" /> I have not stopped beating my wife. If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence i= s neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wro= ng with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of vo= ice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:=20 + +tone of voice I never have beaten my wife. Negations which follow such a pattern are called=20 metalinguistic negations. In natural languages, the mar= k of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement a= lways, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis ma= y be further used to clarify the error. Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors ar= e inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When s= uch negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims= about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negati= ons which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lo= jban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is p= lausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine. Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would = destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need o= ther means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. W= hen the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express = metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion. + +tone of voice Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negatio= n with English-language examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d5" /> @@ -1416,20 +1510,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example14" /> I have not beating my wife (I never started - failure of presupposition). 5 is not blue (color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of catego= ry). The current King of France is not bald. (there is no current King of France - existential failure) + +existential I do not have THREE children. (I have two - simple undue quantity) I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four. (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous exam= ple is that someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs) It is not good, but bad. (undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect) She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful. (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale) @@ -1455,65 +1551,81 @@ falsedon't really apply. Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement inten= ding a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way = (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of = our logical negation schemes using=20 na,=20 na'eand kin. The cmavo=20 na'iis assigned this function. If it is present in a st= atement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is= incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of th= e logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negati= ve statements. Since=20 na'iis not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of= =20 na'ineed not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, w= e can use the position of=20 na'ito indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, p= reparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give= =20 na'ithe grammar of UI. The inclusion of=20 + +inclusion na'ianywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, an= d suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value. Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic e= rrors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked b= y devising analogies to these examples: Existential failure can be marked by attaching=20 na'ito the descriptor=20 loor the=20 poiin a=20 da poi-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and=20 for details on these constructions.)= Remember that if a=20 lesumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you = may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate response = is then=20 ki'a, asking for clarification. Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposit= ion is overt; if not, one can insert a=20 mock presuppositionto question with the sumti tcita (se= lma'o BAI) word=20 ji'u;=20 ji'ukuthus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumpti= on, and=20 ji'una'ikumetalinguistically says that something is wro= ng with that assumption. (See=20 .) Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 le'ahas meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 ci'uhas meaning=20 + +ci'u on scale X, and=20 ci'e, based on=20 ciste, can be used to talk about universes of discourse= defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 .=20 kaiand=20 la'ualso exist in BAI for discussing other quality and = quantity errors. + +quality and quantity We have to make particular note of potential problems in the are= as of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the rel= ationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It = is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is = colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,=20 blanu(=20 blue) is not explicitly defined as a=20 skari(=20 color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite= of=20 goodis=20 bad. This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmaticall= y, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write = dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some= of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these a= ssumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break dow= n (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation= , however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a= presumably obvious scale or category assumption. + +Sapir-Whorf effects Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by mar= king the offending word or phrase with=20 na'i(in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this se= nse,=20 na'ibecomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic ma= rker=20 [sic]. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quote= s or=20 sa'a-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unpa= rsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See= =20 + +sa'a for explanations of these usages. In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 na'ito indicate what metalinguistic errors have been ma= de, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previo= us statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA.= =20 na'iat the beginning of a statement merely says that so= mething is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity. + +specificity In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression. + +ellipsis Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 + +negative answer xuquestion (see=20 ).=20 na'iwill be used when something about the questioned st= atement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 Have you stopped beating your wife?: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example15" /> @@ -1542,21 +1654,25 @@ go'i ji'una'iku Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 + +jo'a jo'amight be to affirm that a particular construction, = though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would= be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negati= on. + +jo'a
11. Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Ans= wered? <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section11-example1" /> na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 9174308..f862da6 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -71,24 +71,28 @@ ... nobody walks much faster than I do(i.e., I walk fas= ter, or as fast as, almost everyone), which the King then again misundersta= nds. Both the King and the Messenger are correct according to their respect= ive understandings of the ambiguous word=20 nobody/Nobody. There are Lojban words or phrases corresponding to the problemat= ic English words=20 somebody,=20 nobody,=20 anybody,=20 everybody(and their counterparts=20 some/no/any/everyoneand=20 some/no/any/everything), but they obey rules which can = often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot b= e translated into Lojban without distortion: the name=20 Nobodywould have to be represented by a Lojban name, wh= ich would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this i= s the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversationa= lists to affirm=20 + +logical language Nobody walks slower than the Messengerand=20 Nobody walks faster than the Messengerand both be telli= ng the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or= everyone walks at exactly the same speed.) This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the c= orrect and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue.= There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead= , it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speak= ers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic.= However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, = although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions= in Lojban guise. Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature = of it is=20 + +logical language logical. In particular, the use of=20 leis incompatible with logical reasoning based on the d= escription selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot= conclude from my statement that <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example6" /> mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. @@ -137,20 +141,24 @@ da zo'u da viska mi There-is-an-X such-that X sees me. does not presuppos= e that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listen= er that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are = called=20 existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in princip= le - an inanimate object. We will see in=20 + +existential claims + +existential how to represent such restr= ictions.) has a two-part str= ucture: there is the part=20 da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part=20 da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi ca= n be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti follo= wed by the cmavo=20 zo'u(of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will c= onsist of one or more of the cmavo=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di(of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translation= s as=20 X,=20 @@ -180,28 +188,32 @@ somebodyhere rather than=20 somethingfor naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usual= ly persons, though the Lojban does not say so.) It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than = once in the main bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example5" /> da zo'u da prami da + +da prami da There-is-an-X such that X loves X Somebody loves himself/herself. What=20 claims is fundamen= tally different from what=20 claims, because=20 da prami dais not structurally the same as=20 + +da prami da da prami de. However, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example6" /> de zo'u de prami de There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y @@ -225,40 +237,44 @@ .) It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, f= or the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example8" /> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. + +Ralph has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of= the following bridi is completely unspecified.
3. Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everythingfor=20 somethingin=20 ? We get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example1" /> Everything sees me. Of course, this example is false, because there are many things = which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful exampl= es of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bea= r with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal cla= ims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.) + +universal claims The Lojban translation of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example2" /> ro da zo'u da viska mi For-every X : X sees me. @@ -287,20 +303,22 @@ Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so=20 does not mean=20 Everything loves everything else.Furthermore, because t= he claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so= we cannot use=20 everyoneor=20 everybodyin the translation. Note that=20 roappears before both=20 daand=20 de. If=20 rois omitted before either variable, we get a mixed cla= im, partly existential like those of=20 + +existential , partly universal. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example5" /> ro da de zo'u da viska de @@ -309,29 +327,35 @@ da ro de zo'u da viska de There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y. Something sees everything. and=20 mean completely di= fferent things.=20 says that for ever= ything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing se= en for every seer.=20 , on the other han= d, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that ther= e is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are diffe= rent kinds of silliness. + +can see There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 + +universal claims anybody/anythingrather than=20 everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference whic= h of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle o= ne which is explained in=20 .
4. Restricted claims:=20 <quote>da poi</quote> The universal claims of=20 + +universal claims are not only false but absu= rd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivia= l about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over th= e distinction between=20 everythingand=20 everybodyand the other pairs ending in=20 -thingand=20 -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. In Lojban, a variable=20 da,=20 de, or=20 dimay be followed by a=20 poirelative clause in order to restrict the range of th= ings that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail = in=20 @@ -389,42 +413,54 @@ and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example4" /> ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Every dog breathes. + +dog breathes Each dog breathes. + +dog breathes All dogs breathe. + +breathe is a silly falseho= od, but=20 is an important tr= uth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see=20 ). Note the various colloquial trans= lations=20 every dog,=20 each dog, and=20 all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, si= nce what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.=20 All dogsis treated as an English plural and the others = as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction. + +plural If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a univers= al one, we get: + +existential <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example5" /> da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Some dog breathes. + +dog breathes
5. Dropping the prenex It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving varia= bles to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've see= n so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simp= le: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did = in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 roor=20 poiappearing in the prenex must be transferred to the f= irst occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 becomes just: @@ -442,20 +478,22 @@ becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example2" /> ro da poi gerku cu vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes. Every dog breathes. + +dog breathes You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is = to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi = order, and that would be correct. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example3" /> ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da @@ -488,20 +526,26 @@ There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person Some dog bites everyone. which has the structure of=20 : it says that the= re is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every perso= n that has ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say t= hat=20 is false, while ag= reeing to=20 . Even so,=20 is most probably f= alse, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4= (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as = embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restr= icted. In English we are prone to say that=20 + +universal claims + + +pro-sumti for we +English we Everyone saysor that=20 Everybody doesor that=20 Everything iswhen in fact there are obvious counterexam= ples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such = statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such = as tense) which implicitly restricts them. How can we express=20 in Lojban without = a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we = can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example6" /> @@ -512,20 +556,24 @@ using the conversion operator=20 se(explained in=20 ) to change the selbri=20 batci(=20 bites) into=20 se batci(=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the correspon= ding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in s= trained=20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 + +existential variable + +existential se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the va= riables. If a variable occurs more than once, then any=20 roor=20 poidecorations are moved only to the first occurrence o= f the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example7" /> @@ -549,21 +597,25 @@ As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes = for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban= is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose= one), provided the rules are observed.
6. Variables with generalized quantifiers So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or = with the cmavo=20 roin front. Now=20 rois a Lojban number, and means=20 all; thus=20 ro prenumeans=20 + +ro prenu all persons, just as=20 + +all persons re prenumeans=20 two persons. In fact, unadorned=20 dais also taken to have an implicit number in front of = it, namely=20 su'o, which means=20 at least one. Why is this? Consider=20 again, this time w= ith an explicit=20 su'o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1" /> @@ -571,20 +623,22 @@ su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. Something sees me. From this version of=20 , we understand th= e speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one= of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,=20 , says that of all= the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker. + +can see Any other number can be used instead of=20 roor=20 su'oto precede a variable. Then we get claims like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example2" /> re da zo'u da viska mi @@ -633,25 +687,35 @@ su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 . Now we can explain the constructions=20 ro prenufor=20 + +ro prenu all personsand=20 + +all persons re prenufor=20 two personswhich were casually mentioned at the beginni= ng of this Section. In fact,=20 ro prenu, a so-called=20 + +ro prenu indefinite description, is shorthand for=20 + + + +order of variables <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section7-example4" /> re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bite= s Y @@ -810,43 +880,59 @@ All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field. Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field. But there is a subtle difference between=20 and=20 .=20 tells us that, in = fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the f= ield. A sumti of the type=20 ro da poi klamarequires that there are things which=20 klama: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresp= onding existential claims as well.=20 + +universal claims + +existential claims + +existential , on the other han= d, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simpl= y states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he = or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the tr= ue Lojban translation of=20 + +anyone who goes + +anyone : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example3" /> ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on= the field. Although=20 is a universal cla= im as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some so= rt or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditiona= l, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walke= rs-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other. There is another use of=20 anyin English that is not universal but existential. Co= nsider + +existential <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example4" /> I need any box that is bigger than this one. + +need any box + +any box does not at all me= an that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I requi= re only one box. But the naive translation <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example5" /> @@ -903,20 +989,22 @@ mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : I need the event-of my possessing X. But what are the implications of=20 and=20 ? The main differe= nce is that in=20 , the=20 dais said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi= ; but in=20 + +real world , the existence is= only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessari= ly come to pass. So=20 means <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example10" /> There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need @@ -927,20 +1015,22 @@ . So uses of=20 anythat aren't universal end up being reflected by vari= ables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.
9. Negation boundaries This section, as well as=20 through=20 , are in effect a continua= tion of=20 , introducing features of Lojban neg= ation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examp= les below,=20 there is a Yand the like must be understood as=20 + +there is a Y there is at least one Y, possibly more. As explained in=20 , the negation of a bridi is usually= accomplished by inserting=20 naat the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example1" /> @@ -954,21 +1044,27 @@ nakuin the prenex, which is identified and compounded b= y the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar,=20 nakuis then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,=20 nakumeans precisely the same thing as the logician's=20 it is not the case thatin a similar English context. (O= utside of a prenex,=20 nakuis also grammatically treated as a single entity - = the equivalent of a sumti - but does not have this exact meaning; we'll dis= cuss these other situations in=20 .) To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the=20 nafrom before the selbri and place=20 nakuat the left end of the prenex. This form is called= =20 external bridi negation, as opposed to=20 + + +internal bridi negation +external bridi negation internal bridi negationusing=20 + +internal bridi negation na. The prenex version of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example2" /> naku zo'u la djan. klama It is not the case that: John comes. @@ -1004,20 +1100,22 @@ The relative position of negation and quantification terms withi= n a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we= can have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example5" /> roda su'ode zo'u da prami de For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y. + +there is a Y Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the = same thing). or: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example6" /> @@ -1028,54 +1126,60 @@ The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where th= e negation term is at the beginning of the prenex: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example7" /> naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X l= oves Y. + +there is a Y It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing. (At least) someone doesn't love anything. the negation of=20 , and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example8" /> naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X love= s Y. + +there is a Y It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved= by everybody. There isn't any one thing that everybody loves. the negation of=20 . The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation bound= ary within a prenex, you must=20 invert any quantifierthat the negation boundary passes = across. Inverting a quantifier means that any=20 ro(all) is changed to=20 su'o(at least one) and vice versa. Thus,=20 and=20 can be restated as= , respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example9" /> su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X lov= es Y. + +there is a Y There is somebody who doesn't love anything. and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example10" /> @@ -1115,71 +1219,99 @@ no(meaning=20 zero of) also involves a negation boundary. To transfor= m a bridi containing a variable quantified with=20 no, we must first expand it. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example13" /> noda rode zo'u da prami de + +noda There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y. Nobody loves everything. which is negated by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example14" /> naku noda rode zo'u da prami de + +noda It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves = Y. It is false that there is nobody who loves everything. We can simplify=20 by transforming t= he prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first exp= and the=20 noquantifier. Thus=20 for no xmeans the same thing as=20 it is false for some x, and the corresponding Lojban=20 nodacan be replaced by=20 + +noda naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we get: + + +noda +naku su'oda <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example15" /> naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de + + +noda +naku su'oda It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X lo= ves Y. Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropp= ed, so this means the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example16" /> su'oda rode zo'u da prami de There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y. At least one person loves everything. which is clearly the desired contradiction of=20 . The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you = cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first mov= e the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers= they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated. + +interactions between quantifiers and negation + + +interactions between quantifiers and negation +double negatives
10. bridi negation and logical connectives + +negation and logical connectives + + +negation and logical connectives +bridi negation and logical connectives + +negation and logical connectives A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in=20 . What is said here is intentionally= quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications. A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapt= er, we will make use of the logical connectives=20 andand=20 or(where=20 orreally means=20 and/or,=20 either or both). The following simplified recipes expla= in how to make some logical connectives: @@ -1199,20 +1331,22 @@ .a. To logically connect two Lojban bridi with=20 or, replace the regular separator cmavo=20 .iwith the compound cmavo=20 .ija. More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one = may place=20 + +complex logical connectives nabefore=20 .eor=20 .a, or between=20 .iand=20 jeor=20 ja; likewise, one may place=20 naiat the end of a connective. Both=20 naand=20 naihave negative effects on the sumti or bridi being co= nnected. Specifically,=20 nanegates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and=20 @@ -1275,33 +1409,37 @@ roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the = same) it. By the rules of predicate logic, the=20 roquantifier on=20 dahas scope over both sentences. That is, once you've p= icked a value for=20 dafor the first sentence, it stays the same for both se= ntences. (The=20 dacontinues with the same fixed value until a new parag= raph or a new prenex resets the meaning.) + +continues Thus the following example has the indicated translation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example6" /> su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false = that: you love that (same) thing. There is something that I love that you don't. If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negati= ons, you won't go wrong: + +prenex manipulation Within a prenex, whenever you move=20 nakupast a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you m= ust invert the quantifier. A=20 nabefore the selbri is always transformed into a=20 nakuat the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice ve= rsa. @@ -1422,51 +1560,59 @@ su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule Some children don't go-to some school. but in=20 , the bound varia= bles=20 daand=20 dehave been hidden. It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed wit= h=20 + +internal bridi negation nato the prenex, as we saw in=20 ; you just move it to the l= eft end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 + +comparison nakuto the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules= for exporting=20 nakurequire that you export all of the quantified varia= bles (implicit or explicit) along with=20 naku, and you must export them from left to right, in t= he same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 goes into prenex = form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example10" /> su'oda poi verba ku'o naku su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de For some X which is a child, it is not the case that there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. + +there is a Y We can now move the=20 nakuto the left end of the prenex, getting a contradict= ory negation that can be expressed with=20 na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example11" /> naku roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. + +there is a Y from which we can restore the quantified variables to the senten= ce, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example12" /> naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule @@ -1491,20 +1637,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example14" /> roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. + +there is a Y While you can't freely convert with=20 sewhen you have two quantified variables in a sentence,= you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as t= he order isn't changed. If you use=20 nanegation in such a sentence, nothing special need be = done. If you use=20 nakunegation, then quantified variables that cross the = negation boundary must be inverted. Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on=20 nakunegation instead of=20 nanegation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as = difficult as in natural languages. In=20 , for example, we'll discu= ss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical conne= ction is moved across a negation boundary. @@ -1545,58 +1693,72 @@ not p whether-or-not qand=20 not p whether-or-not not q. In any Lojban sentence havi= ng one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction fro= m these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in=20 .) The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by= modifying the basic connectives with=20 nai,=20 naand=20 secan be derived directly from these rules; modify the = basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identiti= es, and then, apply each=20 nai,=20 naand=20 semodifier of the original connectives. Cancel any doub= le negatives that result. + + +interactions between quantifiers and negation +double negatives When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we wish to=20 distributea negation over a logical connective; and, fo= r internal=20 nakunegation, whenever a logical connective moves in to= , or out of, the scope of a negation - when it crosses a negation boundary.= Let us apply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sent= ences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explained in= =20 + +forethought logical connectives . It suffices to know that=20 gaand=20 gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean= =20 eitherand=20 orrespectively, and that=20 geand=20 giused similarly mean=20 bothand=20 and. Furthermore,=20 ga,=20 ge, and=20 gican all be suffixed with=20 naito negate the bridi or sumti that follows. We have defined=20 naand=20 naku zo'uas, respectively, internal and external bridi = negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains= at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation betwe= en external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law= to be applied.=20 + +internal bridi negation + + +internal bridi negation +external bridi negation and=20 are exactly equiv= alent: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example2" /> la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom. John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome. naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom. It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome. It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator f= rom the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,=20 and related examp= les are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connec= ted sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For ins= tance,=20 + +logically connected sentences expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example3" /> ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, @@ -1604,20 +1766,22 @@ The=20 gaand=20 gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 geand=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving b= ridi-tail logical connection (explained in=20 + +bridi-tail logical connection ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example5" /> la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla @@ -1703,47 +1867,69 @@ la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom. John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome. That=20 and=20 mean the same sh= ould become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work = through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.
13. selbri variables + +selbri variables In addition to the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 dithat we have seen so far, which function as sumti and= belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables=20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 + +bu'e bu'iwhich function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA= . These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are about= the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We w= ill start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will repre= sent=20 + +universal claims + +existential + +bu'i bu'a,=20 bu'eand=20 + +bu'e bu'iwith F, G, and H respectively. + +bu'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section13-example1" /> su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. There's some relationship between Jim and John. + +some relationship The translations of=20 show how unidioma= tic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 + +selbri variables need to be totall= y reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the p= renex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only sumti ca= n appear in the prenex, and=20 su'o bu'ais technically a sumti - in fact, it is an ind= efinite description like=20 + + +brothers is palpably false= , however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, the= n they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossib= le. + +brothers
14. A few notes on variables A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even thou= gh it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous ap= pearance, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14-example1" /> @@ -1796,23 +1986,29 @@ .iterminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, howev= er, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 .i, as if it were an=20 .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as rela= tive clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as expl= ained in=20 . A prenex preceding=20 tu'e ... tu'ulong-scope brackets persists until the=20 tu'u, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs la= ter. If the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di(or the selbri variables=20 + +selbri variables bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 + +bu'e bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particu= lar problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each= possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts = as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in=20 + +bu'i , but in general consist of the cmav= o=20 xi(of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more ler= fu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression encl= osed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14-example2" /> ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da @@ -1823,12 +2019,14 @@ The=20 pa dain=20 does not specify = the number of things to which=20 darefers, as the preceding=20 ci dadoes. Instead, it selects one of them for use in t= his sumti only. The number of referents of=20 daremains three, but a single one (there is no way of k= nowing which one) is selected to be the leader.
15. Conclusion This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic= that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in = abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a langu= age that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completel= y will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban bette= r than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-un= derstood (and by implication, those that are not). + +logic and Lojban
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 818a965..ab6b904 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,41 +1,51 @@ Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its U= ses
1. What's a letteral, anyway? James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the= word=20 + +Brown letteral(by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 for=20 z. A typical example of its use might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section1-example1" /> There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 ein this sentence. (Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word=20 letteralavoids confusion with=20 letter, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly= , there is a Lojban gismu for=20 letteral, namely=20 lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest of this c= hapter. Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? The= n why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can = read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold: + +Latin alphabet First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to an= d represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in Engli= sh and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabe= t to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in = spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents= of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow. + +spelling out words + +acronyms Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in writing Eng= lish. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: English-spe= akers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled=20 phias=20 fye, whereas=20 feewould more nearly represent the name used by Greek-s= peakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban,= in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that = can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other wr= iting systems. Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti - the equivalent of= English pronouns. + +acronyms In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to u= se the word=20 lerfufor both the letterals themselves and for the Lojb= an words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthl= essly suppressed, and the term=20 lerfu wordwill invariably be used for the latter. The L= ojban equivalent would be=20 lerfu valsior=20 lervla.
2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any languag= e is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The ler= fu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 doubleyouand=20 @@ -55,20 +65,22 @@ to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add=20 y; the lerfu word for=20 'is=20 .y'y. Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alpha= bet: + +Lojban alphabet ' a b c d e .y'y. .abu by. cy. dy. .ebu f g i j k l @@ -96,20 +108,26 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. There are several things to note about this table. The consonant= lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 'lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by = pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from t= he table but important nonetheless, is that=20 byand its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is=20 .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are com= pound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 bu(which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vo= wel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sepa= rator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 + +sentence separator + +irrelevant + +hesitation bufollows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example2" /> @@ -130,20 +148,22 @@ Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for= two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute = about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike th= an the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English = words=20 failand=20 valesound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu wor= d of either, namely=20 effor=20 vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them - an= d even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vailnor=20 faleis a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the s= pelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling o= ut words does exist in Lojban. + +spelling out words Note that the lerfu words ending in=20 ywere written (in=20 and=20 ) with pauses afte= r them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but f= ailure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example3" /> @@ -167,97 +187,139 @@ Something unspecified is without a doctor. A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 yunless the next word is also a cmavo ending in=20 y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after a= ll of them.
3. Upper and lower cases Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (ca= pital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin wi= th an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used= in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus: + +upper-case letters + +upper-case + +lower-case <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example1" /> .iVAN. the name=20 Ivanin Russian/Slavic pronunciation. It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper= -case and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cma= vo=20 + +upper-case + +lower-case ga'eand=20 + +ga'e to'arepresenting upper case and lower case respectively= . They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and = they may be freely interspersed with them. + +to'a The effect of=20 ga'eis to change the interpretation of all lerfu words = following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurrence of=20 + +upper-case + +ga'e to'acauses the interpretation to revert to lower case. = Thus,=20 + +to'a ga'e .abumeans not=20 + +ga'e abut=20 A, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example2" /> .ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a + +to'a + +ga'e i [upper] V A N [lower] The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called=20 shift words. How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next s= hift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is = common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word o= ther than a lerfu word is found. It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper ca= se. The cmavo=20 tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU c= mavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: t= he combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 for details.) A likely use of=20 tauis in the internationally standardized symbols for t= he chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upp= er-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu: + +upper-case + +lower-case + + +single-letter shift + +letter shift +chemical elements <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example4" /> tau sy. [single shift] S S (chemical symbol for sulfur) tau sy. .ibu [single shift] S i Si (chemical symbol for silicon) If a shift to upper-case is in effect when=20 + +upper-case tauappears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower= case, reversing its usual effect.
4. The universal=20 <quote>bu</quote> So far we have seen=20 buonly as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerf= u words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it pr= oved to be useful to allow=20 buto be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to al= low arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. Formally,=20 bumay be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound c= mavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 ba'e,=20 za'e,=20 + +za'e zei,=20 zo,=20 zoi,=20 la'o,=20 lo'u,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su, and=20 fa'omay not have=20 + +fa'o buattached, because they are interpreted before=20 budetection is done; in particular, <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section4-example1" /> zo bu the word=20 @@ -266,244 +328,428 @@ is needed when discussing=20 buin Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 buto itself, but more than one=20 bumay be attached to a word; thus=20 .abubuis legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, b= ut it is presumably different from=20 .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cme= ne, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 buare treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belon= ging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary = to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb= preceding or following words. The ability to attach=20 buto words has been used primarily to make names for va= rious logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name = for the=20 + +unusual characters + +logograms happy faceis=20 + +happy face .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 .uithat means=20 happiness. Likewise, the=20 + +happiness smiley face, written=20 + +smiley face :-)and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is = called=20 zo'obuThe existence of these names does not mean that y= ou should insert=20 .uibuinto running Lojban text to indicate that you are = happy, or=20 zo'obuwhen something is funny; instead, use the appropr= iate attitudinal directly. Likewise,=20 joiburepresents the ampersand character,=20 + +ampersand character + +ampersand &, based on the cmavo=20 joimeaning=20 mixed and. Many more such lerfu words will probably be = invented in future. The=20 .and=20 ,characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause= and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words=20 + +syllable break denpa bu(literally,=20 pause bu) and=20 slaka bu(literally,=20 syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 denpaand=20 slakaare normal gismu with normal stress:=20 denpabuwould be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another l= anguage into Lojban) stressed=20 denPAbu. No pause is required between=20 denpa(or=20 slaka) and=20 bu, though.
5. Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of cultural= neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many = other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text= (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a stand= ard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with t= he language itself, Lojbanized and with=20 buadded. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alphain running Lojban text is probably most easily han= dled by calling it=20 + +alpha .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made int= o a Lojbanized name by adding=20 sand then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas.is still needed. Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 wthat are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu wo= rd with=20 buattached. The following assignments have been made: .y'y.bu h ky.bu q vy.bu w As an example, the English word=20 quackwould be spelled in Lojban thus: + +quack <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example1" /> ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. q u a c k Note that the fact that the letter=20 cin this word has nothing to do with the sound of the L= ojban letter=20 cis irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and Eng= lish rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lo= jban rules control the pronunciations of those letters. + +irrelevant A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: ty.bu =C3=BE (thorn) dy.bu =C3=B0 (edh) However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thin= g, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with=20 buadded they become even longer: the worst-case Greek l= erfu word would be=20 .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two mandatory pau= ses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have separate s= ets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to choose? The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar = to those introduced in=20 . After the appearance of s= uch a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent t= he lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, f= or example, the lerfu word=20 + +Greek alphabet tywould represent not Latin=20 tbut Greek=20 tau. Why=20 tau? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterp= art of=20 twithin the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would b= e all right to map=20 ty.to=20 phior even=20 omega, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extr= emely hard to remember. Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less a= rbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shif= ted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a=20 buform. Since a=20 buform may mean different things in different alphabets= , it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 buforms are in use. Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o= BY: lo'a Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet + +Lojban alphabet + + +na'a +lo'a ge'o Greek alphabet + +Greek alphabet je'o Hebrew alphabet + +Hebrew alphabet jo'o Arabic alphabet + +Arabic alphabet ru'o Cyrillic alphabet + +Cyrillic alphabet The cmavo=20 zai(of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to st= ill other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typi= cally be a name representing the alphabet with=20 + +zai busuffixed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example4" /> zai .devanagar. bu + +zai Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet + +Devanagari zai .katakan. bu + +zai Japanese katakana syllabary + +katakana + + +katakana +Japanese katakana + +katakana zai .xiragan. bu + +zai Japanese hiragana syllabary + +Japanese hiragana + + + +syllabaries + +romaji +kanji +hiragana Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standard= ized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (= Note the=20 .characters marking leading and following pauses.) In addition, there may be multiple visible representations withi= n a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. = print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 + +handwriting font and facedistinctions are also represented by shift= words, indicated with the cmavo=20 + +font ce'a(of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: + +ce'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example7" /> ce'a .xelveticas. bu + +ce'a Helvetica font + +Helvetica font + +font ce'a .xancisk. bu + +ce'a handwriting + +handwriting ce'a .pavrel. bu + +ce'a 12-point font size + +font The cmavo=20 na'a(of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: i= t returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case Lo= jban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 + +na'a + +lower-case + +font lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leav= ing font and case shifts in place. + + +na'a +lo'a + +font Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of pr= oposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.
6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special m= arks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent = marks above vowels, called (in English)=20 + +Latin alphabet + +accent marks acute,=20 grave, and=20 circumflex. Likewise, German uses a mark called=20 + +circumflex umlaut; a mark which looks the same is also used in Fre= nch, but with a different name and meaning. + +accent mark a umlautis preferred to=20 + +accent marks elerfu, could be spelled as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section6-example1" /> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi (=20 eacute )=20 t( acute=20 e) and it does not matter whether=20 akut. buappears before or after=20 .ebu; the=20 tei ... foigrouping guarantees that the acute accent is= associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision repre= sented by=20 would rarely be re= quired: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French w= ord for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know Fren= ch. This system breaks down in languages which use more than one acc= ent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing = which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention i= s to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest t= o the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be = resolved by further conventions not yet established. + +accent marks + +accent mark Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accen= ted lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but = Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters loo= k the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In additio= n, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like=20 lland=20 chin Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by= enclosing the combination in=20 tei ... foi. In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissi= ble to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locall= y or well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 llor Croatian=20 ljcould be called=20 libu, but that usage would not necessarily be universal= ly understood. contains a table of propos= ed lerfu words for some common accent marks. + +accent marks
7. Punctuation marks Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and= the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, = use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words f= or these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the c= mavo=20 + +punctuation marks lauof selma'o LAU.=20 + +lau laumust always be followed by a BY word; the interpreta= tion of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typicall= y, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 + +lau busuffix. Why is=20 launecessary at all? Why not just use a=20 + +lau bu-marked word and announce that it is always to be int= erpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The=20 bumechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for= Lojban users to make up=20 buwords without bothering to explain what they mean. Us= ing the=20 laucmavo flags at least the most important of such nonc= e lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same = argument applies to the use of=20 + +lau zaito signal an alphabet shift or=20 + +zai ce'ato signal a font shift.) + +font + +ce'a Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, t= he interpretation of a=20 + +punctuation marks lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphab= et shift and the current font shift. + +lau + +font
8. What about Chinese characters? + + +syllabaries + +pinyin +Chinese characters Chinese characters (=20 + + +syllabaries + +pinyin +Chinese characters han=20 4zi=20 4in Chinese,=20 kanjiin Japanese) represent an entirely different appro= ach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanes= e hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoke= n language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of = meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chine= se. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters that= can exist, and many thousands are in regular use. + +syllabaries + + +syllabaries + +romaji +kanji + +Japanese hiragana + + + +syllabaries + +romaji +kanji +hiragana + + +syllabaries + +pinyin +Chinese characters + +Amharic writing It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift word= s, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there ar= e various possible ways around the problem. First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet re= presentations, known as=20 pinyinfor Chinese and=20 + +pinyin romajifor Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the wo= rd=20 + +romaji han=20 4zi=20 4is conventionally written with two= characters, but it may be spelled out as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8-example1" /> .y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo @@ -511,23 +757,29 @@ h a n4=20 z i4 The cmavo=20 vois the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 + +accent marks . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishiin English is spelled the same way in romaji,= and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: + +romaji + +Mitsubishi <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8-example2" /> my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu m i @@ -536,47 +788,59 @@ u b i s h i Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu w= ords to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are = about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40= if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character wi= th a=20 + + +syllabaries + +pinyin +Chinese characters tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.
9. lerfu words as pro-sumti So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spell= ing out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words with= in Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. = Therefore, the term=20 + +spelling out words lerfu stringis introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers = to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example1" /> .abu prami by. A loves B + +A loves B In=20 ,=20 .abuand=20 by.represent specific sumti, but which sumti they repre= sent must be inferred from context. Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by=20 goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: + +pro-sumti assignment <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example2" /> le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house. @@ -598,66 +862,80 @@ Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example4" /> la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. + +Steven Mark Jones + +Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban. Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 ru'o.abupykyinstead. What about <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example5" /> .abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 + +A gives B to C by. cy.is a single lerfu string, although written as tw= o words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that= A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to intro= duce the elidable terminator=20 + +A gives BC boi(of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate le= rfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these = appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 boiis to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthesi= s, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example6" /> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C + +A gives B to C where the two occurrences of=20 boiin brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurren= ce is not. Likewise: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example7" /> xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. + +all persons X loves everybody. requires the first=20 boito separate the lerfu string=20 xy.from the digit string=20 + +digit string ro.
10. References to lerfu The rules of=20 make it impossible to use u= nmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example1" /> @@ -733,20 +1011,22 @@ </example> <para>which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word= =20 <quote>.abu</quote>is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Da4r"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example6" /> la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu + +la'e lu The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. which is correct.
11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained= in=20 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu = strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. @@ -761,31 +1041,35 @@ li .abu du li by. su'i cy. the-number a equals the-number b plus c a =3D b + c A lerfu string as function name (preceded by=20 + +function name ma'oof selma'o MAhO): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example2" /> li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x + +function f of x y =3D f(x) Note the=20 boihere to separate the lerfu strings=20 fyand=20 xy. A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI= ): @@ -793,35 +1077,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example3" /> le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats This rat is my Nth rat. + +Nth rat A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of = selma'o MAI): + +utterance ordinal <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example4" /> ny.mai Nthly + +Nthly A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by=20 xiof selma'o XI): @@ -849,101 +1139,167 @@ <en>(=20 <quote>n</quote>) persons</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The parentheses are required because=20 <quote>ny. lo prenu</quote>would be two separate sumti,=20 <quote>ny.</quote>and=20 <quote>lo prenu</quote>. In general, any mathematical expression other= than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the= right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 <quote>ve'o</quote>, can usually be elided.</para> <para>All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather = than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathemat= ics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or f= unction name: in Lojban,=20 +<!-- ^^ function name: lerfu string as, 423 --> +<indexterm><primary>function name</primary></indexterm> <quote>.abu by. cy.</quote>is not the multiplication=20 +<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression= of, 437 --> +<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm> <quote>a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c</quote>but is the variable=20 <quote>abc</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could be employed t= hat made the value of a variable like=20 <quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values = of the variables=20 <quote>a</quote>,=20 <quote>b</quote>, and=20 <quote>c</quote>multiplied together.)</para> <para>There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: = shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing = outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.</para> +<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifi= er for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12"> <title>12. Acronyms An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are= =20 + +acronym DNA,=20 + +DNA NATO,=20 + +NATO CIA. In English, some of these are spelled out (like=20 + +CIA DNAand=20 + +DNA CIA) and others are pronounced more or less as if they = were ordinary English words (like=20 + +CIA NATO). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunci= ations:=20 + +NATO + +acronyms SQLmay be=20 + +SQL ess cue ellor=20 sequel. In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends= in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize ac= ronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using=20 + +acronym 'wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are il= legal in names) and adding a final consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example1" /> la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. + +NATO + +DNA CIA. SQL. + +SQL + +CIA IBM. NYC. + +NYC + +IBM There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. = In=20 , the last conson= ant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position. Some compression can be done by leaving out=20 buafter vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 bucannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is = moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducin= g an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example2" /> la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. DNA. NATO. + +NATO + +DNA CIA. SQL. + +SQL + +CIA IBM. NYC. + +NYC + +IBM In=20 , the final conso= nant=20 mstands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.= + +acronyms Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is= compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a=20 'character, is to use the consonant=20 zinstead of=20 ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example3" /> la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. DNA. NATO. + +NATO + +DNA CIA. SQL. + +SQL + +CIA IBM. NYC. + +NYC + +IBM One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu = string itself prefixed with=20 me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: + +sumti into selbri <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example4" /> la me dy ny. .abu that-named what-pertains-to=20 d n @@ -963,130 +1319,190 @@ Bearwrites. Bear is a writer. does not of cours= e refer to a bear (=20 le cribeor=20 lo cribe) but to something else, probably a person, nam= ed=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abuis a predicate which can be used as a nam= e, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual= lerfu words. + +acronym
13. Computerized character codes + +character codes Since the first application of computers to non-numerical inform= ation, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called=20 character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punct= uation marks (collectively called=20 + +punctuation marks + +character codes characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 + +Unicode + +punctuation marks se'e(of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally follo= wed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the w= hole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set= : + +se'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section13-example1" /> me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII + +ASCII for-the-mass-of American currency-units. The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.= + +ASCII + +American dollars $represents American dollars. + +American dollars Understanding=20 depends on knowin= g the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of = the=20 + +ASCII $character. Therefore, the=20 se'econvention is only intelligible to those who know t= he underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular characte= r, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural ne= utrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to de= scriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. + +se'e As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO= 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident i= n a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanis= t may say: + +Unicode <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section13-example2" /> me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-a= t-peace When a=20 se'estring appears in running discourse, some metalingu= istic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other b= ase, and which character set is in use. + +se'e
14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo bu BU makes previous word into a lerfu word ga'e + +ga'e BY upper case shift to'a + +to'a BY lower case shift tau LAU case-shift next lerfu word only lo'a + + +na'a +lo'a BY Latin/Lojban alphabet shift + +Lojban alphabet ge'o BY Greek alphabet shift + +Greek alphabet je'o BY Hebrew alphabet shift + +Hebrew alphabet jo'o BY Arabic alphabet shift + +Arabic alphabet ru'o BY Cyrillic alphabet shift + +Cyrillic alphabet se'e + +se'e BY following digits are a character code na'a + +na'a BY cancel all shifts zai + +zai LAU following lerfu word specifies alphabet ce'a + +ce'a LAU following lerfu word specifies font + +font lau + +lau LAU following lerfu word is punctuation tei TEI start compound lerfu word foi @@ -1096,28 +1512,34 @@ Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equiva= lent, where=20 equivalentmeans: either any Lojban word followed by=20 bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 tei ... foicompound cmavo.
15. Proposed lerfu words - introduction The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words fo= r some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The = first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name suf= ficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu= word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based = on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorit= ies within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagre= eing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working= basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of l= erfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat= before settling down into a final, conventional form. + +basis For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu).
16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet + +Greek alphabet alpha .alfas. bu .abu=20 + +alpha beta .betas. bu by gamma .gamas. bu gy delta .deltas. bu dy epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu zeta .zetas. bu zy eta .etas. bu .e'ebu theta .tetas. bu ty. bu iota .iotas. bu .ibu kappa .kapas. bu ky @@ -1134,20 +1556,22 @@ phi .fis. bu py. bu chi .xis. bu ky. bu psi .psis. bu psis. bu omega .omegas. bu .o'obu rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu
17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet + +Cyrillic alphabet The second column in this listing is based on the historical nam= es of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russia= n are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as n= eeded. a .azys. bu .abu=20 b .bukys. bu by v .vedis. bu vy g .glagolis. bu gy d .dobros. bu dy e .iestys. bu .ebu zh .jivet. bu jy @@ -1173,29 +1597,33 @@ hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu yu .ius. bu .iubu ya .ias. bu .iabu
18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet + +Hebrew alphabet aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu=20 bet .bet. bu by gimel .gimel. bu gy daled .daled. bu dy he .xex. bu .y'y vav .vav. bu vy zayin .zai,in. bu zy + +zai khet .xet. bu xy. bu tet .tet. bu ty. bu yud .iud. bu .iud. bu kaf .kaf. bu ky lamed .LYmed. bu ly mem .mem. bu my nun .nun. bu ny samekh .samex. bu samex. bu ayin .ai,in. bu .ai,in bu pe .pex. bu py @@ -1212,50 +1640,76 @@ qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu qamatz .kamats. bu .abu patach .patax. bu .a'abu sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu kholem .xolem. bu .obu shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu
19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple let= ters + +multiple letters + +accent marks This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are = lerfu such as Polish=20 darkl and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols. acute .akut. bu=20 or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu] grave .grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu] circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu + +circumflex or .midgal. bu [midju galtu] tilde .tildes. bu + +tilde macron .makron. bu + +macron breve .brevis. bu over-dot .gapmoc. bu [gapru mokca] + +over-dot umlaut/trema .relmoc. bu [re mokca] + +over-ring cedilla .seDIlys. bu + +ligatured fi Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi + +Dutch ij German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi
20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication + +radio communication There is a set of English words which are used, by international= agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in= noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are k= nown as the=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. + +ICAO Phonetic Alphabet This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 carlis. bu, not=20 tcarlis. bu). Alfa .alfas. bu=20 Bravo .bravos. bu Charlie .carlis. bu Delta .deltas. bu Echo .ekos. bu @@ -1271,15 +1725,17 @@ Oscar .oskar. bu Papa .paPAS. bu Quebec .keBEK. bu Romeo .romios. bu Sierra .sieras. bu Tango .tangos. bu Uniform .Uniform. bu Victor .viktas. bu Whiskey .uiskis. bu X-ray .eksreis. bu + +X-ray Yankee .iankis. bu Zulu .zulus. bu
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 7aa2c85..c25e26c 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -12,35 +12,47 @@ providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms w= hich can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full r= esources of Lojban; permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, o= f unambiguous mathematical text; encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in nat= ural languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary langua= ge situations than natural languages allow. Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notati= on such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision f= or all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used. + +reverse Polish notation Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, = so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from eith= er side at many points. Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is cu= lturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the = world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However,= international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For e= xample, the expression + + +operator precedence +mathematical notation <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section1-example1" /> 3x + 2y contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other p= ossible interpretations for the strings=20 + +multiplication 3xand=20 2ythan as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the L= ojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 + +multiplication must not omit the = multiplication operators. + +multiplication The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is = currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete= as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those compo= nents - as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso= facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clar= ified.
2. Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pa PA 1 @@ -95,20 +107,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example1" /> pa re ci one two three 123 ignore one hundred and twenty three + +hundred <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example2" /> pa no one zero @@ -119,201 +133,279 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example3" /> pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero 1234567890 one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. + +hundred Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. + +hundred There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5= end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 urespectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end i= n the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i, and=20 orespectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the s= ame consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments. + +noisy environments
3. Signs and numerical punctuation The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ma'u PA positive sign + +positive sign ni'u PA negative sign + + +subtraction operator +negative sign pi PA decimal point + +decimal point fi'u PA fraction slash + +fi'u ra'e PA repeating decimal + +ra'e ce'i PA percent sign + +percent + +ce'i ki'o PA comma between digits + +ki'o A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 ma'uand=20 ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs as dist= inct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example1" /> ni'u pa negative-sign 1 -1 Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they ar= e attached. It is also possible to use=20 ma'uand=20 ni'uby themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numb= ers is explained in=20 . Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cm= avo, as illustrated in the following examples: + +punctuation marks <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example2" /> ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five 3.1415 (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the sy= mbolic version of=20 ;=20 piis still the Lojban representation for the decimal po= int.) + +decimal point <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example3" /> re fi'u ze + +fi'u two fraction seven 2/7 is the name of the= number two-sevenths; it is not the same as=20 the result of 2 divided by 7in Lojban, although numeric= ally these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present but= the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the = reciprocal of the following number: + +reciprocal <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example5" /> fi'u ze + +fi'u fraction seven 1/7 pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze + +ra'e point three five repeating one four two eight five seven .35142857142857... Note that the=20 ra'emarks unambiguously where the repeating portion=20 + +ra'e 142857begins. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example7" /> ci mu ce'i + +ce'i three five percent + +percent 35% pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze + +ki'o one comma two three four comma five six seven 1,234,567 (In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representatio= n of=20 ;=20 ki'ois still the Lojban representation.) + +ki'o It is also possible to have less than three digits between succe= ssive=20 ki'os, in which case zeros are assumed to have been eli= ded: + +ki'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example8" /> pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo + +ki'o one comma two three comma four 1,023,004 In the same way,=20 ki'ocan be used after=20 + +ki'o pito divide fractions into groups of three: + +fractions <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example10" /> pi ki'o re re + +ki'o point comma two two .022 pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa + +ki'o point one comma one two comma one .001012001
4. Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ci'i PA infinity + +infinity + +ci'i ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1) + +ka'o pai PA =20 =CF=80, pi (approx 3.14159...) te'o PA exponential e (approx 2.71828...) fi'u PA golden ratio,=20 + +fi'u =CE=A6, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.6180= 3...) The last cmavo is the same as the fraction sign cmavo: a fractio= n sign with neither numerator nor denominator represents the golden ratio.<= /para> Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-nu= mber cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination: 4.1) ma'u ci'i + +ci'i + =E2=88=9E 4.2) ci ka'o re + +ka'o 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to=20 3 + 2i) Note that=20 ka'ois both a special number (meaning=20 + +ka'o i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). 4.3) ci'i no + +ci'i infinity zero + +infinity =20 =E2=84=B5 0 (a transfinite cardinal) + +transfinite cardinal The special numbers=20 paiand=20 te'oare mathematically important, which is why they are= given their own cmavo: 4.4) pai pi,=20 =CF=80 @@ -339,27 +431,31 @@ is not=20 1 minus 2, which is represented by a different cmavo se= quence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a mean= ing. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they m= ay be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban = number system. It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 odditiesdo have a meaningful use in some restricted are= a of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specia= lized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would = use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 to=20 .
5. Simple infix expressions and equations + +infix expressions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: du GOhA equals su'i VUhU plus vu'u VUhU minus pi'i VUhU times te'a VUhU raised to the power + +te'a ny. BY letter=20 n vei VEI left parenthesis ve'o VEhO right parenthesis Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojba= n, that sentence translates to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example1" /> @@ -372,66 +468,78 @@ </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example1" />, a mekso sentence= , is a regular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features.=20 <quote>du</quote>is the predicate meaning=20 <quote>x1 is mathematically equal to x2</quote>. It is a cmavo for con= ciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathe= matical contexts,=20 <quote>du</quote>means=20 <quote>x1 is identical with x2</quote>or=20 <quote>x1 is the same object as x2</quote>.</para> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>li</quote>is the number article. It is required whenever a sent= ence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantif= y things. For example:</para> +<!-- ^^ number article: explanation of use, 435 --> +<indexterm><primary>number article</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 --> +<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-nSU9"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example2" /> le ci prenu the three persons requires no=20 liarticle, because the=20 + +article ciis being used to specify the number of=20 prenu. However, the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example3" /> levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. This fly has a mass of 3 grams. requires=20 libecause=20 ciis being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way i= n which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of = length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first = place and a number as the second place. Using=20 + +measurements lifor=20 lein=20 would produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example4" /> li ci prenu The-number 3 is-a-person. which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. The cmavo=20 su'ibelongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathe= matical operators, and means=20 + +mathematical operators addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 ma'uwhich means the positive sign as an indication of a= positive number: + +positive sign <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example5" /> li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. +1 + -1 =3D 0 @@ -446,122 +554,158 @@ li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three= . 5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3 Why don't we say=20 li mu su'i li parather than just=20 li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU operators connec= t mekso operands (numbers, in=20 ), not general sum= ti.=20 + +general sumti liis used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which = then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 , filling the plac= es of a bridi By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathema= tics: there is no notion of=20 + +calculator mathematics operator precedence. Consider the following example, wh= ere=20 + +operator precedence pi'imeans=20 times, the multiplication operator: + +multiplication <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example7" /> li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 Is the Lojban version of=20 true? No!=20 3 + 4 =C3=97 5is indeed 23, because the usual conventio= ns of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition;= that is, the multiplication=20 + +multiplication 4 =C3=97 5is done first, giving 20, and only then the a= ddition=20 3 + 20. But VUhU operators by default are done left to = right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example8" /> li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu The-number three plus four times five equals the-number thr= ee-five. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35 Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 = =C3=97 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage o= f simplicity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standard= s of mathematics. What can be done? There are three solutions, all of which will probably be used to= some degree. The first solution is to ignore the problem. People will say= =20 li ci su'i vo pi'i muand mean 23 by it, because the not= ion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrai= ned to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. Th= is convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one a= rea. + +multiplication (Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done = in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many o= perators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according = to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its= list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just= not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden = in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are diff= erent.) The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the prec= edence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will b= e explained in=20 . The third solution is simple but not very general. When an opera= tor is prefixed with the cmavo=20 bi'e(of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of high= er precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, + +bi'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example9" /> li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci + +bi'e The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a=20 bi'eprefix, grouping is from the right; multiple=20 + +bi'e bi'eprefixes on a single operator are not allowed. + +bi'e In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses= =20 veiand=20 ve'o, which can be used just like their written equival= ents=20 (and=20 )to group expressions in any way desired: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example10" /> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa + +te'a + +bi'e The-number (=20 nplus one) times (=20 nplus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=20 nplus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n There are several new usages in=20 :=20 te'ameans=20 + +te'a raised to the power, and we also see the use of the ler= fu word=20 ny, representing the letter=20 n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ord= inary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu word= s (called a=20 lerfu string) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word,= in agreement with computer-science conventions;=20 abcis a single variable, not the equivalent of=20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c. (Of course, a local convention cou= ld state that the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values o= f the variables=20 a,=20 b, and=20 cmultiplied together.) The explicit operator=20 pi'iis required in the Lojban verbal form whereas multi= plication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 + +multiplication ve'o(the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator: = the first use of it in=20 is required, but = the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, t= he first=20 + +square brackets bi'e(also marked by square brackets) is not necessary t= o get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the ot= her one. + +square brackets + +bi'e
6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse pe'o PEhO forethought flag + +pe'o ku'e KUhE forethought terminator py. BY letter=20 p xy. BY letter=20 x zy. BY letter=20 z ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator fy. BY letter=20 f @@ -603,83 +747,111 @@ n) plus=20 zequals the-number=20 x. p + -n + z =3D x where we know that=20 va'ais a forethought operator because there is no opera= nd preceding it. va'ais the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU= . In contrast,=20 + + +subtraction operator + + +subtraction operator +negative sign +negation operator vu'uis not used for numerical negation, but only for su= btraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse=20 va'aand=20 vu'u, which are operators, with=20 ni'u, which is part of a number. In=20 , the operator=20 va'aand the terminator=20 ku'eserve in effect as parentheses. (The regular parent= heses=20 veiand=20 ve'oare NOT used for this purpose.) If the=20 ku'ewere omitted, the=20 su'i zywould be swallowed up by the=20 va'aforethought operator, which would then appear to ha= ve two operands,=20 nyand=20 su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethought expres= sion. Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functiona= l notation. How do we represent=20 + +functional notation z =3D f(x)? The answer is: + +z =3D f <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example3" /> li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy. The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x. z =3D f(x) + +z =3D f Again, no parentheses are used. The construct=20 ma'o fy.boiis the equivalent of an operator, and appear= s in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular infix op= erator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes mea= n variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept = the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special flag=20 ma'oto mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo=20 xy.and=20 zy.are variables, but=20 fy.is an operator (a function) because=20 ma'omarks it as such. The=20 boiis required because otherwise the=20 xy.would look like part of the operator name. (The use = of=20 ma'ocan be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso = operand: see=20 .) When using forethought mekso, the optional marker=20 pe'omay be placed in front of the operator. This usage = can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 + +pe'o pe'oand=20 + +pe'o ku'epairs to delimit the operand list.=20 to=20 , respectively, wi= th explicit=20 pe'oand=20 + +pe'o ku'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example6" /> li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa + +pe'o li py. su'i pe'o va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. + +pe'o li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e + +pe'o Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands re= ally are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless par= enthesized with=20 + +infix expressions veiand=20 ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief bec= ause I forgot this rule.
7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: @@ -690,54 +862,70 @@ li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5. Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 + +dunli + +dimension mleca x1 is less than x2 zmadu x1 is greater than x2 dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equa= l or less] dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equa= l or greater] tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shap= e-equal] + +dunli turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, stru= cture-equal] + +dunli cmima x1 is a member of set x2 gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-= part] na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, numb= er-near] terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3 Note the difference between=20 dunliand=20 + +dunli du;=20 dunlihas a third place that specifies the kind of equal= ity that is meant.=20 + +dunli durefers to actual identity, and can have any number of= places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example2" /> py. du xy.boi zy. pis-identical-to=20 x z p =3D x =3D z + +p =3D x =3D z Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the=20 duis not repeated. Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with=20 na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that = the relation is false: + +negation cmavo <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example3" /> li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5 @@ -748,65 +936,83 @@ 8. Indefinite numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ro PA all so'a + +so'a PA almost all so'e + +so'e PA most so'i + +so'i PA many so'o + +so'o PA several so'u + +so'u PA a few no'o + +no'o PA the typical number of da'a PA all but (one) of rau + +rau PA enough du'e + +du'e PA too many mo'a + +mo'a PA too few Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathemati= cal sense. For example, the cmavo=20 romeans=20 allor=20 each. This number does not have a definite value in the= abstract:=20 li rois undefined. But when used to count or quantify s= omething, the parallel between=20 roand=20 @@ -815,148 +1021,200 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example2" /> mi catlu pa prenu I look-at one person mi catlu ro prenu + +ro prenu I look-at all persons + +all persons might be true, whe= reas=20 is almost certainl= y false. The cmavo=20 so'a,=20 + +so'a so'e,=20 + +so'e so'i,=20 + +so'i so'o, and=20 + +so'o so'urepresent a set of indefinite numbers less than=20 + +so'u + +indefinite numbers ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude = decreases: + +magnitude <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example7" /> mi catlu so'a prenu + +so'a I look-at almost-all persons + +all persons mi catlu so'e prenu + +so'e I look-at most persons + +at most mi catlu so'i prenu + +so'i I look-at many persons mi catlu so'o prenu + +so'o I look-at several persons mi catlu so'u prenu + +so'u I look-at a-few persons The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space = for up to five indefinite numbers between=20 + +indefinite numbers roand=20 no, with a built-in ordering. In particular,=20 so'edoes not mean=20 + +so'e mostin the sense of=20 a majorityor=20 more than half. Each of these numbers, plus=20 ro, may be prefixed with=20 pi(the decimal point) in order to make a fractional for= m which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality.= =20 + +decimal point pirotherefore means=20 the whole of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example8" /> mi citka piro lei nanba I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread Similarly,=20 piso'ameans=20 almost the whole of; and so on down to=20 piso'u,=20 a tiny part of. These numbers are particularly appropri= ate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as=20 shows. In addition to these cmavo, there is=20 no'o, meaning=20 + +no'o the typical value, and=20 + +typical value pino'o, meaning=20 the typical portion: Sometimes=20 no'ocan be translated=20 + +no'o the average value, but the average in question is not, = in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appro= priately represented by operators. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example10" /> mi catlu no'o prenu + +no'o I look-at a-typical-number-of persons mi citka pino'o lei nanba I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread. da'ais a related cmavo meaning=20 all but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example12" /> mi catlu da'a re prenu I look-at all-but two persons mi catlu da'a so'u prenu + +so'u I look-at all-but a-few persons is similar in mea= ning to=20 . If no number follows=20 da'a, then=20 pais assumed;=20 da'aby itself means=20 all but one, or in ordinal contexts=20 all but the last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example13" /> ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu + +ka'e All rats can eat all-but-one rats. All rats can eat all other rats. (The use of=20 da'ameans that=20 does not require = that all rats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat i= t cannot eat, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context oft= en dictates that=20 + +eat themselves itselfis, indeed, the=20 otherrat.) As mentioned in=20 ,=20 ma'uand=20 ni'uare also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive numberand=20 some negative numberrespectively. @@ -974,84 +1232,120 @@ <en>the-number 3 =E2=88=92 4 =3D some-negative-number</en> <jbo>mi ponse ma'u rupnu</jbo> <en>I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indef= inite. If there are exactly six superpowers (=20 <quote>rairgugde</quote>,=20 <quote>superlative-states</quote>) in the world, then=20 <quote>ro rairgugde</quote>means the same as=20 <quote>xa rairgugde</quote>. It is often useful, however, to express s= ubjective indefinite values. The cmavo=20 +<!-- ^^ indefinite values: subjective, 442 --> +<indexterm><primary>indefinite values</primary></indexterm> <quote>rau</quote>(enough),=20 +<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 --> +<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm> <quote>du'e</quote>(too many), and=20 +<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 --> +<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>mo'a</quote>(too few) are then appropriate:</para> +<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 --> +<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-TIiE"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example17" /> mi ponse rau rupnu + +rau I possess enough currency-units. + +enough currency Like the=20 so'a-series,=20 + +so'a rau,=20 + +rau du'e, and=20 + +du'e mo'acan be preceded by=20 + +mo'a pi; for example,=20 piraumeans=20 a sufficient part of. Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite= numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of num= bers have the same value in the given context: + +indefinite numbers <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example19" /> mi viska le rore gerku I saw the all-of/two dogs. I saw both dogs. + +both dogs mi speni so'ici prenu I am-married-to many/three persons. I am married to three persons (which is=20 manyin the circumstances). assumes a mostly = monogamous culture by stating that three is=20 many.
9. Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ji'i PA approximately su'e PA at most + +su'e + +at most su'o PA at least me'i PA less than + +me'i za'u PA more than + +za'u The cmavo=20 ji'i(of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate= approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number= , the whole number is approximate: + +rounded numbers <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example1" /> ji'i vo no approximation four zero approximately 40 + +approximately 40 If=20 ji'iappears in the middle of a number, all the digits f= ollowing it are approximate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example2" /> @@ -1059,105 +1353,131 @@ four zero approximation five zero roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousandis exact, but the=20 fiftyis approximate) If=20 ji'iappears at the end of a number, it indicates that t= he number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign = cmavo (=20 ma'uor=20 ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or ne= gative infinity respectively. + +infinity <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example5" /> re pi ze re ji'i two point seven two approximation 2.72 (rounded) re pi ze re ji'i ma'u two point seven two approximation positive-sign 2.72 (rounded up) + +rounded up re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u two point seven one approximation negative-sign 2.71 (rounded down) + +rounded down through=20 are all approximat= ions to=20 te'o(exponential e).=20 ji'ican also appear by itself, in which case it means= =20 approximately the typical value in this context. + +typical value The four cmavo=20 su'e,=20 + +su'e su'o,=20 me'i, and=20 + +me'i za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with = upper or lower bounds: + +za'u <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example9" /> mi catlu su'e re prenu + +su'e I look-at at-most two persons mi catlu su'o re prenu I look-at at-least two persons mi catlu me'i re prenu + +me'i I look-at less-than two persons mi catlu za'u re prenu + +za'u I look-at more-than two persons Each of these is a subtly different claim:=20 is true of two or = any greater number, whereas=20 requires three per= sons or more. Likewise,=20 refers to zero, on= e, or two;=20 to zero or one. (O= f course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,= =20 me'i recan be any number less than 2, and likewise with= the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 + +me'i exactly 2, neither more nor lessis just=20 re. Note that=20 su'oreis the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals= . If no number follows one of these cmavo,=20 pais understood: therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example10" /> mi catlu su'o prenu I look-at at-least [one] person is a meaningful claim. Like the numbers in=20 , all of these cmavo may be= preceded by=20 pito make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a w= hole. For example,=20 pisu'omeans=20 + +pisu'o at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 su'o,=20 piro, and=20 pisu'oare particularly important in Lojban, as they are= implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA = and LE, as explained in=20 + +pisu'o . Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter.
10. Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ju'u VUhU to the base @@ -1189,20 +1509,24 @@ vai PA hex digit F =3D 15 pi'e PA compound base point + +compound base + +base point In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expresse= d in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and m= ay be appropriate in particular circumstances. To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator=20 ju'uis suitable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example1" /> @@ -1217,46 +1541,56 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example3" /> li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748. + +ABC base 16 li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567. Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 au,=20 ei,=20 aiare used twice in the same order. The digits for A to= D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E a= nd F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough available = cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in = alphabetical order. The base point=20 + +base point piis used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example4" /> li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. + +F.8 base 16 Since=20 ju'uis an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical t= o use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefi= ned to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making= =20 ju'uan operator is to allow reference to a base which i= s not a constant. There are some numerical values that require a=20 basethat varies from digit to digit. For example, times= represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 + +hours digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 + +compound base pi'eis used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example5" /> ci pi'e rere pi'e vono 3:22:40 @@ -1270,22 +1604,26 @@ li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'= e rexa pi'e paci The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13. 3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13 Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the num= bers in=20 and=20 is hours, the sec= ond minutes, and the third seconds. + +hours The same mechanism using=20 pi'ecan be used to express numbers which have a base la= rger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from= =20 + +Mayan mathematics noto=20 paso, each separated by=20 pi'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example7" /> li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci @@ -1311,20 +1649,22 @@ pa pi'e no ju'u reno 1;0 base 20 which is equal to twenty. Both=20 piand=20 pi'ecan be used to express large-base fractions: + +fractions <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example10" /> li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35. @@ -1343,73 +1683,99 @@
11. Special mekso selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mei MOI cardinal selbri + +cardinal selbri moi MOI ordinal selbri + +ordinal selbri si'e + +si'e MOI portion selbri + +portion selbri cu'o + +cu'o MOI probability selbri + +probability selbri va'e + +va'e MOI scale selbri + +scale selbri me ME make sumti into selbri + +sumti into selbri me'u MEhU terminator for ME Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on= mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of = selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serve= s to create number-based selbri with specific place structures. The cmavo=20 meicreates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure i= s: + +cardinal selbri x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh= ich is/are x3 A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of memb= ers, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set = up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logic= al necessity. + +cardinal selbri Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example1" /> lei mi ratcu cu cimei Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome. My rats are three. I have three rats. + +three rats Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that= is, I have three rats. + +three rats Another example, with one element this time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example2" /> mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. @@ -1427,150 +1793,198 @@ An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example3" /> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. + +fewsome The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. In=20 , the x2 and x3 p= laces are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by=20 lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers are explicitl= y given) means=20 the whole of the set of all those things which are rats= , or simply=20 the set of all rats. + +set of all rats <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example4" /> le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. + +manysome There are many rats in the park. In=20 , the conversion = cmavo=20 seswaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is= the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats ar= e=20 manywith respect to some unspecified comparison set. + +comparison More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . The cmavo=20 moicreates ordinal selbri. The place structure is: + +ordinal selbri x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example7" /> ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me. This is my first rat. + +first rat ta romoi le'i mi ratcu That is-the-allth-of the rats associated-with me. That is my last rat. mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence + +enough-th I am enough-th in the movie line. + +enough-th means, in the app= ropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front= that I will get a seat for the movie. The cmavo=20 si'ecreates portion selbri. The place structure is: + +si'e + +portion selbri x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example8" /> levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. This meal is one-third of my daily food. The cmavo=20 cu'ocreates probability selbri. The place structure is:= + +probability selbri + +cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example9" /> le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.= + +probability .5 The cmavo=20 va'ecreates a scale selbri. The place structure is: + +va'e + +scale selbri x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like=20 + +continuous cifi'uxa(3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the= same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not= the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an exa= mple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example10" /> le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness. + +scale of redness This rose is very red. When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subject= ive numbers=20 rau,=20 + +rau du'e, or=20 + +du'e mo'a(enough, too many, too few) then an additional plac= e is added for=20 + +mo'a by standard. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example11" /> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-stan= dard me. There are too many rats in the park for me. + +too many rats The extra place (which for=20 -meiis the x4 place labeled by=20 fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as=20 ma'ibecause a specification of the standard for judgmen= t is essential to the meaning of subjective words like=20 + +ma'i enough. This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjec= tive numbers directly as a number. Therefore,=20 du'e ratcumeans=20 + +du'e too many ratswithout specifying any standard. + +too many rats It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example12" /> ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. That is my nth rat. @@ -1603,97 +2017,117 @@ It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after=20 meand before a member of MOI, producing strange results= indeed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example14" /> le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o + +cu'o The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability= . + +stereotypical I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. + +snowball's chance Note: the elidable terminator=20 boiis not used between a number and a member of MOI. As= a result, the=20 me'uin=20 could also be re= placed by a=20 boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 paand=20 moifrom joining into a compound.
12. Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xo + +xo PA number question The cmavo=20 xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions wh= ose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blan= k where the answer should go. (See=20 + +xo for more on Lojban questions.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example2" /> li re su'i re du li xo + +xo The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what? What is 2 + 2? le xomoi prenu cu darxi do The what-number-th person hit you? Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? + +police lineup xocan also be combined with other digits to ask questio= ns whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very u= seful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge: + +xo <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example3" /> li remu pi'i xa du li paxono The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 to which the correct reply would be=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammati= cal Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xoquestions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting o= ff physical objects one by one.) + +xo
13. Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xi XI subscript Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso= ; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammaticall= y a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of= course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example1" /> li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> + +x-sub-3 x Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 xi(of selma'o XI).=20 ximay be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a gen= eral mekso expression in parentheses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example2" /> @@ -1707,20 +2141,22 @@ <en>x</en> <jbo>xy.boixiny.</jbo> <en>x</en> <jbo>xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o]</jbo> <en>x</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables= ) generally need a=20 <quote>boi</quote>terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which s= ubscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an ot= herwise elidable terminator.</para> <para>There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than th= ose used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before t= he main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'= o XI for these purposes.</para> +<!-- ^^ superscripts, 450 --> +<indexterm><primary>superscripts</primary></indexterm> <para>The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general nu= mber or lerfu string, namely=20 <quote>boi</quote>. By convention, a subscript following another subsc= ript is taken to be a sub-subscript:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-FddL"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example5" /> xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo x @@ -1730,51 +2166,79 @@ for the standard= method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 .
14. Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section: tu'o + +tu'o PA null operand + +null operator gei VUhU exponential notation + +exponential notation The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two= operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been req= uired. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even thoug= h it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tric= ks: the null operand=20 + +tu'o + +null operator ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few oper= ands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to= express the numerical negation operator=20 + + +subtraction operator + + +subtraction operator +negative sign +negation operator va'ain infix form. We would use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example1" /> li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny. + +tu'o va'a + +tu'o The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero= minus n. -n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n The=20 tu'ofulfills the grammatical requirement for a left ope= rand for the infix use of=20 + +tu'o va'a, even though semantically none is needed or wanted= . Finding a suitable example of=20 ge'arequires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternary= operators are not common. The operator=20 gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a= binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also ca= lled=20 exponential) notation. The first operand of=20 geiis the exponent, and the second operand is the manti= ssa or fraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example2" /> @@ -1797,20 +2261,22 @@ gei reno (scientific) two-zero 10 Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common = exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default val= ue. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-pointnumbers using 2 as the exponent base. (Th= is has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all intege= rs in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating p= oint, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here = is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: + +IBM <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example4" /> papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 .1010 @@ -1825,231 +2291,317 @@ JOhI start vector te'u TEhU end vector pi'a + +pi'a VUhU matrix row combiner sa'i + +sa'i VUhU matrix column combiner A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical m= atrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out o= f vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands. jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector ind= icator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very= high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full e= xpressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of componen= ts;=20 + +vector indicator te'uis the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example1" /> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) Vectors can be combined into matrices using either=20 pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 + +pi'a + +matrix row operator sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first combines ve= ctors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors repr= esenting columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments:= additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 + +sa'i + +null operator + +matrix column operator ge'a. Therefore, the=20 magic squarematrix + +magic square 8 1 6 3 5 7 4 9 2 can be represented either as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example2" /> jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re + +pi'a the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (= 4 9 2) or as <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example3" /> jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi = zeboi re + +sa'i the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vecto= r (6 7 2) The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to mat= rices, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually nec= essary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid = incorrect groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators o= f inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a= suitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by=20 ma'o. Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using eithe= r=20 pi'aor=20 + +pi'a sa'iwith an appropriate subscript numbering the dimensi= on. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 + +sa'i + +dimension pi'aand=20 + +pi'a sa'i. + +sa'i
16. Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section: fu'a + +fu'a FUhA reverse Polish flag So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly fam= iliar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may= have seemed odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 fthey appear as the usual functional notation. Now come= s a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complete= ly different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses = of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation = of some programming languages.) + +functional notation In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notat= ion, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethou= ght mekso of the kind explained in=20 .) The number of operands p= er operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In L= ojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 fu'aat the beginning of the expression; there is no ter= minator. Here is a simple example: + +fu'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example1" /> li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu + +fu'a the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five. The operands are=20 reand=20 ci; the operator is=20 su'i. Here is a more complex example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example2" /> li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa + +fu'a the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plu= s equals the-number two-six Here the operands of the first=20 pi'iare=20 reand=20 ci; the operands of the second=20 pi'iare=20 voand=20 mu(with=20 boiinserted where needed), and the operands of the=20 su'iare=20 reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and=20 voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get= lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is esp= ecially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doe= sn't get lost) to comprehend. + +reverse Polish notation + +can see The operands of an RP operator can be any legal mekso operand, i= ncluding parenthesized mekso that can contain any valid syntax, whether mor= e RP or something more conventional. In Lojban, RP operators are always parsed with exactly two opera= nds. What about operators which require only one operand, or more than two = operands? The null operand=20 + +tu'o + +null operator ge'aprovide a simple solution. A one-operand operator l= ike=20 va'aalways appears in a reverse Polish context as=20 tu'o va'a. The=20 + +tu'o va'a + +tu'o tu'oprovides the second operand, which is semantically = ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version of= =20 + +tu'o geiappears in reverse Polish as=20 ge'a gei, where the=20 + +ge'a gei ge'aeffectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a = single operand. Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example4" /> li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du + +fu'a li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a + +tu'o va'a + +tu'o + +fu'a The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of. 3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2 li cinoki'oki'o du li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei + +ge'a gei + +fu'a The-number 30-comma-comma equals the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.= 30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10
17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: .abu BY letter=20 a by BY letter=20 b cy BY letter=20 c fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root) lo'o LOhO terminator for LI + +logical language . Operands are connected in aftertho= ught with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Op= erators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought wi= th selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no acciden= t. In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping l= ogically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'eis allowed for grouping logically connected = operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits aftertho= ught logical connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example1" /> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. is equivalent in = meaning, but uses forethought connection: + + +observatives +forethought connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example2" /> vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban r= equires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parenthese= s when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exi= st when using=20 li. By the way,=20 lihas an elidable terminator,=20 lo'o, which is needed when a=20 + +te'a su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve= 'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number=20 a-times-(=20 x power two ) plus=20 b-times- x plus=20 @@ -2099,171 +2653,223 @@ then x =3D -b =C2=B1=20 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88=92 4ac) =20 2a Note the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of= b and the square root are represented by forethought and most of the opera= tor precedence by prefixed=20 + +operator precedence bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group= the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be= removed here in favor of simple=20 + +bi'e fe'aand=20 ku'ebracketing, because infix operators are present in = the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectl= y using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would d= ispense with most of the=20 bi'ecmavo and just let the standard precedence rules be= understood. + +bi'e Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted betwe= en operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect= operands with=20 bi'oto create intervals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example7" /> li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one + +zero to one Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning = and end points can be expressed by=20 mi'i: + +mi'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example8" /> li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu + +mi'i the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5 which expresses the same interval as=20 . Note that the= =20 ga'oand=20 ke'istill refer to the endpoints, although these are no= w implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example9" /> li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5] Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces= another interval centered on the number. As=20 shows, non-logica= l (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso = operator. + +connection of operands You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: + +compound subscript + +ce'o <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example10" /> xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] + +ce'o xsub (=20 bsequence=20 d) x
18. Using Lojban resources within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: na'u NAhU selbri to operator ni'e + +ni'e NIhE selbri to operand mo'e + +mo'e MOhE sumti to operand te'u TEhU terminator for all three One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use o= f Lojban's vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in cmavo f= or operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all three s= hare the elidable terminator=20 te'u(which is also used to terminate vectors marked wit= h=20 jo'i) The cmavo=20 na'umakes a selbri into an operator. In general, the fi= rst place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the other= unfilled places specify the operands: 18.1) li na'u tanjo= te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i + +ci'i The-number the-operator tangent (=20 =CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. + +infinity tan( =CF=80/2) =3D=20 =E2=88=9E tanjois the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 na'uhere makes it into an operator which is then used i= n forethought The cmavo=20 ni'emakes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of the= selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 + +ni'e niabstraction, since=20 niabstractions represent numbers. The=20 ni'emakes that number available as a mekso operand. A c= ommon application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: + +ni'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example2" /> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i + +ni'e ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu + +ni'e The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume The cmavo=20 mo'eoperates similarly to=20 + +mo'e ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an = operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensi= oned numbers: + +ni'e + +dimensioned numbers <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example3" /> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu + +mo'e The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called=20 folk quantifiers, such as=20 + +folk quantifiers a pride of lions: + +pride of lions <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example4" /> mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo + +mo'e I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. I see a pride of lions. + +pride of lions
19. Other uses of mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: me'o LI @@ -2271,28 +2877,34 @@ nu'a NUhA operator to selbri mai MAI utterance ordinal + +utterance ordinal mo'o MAI higher order utterance ordinal + +utterance ordinal roi + +roi ROI quantified tense So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with=20 li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI a= nd ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.<= /para> The cmavo=20 me'ohas the same grammatical use as=20 libut slightly different semantics.=20 limeans=20 @@ -2388,78 +3000,102 @@ li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-n= umber four. where the=20 na'u nu'acancels out, leaving a truthful bridi Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 + +free modifiers firstly,=20 + +firstly secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: + +digit string <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example11" /> pamai firstly + +firstly remai secondly romai all-ly lastly ny.mai nth-ly pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order) The difference between=20 maiand=20 mo'ois that=20 mo'oenumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 mo'osubdivision can then be divided into pieces and int= ernally numbered with=20 mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 mo'o. (See=20 for more on these words.) A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string wit= h=20 + +digit string roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 + +roi once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . Note: the elidable terminator=20 boiis not used between a number and a member of MAI or = ROI.
20. Explicit operator precedence + +operator precedence As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment = using=20 + +metalinguistic comment ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 + +ti'o sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalin= guistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse whic= h the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 ti'odeclaration has not been formally established, but = presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then givi= ng it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-established scale= , or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existin= g operators. + +ti'o In future, we hope to create an improved machine parser that can= understand declarations of the precedences of simple operators belonging t= o selma'o VUhU. Originally, all operators would have the same precedence. D= eclarations would have the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to= higher precedence levels. Complex operators formed with=20 na'u,=20 ni'e, or=20 + +ni'e ma'owould remain at the standard low precedence; declar= ations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is pr= obable that such a parser would have a set of=20 commonly assumed precedencesbuilt into it (selectable b= y a special=20 ti'odeclaration) that would match mathematical intuitio= n: times higher than plus, and so on. + +ti'o
21. Miscellany A few other points: secan be used to convert an operator as if it were a se= lbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example1" /> @@ -2477,36 +3113,40 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example3" /> li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12. li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. + +opposite-of-minus The sense in which=20 plusis the opposite of=20 minusis not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one;= negated operators are defined only loosely. la'eand=20 lu'ecan be used on operands with the usual semantics to= get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selm= a'o NAhE followed by=20 boserves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that som= e other operand would make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example4" /> li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu + +na'ebo The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5. 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making l= ujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or toge= ther as names: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example5" /> @@ -2525,61 +3165,95 @@ la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men. Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi:=20 so'a,=20 + +so'a so'e,=20 + +so'e so'i,=20 + +so'i so'o,=20 + +so'o so'u,=20 + +so'u da'a,=20 ro,=20 su'e,=20 + +su'e su'o,=20 pi, and=20 ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo=20 + +ce'i fi'udoes not have a rafsi as such, it is closely relate= d to the gismu=20 + +fi'u frinu, meaning=20 fraction; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you= can use any of the rafsi for=20 frinuto indicate a fraction slash. A similar convention is used for the cmavo=20 cu'oof selma'o MOI, which is closely related to=20 + +cu'o cunso(probability); use a rafsi for=20 cunsoin order to create lujvo based on=20 cu'o. The cmavo=20 + +cu'o meiand=20 moiof MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact:=20 mem/=20 meiand=20 mom/=20 moirespectively. The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinc= tion between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda ca= lculus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a= method of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with= =20 + +lambda calculus + +ni'enu'a To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu= string such as=20 fy.into an operator. In fact,=20 ma'ocan be followed by any mekso operand, using the eli= dable terminator=20 te'uif necessary. There is a potential semantic ambiguity in=20 ma'o fy. [te'u]if=20 fy.is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean=20 the function whose value is always =E2=80=98f'. However= , mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as bot= h functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.
22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem + +Four score and seven Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 + +Gettysburg Address + +Abraham Lincoln Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 + +Four score and seven four score and seven. (A=20 score, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it = is analogous to a=20 dozenfor 12.) The trivial way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example1" /> li bize @@ -2605,33 +3279,41 @@ Scoreis not a word for 20 in the same way that=20 tenis a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 = objects. The original may be taken as short for=20 Four score years and seven years ago. Thinking of a sco= re as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example3" /> li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze + +mo'e the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven In=20 ,=20 voboi renomeiis a sumti signifying four things each of = which are groups of twenty; the=20 mo'eand=20 + +mo'e te'uthen make this sumti into a number in order to allo= w it to be the operand of=20 su'i. Another approach is to think of=20 scoreas setting a representation base. There are remnan= ts of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is= =20 + +base-20 arithmetic quatre-vingt-sept, literally=20 four-twenties-seven. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Ad= dress hard to translate into French!) If=20 + +Gettysburg Address scoreis the representation base, then we have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example4" /> li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno four ; seven base 20 47 @@ -2646,25 +3328,33 @@
23. mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo. BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings BY lerfu for variables and functions (see=20 ) FUhA reverse-Polish flag GOhA includes=20 du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo + +mathematical equality JOhI array flag KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso LI mekso articles (li and me'o) + +articles MAhO make operand into operator MOI creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see=20 + +si'e + +cu'o ) MOhE make sumti into operand NAhU make selbri into operator NIhE make selbri into operand NUhA make operator into selbri PA numbers (see=20 ) PEhO optional forethought mekso marker TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI VEI left parenthesis @@ -2679,38 +3369,52 @@ The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a,= b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethough= t operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules= apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU. su'i plus (((a + b) + c) + ...) pi'i times (((a =C3=97 b) =C3=97 c)= =C3=97 ...) vu'u minus (((a =E2=88=92 b) =E2=88= =92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) fe'i divided by (((a / b) / c) / ...) ju'u number base numeral string=20 a interpreted in the base b pa'i ratio the ratio of a to b, a:b fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse 1 /=20 + +reciprocal a gei scientific notation b =C3=97 (c [default 10]= to the=20 + +scientific notation a power) ge'a null operator (no operands) + +null operator de'o logarithm log=20 a to base=20 b (default 10 or=20 e as appropriate) te'a to the power/exponential =20 + +te'a a to the=20 b power fe'a nth root of/inverse power b th root of a (default square root: b =3D 2) cu'a absolute value/norm | a | ne'o factorial a! pi'a matrix row vector combiner (all operands are row ve= ctors) + +pi'a sa'i matrix column vector combiner (all operands are column= vectors) + +sa'i ri'o integral integral of a with respe= ct to b over range c + +integral sa'o derivative derivative of a with res= pect to b of degree c (default 1) fu'u non-specific operator (variable) si'i sigma (=CE=A3) summation summation of a usin= g variable b over range c va'a negation of/additive inverse -a re'a matrix transpose/dual a *
25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other = numbers. @@ -2727,96 +3431,150 @@ Hexadecimal digits:=20 dau, fei, gai, jau, rei, vai A/10, B/11, C/12, D/13, E/14, F/15 Special numbers:=20 pai, ka'o, te'o, ci'i + +ka'o + +ci'i =20 =CF=80, imaginary i, exponential e, = infinity ( + +infinity =E2=88=9E) Number punctuation:=20 pi, ce'i, fi'u + +fi'u + +ce'i decimal point, percentage, fraction (not division) + +decimal point rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (from frinu; see=20 + +fi'u ) =20 pi'e, ma'u, ni'u mixed-base point, plus sign (not addition), minus sign (not subtr= action) + +base point =20 ki'o, ra'e + +ra'e + +ki'o thousands comma, repeating-decimal indicator =20 ji'i, ka'o + +ka'o approximation sign, complex number separator Indefinite numbers:=20 ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, + +so'o + +so'i + +so'e + +so'a so'u, + +so'u da'a all, almost all, most, many, several, few, all but rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, + +so'i sot, daz Subjective numbers:=20 rau, + +rau du'e, + +du'e mo'a + +mo'a enough, too many, too few Miscellaneous:=20 xo, tu'o + +xo + +tu'o number question, null operand + +si'e rafsi: none =20 cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 + +cu'o [by standard x3] rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see=20 + +cu'o ) =20 va'e x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 + +va'e [by standard x3] rafsi: none
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 81a2107..7da9dbc 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -6,38 +6,44 @@ This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).
2. Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section: .i I sentence separator + +sentence separator Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a s= poken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of t= he following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spok= en English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or som= etimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo=20 + +audio-visually isomorphic .i(of selma'o I): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section2-example1" /> mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice. The word=20 separatorshould be noted.=20 .iis not normally used after the last sentence nor befo= re the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical.=20 .isignals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessa= rily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left va= gue, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the= following sentence states something that happened after the previous sente= nce. + +stories Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is ca= pitalized, the cmavo=20 .iis never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate t= o place extra space before=20 .ito make it stand out better for the reader. In some s= tyles of Lojban writing, every=20 .iis placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leavin= g space at the end of the previous line. An=20 .icmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the = following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence,= depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not. An=20 .icmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logical= connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these co= nstructs are explained in=20 ,=20 , and=20 @@ -68,62 +74,84 @@ ni'o NIhO new topic no'i NIhO old topic + +old topic da'o + +da'o DAhO cancel cmavo assignments The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purpo= ses: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appeara= nce of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented= in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 no'i, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two,=20 ni'ois the more common. By convention, written Lojban i= s broken into paragraphs just before any=20 ni'oor=20 no'i, but a very long passage on a single topic might b= e paragraphed before an=20 .i. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to= start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this conv= ention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of the= se conventions affect meaning in any way. A=20 ni'ocan take the place of an=20 .ias a sentence separator, and in addition signals a ne= w topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of=20 + +sentence separator ni'ocmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent t= o a single one; semantically, a greater number of=20 ni'ocmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. Thi= s feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and sub= -subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and = written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between=20 ni'oin writing and in conversation. In written text, a single=20 ni'ois a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, wh= ereas=20 + +discursive indicator ni'oni'omarks a change in the context. In this situatio= n,=20 ni'oni'oimplicitly cancels the definitions of all pro-s= umti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explicit cancel= ling is expressed by the cmavo=20 da'oof selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an i= ndicator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 + +da'o ni'oni'odoes not affect indicators (of selma'o UI) or t= ense references, but=20 ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change of topic, wou= ld serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See=20 for a discussion of indicat= or scope.) + +indicator scope In spoken text, which is inherently less structured, these level= s are reduced by one, with=20 ni'oindicating a change in context sufficient to cancel= pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in st= ories within stories such as=20 + +stories The Arabian Nights, further levels may be expressed by = extending the=20 + +Arabian Nights ni'ostring as needed. Normally, a written text will beg= in with the number of=20 ni'ocmavo needed to signal the largest scale division w= hich the text contains.=20 ni'ostrings may be subscripted to label each context of= discourse: see=20 . no'iis similar in effect to=20 ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previous topic.= In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English discurs= ive phrases as=20 + +previous topic But getting back to the point .... By default, the topi= c resumed is that in effect before the last=20 ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, then=20 no'iwould resume the previous subtopic and=20 + +resume no'ino'ithe previous topic. Note that=20 + +previous topic no'ialso resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments droppe= d at the previous=20 ni'o. If a=20 ni'ois subscripted, then a=20 no'iwith the same subscript is assumed to be a continua= tion of it. A=20 no'imay also have a negative subscript, which would spe= cify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found= thereby.
4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -151,44 +179,52 @@ zhe The wide space in the first two versions of=20 separate the topic= (=20 this news) from the comment (=20 + +news I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 zo'u(of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from = comment (a bridi): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example3" /> le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno The news : I [perfective] know. + +news is the literal Loj= ban translation of=20 . Of course, the t= opic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:= + +topic-comment <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example4" /> mi ba'o djuno le nuzba I [perfective] know the news. + +news means the same as= =20 , and it is simple= r. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the s= elbri within the comment is vague: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example5" /> @@ -204,20 +240,24 @@ yu which is vague in exactly the same way. Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before= =20 zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sent= ences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 + +topic-comment sentences + +topic-comment zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi co= ntaining quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quanti= fier logic in Lojban (see=20 ), but an example would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example7" /> roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. @@ -278,20 +318,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example11" /> do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri You possess money only-if you desire something-about it. namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 + +topic-comment sentences + +topic-comment are inherently vag= ue, and this difference between=20 ponse(which expects a physical object in x2) and=20 djicais ignored. See=20 for another topic/= comment sentence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subjectin the English sense.
5. Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -306,65 +350,83 @@ KOhA sumti question mo GOhA bridi question xo + +xo PA number question ji A sumti connective question ge'i + +ge'i GA forethought connective question + +forethought connective gi'i + +gi'i GIhA bridi-tail connective question gu'i + +gu'i GUhA tanru forethought connective question + +forethought connective je'i + +je'i JA tanru connective question pei UI attitude question fi'a + +fi'a FA place structure question cu'e CUhE tense/modal question pau + +pau UI question premarker Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There ar= e two basic types: truth questions, of the form=20 Is it true that ..., and fill-in-the-blank questions. T= ruth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of = it specifically questioned, with the cmavo=20 xu(of selma'o UI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1" /> @@ -399,20 +461,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example3" /> do klama ma You go-to [what sumti?] Where are you going? The answer is a simple sumti: + +simple sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example4" /> le zarci The store. @@ -456,21 +520,25 @@ An answer might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example8" /> la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju John, Marsha, the store, the office. + +Marsha John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.<= /en> + +Marsha (Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungram= matical result, because=20 * ... le zarci fa'u le brijuis ungrammatical Lojban: th= e first=20 le zarcihas to be closed with its proper terminator=20 ku, for reasons explained in=20 . This effect is not important: Lojb= an behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question= and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is gr= ammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with=20 @@ -480,61 +548,81 @@ la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] What is Lojban? Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of L= ojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range o= f possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might b= e a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provid= ed by the questioner. To limit the range of a=20 + +predicate answers moquestion, make it part of a tanru. Questions about numbers are expressed with=20 xoof selma'o PA: + +xo <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example10" /> do viska xo prenu + +xo You saw [what number?] persons. How many people did you see? The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi u= tterance: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example11" /> vomu Forty-five. Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 jiof A,=20 ge'iof GA,=20 + +ge'i gi'iof GIhA,=20 + +gi'i gu'iof GUhA, or=20 + +gu'i je'iof JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik a= s an answer) - see=20 + +je'i + +ijoik ; attitudes (using=20 peiof UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) - = see=20 ; place structures (using=20 fi'aof FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) - = see=20 + +fi'a ; tenses and modals (using=20 cu'eof CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as an= answer) - see=20 and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau(of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See=20 + +pau for details. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: any number of sumti (with elidable terminator=20 vau, see=20 ) an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see=20 @@ -553,29 +641,33 @@ a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti= , see=20 ) a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, s= ee=20 ) linked arguments (beginning with=20 + +linked arguments beor=20 beiand attached to some previously expressed selbri= , often in a description,see=20 ) At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also per= mitted: one or more names (to indicate direct address without=20 + +direct address doi, see=20 ) indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see=20 ) nai(to vaguely negate something or other, see=20 @@ -590,31 +682,35 @@ xi XI subscript The cmavo=20 xi(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number,= a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attac= hed to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (o= r its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either= to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refine= d distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this = section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. Lojban gismu have at most five places: + +at most <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example1" /> mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.<= /en> Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change t= he order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags fo= r individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. C= onversion of=20 + +place number , using=20 xeto swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example2" /> le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house= via-the road for-me. @@ -637,50 +733,56 @@ nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction operator=20 nuto=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example4" /> la'edi'u cu nunkla + +la'edi'u mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.= shows that=20 nunklahas six places: the five places of=20 klamaplus a new one (placed first) for the event itself= . Performing transformations similar to that of=20 requires an additi= onal conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is = to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (see Chapter 19): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example5" /> le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u + +la'edi'u The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-se= ntence. Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of= FA with a subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example6" /> fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u + +la'edi'u fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going. to=20 also all mean the = same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, d= espite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other m= ember of SE or FA could be substituted into=20 sexixaand=20 faxixawithout change of meaning:=20 @@ -723,35 +825,39 @@ brodu. Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical = way to extend the number of variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example9" /> li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3 + +x-sub-3 x and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since= lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantic= ally equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In=20 , note the require= d terminator=20 boiafter each=20 xy.cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be at= tached without ambiguity.) Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted t= o distinguish two individuals with the same name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example10" /> la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire + +mi'enai John Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or p= lace that is described by the same general cmavo. For example,=20 puxipacould refer to one point in the past, and=20 puxirea second point (earlier or later). You can place a subscript on the word=20 ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express s= o-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whos= e truth value is not merely=20 trueor=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 @@ -780,82 +886,110 @@ Finally, as mentioned in=20 ,=20 ni'oand=20 no'icmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and t= he continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assi= gned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.
7. Utterance ordinals: MAI + +ordinals The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mai MAI utterance ordinal, -thly + +utterance ordinal mo'o MAI higher order utterance ordinal + +utterance ordinal Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 + +free modifiers firstly,=20 + +firstly secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 maior=20 mo'oof selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here = are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section7-example1" /> mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. + +firstly This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the ho= use: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for conve= nience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can = be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or = its meaning. + +ordinals + +free modifiers Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:=20 romai, for example, means=20 all-thlyor=20 lastly. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list an= d have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say=20 ny.mai, or=20 Nthly. + +Nthly The difference between=20 maiand=20 mo'ois that=20 mo'oenumerates larger subdivisions of a text;=20 maiwas designed for lists of numbered items, whereas=20 + +lists mo'owas intended to subdivide structured works. If this= chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with=20 mo'o: this section would then be introduced with=20 zemo'o, or=20 Section 7.
8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: fu'e + +fu'e FUhE open attitudinal scope fu'o + +fu'o FUhO close attitudinal scope Lojban has a complex system of=20 attitudinals, words which indicate the speaker's attitu= de to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, i= ntensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and = evidentials (which indicate=20 + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials how the speaker knows). Most of these words belong to s= elma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reaso= ns, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo o= f UI and CAI are discussed in=20 ; only the rules for applying them i= n discourse are presented here. Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. How= ever, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a wh= ole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudin= al: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d3" /> @@ -891,30 +1025,42 @@ <en>I believe I see a blue house.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>or to an explicit=20 <quote>vau</quote>placed at the end of a bridi.</para> <para>Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be= attached to=20 <quote>ni'o</quote>or=20 <quote>no'i</quote>. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies= to the whole text.</para> <para>However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the= range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the b= oundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo=20 <quote>fu'e</quote>(of selma'o FUhE) and=20 +<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>fu'o</quote>(of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. P= lacing=20 +<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>fu'e</quote>in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from what= precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words until= further notice. The notice is given by=20 +<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>fu'o</quote>, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-forc= e attitudinals. For example:</para> +<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-0vML"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example6" /> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse + +fu'o + +fu'e I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. Here, only the=20 blanu zdaniportion of the three-part tanru=20 blanu zdani ponseis marked as a belief of the speaker. = Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interp= reting multi-part tanru:=20 blanu zdanigroups first because tanru group from left t= o right unless overridden with=20 keor=20 bo. @@ -956,20 +1102,22 @@ mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u] I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote] I said,=20 I'm John. But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the= language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the cas= e, quotation deserves some elaboration. The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in=20 , uses the cmavo= =20 lu(of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and th= e cmavo=20 + +opening quotation li'u(of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. Th= e text between=20 luand=20 li'umust be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quot= ation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo=20 li'uis technically an elidable terminator, but it's alm= ost never possible to elide it except at the end of text. The cmavo=20 lo'u(of selma'o LOhU) and=20 le'u(of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation = that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist = of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 ), so that the=20 le'ucan be picked out reliably. The words need not be m= eaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quotat= ion with=20 lo'uis essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for te= aching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to = mark such errors: @@ -978,38 +1126,42 @@ lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-st= ructure in Lojban. is grammatical eve= n though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 + +embedded quotation lo'uquotation can quote fragments of a text which thems= elves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example3" /> lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. In the sentence=20 le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 viska leshould be replaced by=20 viska lo. Note the topic-comment formulation (=20 + +topic-comment ) and the indicator applyin= g to the selbri only (=20 ). Neither=20 viska lenor=20 viska lois a valid Lojban utterance, and both require= =20 lo'uquotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 lu ... li'uis used, but not when=20 lo'u ... le'uis used: @@ -1041,23 +1193,27 @@ <gloss>However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss> <en>Charlie says=20 <quote>le ninmu cu morsi</quote>, but he is alive.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example5" />,=20 <quote>ri</quote>cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti=20 <quote>le ninmu</quote>, because=20 <quote>le ninmu cu morsi</quote>is a mere uninterpreted sequence of Lo= jban words. Instead,=20 +<!-- ^^ uninterpreted sequence, 477 --> +<indexterm><primary>uninterpreted sequence</primary></indexterm> <quote>ri</quote>ends up referring to the referent of the sumti=20 <quote>la tcarlis.</quote>, and so it is Charlie who is alive.</para> <para>The metalinguistic erasers=20 +<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 4= 77 --> +<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm> <quote>si</quote>,=20 <quote>sa</quote>, and=20 <quote>su</quote>, discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />, do not operate in text b= etween=20 <quote>lo'u</quote>and=20 <quote>le'u</quote>. Since the first=20 <quote>le'u</quote>terminates a=20 <quote>lo'u</quote>quotation, it is not directly possible to have a=20 <quote>lo'u</quote>quotation within another=20 <quote>lo'u</quote>quotation. However, it is possible for a=20 @@ -1073,65 +1229,81 @@ <cmavo-list> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>zo</cmavo> <selmaho>ZO</selmaho> <description>quote single word</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>zoi</cmavo> <selmaho>ZOI</selmaho> <description>non-Lojban quotation</description> +<!-- ^^ non-Lojban quotation, 141 --> +<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>la'o</cmavo> <selmaho>ZOI</selmaho> <description>non-Lojban name</description> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>zo</quote>(of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the si= ngle following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other u= ses,=20 +<!-- ^^ strong quotation, 477 --> +<indexterm><primary>strong quotation</primary></indexterm> <quote>zo</quote>allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without= having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically = legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo a= re not permitted. For example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-qxjF"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example1" /> zo si cu lojbo valsi siis a Lojbanic word. Since=20 zoacts on a single word only, there is no corresponding= terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 zo, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation = are rarely or never elidable. The cmavo=20 zoi(of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non= -Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 + +non-Lojban text zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (called the de= limiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which= is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, b= ut not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to= the Lojban name of the language being quoted: + +phoneme stream <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example2" /> zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra John is a manis an English sentence. where=20 gystands for=20 glico. Other popular choices of delimiting words are=20 .kuot., a Lojban name which sounds like the English wor= d=20 quote, and the word=20 zoiitself. Another possibility is a Lojban word suggest= ing the topic of the quotation. Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimitin= g word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimit= ing word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-v= isual isomorphism:=20 + +isomorphism + + +isomorphism +audio-visual isomorphism + +isomorphism is fine in speech= but ungrammatical as written, whereas=20 is correct when w= ritten but ungrammatical in speech. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example4" /> @@ -1230,49 +1402,63 @@ zoby a pause, thus:=20 zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause is that all L= ojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word other than= =20 la,=20 lai,=20 la'i(all of selma'o LA) and=20 doi(of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other cmavo tha= t may precede a name: of these,=20 zois one of the most common.) The cmavo=20 la'oalso belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here = for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation.= Instead,=20 la'oserves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Lin= naean binomial names (such as=20 + +Linnaean Homo sapiens) which are the internationally standardize= d names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names whic= h can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such= as=20 + +plants Goethe, can also appear in Lojban text with=20 + +Goethe la'o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example10" /> la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly. + +Goethe Goethe is a Homo sapiens. + +Goethe Using=20 la'ofor all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, mak= es for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 + +cumbersome text la'omight be=20 la me zoi.
11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ba'e BAhE emphasize next word za'e + +za'e BAhE next word is nonce English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for = contrastive emphasis, thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example1" /> @@ -1330,54 +1516,70 @@ mi viska ba'e la djordj. I saw [emphasis] the-one-named=20 George. I saw Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's g= rammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis mar= king: + +emphasis marking <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example7" /> ba'e mi viska la djordj. I, no one else, saw George. mi ba'e viska la djordj. I saw (not heard or smelled) George. Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi c= an also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker= 's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri whe= n moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree. For completeness, the cmavo=20 za'eshould be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks= a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occa= sion): + +za'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example8" /> mi klama la za'e. .albeinias + +za'e I go-to so-called Albania + +Albania marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 + +appropriate standard la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in Albania= n. Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 za'eindicates that the word has been made up on the spo= t and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary= (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). + +za'e + +unabridged dictionary
12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</ti= tle> +<!-- ^^ metalinguistic commentary, 480 --> +<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic commentary</primary></indexterm> <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para> <cmavo-list> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>to</cmavo> <selmaho>TO</selmaho> <description>open parenthesis</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>to'i</cmavo> <selmaho>TO</selmaho> @@ -1409,59 +1611,77 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example1" />implicitly redefi= nes=20 <quote>do</quote>within the parentheses: the listener is changed by=20 <quote>doi frank.</quote>When the context sentence resumes, however, t= he old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.</para> <para>There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:=20 <quote>to'i</quote>. The difference between=20 <quote>to</quote>and=20 <quote>to'i</quote>is the difference between parentheses and square br= ackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 +<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 --> +<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm> <quote>to ... toi</quote>cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, whe= reas remarks within=20 <quote>to'i ... toi</quote>are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an = editor:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-hXIi"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example2" /> la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi l= i'u Frank expresses=20 I love you [you =3D Jane] The=20 sa'asuffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o UI) meanin= g=20 + +sa'a editorial insertion, and indicating that the marked wor= d or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of t= he quotation. It is required whenever the=20 + + +sa'a +editorial insertion + +bracketed remark to'i ... toiremark is physically within quotation marks= , at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the convention may be= relaxed if no actual confusion results. Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the p= revious word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents = of subscripts and other such so-called=20 free modifiers. Semantically, however, parenthetical re= marks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what fol= lows them. + +free modifiers The cmavo=20 sei(of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi= . Comments added with=20 + +embedded discursive seiare called=20 metalinguistic, because they are comments about the dis= course itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This s= ense of the term=20 metalinguisticis used throughout this chapter, and is n= ot to be confused with the sense=20 language for expressing other languages. When marked with=20 sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in anot= her utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have c= mavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example3" /> la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein. Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane. Using the happiness attitudinal,=20 + +happiness .ui, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, t= he speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elid= e the one who is happy, and say: + +happiness <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example4" /> la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. @@ -1470,56 +1690,66 @@ beand=20 bei: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example5" /> la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein. Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane. + +Susan This restriction allows the terminator cmavo=20 se'uto almost always be elided. Since a discursive utterance is working at a=20 higherlevel of abstraction than a non-discursive uttera= nce, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Spe= cifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs = in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at=20 + +reciprocal highermetalinguistic levels in determining their refere= nt. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguist= ic levels. For example, the English=20 + +metalinguistic levels he saidin a conversation is metalinguistic. For this pu= rpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than= the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of t= he one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be a= t a higher level than the context. Lojban works differently from English in that the=20 he saidcan be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojba= n, you can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example6" /> la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u John expresses=20 I go to-the store. which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the= central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversatio= n, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a= conversation, you don't want the=20 he saidor=20 she saidto be considered part of the conversation. If u= nmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use: + +anaphora <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example7" /> lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei li'u I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence) I go to the store, said John. + +said John And of course other orders are possible: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example9" /> @@ -1528,23 +1758,27 @@ John said,=20 I go to the store. lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci I go, John said,=20 to the store. Note the=20 sa'afollowing each=20 + +sa'a sei, marking the=20 seiand its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not p= art of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 sa'acmavo would probably be dropped. + +sa'a The elidable terminator for=20 seiis=20 se'u(of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to s= eparate a selbri within the=20 seicomment from an immediately following selbri (or com= ponent) outside the comment.
13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -1645,20 +1879,22 @@ gy[unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 John. In=20 , the first=20 fyis taken to be the delimiting word. The next word mus= t be different from the delimiting word, and=20 gy., the Lojban name for the letter=20 g, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting word mus= t be repeated. For purposes of=20 sierasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a word= , so four words have been uttered, and four more=20 + +erasure sicmavo are needed to erase them altogether. Similarly,= a stray=20 lo'uquotation mark must be erased with=20 fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation and then= erasing it all with three=20 sicmavo. What if less than the entire=20 zoor=20 zoiconstruct is erased? The result is something which h= as a loose=20 zoor=20 zoiin it, without its expected sequels, and which is in= curably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the=20 @@ -1673,39 +1909,49 @@ I am-named-by the-word=20 John, er, er, the-word=20 George. The parser will reject=20 zo .djan. si .djordj., because in that context=20 djordj.is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather than a quote= d word. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 sierasure. + +erasure As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with=20 + +precise erasures sican be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cm= avo=20 sa(of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one= word. The cmavo following=20 sashould be the starting marker of some grammatical con= struct. The effect of the=20 + +starting marker sais to erase back to and including the last starting m= arker of the same kind. For example: + +starting marker <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example7" /> mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan. I see the ... I say the-word=20 John. Since the word following=20 sais=20 .i, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the = preceding sentence. So=20 + +sentence separator is equivalent to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example8" /> mi cusku zo .djan. @@ -1722,64 +1968,94 @@ In=20 ,=20 le blanu zdan.is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects th= e speaker's original intention to say=20 le blanu zdani. However, the=20 zdaniwas cut off before the end and changed into a name= . The entire ungrammatical=20 leconstruct is erased and replaced by=20 le xekri zdani. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 saerasure. Getting=20 + +erasure saright is even more difficult (for a computer) than ge= tting=20 siright, as the behavior of=20 siis defined in terms of words rather than in terms of = grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptually= simpler entities. On the other hand,=20 sais generally easier for human beings, because the rul= es for using it correctly are less finicky. The cmavo=20 su(of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operato= r that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple speak= ers, then=20 + +multiple speakers suwill only erase the remarks made by the one who said = it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 susuis needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conver= sation. Note: The current machine parser does not implement either=20 suor=20 susuerasure. + +erasure
14. Hesitation: Y The following cmavo is discussed in this section: .y. Y hesitation noise + +hesitation Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or = for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban:= to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo=20 .y.(of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English = hesitation noise written=20 + +hesitation uh(or=20 er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses = before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having not= hing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is= not significant in Lojban, the=20 ysound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Fur= thermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respe= cted. Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal lang= uage, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers o= f other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, rep= eating) a word (=20 + +hesitation sound + +hesitation estein some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning=20 that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism require= s a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,=20 + +isomorphism + + +isomorphism +audio-visual isomorphism + +isomorphism .y.has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywh= ere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.
15. No more to say: FAhO The following cmavo is discussed in this section: fa'o + +fa'o FAhO end of text The cmavo=20 fa'o(of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker for= the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the = end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a disc= ussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it = as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with=20 + +unconditional signal + +fa'o + +computer interaction zoor with=20 lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at the end= of subordinate texts quoted with=20 lu ... li'uor parenthesized with=20 to ... toi.
16. List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. @@ -1817,97 +2093,115 @@ zeicombines the preceding and the following word in= to a lujvo, but does not affect=20 zo,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su,=20 lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 fa'o, and=20 + +fa'o zei. BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is=20 si,=20 sa, or=20 su, or unless it is preceded by=20 zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession.<= /para> bumakes the preceding word into a lerfu word, excep= t for=20 zo,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su,=20 lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 fa'o,=20 + +fa'o zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 bu. Multiple=20 bucmavo may be used in succession. UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for=20 zo,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su,=20 lo'u, ZOI,=20 fa'o,=20 + +fa'o zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A = following=20 naiis made part of the UI. .y.,=20 da'o,=20 + +da'o fu'e, and=20 + +fu'e fu'oare the same as UI, but do not absorb a followi= ng=20 + +fu'o nai.
17. List of Elidable Terminators The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban.= The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that = starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kin= ds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cm= avo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo. + +elidable terminators be'o BE sumti attached to a tanru unit boi PA/BY number or lerfu string do'u + +do'u COI/DOI vocative phrases fe'u FIhO ad-hoc modal tags ge'u GOI relative phrases kei NU abstraction bridi + +abstraction bridi ke'e KE groups of various kinds ku LE/LA description sumti @@ -1922,61 +2216,75 @@ NOI relative clauses li'u LU quotations lo'o + +number sumti lu'u + +lu'u LAhE/NAhE+BO + +NAhE+BO sumti qualifiers me'u ME tanru units formed from sumti nu'u NUhI forethought termsets + +forethought termsets se'u SEI/SOI metalinguistic insertions + +metalinguistic insertions te'u various mekso conversion constructs toi TO parenthetical remarks tu'u TUhE multiple sentences or paragraphs vau (none) simple bridi or bridi-tails + +simple bridi ve'o VEI mekso parentheses
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index cff8c80..b508181 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,38 +1,50 @@ Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams
1. The concept of the bridi This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence = structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successi= ve variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are man= y more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in l= ater chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tourof the material later covered more slowly thr= oughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discu= ss Lojban grammar. Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: + +John and Sam <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example3" /> John is the father of Sam. John hits Sam. + +hits John is taller than Sam. + +taller These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. = However, in English, we use the noun=20 + +John and Sam fatherto describe a static relationship in=20 , the verb=20 hitsto describe an active relationship in=20 + +hits , and the adjective= =20 tallerto describe an attributive relationship in=20 + +taller . In Lojban we make= no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in= Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to rep= resent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a= =20 predication; in Lojban it is called a=20 bridi, and the central part of speech is the=20 selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus related as= =20 arguments, while Lojbanists call them=20 sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of = the book. @@ -166,39 +178,43 @@ ipronounced like English=20 y(for example,=20 iois pronounced=20 yo) or else with a=20 upronounced like English=20 w(for example,=20 uais pronounced=20 wa). Lojban also has three=20 semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 + +glottal stop h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unle= ss that vowel is=20 y, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-= last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that sylla= ble is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.
3. Words that can act as sumti Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table = provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be foun= d in=20 . mi I/me, we/us do you ti this, these ta that, those tu that far away, those far away zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious) Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. + +plural The cmavo=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 turefer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and sho= uld not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.<= /para> Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with= the word=20 la: la meris. the one/ones named Mary la djan. the one/ones named John @@ -212,23 +228,27 @@ vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in languag= e x4 sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3 cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait) klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x= 4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation) pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3 + +pleases gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2 kurji x1 takes care of x2 kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2 + +healthy stali x1 stays/remains with x2 zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3= (storekeeper) Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role= of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, tha= t order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, an= d x5. Like the table in=20 , this table is far from com= plete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new word= s to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the = existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference betw= een Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and Englis= h; in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words, and= =20 explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.
@@ -247,37 +267,43 @@ where the=20 xes with following numbers represent the various argume= nts that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. = For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example2" /> John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. + +engineering has=20 Johnin the x1 place,=20 Samin the x2 place,=20 engineeringin the x3 place, and=20 + +engineering Lojbanin the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example3" /> Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering + +engineering and language Lojban. The Lojban bridi corresponding to=20 will have the form<= /para> 5.4) =20 x1 [cu]=20 tavla=20 @@ -313,40 +339,44 @@ zo'e=20 tu=20 ti I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. (=20 is a bit unusual, a= s there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of= this book, and hope the meaning gets across!) When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo=20 zo'eat the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a proce= ss called=20 ellipsis.=20 + +ellipsis and=20 may be expressed th= us: 5.8) =20 mi=20 tavla=20 do I talk to you (about something in some language). =20 5.9) =20 do=20 tavla=20 mi=20 ta You talk to me about that thing (in some language). Note that=20 is not subject to e= llipsis by this direct method, as the=20 + +ellipsis zo'ein it is not at the end of the bridi.
6. Variant bridi structure Consider the sentence 6.1) =20 mi [c= u]=20 vecnu @@ -402,24 +432,32 @@ 6.5) =20 ________ = [cu]=20 melbi unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) Beautiful! It's beautiful! Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 + +observatives + +observative Smoke!upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 Car!to a person crossing the street who might be in dan= ger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear bef= ore the selbri. + +observative The word=20 cudoes not occur in an observative;=20 + +observative cuis a separator, and there must be a sumti before the = selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 cuto be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 cuis not permitted. Short words like=20 cuwhich serve grammatical functions are called=20 cmavoin Lojban.
7. Varying the order of sumti For one reason or another you may want to change the order, plac= ing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So @@ -469,28 +507,34 @@ xeswitch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fir= st and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of plac= es are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 se,=20 te,=20 ve, and=20 xecmavo are said to convert the selbri. More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 for details. The effect is similar to what in English is called the=20 passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 + +passive voice + +converted selbri le selbri [ku](see=20 ).
8. The basic structure of longer utterances People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific= structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entire= ty of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sent= ences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the= cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 .i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at al= l) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, questi= on mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent = the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a t= railing sumti of the previous sentence. + +punctuation marks The cmavo=20 ni'oseparates paragraphs (covering different topics of = discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text= may be indicated by multiple=20 ni'os, with perhaps=20 ni'oni'oni'oused to indicate a chapter,=20 ni'oni'oto indicate a section, and a single=20 ni'oto indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single En= glish paragraph. The cmavo=20 .iseparates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with = words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the = context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 xu, discussed in=20 , is one such word - it tur= ns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than= one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 @@ -539,30 +583,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example4" /> s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. + +fast talker Note especially the use of=20 type-ofas a mechanism for connecting the English transl= ations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understa= nd each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, h= owever: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example5" /> bajra cutci runner shoe + +runner shoe most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be= interpreted in some imaginative instances as=20 shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, t= he meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its component= s, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example6" /> @@ -572,37 +620,45 @@ would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike th= e English idiom, and a <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example7" /> jikca toldi social butterfly + +social butterfly + +butterfly must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of t= he family=20 Lepidoptera. + +Lepidoptera The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final compo= nent of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 klama: 9.8) =20 mi [cu]=20 sutra klama la meris. I quickly-go to Mary. With the conversion=20 se klamaas the final component of the tanru, the place = structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 p= lace is the one who goes: + +the destination 9.9) =20 mi [cu]=20 sutra se klama la meris. I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. The following example shows that there is more to conversion tha= n merely switching places, though: @@ -610,20 +666,22 @@ 9.10) =20 la tam. [cu= ]=20 melbi tavla la meris. Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. has the place structure of=20 tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> + +place structure order 9.11) =20 la meris. [= cu]=20 melbi se tavla la tam. Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. @@ -670,20 +728,22 @@ I talk to you about the talker where=20 the talkeris presumably someone other than me, though n= ot necessarily. Similarly=20 le sutra tavla kuis=20 the fast talker, and=20 + +fast talker le sutra te tavla kuis=20 the fast subject of talkor=20 the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. In many cases the word=20 kumay be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary = in a description at the end of a sentence, so: 10.3) =20 mi tavla @@ -691,30 +751,34 @@ le tavla I talk-to you about-the talker means exactly the same thing as=20 . There is a problem when we want to say=20 The fast one is talking.The=20 obvioustranslation=20 le sutra tavlaturns out to mean=20 the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 + +fast talker cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of = the selbri. The word=20 cuhas no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning= of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It co= mes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like=20 seor=20 te. Thus: 10.4) =20 le sutra tavla The fast talker + +fast talker =20 10.5) =20 le sutra cu= =20 tavla The fast one is talking. =20 10.6) =20 le sutra se tavla @@ -745,20 +809,22 @@ blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-g= reen. It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 kuin=20 , and it is also s= afe to omit the=20 cu.
11. Examples of brivla The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which = may by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words= ), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All ha= ve identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu o= r tanru built from gismu. + +borrowings gismu: 11.1) =20 mi [cu]= =20 klama ti zo'e zo'e ta @@ -773,76 +839,92 @@ blari'o That is-blue-green. fu'ivla: 11.3) =20 ti [cu]=20 djarspageti This is-spaghetti. + +spaghetti Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that st= and for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is=20 go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous L= ojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being express= ed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context: 11.4) =20 ta [cu]=20 go'i That too/same-as-last selbri. That (is spaghetti), too. + +spaghetti
12. The sumti=20 <quote>di'u</quote>and=20 <quote>la'e di'u</quote> In English, I might say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me.How do you know what=20 + +pleases thisrefers to? Lojban uses different expressions to con= vey the possible meanings of the English: 12.1) =20 le gerku [ku] cu=20 melbi The dog is beautiful. The following three sentences all might translate as=20 This pleases me. + +pleases 12.2) =20 ti [cu]=20 pluka mi This (the dog) pleases me. + +pleases 12.3) =20 di'u [cu]= =20 pluka mi This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammati= cal or sounds nice). + +pleases 12.4) =20 la'e di'u [= cu]=20 pluka mi This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beauti= ful) pleases me. + +pleases uses one sumti to = point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 la'edi'uas a single word; it is used more often than=20 + +la'edi'u di'uby itself.
13. Possession Possessionrefers to the concept of specifying an object= by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posses= sion is given in=20 . A simple means of expressing posses= sion, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object = within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, betwe= en the=20 leand the selbri of the description: @@ -853,40 +935,46 @@ My dog is fast. In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one ma= y=20 possessa chair simply by sitting on it, even though it = actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the s= ame way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimat= e relationships:=20 my armdoesn't mean=20 some arm I ownbut rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.
14. Vocatives and commands + +commands You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addres= sing them by using=20 doifollowed by their name. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example1" /> doi djan. means=20 Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of= setting the value of=20 do;=20 donow refers to=20 Johnuntil it is changed in some way in the conversation= . Note that=20 is not a bridi, bu= t it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a=20 vocative phrase. + +vocative phrase Other cmavo can be used instead of=20 doiin a vocative phrase, with a different significance.= For example, the cmavo=20 + +vocative phrase coimeans=20 helloand=20 co'omeans=20 good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow = one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phr= ases with=20 doido not need a pause before the name.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d3" /> @@ -921,20 +1009,22 @@ <quote>Talk!</quote>Other examples:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example6" />14.6) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">ko</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">sutra</foreignphrase> Be fast! </programlisting> <para>The=20 <quote>ko</quote>need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur any= where a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very= unlike English commands:</para> +<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example7" />14.7) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">mi</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">tavla</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">ko</foreignphrase> Be talked to by me Let me talk to you. </programlisting> <para>The cmavo=20 @@ -956,20 +1046,24 @@ </programlisting> <para>both mean=20 <quote>You take care of you</quote>and=20 <quote>Be taken care of by you</quote>, or to put it colloquially,=20 <quote>Take care of yourself</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section15"> <title>15. Questions There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations a= ppear in=20 and in various other chapters throug= hout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questi= ons, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. + +sumti questions + +selbri questions The cmavo=20 mais used to create a sumti question: it indicates that= the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locatio= n of the=20 mato make the bridi true. It can be translated as=20 Who?or=20 What?in most cases, but also serves for=20 When?,=20 Where?, and=20 Why?when used in sumti places that express time, locati= on, or cause. For example: @@ -1004,20 +1098,22 @@ 15.4) =20 ma [cu] =20 tavla ma What/Who talks to what/whom? The two separate=20 mapositions ask two separate questions, and can therefo= re be answered with different values in each sumti place. + +separate questions The cmavo=20 mois the selbri analogue of=20 ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that wou= ld be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 mo: 15.5) =20 do [cu]=20 mo You are-what/do-what? @@ -1080,75 +1176,93 @@ mi Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me? is the Lojban translation of=20 . The answer=20 Yesmay be given by simply restating the bridi without t= he=20 xuquestion word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this = with the word=20 go'i, mentioned in=20 . Instead of a negative ans= wer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this ca= n be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 + +negative answer go'ias well. For example: 15.11) xu=20 do kanro Are you healthy? + +healthy can be answered with 15.12)=20 mi kanro I am healthy. + +healthy or 15.13)=20 go'i I am healthy. + +healthy =20 (Note that=20 do to the questioner is=20 mi to the respondent.) or 15.14)=20 le tavla cu= =20 kanro The talker is healthy. + +healthy or 15.15)=20 le tavla cu= =20 go'i The talker is healthy. + +healthy A general negative answer may be given by=20 + +negative answer na go'i.=20 namay be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ...before the bridi. It does not im= ply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is = not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 .
16. Indicators Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety= of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written langu= age. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. A= ha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to cul= ture. + +interjections Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicatorswhich specifically covers this ty= pe of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, bu= t require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very s= imple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the en= tire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately t= o the left. For example: + +attitudinal indicators 16.1) .ie=20 mi [cu]=20 klama Agreement! I go. Yep! I'll go. =20 16.2) .ei=20 @@ -1159,65 +1273,87 @@ =20 16.3) =20 mi [cu]=20 klama le melbi .ui [ku] I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beaut= iful thing I'm going to). Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another grou= p of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow= free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. = Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called=20 + +attitudinal indicators metalinguisticfeatures from the underlying statements a= nd logical structure. By comparison, the English words=20 + +comparison butand=20 also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added = weight of example, are logically equivalent to=20 and, which does not have a discursive content. The aver= age English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the par= adoxical idea that=20 butbasically means=20 and. 16.4) =20 mi [cu]=20 klama .i= =20 do [cu]=20 stali I go. You stay. =20 16.5) =20 mi [cu]=20 klama .i j= i'a=20 + +ji'a do [cu]=20 stali I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight) =20 16.6) =20 mi [cu]=20 klama .i k= u'i=20 + +ku'i do [cu]=20 stali I go. However, you stay. (contrast) Another group of indicators are called=20 evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 + + +indisputable bridi +evidentials za'a(I directly observe the relationship),=20 + +za'a pe'i(I believe that the relationship holds),=20 + +pe'i ru'a(I postulate the relationship), and others. Many Am= erican Indian languages use this kind of words. + +ru'a 16.7) pe'i=20 + +pe'i do [cu]=20 melbi I opine! You are beautiful. =20 16.8) za'a=20 + +za'a do [cu]=20 melbi I directly observe! You are beautiful.
17. Tenses In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category ca= lled tense: past, present, or future. The sentence @@ -1267,20 +1403,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example5" />17.5) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">la djan.</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">ca klama</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">le zarci</foreignphrase> John [present] goes to-the store </programlisting> <para>necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 <quote>ca</quote>. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beg= inning of the selbri, just after the=20 <quote>cu</quote>, and they may make a=20 <quote>cu</quote>unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru= . Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban= , tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate= tense is picked up from context.</para> +<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 --> +<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm> <para>Lojban also extends the notion of=20 <quote>tense</quote>to refer not only to time but to space. The follow= ing example uses the tag=20 <quote>vu</quote>to specify that the event it describes happens far aw= ay from the speaker:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example6" />17.6) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">do</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">vu vecnu</foreignphrase> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase> You yonder sell something-unspecified. @@ -1290,20 +1428,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example7" />17.7) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">le pu bajra [ku]</foreignph= rase> cu =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">tavla</foreignphrase> The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. </programlisting> <para>(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.)</para> <para>Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 <quote>this</quote>or=20 <quote>that</quote>as adjectives, as in the following example, which u= ses the tag=20 +<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 --> +<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm> <quote>vi</quote>meaning=20 <quote>nearby</quote>:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example8" />17.8) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">le vi bajra [ku]</foreignph= rase> cu=20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">tavla</foreignphrase> The nearby runner talks. This runner talks. </programlisting> @@ -1320,54 +1460,64 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example9" />17.9) =20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">le vi tavla [ku]</foreignph= rase> cu=20 <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"selbri">ba klama</foreignphrase> The here talker [future] goes. The talker who is here will go. This talker will go. </programlisting> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section18"> <title>18. Lojban grammatical terms + +grammatical terms Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this ch= apter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are them= selves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like= =20 + +grammatical terms indicatorin=20 that are not explained here. See the= Index for further help with these. bridi: predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main= kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relations= hip, or that some single object has some property. + +some relationship sumti: argument; words identifying something which stands in a sp= ecified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. = See=20 . selbri: logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words = specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. S= ee=20 . cmavo: one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structu= ral word; a word used for its grammatical function. + +parts of speech brivla: one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predi= cate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See= =20 + +parts of speech . gismu: a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See= =20 . @@ -1376,20 +1526,22 @@ a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear i= n a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See=20 and=20 . fu'ivla: a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear i= n a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; us= ually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have = associated rafsi. See=20 + +aspect . rafsi: a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu= ; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid w= ord by itself. See=20 . diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 2f04302..d515964 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1,19 +1,21 @@ Chapter 20 A Catalogue of selma'o
<!-- <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br /> mkhtml: 1.1</h6> --> <para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a = brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter n= umber where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are g= iven in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the capital of= =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often th= e most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given o= f each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is= shown.</para> +<!-- ^^ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 --> +<indexterm><primary>capital letters</primary></indexterm> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"A" />selma'o A (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D), usually between sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci John and/or Jane goes to the store. </programlisting> <para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with =E2=80= =9Cbu=E2=80=9D.</para> <bridgehead> @@ -21,77 +23,93 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not o= therwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a s= ingle place of some other selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi tavla bau la lojban. I speak in-language Lojban. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE" />selma'o BAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (on= e invented for the occasion).</para> +<!-- ^^ nonce word: marking, 489 --> +<indexterm><primary>nonce word</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci =20 <emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store. It is George who goes to the store. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BE" />selma'o BE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit m= aking up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, an= d successive places in that order.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />is most useful in descriptions formed with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEI" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be ta troci I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier. I try to go to that place. +<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 --> +<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BEI" />selma'o BEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates multiple sumti attached by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />to a tanru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier. I try to go from the home to the market. +<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 --> +<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO" />selma'o BEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE" />. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru= unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be le zarci be'o troci I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier. I try to go to the market. +<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 --> +<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE" />selma'o BIhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priorit= y than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</pa= ra> +<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze +<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting = tenses, 246 --> +<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 --> +<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm> The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI" />selma'o BIhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to for= m intervals. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GAhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. +<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 --> +<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BO" />selma'o BO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section3" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section6" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to b= ind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />is always high precedence and right-grouping.</= para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule @@ -113,87 +131,115 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word rep= resenting a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a sym= bol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to singl= e-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu a, e, i, o, u, y. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BY" />selma'o BY (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus vari= ous shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termi= nated by BOI.</para> +<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 --> +<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. +<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 --> +<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm> A talks to B about IBM computers. +<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 --> +<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CAI" />selma'o CAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or= not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion= .</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .ei cai mi klama le zarci +<!-- ^^ cai, 305 --> +<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm> [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. I must go to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA" />selma'o CAhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section19" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential = (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para> +<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implic= itly, 243 --> +<indexterm><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ro datka ka'e flulimna +<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 --> +<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm> All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers. All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CEI" />selma'o CEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: = =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, = =E2=80=9Cbrodo=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D, for later use.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda +<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. +<!-- ^^ thingy: example, 151 --> +<indexterm><primary>thingy</primary></indexterm> The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. +<!-- ^^ thingy: example, 151 --> +<indexterm><primary>thingy</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE" />selma'o CEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses.</para> +<!-- ^^ quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404 --> +<indexterm><primary>quantifier scope</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo +<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 --> +<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm> I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CO" />selma'o CO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so = that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. +<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 --> +<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"COI" />selma'o COI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 +<!-- ^^ radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429 --> +<indexterm><primary>radio communication</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"DOhU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> coi .djan. Greetings, John. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CU" />selma'o CU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it.= Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable t= erminators.</para> +<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 --> +<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le gerku cu klama le zarci The dog goes to-the store. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE" />selma'o CUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section24" />)</bridgehead> <para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the res= t of the bridi is true. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"PU" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"CAhA" />,=20 @@ -207,35 +253,39 @@ <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO" />selma'o DAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o= =20 <xref linkend=3D"KOhA" />) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOhA" />).</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"DOI" />selma'o DOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 +<!-- ^^ vocative indicator, 492 --> +<indexterm><primary>vocative indicator</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"COI" />. No pause is required between =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2= =80=9D and a following name. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi frank. mi tavla do O Frank, I speak-to you. Frank, I=E2=80=99m talking to you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU" />selma'o DOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"COI" />or=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI" />. Signals the end of a vocative.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> coi do'u +<!-- ^^ do'u, 137, 323 --> +<indexterm><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm> Greetings [terminator] Greetings, O unspecified one! </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FA" />selma'o FA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place= structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car. @@ -259,20 +309,22 @@ <para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there = is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE" />selma'o FEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using=20 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"ROI" />, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"ZAhO" />) refers to space rather than time.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni +<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 --> +<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm> You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain. Sow the grain in a line and evenly! </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU" />selma'o FEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"FIhO" />. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: t= he tagged sumti immediately follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle @@ -297,80 +349,98 @@ <xref linkend=3D"TEI" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA" />selma'o FUhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands.</para> +<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo +<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm> the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four 2 + 2 =3D 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE" />selma'o FUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI" />affect not the preceding word, as usual, but ra= ther all following words until a=20 <xref linkend=3D"FUhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse +<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm> I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO" />selma'o FUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Cancels all indicators of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI" />which are in effect.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse +<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 --> +<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm> I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GA" />selma'o GA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-= tails, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth .= .. and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2= =80=9D, and so on. See=20 +<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives con= trasted with other translations, 339 --> +<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO" />selma'o GAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies whether an interval specified by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI" />includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in p= airs before and after the=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI" />cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left= - and the right-hand endpoints.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt= . I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. +<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 --> +<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU" />selma'o GEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI" />. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GI" />selma'o GI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru = units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought conne= ctive involving=20 +<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; cont= rasted with afterthought connective, 338 --> +<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GA" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"GUhA" />, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA" />selma'o GIhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />)</bridgehead> @@ -433,25 +503,31 @@ <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. I act so as to modify the wall color. I change the color of the wall. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI" />selma'o JOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 +<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in = mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of = sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of= modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing= from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 --> +<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GI" />, provides forethought non-logical connection a= nalogous to=20 +<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in = mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of = sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of= modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing= from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 --> +<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GA" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. +<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 --> +<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI" />selma'o JOhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list termi= nated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional= array).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals @@ -472,20 +548,22 @@ <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KEI" />selma'o KEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NU" />. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.</para> +<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bri= di in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 --> +<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE" />selma'o KEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"KE" />. Marks the end of a grouping.</para> @@ -521,45 +599,51 @@ The person, to-the house, goes. The person goes to the house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE" />selma'o KUhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PEhO" />: indicates the end of a forethought mathemat= ical expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa +<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 --> +<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm> The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-numbe= r six. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO" />selma'o KUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NOI" />. Indicates the end of a relative clause.</par= a> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda The house which is-blue is-big. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LA" />selma'o LA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2" />)</bridgehead> <para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which= identify people or things by name. Similar to=20 +<!-- ^^ name words: recognition of, 137 --> +<indexterm><primary>name words</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"LE" />. May be terminated with=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU" />if followed by a description selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la kikeros. du la tulis. Cicero is Tully. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LAU" />selma'o LAU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a sin= gle marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, e= tc.)</para> +<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 --> +<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tau sy. .ibu [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D Si (chemical symbol for silicon) </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE" />selma'o LAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into anoth= er sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from = selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE" />plus=20 @@ -587,43 +671,49 @@ <xref linkend=3D"LOhU" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LI" />selma'o LI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 +<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifi= er for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"LOhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU" />selma'o LIhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LU" />. Indicates the end of a text quotation.</para> +<!-- ^^ text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>text quotation</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO" />selma'o LOhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI" />. Indicates the end of a mathematical expressio= n used in a=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI" />description.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu +<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm> The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. 4 > 3 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU" />selma'o LOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they= form a text or not. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u @@ -641,20 +731,24 @@ </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU" />selma'o LUhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE" />+=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO" />. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.</para= > <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u +<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 = --> +<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 --> +<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm> I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI" />selma'o MAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section1" />)</bridgehead> <para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> pamai mi pu klama le zarci @@ -695,40 +789,48 @@ </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI" />selma'o MOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section11" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various n= umerically-based selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome. John and Frank are two brothers. +<!-- ^^ two brothers: example, 98 --> +<indexterm><primary>two brothers</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 --> +<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE" />selma'o MOhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimen= sioned units. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu +<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 --> +<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm> The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI" />selma'o MOhI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specif= ied by a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"FAhA" />cmavo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. +<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 --> +<indexterm><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NA" />selma'o NA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (o= r true).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi na klama le zarci It is not true that I go to the market. </programlisting> @@ -750,33 +852,41 @@ That is a house which is other than blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU" />selma'o NAhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i +<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 --> +<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm> The-number the-operator tangent (=20 <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase> / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. +<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 --> +<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm> tan( <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE" />selma'o NIhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a =E2=80= =9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i +<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 --> +<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm> ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu +<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 --> +<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm> The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO" />selma'o NIhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section3" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it= contains old or new subject matter.</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NOI" />selma'o NOI (=20 @@ -832,57 +942,69 @@ <xref linkend=3D"BOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi speni re ninmu I am-married-to two women. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE" />selma'o PEhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11" />)</bridgehead> <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two term= sets. Termsets (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"CEhE" />) are used to associate several terms for log= ical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in = tenses.</para> +<!-- ^^ quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404 --> +<indexterm><primary>quantifier scope</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo +<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 --> +<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm> I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO" />selma'o PEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 +<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"KUhE" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re +<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 --> +<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm> The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PU" />selma'o PU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. I went to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO" />selma'o RAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicit= ly attached to a pro-bridi (see=20 +<!-- ^^ pro-bridi update: flag for, 503 --> +<indexterm><primary>pro-bridi update</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GOhA" />) to fit the current context rather than the = original context.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> A: mi ba lumci le mi karce B: mi go'i =20 A: I [future] wash my car. B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A=E2=80=99s car). =20 A: mi ba lumci le mi karce B: mi go'i ra'o +<!-- ^^ go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156 --> +<indexterm><primary>go'i ra'o</primary></indexterm> =20 A: I [future] wash my car. B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=E2=80=99s car). </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ROI" />selma'o ROI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once= , twice, many times).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi reroi klama le zarci @@ -903,62 +1025,72 @@ <para>Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging= the x1 place with a specified numbered place.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by me. </programlisting> <para>Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.</= para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"SEI" />selma'o SEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment o= n the main bridi. Terminated by=20 +<!-- ^^ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 --> +<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic insertions</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"SEhU" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU" />selma'o SEhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"SEI" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"SOI" />. Ends metalinguistic insertions.</para> +<!-- ^^ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 --> +<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic insertions</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"SI" />selma'o SI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Erases the previous single word.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi si do klama le zarci I, er, you go to-the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"SOI" />selma'o SOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2= =80=9D in English).</para> +<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-seri= es pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 --> +<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 1= 59 --> +<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi prami do soi mi I love you [reciprocally] me. I love you and vice versa. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"SU" />selma'o SU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead> <para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE" />selma'o TAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba ta'e klama le ckule +<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 --> +<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm> The child habitually goes to-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"TEI" />selma'o TEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"FOI" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) @@ -1030,61 +1162,75 @@ <para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU" />selma'o VAU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section9" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 +<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 --> +<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"GIhA" />logical connection.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI" />selma'o VEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. T= erminated by=20 +<!-- ^^ mathematical parenthesis: left, 506 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical parenthesis</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"VEhO" />.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa +<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 --> +<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm> The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA" />selma'o VEhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short).</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO" />selma'o VEhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEI" />: right mathematical parenthesis.</para> +<!-- ^^ mathematical parenthesis: left, 506 --> +<indexterm><primary>mathematical parenthesis</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa +<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 --> +<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm> The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA" />selma'o VIhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section7" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval).</para> +<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tens= e intervals, 224; spatial, 506 --> +<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli +<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 --> +<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm> The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO" />selma'o VUhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8" />)</bridgehead> <para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connec= ted) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. @@ -1107,41 +1253,47 @@ <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> xy. xi re x sub 2 x <subscript>2</subscript> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"Y" />selma'o Y (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section14" />)</bridgehead> <para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say.</para> +<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 --> +<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> doi .y. .y. .djan O, uh, uh, John! </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO" />selma'o ZAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI" />selma'o ZEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para> +<!-- ^^ morphological glue, 507 --> +<indexterm><primary>morphological glue</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta xy. zei kantu kacma That is-an-(X - ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. +<!-- ^^ X-ray: example, 60 --> +<indexterm><primary>X-ray</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA" />selma'o ZEhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi puze'a citka I [past] [short interval] eat. I ate for a little while. </programlisting> @@ -1161,31 +1313,37 @@ <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love = it. I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love. I own a white dog, which I love. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZO" />selma'o ZO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.<= /para> +<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar = of, 141 --> +<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> zo si cu lojbo valsi The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI" />selma'o ZOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (w= hich can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The d= elimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the = text by pauses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra +<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 --> +<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm> The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence. +<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 --> +<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU" />selma'o ZOhU (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section2" />,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section4" />)</bridgehead> <para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to= which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment s= entences.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves= Y There is a man who loves all fish. diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index f261cd6..d422ebc 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,24 +1,32 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter21"> <title>Chapter 21 Formal Grammars
1. YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. + +formal grammar /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. + +machine grammar Step 1 - Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failure= s of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a tex= t file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules. The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm. + +non-Lojban text Step 2 - Filtering From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict: a. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZOI) is ide= ntified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with= a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening d= elimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter rec= urs=20 + +non-Lojban text after a pause, as grammatically a single token (l= abelled =E2=80=99=20 =E2=80=99 in this grammar). There is = no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the clo= sing delimiter. b. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZO) is ident= ified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99=20 =E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by it= s normal grammatical function. c. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o LOhU) is i= dentified, search for the closing delimiter =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o= LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two s= teps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token= =E2=80=99=20 =E2=80=99. d. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o cate= gory, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In = all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each= word. e. If the word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D (selma'o SI) is identified, = erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been con= densed into a single token by one of the above rules). f. If the word =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D (selma'o SA) is identified, = erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follo= ws attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive= further definition later.) g. If the word =E2=80=99su=E2=80=99 (selma'o SU) is identified, = erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding t= oken word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, = if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginn= ing of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of = a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, tw= o adjacent uses of =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D are required to erase the entire co= nversation. @@ -26,23 +34,27 @@ If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it. Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed). a. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where ther= e may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIV= LA. b. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If t= hey occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors). c. Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabel= the previous token as selma'o BY. d. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI = or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token. e. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and CA= I into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted f= ollowing any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word=E2=80= =99s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpr= etation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text= are explicitly handled by the grammar. Step 5 - Insertion of Lexer Lexemes Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical= function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YA= CC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings= of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either + +YACC grammar a. are replaced by a single specified =E2=80=99lexer token=E2=80= =99 for step 6, or b. the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to i= dentify it uniquely. The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generat= ion of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The str= ings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals= labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with t= he lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the = language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been perform= ed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented ou= t, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer token= s=20 + +YACC grammar withoutthe strings of defining tokens. Two sets o= f lexer tokens are defined in the token set so as to be compatible with eit= her option. In this step, the strings must be labelled with the appropriate = lexer tokens. Order of inserting lexer tokens=20 ISsignificant, since some shorter strings that wo= uld be marked with a lexer token may be found inside longer strings. If the= tokens are inserted before or in place of the shorter strings, the longer = strings cannot be identified. If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works c= orrectly (it is not the only possible order): A, C, D, B, U, E, H, I, J, K,= M, N, G, O, V, W, F, P, R, T, S, Y, L, Q. This ensures that the longest ru= les will be processed first; a PA+MAI will not be seen as a PA with a dangl= ing MAI at the end, for example. Step 6 - YACC Parsing YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance w= ith the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099= under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, an= d comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of= lexer tokens numbered from 900 up. */ %token=20 @@ -73,50 +85,58 @@ BRIVLA_509 = /* any brivla */ %token=20 BU_511 = /* turns any word into a BY lerfu word */ %token=20 BY_513 = /* individual lerfu words */ %token=20 CAhA_514 = /* specifies actuality/potentiality of tense */ + +actuality %token=20 CAI_515 = /* afterthought intensity marker */ %token=20 CEI_516 = /* pro-bridi assignment operator */ %token=20 CEhE_517 = /* afterthought term list connective */ %token=20 CMENE_518 = /* names; require consonant end, then pause no LA or DOI selma'o embedded, pause befor= e if + +DOI selma'o vowel initial and preceded by a vowel *= / %token=20 CO_519 = /* tanru inversion */ + +tanru inversion %token=20 COI_520 = /* vocative marker permitted inside names; must always be followed by pause or DOI */ %token=20 CU_521 = /* separator between head sumti and selbri */ %token=20 CUhE_522 = /* tense/modal question */ %token=20 DAhO_524 = /* cancel anaphora/cataphora assignments */ + +anaphora %token=20 DOI_525 = /* vocative marker */ %token=20 DOhU_526 = /* terminator for DOI-marked vocatives */ %token=20 FA_527 = /* modifier head generic case tag */ %token=20 @@ -125,35 +145,41 @@ %token=20 FAhO_529 = /* normally elided =E2=80=99done pause=E2=80=99 to indicate end of utterance string */ %token=20 FEhE_530 = /* space interval mod flag */ %token=20 FEhU_531 = /* ends bridi to modal conversion */ + +modal conversion %token=20 FIhO_532 = /* marks bridi to modal conversion */ + +modal conversion %token=20 FOI_533 = /* end compound lerfu */ %token=20 FUhE_535 = /* open long scope for indicator */ %token=20 FUhO_536 = /* close long scope for indicator */ %token=20 GA_537 = /* geks; forethought logical connectives */ + +forethought logical connectives %token=20 GEhU_538 = /* marker ending GOI relative clauses */ %token=20 GI_539 = /* forethought medial marker */ %token=20 GIhA_541 = /* logical connectives for bridi-tails */ %token=20 @@ -167,38 +193,42 @@ GUhA_544 = /* GEK for tanru units, corresponds to JEKs */ %token=20 I_545 = /* sentence link */ %token=20 JA_546 = /* jeks; logical connectives within tanru */ %token=20 JAI_547 = /* modal conversion flag */ + +modal conversion %token=20 JOI_548 = /* non-logical connectives */ %token=20 KEhE_550 = /* right terminator for KE groups */ %token=20 KE_551 = /* left long scope marker */ %token=20 KEI_552 = /* right terminator, NU abstractions */ %token=20 KI_554 = /* multiple utterance scope for tenses */ %token=20 KOhA_555 = /* sumti anaphora */ + +anaphora %token=20 KU_556 = /* right terminator for descriptions, etc. */ %token=20 KUhO_557 = /* right terminator, NOI relative clauses */ %token=20 LA_558 = /* name descriptors */ %token=20 @@ -288,26 +318,30 @@ SEI_597 = /* metalinguistic bridi insert marker */ %token=20 SEhU_598 = /* metalinguistic bridi end marker */ %token=20 SI_601 = /* metalinguistic single word eraser */ %token=20 SOI_602 = /* reciprocal sumti marker */ + +reciprocal %token=20 SU_603 = /* metalinguistic eraser of the entire text */ %token=20 TAhE_604 = /* tense interval properties */ + +interval properties %token=20 TEI_605 = /* start compound lerfu */ %token=20 TO_606 = /* left discursive parenthesis */ %token=20 TOI_607 = /* right discursive parenthesis */ %token=20 @@ -318,42 +352,52 @@ TUhU_611 = /* multiple utterance end scope mark */ %token=20 UI_612 = /* attitudinals, observationals, discursives */ %token=20 VA_613 = /* distance in space-time */ %token=20 VAU_614 = /* end simple bridi or bridi-tail */ + +simple bridi %token=20 VEhA_615 = /* space-time interval size */ + +interval size %token=20 VIhA_616 = /* space-time dimensionality marker */ + +dimensionality %token=20 VUhO_617 = /* glue between logically connected sumti and relative clauses */ %token=20 XI_618 = /* subscripting operator */ %token=20 Y_619 = /* hesitation */ + +hesitation %token=20 ZAhO_621 = /* event properties - inchoative, etc. */ %token=20 ZEhA_622 = /* time interval size tense */ + +interval size %token=20 ZEI_623 = /* lujvo glue */ %token=20 ZI_624 = /* time distance tense */ %token=20 ZIhE_625 = /* conjoins relative clauses */ %token=20 @@ -371,29 +415,35 @@ BIhE_650 = /* prefix for high-priority MEX operator */ %token=20 BOI_651 = /* number or lerfu-string terminator */ %token=20 FUhA_655 = /* reverse Polish flag */ %token=20 GAhO_656 = /* open/closed interval markers for BIhI */ + + +mi'i +closed interval %token=20 JOhI_657 = /* flags an array operand */ %token=20 KUhE_658 = /* MEX forethought delimiter */ %token=20 MAI_661 = /* change numbers to utterance ordinals */ + +ordinals %token=20 MAhO_662 = /* change MEX expressions to MEX operators */ %token=20 MOI_663 = /* change number to selbri */ %token=20 MOhE_664 = /* change sumti to operand, inverse of LI */ %token=20 @@ -436,20 +486,22 @@ =20 =20 /* The following tokens are the actual lexer tokens. The _900 series tokens are duplicates that allow limited testing of lexer rules in the context of the total grammar. They are used in the actual parser, where the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ =20 %token lexer_ A_701 = /* flags a MAI utterance ordinal */ + +utterance ordinal %token lexer_ B_702 = /* flags an EK unless EK_BO, EK_KE */ %token lexer_ C_703 = /* flags an EK_BO */ %token lexer_ D_704 = /* flags an EK_KE */ %token lexer_ @@ -830,20 +882,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ parenthetical= _36 : =20 ; =20 =20 sentence_40 = : =20 /* bare observative or mo answer */ + +observative | =20 | =20 ; =20 @@ -1039,35 +1093,45 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 sumti_E_95 = : =20 | =20 /* indefinite sumti */ + + +sumti with lo +indefinite sumti | =20 | =20 ; =20 sumti_F_96 = : =20 /* outer-quantified sumti */ + + + +relativized sumti +relative clause scope +quantified sumti | =20 ; =20 sumti_G_97 = : =20 @@ -1106,20 +1170,26 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ | =20 ; =20 sumti_tail_= 111 : =20 /* inner-quantified sumti relative clause */ + + + +relativized sumti +relative clause scope +quantified sumti | =20 /* pseudo-possessive (an abbreviated inner restriction); note that sumti cannot be quantified */ | =20 /* pseudo-possessive with outer restriction */ @@ -1346,37 +1416,43 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 =20 =20 /* Entry point for MEX used after LI; no parens needed, but LI now has an elidable terminator. (This allows us to express the difference between =E2=80=9Cthe expression a + b=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthe expression (a = + b)=E2=80=9D ) */ =20 /* This rule supports left-grouping infix expressions and reverse Polish + +infix expressions expressions. To handle infix monadic, use a null operand; to handle + +infix expressions =20 MEX_A_311 = : =20 | =20 ; @@ -1402,21 +1478,25 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ MEX_C_313 = : =20 | =20 ; =20 =20 /* Reverse Polish expressions always have exactly two operands. To handle one operand, use a null operand; + +null operator =20 rp_expressi= on_330 : =20 ; =20 =20 @@ -1860,20 +1940,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since thi= s is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser). Use ZO to mark any nested quotation LOhU. The preparser then will absorb it by the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU. This is obviously not the standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a sumti. But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway= , it doesn=E2=80=99t matter. */ =20 /* It may be seen that any of the ZO/ZOI/LOhU trio of quotation markers may contain the powerful metalinguistic erasers. Since these quotation= s + +metalinguistic erasers are not parsed internally, these operators are ignored within the quote= . To erase a ZO, then, two SI=E2=80=99s are needed after giving a quoted = word of any type. ZOI takes four SI=E2=80=99s, with the ENTIRE BODY OF THE QUO= TE treated as a single =E2=80=99word=E2=80=99 since it is one selma'o. Th= us one for the quote body, two for the single word delimiters, and one for the ZOI. I= n LOhU, the entire body is treated as a single word, so three SI=E2=80=99= s can erase it. */ =20 /* All rule terminator names with =E2=80=99gap=E2=80=99 in them are potent= ially elidable, where such elision does not cause an ambiguity. This is @@ -2579,20 +2661,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 PA_MOI_824 = : =20 ; =20 =20 /* The following rules are used only in lexer processing. They have been tested for ambiguity at various levels in the YACC grammar, but are in + +YACC grammar the recursive descent lexer in the current parser. The lexer inserts the lexer tokens before the processed strings, but leaves the original tokens. */ =20 lexer_A_905= : =20 ; =20 @@ -2967,20 +3051,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ tense_B_978= : =20 | =20 | =20 ; /* specifies actuality/potentiality of the bridi */ + +actuality =20 /* puca'a =3D actually was */ /* baca'a =3D actually will be */ /* bapu'i =3D can and will have */ /* banu'o =3D can, but won=E2=80=99t have yet */ /* canu'ojebapu'i =3D can, hasn=E2=80=99t yet, but will */ =20 tense_C_979= : =20 @@ -3321,24 +3407,32 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 space_int= _props_A_1050 :=20 ; =20 /* This terminal gives an interval size in space-time (VEhA), and possibly= a + +interval size dimensionality of the interval. The dimensionality may also be used + +dimensionality with the interval size left unspecified. When this terminal is used fo= r the + +interval size spacetime origin, then barring any overriding VIhA, a VIhA here defines the dimensionality of the space-time being discussed. *= / + +dimensionality =20 =20 =20 =20 interval_= property_1051 : =20 | =20 @@ -3352,24 +3446,32 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ | =20 | =20 ; =20 /* extensional/intensional interval parameters */ /* These may be appended to any defined interval, or may stand in place of either time or space tenses. If no other tense is present, this termin= al + +space tenses stands for the time-space interval parameter with an unspecified interv= al.*/ =20 /* roroi =3D always and everywhere */ + +always and everywhere /* roroiku'avi =3D always here (ku'a =3D intersection) */ + +ku'a + +intersection /* puroroi =3D always in the past /* paroi =3D once upon a time (somewhere) */ /* paroiku'avi =3D once upon a time here */ =20 =20 /* The following are =E2=80=9CLexer-only rules=E2=80=9D, covered by steps = 1-4 described at the beginning. The grammar of these constructs is nonexistent, except possibly in cases where they interact with each other. Even there, however, the effects are semantic rather than grammatical. Wher= e it is believed possible that conflicts could exist, the grammar of thes= e @@ -3380,20 +3482,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ they can=E2=80=99t.) Constructs in this category include quotes and in= dicators as defined above. (The above grammar handles utterance scope (free_modifier) and clause scope (gap) applications of the latter, however, and indicators should be allowed to be absorbed into almost an= y word without changing its grammar. =20 =20 ,=20 , and=20 are metalinguistic erasers. + +metalinguistic erasers =20 token_110= 0 : =20 | =20 | =20 | =20 @@ -6903,20 +7007,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain = by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization a= t: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273= ) Explanation of notation: All rules have the form: name=20 number=3D bnf-expression which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80= =9D is defined by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-refere= nces this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are = the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled wit= h A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. I= n addition, rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar bu= t =E2=80=9Cstag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearanc= e. + +YACC grammar Names in lower case are grammatical constructs. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are term= inals. Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator= symbol. @@ -7344,20 +7450,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ selbri-6=20 136=3D tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6] | [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik sel= bri-6=20 + +guhek tanru-unit=20 150=3D tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ...=20 @@ -7474,20 +7582,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ operator-1=20 371=3D operator-2 | guhek operator-1 gik operator-2 | operator-2 = (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1=20 + +guhek operator-2=20 372=3D mex-operator | KE # operator /KEhE#/=20 @@ -7651,20 +7761,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ 807=3D [SE] GA [NAI] # | joik GI # | stag gik=20 guhek=20 + +guhek 808=3D [SE] GUhA [NAI] #=20 gik=20 diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 77751ad..a841678 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,41 +1,69 @@ Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban
1. Orthography Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance = can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can= be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a conseque= nce, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or= phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sou= nd or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronun= ciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) a= nd pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition,= everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when wri= tten) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. = These two properties together are known technically as=20 + +tone of voice + +orthography audio-visual isomorphism. + +isomorphism + + +isomorphism +audio-visual isomorphism + +isomorphism Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting = of the following letters and symbols: ' , . a b c d e f g i j k l m n o p r s t u v x y z omitting the letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w. The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded char= acter set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order th= e same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facil= itated. + +ASCII + +alphabetic order Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, = which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the E= nglish name=20 Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 DJOsefin., pronounced=20 ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 for an explanation of the sy= mbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize = the vowel letter, in this case=20 + +square brackets O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the who= le syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 + +capitalization sesyllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant t= o represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little = distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rul= es of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.
2. Basic Phonetics Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonet= ic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By c= onvention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for exampl= e, the word=20 + +square brackets catis pronounced (in General American pronunciation)=20 + +General American [k=C3=A6t].=20 contains a brief explanatio= n of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues = in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the te= chnical terms used in describing speech sounds. + +technical terms The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban= letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately = been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers = of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except=20 + +Lojban letters rthe first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pr= onunciation; for=20 r, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) a= re equally acceptable. @@ -238,20 +266,22 @@ oand=20 uare rounded and the others are not, as in English, but= this is not a requirement; some people round=20 yas well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspir= ated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, = is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following=20 imay cause it. The sounds represented by the letters=20 c,=20 g,=20 j,=20 s, and=20 xrequire special attention for speakers of English, eit= her because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=20 + +orthography c,=20 g,=20 s), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban = (=20 c,=20 j,=20 x). The English=20 crepresents three different sounds,=20 [k]in=20 catand=20 [s]in=20 @@ -288,30 +318,40 @@
3. The Special Lojban Characters The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They a= re all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a d= ifferent pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons: The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy = English=20 h, (IPA=20 [h]). The letter=20 his not used to represent this sound for two reasons: p= rimarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also beca= use the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight = representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is= not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morpho= logy (word-formation), which is explained in=20 . In addition, the apostrophe visuall= y parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different way= s) to separate syllables. The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth tra= nsition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In f= act, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowe= l glide. + +unvoiced vowel glide As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those = already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA=20 [=CE=B8]is one possibility. The convenie= nce of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a su= bstitute for=20 [h]. The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified lengt= h; a glottal stop (IPA=20 + +glottal stop [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases - explained in detail in=20 + +glottal stop - must occur. In particular, a word b= eginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a= consonant is always followed by a pause. Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of= a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because t= hese rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise= correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader. A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When t= his occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together= to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It= is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.<= /para> The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, ge= nerally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to s= eparate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, = in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some = type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two sy= llables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA= =20 + +syllable break [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. + +glottal stop Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence = of syllabic=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r(discussed later). Commas are never required: no two L= ojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.<= /para> Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronu= nciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about= Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as=20 ee-i-ee-i-oin English could be Lojbanized with periods = as: 3.1) .i.ai.i.ai.o @@ -322,20 +362,22 @@ However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compa= red to the English. Furthermore, although=20 is a string of mean= ingful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the us= e of periods embedded within the written word.) If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the E= nglish string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant: 3.2) .i,ai,i,ai,on. =20 [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94] The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use o= f pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, = but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation. + +glottal stop However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous i= nterpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphtho= ngs, producing something like <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section3-example3" /> .i,iai,ii,iai,ion. @@ -358,20 +400,22 @@ [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-s= ound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively = brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audib= le. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the = vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position.= Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sound= s do not affect the determination of syllables. The six Lojban vowels are=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u, and=20 y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of = Lojban words. The vowel=20 yhas a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbani= zed names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vo= wel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like Engl= ish=20 + +compound words uhor=20 er). The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pro= nunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on th= e variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:=20 aimay be pronounced=20 [=C9=91j], for example.) Letters IPA Description =20 ai =20 [aj] an open vowel with palatal off-glide @@ -389,90 +433,136 @@ ii =20 [ji] a front close vowel with palatal on-g= lide io =20 [jo] a back mid vowel with palatal on-glid= e iu =20 [ju] a back close vowel with palatal on-gl= ide =20 ua =20 [wa] an open vowel with labial on-glide ue =20 + +ue [w=C9=9B] a front mid vowel with labial on= -glide ui =20 [wi] a front close vowel with labial on-gl= ide uo =20 [wo] a back mid vowel with labial on-glide uu =20 [wu] a back close vowel with labial on-gli= de =20 iy =20 [j=C9=99] a central mid vowel with palatal= on-glide uy =20 [w=C9=99] a central mid vowel with labial = on-glide (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 for examples.) The first four diphthongs above (=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, and=20 au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most t= ypes of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone w= ords and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 + +borrowings iyand=20 uy) are used only in Lojbanized names. The syllabic consonants of Lojban,=20 + +syllabic consonants [l=CC=A9],=20 [m=CC=A9],=20 [n=CC=A9], and=20 [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 [l],=20 [m],=20 [n], and=20 [r]respectively. They normally have only= a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although= in principle any=20 + +borrowings l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 rmay be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonan= t appears next to a=20 + +syllabic consonant l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 rthat is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is whi= ch: 4.1) brlgan. =20 [br=CC=A9l gan] or=20 [brl=CC=A9 gan] is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels= from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are= generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllab= ic consonant. An example is=20 + +syllabic consonant rl., which is an approximation of the English name=20 Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. + +syllabic consonants + +Earl Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stress= ed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see=20 + +syllabic consonants ).
5. Vowel Pairs Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in = a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) b= y an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with = the=20 + +vowel pairs [h]sound between (and not by a glottal s= top or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). + +glottal stop All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with = the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphth= ongs when the apostrophe is not included. The Lojban vowel pairs are: + +vowel pairs a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u a'y + +a'o + +a'i + +a'a e'a e'e e'i e'o e'u e'y + +e'o + +e'e + +e'a i'a i'e i'i i'o i'u i'y + +i'e o'a o'e o'i o'o o'u o'y + +o'u + +o'i u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u u'y + +u'u y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y Vowel pairs involving=20 yappear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in = cmavo (structure words), but only=20 + +structure words .y'y.is so used - it is the Lojban name of the apostrop= he letter (see=20 ). When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal p= ronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanize= d name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section5-example1" /> meiin. @@ -497,20 +587,22 @@ ii. In rough English representation,=20 is=20 May Een, whereas=20 is=20 Meh Yeen.
6. Consonant Clusters A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that preced= es or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or= following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant requi= red in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: f= or the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consona= nt. An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of v= oicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the correspon= ding voiced ones: + +unvoiced consonants UNVOICED VOICED p b t d k g f v c j s z x - @@ -518,25 +610,29 @@ xhas no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining con= sonants,=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, and=20 r, are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pron= ounced unvoiced. Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as = doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated= by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sou= nds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like=20 [s]in English=20 hiss, or repeated like=20 [k]in English=20 backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more si= ngle or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different fro= m its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altoge= ther, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanize= d names. + +doubled consonants Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at th= e beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many langu= ages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the wo= rd. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated t= o its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changin= g a=20 tbetween vowels into a=20 dor even an alveolar tap (IPA=20 [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable in Lojban. Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single conso= nants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syl= labic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names. + +syllabic consonants Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following r= estrictions: 1) It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as thi= s would violate the rule against double consonants. @@ -588,22 +684,28 @@ James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 djeimz., which contains a forbidden consonant pair.
7. Initial Consonant Pairs The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a= word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly l= arge group of permissible consonant pairs described in=20 + +consonant pairs . Even so, it is more than E= nglish allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and other= s) can learn to pronounce. There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as f= ollows: + +initial consonant pairs + +consonant pairs bl br cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct dj dr dz fl fr gl gr jb jd jg jm jv kl kr ml mr pl pr @@ -638,24 +740,38 @@ The triples=20 ndj,=20 ndz,=20 ntc, and=20 ntsare forbidden. Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant= pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have c= onsonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those trip= les are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with= more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the clus= ter is valid. + +initial consonant pairs + +consonant triples + +consonant pairs + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters
8. Buffering Of Consonant Clusters Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even t= hose languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojb= an set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound bet= ween consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sou= nd may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener= from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters [=C9=AA],=20 [=C9=A8],=20 [=CA=8A], or even=20 [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 [=C9=AA]in this chapter) are: 8.1) vrusi =20 [=CB=88vru si] @@ -664,20 +780,22 @@ 8.2) .AMsterdam. =20 [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] or=20 [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=AA da m= =C9=AA=CA=94] When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant i= nto its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, = and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really = syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored. + +buffer vowel Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations= : 8.3) klama =20 [=CB=88kla ma] [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] 8.4) xapcke =20 @@ -700,66 +818,86 @@ y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between 8.6) bongynanba =20 [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 bone bread(note the use of=20 + +bone bread [=C5=8B]as a representative of=20 nbefore=20 g) and 8.7) bongnanba =20 [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings ca= n only take a limited form). If=20 + +borrowings + +borrowing were pronounced wit= h buffering, as 8.8) =20 [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba] it would be very similar to=20 . Only a clear dist= inction between=20 yand any buffering vowel would keep the two words disti= nct. Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order = to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not m= istake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer = vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, an= d as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use = buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid= confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have tro= uble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By thi= s guideline,=20 + +buffer vowel would be pronounced= 8.9) =20 [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] with lengthened vowels.
9. Syllabication And Stress A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthong= s, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as=20 + +syllabic consonants vowelsfor the purposes of this section.) Syllabication = rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the= preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventi= onal only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllab= ified in any language are always very complex. A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A cons= onant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair= constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned= to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first an= d second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syll= able breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables. It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. = For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names w= ith consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to i= ndicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication. + +syllabication + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication: + +syllabication <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example1" /> pujenaicajeba pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified be= fore each medial consonant. + +consonant pairs <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example2" /> ninmu nin,mu @@ -777,20 +915,22 @@ This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two = consonants of the triple. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example4" /> sairgoi sair,goi sai,r,goi + +sai This word contains the consonant pair=20 rg; the=20 rmay be pronounced syllabically or not. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example5" /> @@ -799,32 +939,48 @@ klez,ba kle,zba This word contains the permissible initial pair=20 zb, and so may be syllabicated either between=20 zand=20 bor before=20 zb. Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a= word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphtho= ng or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel so= und itself, the terms=20 + +syllabic consonant stressed syllableand=20 + + +stressed vowel +stressed syllable stressed vowelare largely interchangeable concepts. + +stressed vowel Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penul= timate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is= =20 yor which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 + +syllabic consonant l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate = stress is=20 da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created solely = by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 + +buffer vowel [=C9=AA], are not counted. There are actually three levels of stress - primary, secondary, = and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at = all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. + +syllabic consonant + +buffer vowel Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban= content words (called=20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllab= le, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable = (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural w= ords (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis us= ed for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primar= y stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically w= ill follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary str= ess can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress = can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker m= ust not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolu= tion could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example6" /> @@ -842,46 +998,52 @@ .armstrong. .ARM,strong. This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 Armstrong. The final=20 + +Armstrong gmust be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, th= e name would be pronounced: 9.8) =20 [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n= =C9=AA g=C9=AA=CA=94] However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible p= lace just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also ac= ceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on = the first syllable. The English pronunciation of=20 Armstrong, as spelled in English, is not correct by Loj= ban standards; the letters=20 + +Armstrong ngin English represent a velar nasal (IPA=20 [=C5=8B]) which is a single consonant. I= n Lojban,=20 ngrepresents two separate consonants that must both be = pronounced; you may not use=20 [=C5=8B]to pronounce Lojban=20 ng, although=20 [=C5=8Bg]is acceptable. English speakers= are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the fo= llowing: 9.9) =20 [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] or=20 [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] or even=20 [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 Armstrongcould be Lojbanized as: + +Armstrong <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example10" /> .ARMstron. since Lojban=20 @@ -951,20 +1113,26 @@ If the cmavo=20 noin=20 were to be stresse= d, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 , which is unaccep= table in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.
10. IPA For English Speakers There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to = define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader.= All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less al= phabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, s= ome attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. = These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of o= ther dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television = sets. + +television + +Received Pronunciation + +General American [=CB=88] An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which fol= lows=20 [=CB=88]receives primary stress. [=CA=94] @@ -1123,28 +1291,32 @@ The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 i. Essentially like the English vowel of=20 pizzaor=20 machine, although the English vowel is sometimes = pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban. [=C9=AA] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 + +buffer vowel iof English=20 bit. [=C9=A8] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 + +buffer vowel uof=20 justin some varieties of GA, those which make the= word sound more or less like=20 jist. Also Russian=20 yas in=20 byt'(to be); like a schwa=20 [=C9=99], but higher in the mouth.= [j] @@ -1419,20 +1591,22 @@ mightand=20 night. The German=20 Ach-Laut. To pronounce=20 [x], force air through your throat= without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape. [=CA=8F] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the= =20 + +buffer vowel =C3=BCof German=20 h=C3=BCbsch. [z] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 z. As in English=20 zoo,=20 @@ -1483,41 +1657,49 @@ ye io =20 yodel (in GA only) iu =20 unicorn or=20 few =20 ua =20 suave ue =20 + +ue wet ui =20 we uo =20 woe (in GA only) uu =20 woo =20 iy =20 million (the=20 io part, that is) uy =20 was (when unstressed)
12. Oddball Orthographies The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been writt= en or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained = in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except peopl= e with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanat= ion or further apology. + +orthography There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 + +orthography xis replaced by=20 h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. How= ever, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows: + +vowel pairs ai,=20 ei,=20 oi,=20 aubecome=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi,=20 @@ -1526,62 +1708,82 @@ iathrough=20 iuand=20 uathrough=20 uuremain unchanged. a'i,=20 + +a'i e'i,=20 o'iand=20 + +o'i a'obecome=20 + +a'o a,i,=20 e,i,=20 o,iand=20 a,o. i'athrough=20 i'uand=20 u'athrough=20 u'uare changed to=20 + +u'u iathrough=20 iuand=20 uathrough=20 uuin lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but b= ecome=20 i,athrough=20 i,uand=20 u,athrough=20 u,uin names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo. All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. + +vowel pairs The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 .iare capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with = an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed sylla= ble. + + +stressed vowel +stressed syllable Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthograp= hy: + +orthography It is not standard, and has not been used. It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban pho= nology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a differe= nt written form. It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between th= e Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James = Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place. + +Brown There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was de= signed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. I= t uses the=20 + +orthography =D0=B0,=20 =D0=B1,=20 =D0=B2,=20 =D0=B3,=20 =D0=B4,=20 =D0=B5,=20 =D0=B6,=20 =D0=B7,=20 =D0=B8,=20 =D0=BA,=20 @@ -1592,22 +1794,32 @@ =D0=BF,=20 =D1=80,=20 =D1=81,=20 =D1=82,=20 =D1=83,=20 =D1=84,=20 =D1=85, and=20 =D1=88in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 yis mapped onto the hard sign=20 =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and per= iod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman r= epresentation. + +vowel pairs + +Bulgarian Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fict= ional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendi= xes to=20 + +Tolkien + +orthography The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojba= n. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, wi= ll be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, th= e tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conventional ways; the = calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the quesset=C3=A9ma repre= sents velar consonants. + +Lord t tinco p parma - calma k quesse d ando b umbar - anga g ungwe - thule f formen c harma x hwesta - anto v ampa j anca - unque n numen m malta diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 525f0e0..41fe4ca 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,23 +1,29 @@ Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology
1. Introductory Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of wo= rds. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many language= s, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. E= nglish has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like R= ussian, but it does have changes like=20 boysas the plural of=20 + +plural boy, or=20 walkedas the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. + +derivational morphology A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its com= ponent words according to specific rules. These so-called=20 morphology rulesare summarized in this chapter. (Howeve= r, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been ful= ly debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some co= nventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and= consonants. + +Lojban letters 1) V represents any single Lojban vowel except=20 y; that is, it represents=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o, or=20 @@ -27,42 +33,62 @@ 2) VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:=20 ai ei oi au or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separatin= g the vowels, one of the following:=20 a'a a'e a'i + +a'i + +a'a a'o + +a'o a'u e'a e'e e'i + +e'e + +e'a e'o + +e'o e'u i'a i'e i'i + +i'e i'o i'u o'a o'e o'i + +o'i o'o o'u + +o'u u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u + +u'u 3) C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the = apostrophe, one of=20 b,=20 c,=20 @@ -84,20 +110,24 @@ l,=20 m,=20 n, and=20 ralways count as consonants for the purposes of t= his chapter. 4) CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which cons= titute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:=20 + +initial consonant pairs + +consonant pairs bl br cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct dj dr dz fl fr gl gr jb jd jg jm jv kl kr ml mr pl pr @@ -106,113 +136,149 @@ vl vr xl xr zb zd zg zm zv 5) C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute on= e of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial= consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in=20 + +consonant pairs . In brief, any consonant pair = is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a v= oiced (excluding=20 r,=20 l,=20 m,=20 n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certai= n specified forbidden pairs. 6) C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonan= ts must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants mu= st constitute a permissible initial consonant pair. Lojban has three basic word classes - parts of speech - in contr= ast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are c= alled cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identify= ing properties - an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniqu= ely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, = upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.<= /para> + +word classes + +parts of speech They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 + +structure words and,=20 if,=20 theand=20 to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 doctor, and=20 freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 James,=20 Afghanistan, and=20 Pope John Paul II.
2. cmavo The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are th= e cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language togethe= r. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affec= t the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the= equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and p= unctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as= =20 + +structure words + +punctuation marks + +prepositions + +hundred + +conjunctions + +articles selma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical= usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 to=20 and summarized in=20 . Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structu= re. Here are some examples of the various forms: V-form .a .e .i .o .u CV-form ba ce di fo gu VV-form .au .ei .ia .o'u .u'e + +o'u CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o coi cu'u + +cu'u In addition, there is the cmavo=20 .y.(remember that=20 yis not a V), which must have pauses before and after i= t. A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two v= owels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words= consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followe= d by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for exp= erimental use: a few examples are=20 + +cmavo form ku'a'e,=20 + +ku'a sau'e, and=20 bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter=20 xare also reserved for experimental use. In general, th= ough, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical= use. Experimental usemeans that the language designers will = not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usag= es coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for t= he indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for ad= ding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for = which was not foreseen. The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel p= airs listed in=20 + +vowel pairs , but also the following ten= additional diphthongs: .ia .ie .ii .io .iu .ua .ue .ui + +ue .uo .uu In addition, cmavo can have the form=20 Cy, a consonant followed by the letter=20 y. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet= , and are discussed in detail in=20 + +Lojban alphabet . Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form = a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and = in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it = is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual= space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component c= mavo are acting together. Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, = can be readily identified by two characteristics: 1) They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and + +consonant pairs 2) They end in a vowel. For example: @@ -221,36 +287,44 @@ .iseci'i .i se ci'i + +ci'i punaijecanai pu nai je ca nai ki'e.u'e + +ki'e ki'e .u'e + +ki'e The cmavo=20 .u'ebegins with a vowel, and like all words beginning w= ith a vowel, requires a pause (represented by=20 .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply becau= se the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example4" /> ki'e'u'e + +ki'e is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has fou= r vowels. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example5" /> cy.ibu.abu @@ -262,25 +336,29 @@ cy.merges with the pause before=20 .ibu. There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compoun= ds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmav= o, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example i= s <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example6" /> .e'o ko ko kurji + +e'o .E'o ko ko KURji This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, = since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthet= ically pleasing. If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syl= lable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop= between the two stressed syllables. Thus + +glottal stop <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example7" /> le re nanmu can be optionally pronounced @@ -291,20 +369,24 @@ le RE. NANmu since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first t= wo words; the stress on=20 re, though, demands that a pause separate=20 refrom the following syllable=20 nanto ensure that the stress on=20 nanis properly heard as a stressed syllable. The altern= ative pronunciation + + +stressed vowel +stressed syllable <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example9" /> LE re NANmu is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purpo= ses of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to=20 @@ -322,23 +404,35 @@ le re NANmu This would probably be the most common usage.
3. brivla Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of t= he semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of En= glish nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech= . + +verbs + +nouns + +adverbs + +adjectives Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subty= pes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word - all words of a pa= rticular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (= cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then giv= es you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the or= igin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before. + +have never The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to inve= nt new brivla for new concepts=20 on the fly; yet it offers people that you are trying to= communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lo= jban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely. + +flexible vocabulary All brivla have the following properties: always end in a vowel; always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, w= here=20 yand apostrophe are not counted as letters for this= purpose. (See=20 .) @@ -354,37 +448,43 @@ scin the first five non-=20 yletters even though the=20 scactually appears in the form of=20 syc. Similarly, the word=20 ro'inre'ocontains=20 nrin the first five letters because the apostrophes are= not counted for this purpose. The three subtypes of brivla are: gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivl= a are built; + +primitive roots lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and fu'ivla (literally=20 copy-word), the specialized words that are not Lojb= an primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other l= anguages.
4. gismu The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing c= oncepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reaso= ns: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represen= t concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added bec= ause they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because= they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like=20 cmavoand=20 gismuthemselves). The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning o= f semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical r= easons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only= weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic= space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human conce= rns. There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to= learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as=20 + + +magnitude +learning Lojban rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will= be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a = lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar= communications in other languages. All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventi= ons defined in=20 , all gismu are of the forms= CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in=20 ; furthermore, they: always have five letters; always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel; @@ -404,20 +504,22 @@ brodi,=20 brodo, and=20 brodu, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Fur= thermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likeliho= od that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because= =20 gismuis in the set of gismu,=20 kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 gizmu, and=20 gisnucannot be. Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words dra= wn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Rus= sian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given= concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were writt= en in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recogniza= bility of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting th= e inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speaker= s of that language. See=20 + +inclusion for a full explanation of t= he algorithm. Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents= (not definitions): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example3" /> @@ -451,53 +553,65 @@ <en>woman</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section15" />for a list.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5"> <title>5. lujvo When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or,= more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), = a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban ta= nru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 metaphorused in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be u= sed to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. Th= is modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the b= roader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or spe= cific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adv= erbs or adjectives. For example, + +adverbs + +adjectives <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example1" /> skami pilno is the tanru which expresses the concept of=20 computer user. The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas.= Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and com= bine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recom= bined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more com= plex or more specific ideas, and so on. The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:=20 skami pilnocould refer to a computer that is a user, or= to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier comp= onent can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use = cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of mea= ning. Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a scie= nce. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is= unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defin= ing the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devisi= ng a new tanru is dealt with in detail in=20 . To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu togeth= er. Thus the binary metaphor=20 big boatbecomes the tanru + +big boat <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example2" /> barda bloti representing roughly the same concept as the English word=20 ship. The binary metaphor=20 father mothercan refer to a paternal grandmother (=20 + +paternal grandmother + +father mother a father-ly type of mother), while=20 mother fathercan refer to a maternal grandfather (=20 + +mother father a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become th= e tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example3" /> patfu mamta @@ -539,105 +653,131 @@ bralo'i big-boat ship The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units represe= nting the component gismu. These units are called=20 rafsiin Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. T= he rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occa= sionally inserting so-called=20 hyphenletters to ensure that the pieces stick together = as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu,= or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately= recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spok= en Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique s= ource tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning. + +word forms The lujvo that can be built from the tanru=20 mamta patfuin=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example7" /> mampa'u which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 mampa'uby the rafsi=20 mam-and=20 -pa'u, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatena= ted together to form=20 mampa'u. Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formall= y entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be = assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See= =20 for how this has been done.) Unlike = gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diffe= rence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used t= o build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments= , in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even = though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 + +noisy environments + +long rafsi brivla, built from the tanru=20 bridi valsi, is the same lujvo as=20 brivalsi,=20 bridyvla, and=20 bridyvalsi, each of which uses a different combination = of rafsi. When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid b= rivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five le= tters (excluding=20 yand=20 '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel. A=20 y(which is ignored in determining stress or consonant c= lusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the wor= d together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word= is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these condition= s, detailed in=20 + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters . An=20 r(in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the be= ginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For ex= ample, in the lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example8" /> soirsai sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations + +field rations the rafsi=20 soi-and=20 -saiare joined, with the additional=20 + +sai rmaking up the=20 rsconsonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. With= out the=20 r, the word would break up into=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation = to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this ca= se), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. + +sai Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you spe= ak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for whic= h you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules= for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be unde= rstood without explanation.
6. rafsi Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form= , but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of = the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will m= ost easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules= of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determi= ne which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard diction= ary form (see=20 ). Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu= itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its= final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms= are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 + +rafsi form long rafsi, they are called=20 + +long rafsi unreduced lujvo. + +unreduced lujvo Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are: + +unreduced lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example5" /> mamtypatfu from=20 mamta patfu mother fatheror=20 + +mother father maternal grandfather lerfyliste from=20 lerfu liste letter listor a=20 list of letters (letters of the alphabet) nancyprali from=20 @@ -650,61 +790,79 @@ pruni plipe elastic (springy) leapor=20 spring(the verb) vancysanmi from=20 vanci sanmi evening mealor=20 supper + +supper In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three = additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the= forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned = to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in mak= ing lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi. For example,=20 zmadu(=20 more than) has the two short rafsi=20 zmaand=20 mau(in addition to its unreduced rafsi=20 + +mau zmadand=20 zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have been create= d based on=20 zmadu, corresponding in general to English comparative = adjectives ending in=20 + +adjectives -ersuch as=20 whiter(Lojban=20 labmau). On the other hand,=20 bakri(=20 chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo. There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form r= afsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form = and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of shor= t rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fa= irly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-for= m rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at th= e end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assi= gnment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu. + +at most The intention was to use the available=20 rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = - in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used luj= vo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while kee= ping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For = this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the = five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited s= et of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven pos= sible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three c= an be used, as explained above). + +rafsi space + +at most + +anyone Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for = gismu of the form CVC/CV, like=20 sakli. The digits in the second column represent the gi= smu letters used to form the rafsi. CVC 123 -sak- CVC 124 -sal- CVV 12'5 -sa'i- + +sa'i CVV 125 -sai- + +sai CCV 345 -kli- CCV 132 -ska- @@ -758,25 +916,29 @@ ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, or=20 au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two co= nsonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see=20 ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 mam,=20 mat, and=20 ma'aas possible rafsi: in fact, only=20 + +ma'a mamis assigned to it. Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For exa= mple, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each ha= ve a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo t= hat have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see= =20 ). The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is=20 fully reduced lujvo. Here are some examples of fully re= duced lujvo: + +fully reduced lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example9" /> @@ -815,31 +977,35 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example11" /> mampa'u from=20 mamta patfu mother fatheror=20 + +mother father maternal grandfather lerste from=20 lerfu liste letter listor a=20 list of letters As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi = in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla,= a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letter= s - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course= , all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, ea= ch at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu. When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert= a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term=20 + +hyphen letter hyphenalways refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 yor one of the consonants=20 rand=20 n. (The letter=20 lcan also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.= ) The=20 y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it= with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, = or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either= cmavo or gismu). Thus, the tanru=20 pante tavla(=20 protest talk) cannot produce the lujvo=20 @@ -905,116 +1071,168 @@ xy. zei kantu X ray kulnr,farsi zei lolgai Farsi floor-cover Persian rug + +rug + + +rug +Persian rug + +rug na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma non-A, non-B liver-disease non-A, non-B hepatitis + +hepatitis .cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank + +tank + + +tank +Sherman tank + +tank is particularly no= teworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is = not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two component= s, but by adding a=20 zeibetween=20 by.and=20 livgyterbilmato produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example17" /> na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis + +hepatitis the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable,= because its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a= brivla must be constructed ad hoc. Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 zeiphrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look = like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the t= wo uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or= in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate b= ut closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts o= f lujvo.
7. fu'ivla The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very con= crete or specific terms (e.g.=20 + +specific terms brieor=20 + +brie cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow fie= ld (e.g.=20 + +jargon + +cobra quark,=20 + +quark integral, or=20 + +integral iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for= concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The= vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific= terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowe= d (actually=20 + +plants copied) into Lojban from the original language. There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become mo= re and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of= a foreign name quoted with the cmavo=20 + +borrowing la'o(explained in full in=20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example1" /> me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. + +spaghetti is a predicate with the place structure=20 x1 is a quantity of spaghetti. + +spaghetti Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name,= as explained in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example2" /> me la spagetis. One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need = a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you= do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are ta= lking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.) + +borrowing Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borr= owed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is the= n usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen = to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart. The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; othe= rwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages wo= uld require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to= the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have m= ore than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind o= f fu'ivla. + +jargon + +borrowing Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 for a proposal concerning S= tage 4 fu'ivla.) The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gi= smu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a wo= rd from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed(actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojbanized - t= he phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modificati= ons are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form= word. All fu'ivla: must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters o= f the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either b= e a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each = pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consona= nt pair:=20 spraileis acceptable, but not=20 ktraileor=20 trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gis= mu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front o= f it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called=20 slinku'i test, not discussed further in this book);= + +slinku'i test cannot contain=20 y, although they may contain syllabic pronunciation= s of Lojban consonants; like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.= Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at t= he beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant p= airs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to perm= issible initial pairs except at the beginning. + +consonant triples + +consonant pairs This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of po= ssibilities within=20 fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on th= e fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarante= es a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require run= ning tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be ma= de only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the consi= derations that apply. Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban = word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla: Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojb= an=20 y, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla. @@ -1029,152 +1247,182 @@ Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that ca= tegorizes the fu'ivla into a=20 topic area. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi= ; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the= rest of the fu'ivla with an=20 r-hyphen; if that would produce a double=20 r, use an=20 n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in=20 rand the rest of the fu'ivla begins with=20 n(or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and t= he rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" wou= ld result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an=20 l-hyphen. (This is the only use of=20 l-hyphen in Lojban.) Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can= be used instead of the long rafsi. + +long rafsi Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exampl= es, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not b= e pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example3" /> spaghetti (from English or Italian) + +spaghetti spageti (Lojbanize) cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi) + +long rafsi dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi) where=20 cidj-is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspagetias a kind of food. The form with the short = rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any ev= ent, it means the same thing. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example4" /> Acer (the scientific name of maple trees) + +maple trees + +Acer acer (Lojbanize) xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel) tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi) ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi) where=20 tric-and=20 ric-are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugarcould get the fu'ivla=20 + +maple sugar saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tanru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceruand=20 tricrxaceruare distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely = be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example5" /> brie (from French) + +brie bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi) where=20 cirl-represents=20 cirla(=20 cheese). <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example6" /> cobra + +cobra kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi) where=20 sinc-represents=20 since(=20 snake). <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example7" /> quark + +quark kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi) where=20 sask-represents=20 saske(=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 aadded to the end of the word, and the diphthong=20 ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appe= ar in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example8" /> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) + +Korean djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi) where=20 ler-represents=20 lerfu(=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". + +l-hyphen The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible = meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,=20 spagetiand=20 kuarkaare valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xacerulooks like a compound cmavo, and=20 kobralike a gismu. For another example,=20 integralhas a specific meaning to a mathematician. But = the Lojban fu'ivla=20 + +integral integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not c= onvey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with= an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 integral- has various other specialized meanings in oth= er fields. + +integral Left uncontrolled,=20 integralealmost certainly would eventually come to mean= the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates wi= th=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. + +integral The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 iof=20 integraleis removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to the beg= inning;=20 cmac-is the rafsi for=20 cmaci(=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integralmight be conveyed with=20 + +integral djinrnintegraleor=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinjuand=20 tarmimean=20 buildingand=20 formrespectively. Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, = shown with more than one rafsi prefix: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d9" /> @@ -1184,43 +1432,57 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example13" /> bang,r,blgaria Bulgarian (in language) + +Bulgarian kuln,r,blgaria Bulgarian (in culture) + +Bulgarian gugd,r,blgaria Bulgaria (the country) bang,r,kore,a Korean (the language) + +Korean kuln,r,kore,a Korean (the culture) + +Korean Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 eais not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some fo= rm of the native name=20 Chosenshould have been used instead of the internationa= lly known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 + +borrowings Navajois far more widely known than=20 + +Navajo Dine'e.
8. cmene Lojbanized names, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. + +direct address Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban a= ttempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modific= ation. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analy= zable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they a= re Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban= equivalents: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d4" /> @@ -1230,47 +1492,65 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example6" /> djim. Jim djein. Jane .arnold. Arnold + +Arnold pit. Pete + +Pete katrinas. Katrina + +Katrina kat,r,in. Catherine + +Catherine (Note that syllabic=20 ris skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so=20 + + +stressed vowel +stressed syllable is stressed on the= =20 ka.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example8" /> katis. Cathy + +Cathy keit. Kate + +Kate Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, a= nd are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual= stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each= ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a sin= gle word with no pause. For example, + +capitalization <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example9" /> djan. djonz. and @@ -1278,20 +1558,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example10" /> djandjonz. are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Jones. + +John Jones The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person do= ing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine = how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name= =20 Marycan thus be Lojbanized as=20 meris.,=20 maris.,=20 meiris.,=20 merix., or even=20 marys.. The last alternative is not pronounced much lik= e its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelli= ng over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an=20 s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the= end. Names are not permitted to have the sequences=20 la,=20 @@ -1303,37 +1585,43 @@ la plas., and=20 ilanas.would be misunderstood as=20 .i la nas.. However,=20 NEderlants.cannot be misheard as=20 NEder lants., because=20 NEderwith no following pause is not a possible Lojban w= ord. There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that c= an be used in Lojbanizing names, such as=20 ly,=20 lei, and=20 daior=20 + +dai do'i, that do not cause these problems. Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following cha= racteristics: + +word forms They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules = about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that e= ach consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger clus= ter) is a permissible pair. They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating v= owel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphth= ongs=20 iyand=20 uy. They are always followed in speech by a pause after the fina= l consonant, written as=20 .. They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is no= t the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names n= or words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the onl= y use of capital letters. + +capital letters Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from na= mes in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a = gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13" /> @@ -1343,31 +1631,41 @@ pav. the One from the cmavo=20 pa, with rafsi=20 pav, meaning=20 one sol. the Sun + +Sun from the gismu=20 solri, meaning=20 solar, or actually=20 pertaining to the Sun + +Sun ralj. Chief (as a title) + +Chief from the gismu=20 ralju, meaning=20 principal. nol. Lord/Lady + +Lord + +Lady from the gismu=20 nobli, with rafsi=20 nol, meaning=20 noble. To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply th= e following rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. @@ -1375,40 +1673,58 @@ Add a final=20 sor=20 n(or some other consonant that sounds good) if the = name ends in a vowel. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written L= ojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress= . Do not capitalize names otherwise. + +syllabication + +capitalization If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert= a vowel between the consonants:=20 yis recommended. No cmene may have the syllables=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 doiin them, unless immediately preceded by a conson= ant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something= else. Possible substitutions include=20 ly,=20 ly'i, and=20 daior=20 + +dai do'i, respectively. There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific n= ames (technically known as=20 + +scientific names Linnaean binomialsafter their inventor) which are inter= nationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is e= ssential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted = into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 + +Linnaean binomials + +Linnaean la'o, explained in=20 . Using this cmavo makes the already= lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leave= s the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete,= will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They ca= n also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of= the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 + +Linnaean binomials + +Linnaean + +converting back vowelin the following list refers to any of the le= tters=20 a,=20 o, or=20 u; the term=20 front vowelcorrespondingly refers to any of the letters= =20 e,=20 i, or=20 y. @@ -1474,71 +1790,95 @@ Change=20 hbetween two vowels to=20 ', but otherwise remove it completely. If preservat= ion of the=20 hseems essential, change it to=20 xinstead. Place=20 'between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form= Lojban diphthongs. + +vowel pairs Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: English=20 Mary meris. or meiris. English=20 Smith smit. English=20 Jones djonz. English=20 John djan. or jan. (American) or djon. or jon. (British) English=20 Alice .alis. English=20 Elise .eLIS. English=20 Johnson djansn. + +Johnson English=20 William .uiliam. + +William or .uil,iam. English=20 Brown braun. + +Brown English=20 Charles tcarlz. French=20 Charles carl. French=20 De Gaulle dyGOL. + +De Gaulle German=20 Heinrich xainrix. Spanish=20 Joaquin xuaKIN. Russian=20 Svetlana sfietlanys. + +Svetlana Russian=20 Khrushchev xrucTCOF. + +Khrushchev Hindi=20 Krishna kricnas. + +Krishna Polish=20 Lech Walesa lex. va,uensas. + +Lech Walesa Spanish=20 Don Quixote don. kicotes. + +Don Quixote or modern Spanish: don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes. Chinese=20 Mao Zedong maudzydyn. + +Mao Zedong Japanese=20 Fujiko fudjikos. + +Fujiko or fujikos.
9. Rules for inserting pauses Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses= between Lojban words: Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always il= legal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word int= o two words. @@ -1558,68 +1898,96 @@ If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivl= a follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with = the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be eith= er a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause,= of course). A cmavo of the form=20 Cymust be followed by a pause unless another=20 Cy-form cmavo follows. When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be prece= ded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in= =20 + +non-Lojban text .)
10. Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can = be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds o= r looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combina= tions of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean e= xactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in=20 is used to choose the stand= ard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionar= y.) The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanr= u is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one= that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a g= ismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic uni= verse, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most use= ful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift = in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the m= ost useful one may change. + +linguistic drift in Lojban + +linguistic drift You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning = of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is = invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, an= d is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure= ), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural lang= uage does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from t= he dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore= misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 + +linguistic drift za'e(explained in=20 + +za'e ) before a newly coined lujvo to ind= icate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. The essential nature of human communication is that if the liste= ner understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for c= hoosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lo= jbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that = the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest = words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conver= sely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we= have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex= ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened the= m to convey more information more rapidly. + +Zipf's Law + +jargon + +acronyms Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abst= raction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous= , the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop = some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then= use that tanru to make the lujvo. + +Zipf's Law + +basis This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given luj= vo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more = than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning f= or the tanru was already competing for the=20 rightto define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to= use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others= . If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is li= kely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more= of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter= form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorte= r lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a= more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be sh= orter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more compl= ex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term. + +anticipated And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an u= nknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no s= ense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the = grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate g= roupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible.= (The grouping of tanru is explained in=20 ; abstraction is explained in=20 .) Plausibility is the key to learni= ng new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.
11. The lujvo-making algorithm The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban luj= vo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafs= i. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown = for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assis= tance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original=20 + +Brown tosmabru test. + +tosmabru test Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo: 1) Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu = and cmavo in the tanru except the last. 2) Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi= for the final gismu in the tanru. 3) Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyph= ens. + +hyphens 4) Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a= hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left te= sts are recommended, for reasons discussed below.=20 4a) @@ -1640,63 +2008,75 @@ Put a=20 y-hyphen between the consonants of any impe= rmissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi. 4c) Put a=20 y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form. + +rafsi form 5) Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - w= ith the pattern=20 CVC ... CVC + X- for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long r= afsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant clust= er, or is something which has caused a=20 + +long rafsi y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC= and itself by one of the above rules. Note that the=20 tosmabru testimplies that the algorithm will be more ef= ficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to le= ft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be = completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. + +tosmabru test + +hyphens
12. The lujvo scoring algorithm This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. = It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that p= eople find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowe= st-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In pr= evious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.) 1) Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 + +hyphens L. 2) Count the number of apostrophes; call it=20 A. 3) Count the number of=20 y-,=20 r-, and=20 n-hyphens; call it=20 + +hyphens H. 4) For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 R:=20 @@ -1720,86 +2100,104 @@ 4 CVC (-nun-) 5 CVV with an apostrophe (-ta'u-) + +ta'u 6 CCV (-zba-) 7 CVV with no apostrophe (-sai-) + +sai 8 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. No= te that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short = words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words wit= h fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjectiv= e), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle = is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possi= ble that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it = is ten times better than the alternative. + +hyphens Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowes= t scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example4" /> zbasai zba + sai + +sai (1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 =3D 5847 nunynau nun + y + nau + +nau (1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3 =3D 6967 sairzbata'u sai + r + zba + ta'u + +ta'u + +sai (1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 =3D 10385 zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976
13. lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 gerku zdani(=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 + +lujvo meaning + +dog house doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 , using every possible rafs= i. The rafsi for=20 gerkuare: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 zdaniare: @@ -1815,58 +2213,68 @@ zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then: ger-zda ger-zdani ge'u-zda ge'u-zdani gerk-zda gerk-zdani We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 + +hyphens gecannot fall off the front, because the following word= would begin with=20 rz, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. = So the lujvo forms are=20 gerzdaand=20 gerzdani. The third form,=20 ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though the firs= t rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in t= he first five letters. So=20 ge'uzdais this form of the lujvo. The fourth form,=20 ge'u-zdani, however, requires an=20 r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 ge'u-part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of th= e lujvo is=20 ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are=20 + +hyphens gerkyzdaand=20 gerkyzdanirespectively. The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujv= o, so we might expect that=20 gerzdawould win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, it= s H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score = of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 r= espectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictiona= ry in the form=20 gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 bloti klesi(=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. + +long rafsi + +boat class The rafsi for=20 blotiare=20 -lot-,=20 -blo-, and=20 -lo'i-; for=20 klesithey are=20 -kle-and=20 -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru: lotkle blokle lo'ikle=20 lotlei blolei lo'irlei Only=20 lo'irleirequires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with t= he cmavo sequence=20 lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujv= o, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algo= rithm produces the following results: + +long rafsi lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 So the form=20 bloleiis preferred, but only by a tiny margin over=20 blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;= =20 lo'iklesuffers because of its apostrophe, and=20 lo'irleibecause of having both apostrophe and hyphen. @@ -1906,27 +2314,31 @@ logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu =20 lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 + +fully reduced lujvo lojbangriand=20 lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly lower sco= re: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organizati= on, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and = to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 girzu, producing=20 lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 nakni ke cinse ctucaor=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 + +sexual teacher kecmavo ensures the interpretation=20 teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca @@ -1943,20 +2355,26 @@ kerequired for grouping need not be expressed.
14. The gismu creation algorithm The gismu were created through the following process: 1) At least one word was found in each of the six source lang= uages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to = the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather lib= erally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding frica= tive were simplified to just the fricative (=20 + +source languages + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters tcbecame=20 c,=20 djbecame=20 j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban = ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rul= es were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency. 2) All possible gismu forms were matched against the six sour= ce-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 @@ -1997,20 +2415,22 @@ 5) The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 gismushould have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now). Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered suffici= ently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as = an extreme example,=20 + +stressed vowel bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi(but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.
15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the letter=20 @@ -2070,20 +2490,22 @@ sinso sine stero steradian tanjo tangent xampo ampere The gismu=20 sinsoand=20 tanjowere only made non-algorithmically because they we= re identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the diction= aries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the= international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the = ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese). Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, = but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the = multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words t= hat have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or langua= ges may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from it= s home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, w= hich uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of = usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be= based on the six major languages. The six Lojban source languages: + +source languages jungo Chinese (from=20 Zhong 1guo 2) glico English xindo Hindi spano Spanish rusko Russian xrabo Arabic @@ -2145,20 +2567,22 @@ Portuguese: =20 brazo Brazilian =20 Urdu: =20 kisto Pakistani =20 The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth: + +continents bemro North American (from=20 berti merko) dzipo Antarctican (from=20 cadzu cipni) ketco South American (from=20 Quechua) friko African polno Polynesian/Oceanic ropno European @@ -2210,27 +2634,31 @@ The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section16-example2" /> tci'ile ke canre tutra Chilean type-of (sand territory) Chilean desert + +Chilean desert could be represented by the lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section16-example3" /> tci'ilykemcantutra which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo u= nder this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigne= d to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo= . The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called= =20 rafsi fu'ivla, since they are distinguished from other = Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workabl= e and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standa= rd for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodst= uffs, and other things. + +plants
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index cbfdb30..9d3b7a4 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -55,52 +55,66 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example5" /> ta blotrskunri That is-a-(boat)-schooner. + +schooner That is a schooner. + +schooner illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla = respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word who= se meaning can be learned independent of its origins. The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example b= rivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind tha= t wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivl= a.
2. Simple tanru Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla pla= ced together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla,= it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The neares= t analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as=20 + +nouns lemon tree. There is no way to tell just by looking at = the phrase=20 + +lemon tree lemon treeexactly what it refers to, even if you know t= he meanings of=20 + +lemon tree lemonand=20 treeby themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply = know that it refers to=20 a tree which bears lemons as fruits. A person who didn'= t know English very well might think of it as analogous to=20 brown treeand wonder,=20 What kind of tree is lemon-colored? In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English = adjective-noun combinations like=20 big boyand adverb-verb combinations like=20 quickly run. This is a consequence of Lojban not having= any such categories as=20 noun,=20 verb,=20 adjective, or=20 adverb. English words belonging to any of these categor= ies are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of ta= nru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example1" /> tu pelnimre tricu That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree). + +lemon tree That is a lemon tree. + +lemon tree <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example2" /> la djan. barda nanla John is-a-big boy. @@ -134,20 +148,22 @@ mi sutra I am-fast/quick. shows=20 sutraused to translate an adjective, whereas in=20 it is translating a= n adverb. (Another correct translation of=20 , however, would be= =20 I am a quick runner.) + +quick runner There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru= , derived from the place structure of the word=20 tanru. The first component is called the=20 seltau, and the second component is called the=20 tertau. The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that th= e tertau carries the primary meaning. A=20 pelnimre tricuis primarily a tree, and only secondarily= is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative t= ranslation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d5" /> @@ -222,20 +238,24 @@ <para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between= =20 <quote>barda</quote>and=20 <quote>prenu</quote>is the same as that between=20 <quote>cmalu</quote>and=20 <quote>prenu</quote>.=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section14" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section15" />contain a partial listing o= f some types of tanru, with examples.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3"> <title>3. Three-part tanru grouping with=20 +<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; g= uheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; wi= th ke and bo, 88 --> +<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 9= 6; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed= , 96 --> +<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm> <quote>bo</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: bo BO closest scope grouping Consider the English sentence: @@ -265,20 +285,22 @@ . We understand that=20 girls' schoolmeans=20 a school where girls are the students, and not=20 a school where girls are the teachersor=20 a school which is a girl(!). Likewise, we understand th= at=20 little girlmeans=20 girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 girls' schoolto be taken as a unit, with=20 littlespecifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 little girlto be taken as a unit, specifying the type o= f school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speec= h rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English wr= iting usually leaves it unrepresented. + +speech rhythm Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit = words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 bo(which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between t= he two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban transl= ation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example4" /> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule @@ -305,20 +327,24 @@ and=20 reveals a tanru nes= ted within a tanru. In=20 , the main tanru ha= s a seltau of=20 cmaluand a tertau of=20 nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru with=20 nixlias the seltau and=20 ckuleas the tertau. In=20 , on the other hand= , the seltau is=20 cmalu bo nixli(itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is= =20 ckule. This structure of tanru nested within tanru form= s the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained= below. + +tanru nested within tanru + +basis What about=20 ? What does it mean= ? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example6" /> ta cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-small girl school. @@ -359,40 +385,46 @@ ta klama bo jubme That is-a goer=E2=80=93table. is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 , and is ambiguous = in exactly the same ways. The cmavo=20 boserves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says no= thing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.
4. Complex tanru grouping + + +tanru inversion +tanru grouping If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both ele= ments? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example1" /> do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). You are a very large dog-catcher. In=20 , the selbri is a t= anru with seltau=20 mutce bo bardaand tertau=20 gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once again that= this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: t= he sense in which the=20 dog type-of captureris said to be=20 very type-of largeis not precisely specified. Presumabl= y it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his o= ther properties. We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the r= amifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 + +pretty little girls' school to four brivla. (Although th= is example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning -= it first appeared in Quine's book=20 Word and Object(1960) - it is actually a mediocre= example because of the ambiguity of English=20 pretty; it can mean=20 beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 very. Lojban=20 melbiis not subject to this ambiguity: it means only=20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: @@ -420,20 +452,22 @@ <en>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example5" />uses a construction= which has not been seen before:=20 <quote>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</quote>, with two consecutive uses of= =20 <quote>bo</quote>between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 <quote>bo</quote>constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 <quote>bo</quote>is present at all: the last two are grouped together.= Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 <quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 +<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 --> +<indexterm><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm> <quote>bo</quote>in the language. Therefore,</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-snKn"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example6" /> ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). @@ -460,20 +494,24 @@ start grouping ke'e KEhE end grouping There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 pretty little girls' schoolthat cannot be expressed wit= h the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the group= ing parentheses cmavo,=20 + +pretty little girls' school + +grouping parentheses keand=20 ke'e(belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). An= y portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a s= ingle tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 can be rewritten in= any of the following ways: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3" /> @@ -511,20 +549,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example5" /> ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ). The final=20 ke'eis given in square brackets here to indicate that i= t can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 + +square brackets ke'eat the end of the selbri, making=20 as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example6" /> @@ -571,23 +611,29 @@ je JA tanru logical=20 and ja JA tanru logical=20 or joi JOI mixed mass=20 and gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical=20 and gi GI forethought connection separator + + +observatives +forethought connection Consider the English phrase=20 big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: + +big red dog <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example1" /> barda xunre gerku (big type-of red) type-of dog @@ -597,24 +643,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example2" /> barda xunre bo gerku big type-of (red type-of dog) much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the= English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not mer= ely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are i= ndependent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjecti= ve ordering prevent us from saying=20 + +adjective ordering red big dog. The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: + +big red dog <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example3" /> barda je xunre gerku (big and red) type-of dog @@ -676,20 +726,22 @@ definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 blanu zdanirefers to something which is blue in the way= that houses are blue;=20 blanu je zdanihas no such implication - the blueness of= a=20 blanu je zdaniis independent of its houseness. With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' schoolare made possible: see=20 + +pretty little girls' school for a complete list. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special eluci= dation. There are at least two possible interpretations of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example8" /> ta melbi je nixli ckule @@ -786,40 +838,48 @@ whether or notin=20 . Now consider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example17" /> ricfu je blanu jabo crino + +jabo rich and (blue or green) which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 jaand=20 bobetween tanru components. The two cmavo combine to fo= rm a compound whose meaning is that of=20 jabut which groups more closely;=20 jabois to=20 + +jabo jaas plain=20 bois to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 jaand=20 jabogroup less closely than=20 + +jabo bodoes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example18" /> ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu + +jabo rich and (blue or green =E2=80=93 blue) rich and (blue or greenish-blue) An alternative form of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example19" /> @@ -833,20 +893,22 @@ <quote>joi</quote>, which is the kind of=20 <quote>and</quote>that denotes a mixture:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Hr1L"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example20" /> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue and red) ball. + +blue and red The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 is distinct from:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example21" /> @@ -857,23 +919,27 @@ which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 xunreis the more important of the two components. On th= e other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example22" /> ti blanu je xunre bolci This is a (blue and red) ball + +blue and red is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. + +blue and red Finally, just as English=20 andhas the variant form=20 both ... and, so=20 jebetween tanru components has the variant form=20 gu'e ... gi, where=20 gu'eis placed before the components and=20 gibetween them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23" /> @@ -915,30 +981,36 @@ </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7"> <title>7. Linked sumti:=20 <quote>be=E2=80=93bei=E2=80=93be'o</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: be BE linked sumti marker + +linked sumti bei BEI linked sumti separator + +linked sumti be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator + +linked sumti The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 . One grammatical structure related t= o places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 , the place structu= re of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu=20 mamta. What about more complex selbri? For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structu= re of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place = structure of=20 blanu zdaniis that of=20 zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 @@ -948,20 +1020,22 @@ blanuwith=20 xamgu, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example1" /> ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. + +good house This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. Since=20 xamguhas three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the pers= on for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 necessarily omits i= nformation about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made,= however! <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example2" /> @@ -985,27 +1059,33 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example3" /> ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci le mela nu,IORK. prenu le jecta This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume + +dimension by-standard the-typical school) (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-t= hing) school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems + +Brooklyn for-audience New-York persons with-operator the state. This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical s= chool, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn= , teaching poetry + +Brooklyn to the New York community and operated by the state. Here the three places of=20 cmalu, the three of=20 nixli, and the four of=20 ckuleare fully specified. Since the places of=20 ckuleare the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not= necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: @@ -1038,20 +1118,22 @@ melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) a school for girls which is both beautiful and small is simply that of=20 ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 .) It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure or= dering tags=20 + +linked sumti fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu(of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly specify = the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following t= he=20 beis the x2 place and the other places follow in order.= If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplishe= d as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example7" /> @@ -1073,23 +1155,27 @@ <para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-9b37"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example8" /> ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. This is a good house by my standards. + +good house Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted = into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi: + +linked sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example9" /> ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house. That is a blue, as I see it, house. @@ -1105,20 +1191,22 @@ ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. That is a blue house, as I see it. See discussions in=20 of modals and in=20 of tenses for more explanations. The terminator=20 be'ois almost always elidable: however, if the selbri b= elongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to= the last linked sumti unless=20 + +linked sumti be'ois used, in which case it will attach to the outer = description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example12" /> le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani @@ -1152,20 +1240,22 @@
8. Inversion of tanru:=20 <quote>co</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: co CO tanru inversion marker + +tanru inversion The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precede= s what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of=20 blue houses, not of=20 houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the sa= me thing: @@ -1178,20 +1268,22 @@ <jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo> <gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss> <en>That is a blue house.</en> <jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo> <gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss> <en>That is a blue house.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>This change is called=20 <quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 +<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 9= 6; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed= , 96 --> +<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> <quote>co</quote>(=20 <quote>zdani</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the tertau, an= d the element following=20 <quote>co</quote>(=20 <quote>blanu</quote>) in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the seltau.</p= ara> <para>The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a ta= nru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of=20 <quote>zdani co blanu</quote>is still that of=20 <quote>zdani</quote>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7" />, we saw how to fill interio= r places with=20 @@ -1202,34 +1294,40 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example4" /> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. I try to go to the market from the house. + +try to go mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. + +try to go is a less deeply ne= sted construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier= to understand. Note that in Lojban=20 trying to gois expressed using=20 trocias the tertau. The reason is that=20 trying to gois a=20 going type of trying, not a=20 trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going - if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all. Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the= places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way.= In=20 + +inverted tanru ,=20 mifills the x1 place of=20 troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 le zarciand=20 le zdanido not occupy selbri places, despite appearance= s. As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 ) for referring to individual sumti o= f a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 , because they are = not really=20 sumti of the bridiat all. @@ -1289,20 +1387,22 @@ ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule (pretty girl) school Multiple=20 cocmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple= inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 + +right-grouping rule bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 cocmavo must be removed simultaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example9" /> ckule co nixli co cmalu school of-type (girl of-type little) @@ -1374,30 +1474,36 @@ nu'a NUhA math operator to selbri moi MOI changes number to ordinal selbri + +ordinal selbri mei MOI changes number to cardinal selbri + +cardinal selbri nu NU event abstraction + +event abstraction kei KEI terminator for NU So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from bri= vla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Loj= ban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either d= irectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple= selbri are discussed at length in=20 ,=20 , and=20 @@ -1443,20 +1549,22 @@ go'iand inserted into=20 . The exceptional member of GOhA is=20 du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 . Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into= selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 + +mathematical expressions su'i, meaning=20 plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 nu'a(of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is= : x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, = x3, etc. for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4" /> @@ -1470,38 +1578,50 @@ <para>A possible tanru example might be:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-K7yz"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example5" /> mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. I understand addition problems. + +addition problems More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expressi= on with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. D= etails are available in=20 + +numerical selbri . Here are a few tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example7" /> la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. + +Preem Palver Preem Palver is the first speaker. + +Preem Palver la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. Anyi and Asun are two brothers. + +two brothers + +brothers Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivl= a is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of se= lma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator=20 keiof selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an ex= tremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are = documented in=20 . A few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example8" /> @@ -1548,20 +1668,22 @@ le ci nolraitru the three noblest-governors the three kings If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradi= tion, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: + +Three Kings <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example2" /> la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of=20 the three kings. Balthazar is one of the three kings. @@ -1622,27 +1744,39 @@ la, as seltau. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example7" /> ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called =E2=80=98Chrysler') car. + +Chrysler That is a Chrysler car. + +Chrysler The elidable terminator=20 me'ucan usually be omitted. It is absolutely required o= nly if the=20 meselbri is being used in an indefinite description (a = type of sumti explained in=20 + + + + +Three Kings requires either=20 kuor=20 me'uto be explicit, and (as with=20 be'oin=20 ) the=20 me'uleaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.
@@ -1920,20 +2060,22 @@ The difference arises because the=20 na'ein=20 negates the whole = construction from=20 keto=20 ke'e, whereas in=20 it negates=20 sutraalone. Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the= explicit=20 + +omitting terminators ke'eis left out in=20 , it is transforme= d into: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example10" /> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. @@ -1952,22 +2094,26 @@ mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, = both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. In=20 , everything afte= r=20 beis a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 + +linked sumti cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 arm-type goermight be. Furthermore, since the x3 place = has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 + +linked sumti le zarcifollowing the selbri falls into the nonexistent= x4 place of=20 cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) Finally, it is also possible to place=20 na'ebefore a=20 gu'e ... gilogically connected tanru construction. The = meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.
13. Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in @@ -1998,20 +2144,22 @@ la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 doesn't say. There= are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explaine= d fully in=20 . Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permi= tted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in = meaning: + +negation cmavo <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example3" /> mi na pu klama le zarci mi pu na klama le zarci It is false that I went to the market. I didn't go to the market. @@ -2026,56 +2174,70 @@ mi na na klama le zarci It is false that it is false that I go to the market. I go to the market. It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple= =20 nacmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the = limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound t= ense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 + + +tense in scope of sticky tense + +multiple tenses +compound tense . <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example5" /> mi na pu na ca klama le zarci I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. I went to the market. Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginnin= g of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. + +negation cmavo
14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru + +asymmetrical tanru This section and=20 contain some example tanru = classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modify= ing seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by comp= ounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which f= ollow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. T= he tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the= languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those= tanru with no English parallel) a translation. Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languag= es (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or = not, so English is not explicitly noted): Aba =3D Abazin Kaz =3D Kazakh Chi =3D Chinese Kor =3D Korean + +Korean Ewe =3D Ewe Mon =3D Mongolian Fin =3D Finnish Qab =3D Qabardian Geo =3D Georgian Que =3D Quechua Gua =3D Guarani Rus =3D Russian Hop =3D Hopi Skt =3D Sanskrit Hun =3D Hungarian Swe =3D Swedish Imb =3D Imbabura Quechua Tur =3D Turkish Kar =3D Karaitic Udm =3D Udmurt Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that= is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of = the tanru. For example,=20 + +asymmetrical tanru junla dadysli, or=20 clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 dadysli junla, or=20 pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 . The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents = the object of that action: pinsi nunkilbra pencil sharpener (Hun) zgike nunctu music instruction (Hun) mirli nunkalte deer hunting (Hun) @@ -2177,20 +2339,22 @@ Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau speci= fies its cause. djacu barna water mark (Chi) The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the= purpose of that instrument: taxfu dadgreku garment rack (Chi) tergu'i ti'otci lamp shade (Chi) xirma zdani horse house (Chi =3D stall) nuzba tanbo news board (Chi =3D bulletin board) + +news =20 dadgreku =3D hang-frame tergu'i =3D source of illumination ti'otci =3D shadow-tool More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau= specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used: cpina rokci pepper stone (Que =3D stone for grindin= g pepper) jamfu djacu foot water (Skt =3D water for washing t= he feet) grana mudri post wood (Skt =3D wood for making a po= st) @@ -2380,22 +2544,28 @@ toothis being specified, and that=20 milkand=20 eyeact as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 ladruand=20 denciis something like=20 tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 kanla denci, the relationship is not only not present o= n the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.
15. Some types of symmetrical tanru + +symmetrical tanru This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not im= portant. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical= connective between the components. + +symmetrical tanru The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by b= oth tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetri= cal tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 + +asymmetrical tanru jeis appropriate: cipnrstrigi pacru'i owl demon (Skt) nolraitru prije royal sage (Skt) remna nakni human-being male (Qab =3D man) remna fetsi human-being female (Qab =3D woman) sonci tolvri soldier coward (Que) panzi nanmu offspring man (Ewe =3D son) panzi ninmu offspring woman (Ewe =3D daughter) solji sicni gold coin (Tur) @@ -2413,66 +2583,78 @@ pacru'i =3D evil-spirit tolvri =3D opposite-of-brave The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either = of the tanru components. The connective=20 jais appropriate: nunji'a nunterji'a victory defeat (Skt =3D victory or defe= at) donri nicte day night (Skt =3D day and night) lunra tarci moon stars (Skt =3D moon and stars) patfu mamta father mother (Imb,Kaz,Chi =3D parents) + +father mother tuple birka leg arm (Kaz =3D extremity) nuncti nunpinxe eating drinking (Udm =3D cuisine) bersa tixnu son daughter (Chi =3D children) =20 nunji'a =3D event-of-winning nunterji'a =3D event-of-losing nuncti =3D event-of-eating nunpinxe =3D event-of-drinking Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified= by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of thing= s which the components typify: curnu jalra worm beetle (Mon =3D insect) + +beetle jalra curnu beetle worm (Mon =3D insect) + +beetle kabri palta cup plate (Kaz =3D crockery) jipci gunse hen goose (Qab =3D housefowl) xrula tricu flower tree (Chi =3D vegetation) The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the ref= erent of the tanru as a whole: tumla vacri land air (Fin =3D world) moklu stedu mouth head (Aba =3D face) sudysrasu cunmi hay millet (Qab =3D agriculture) gugde ciste state system (Mon =3D politics) prenu so'imei people multitude (Mon =3D masses) djacu dertu water earth (Chi =3D climate) =20 sudysrasu =3D dry-grass so'imei =3D manysome + +manysome
16.=20 <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement = of=20 <quote>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</quote>using=20 <quote>bo</quote>or=20 <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>for grouping and=20 <quote>je</quote>or=20 <quote>jebo</quote>for logical connection. Most of these are definitel= y not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para> +<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 --> +<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm> <para>Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Exampl= es 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. The seven examples fol= lowing each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the pre= sence or absence of=20 <quote>je</quote>at each possible site. Some of the examples have more= than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechan= ism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> <para>The logical connective=20 <quote>je</quote>is associative: that is,=20 <quote>A and (B and C)</quote>is the same as=20 <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16= .40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connect= ed and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted = in the examples themselves. However, if=20 +<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 --> +<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm> <quote>je</quote>were replaced by=20 <quote>naja</quote>or=20 <quote>jo</quote>or most of the other logical connectives, the meaning= s would become distinct.</para> <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent onl= y one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-1Pzb"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example2" /> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 6a7a245..9fc4547 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1,39 +1,45 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6"> <title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti
1. The five kinds of simple sumti + +simple sumti If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti i= s by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of = simple Lojban sentences like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to the market In=20 ,=20 miand=20 le zarciare the sumti. It is easy to see that these two= sumti are not of the same kind:=20 miis a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) ref= erring to the speaker, whereas=20 le zarciis a description which refers to something desc= ribed as being a market. There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban: + +simple sumti 1) descriptions like=20 le zarci, which usually begin with a descriptor (= called a=20 gadriin Lojban) such as=20 + +gadri le; 2) pro-sumti, such as=20 mi; @@ -150,20 +156,22 @@ le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market the market The long gloss for=20 leis of course far too long to use most of the time, an= d in fact=20 + +too long leis quite close in meaning to English=20 the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 thedoes not have. The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti whic= h might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. T= hus=20 le zarciconveys something which might be found in the x= 1 place of=20 zarci, namely a market. The specific purpose of=20 leis twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has = one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows whi= ch ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely des= cribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committe= d to the truth of that description. @@ -188,26 +196,32 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example3" /> le nanmu cu ninmu One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as=20 menare women. The man is a woman. The men are women. + +The men are women is not self-contrad= ictory in Lojban, because=20 le nanmumerely means something or other which, for my p= resent purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is= a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man a= t a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.=20 + +observation is what I would say= to point out my observation to you. + +observation In all descriptions with=20 le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 would then be perfe= ctly intelligible, since=20 le nanmumerely clarifies that I am pointing at the supp= osed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same d= irection. The second descriptor dealt with in this section is=20 lo. Unlike=20 le,=20 lois nonspecific: @@ -232,20 +246,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example5" /> lo nanmu cu ninmu Some man is a woman. Some men are women. must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 + +real world true, because those= specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In ge= neral,=20 lorefers to whatever individuals meet its description.<= /para> The last descriptor of this section is=20 la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 ledescriptions,=20 ladescriptions are implicitly restricted to those I hav= e in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 lawith its use before regular Lojbanized names, which i= s discussed in=20 .) For example: @@ -255,20 +271,22 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo> <gloss>The-one-named=20 <quote>bear</quote>[past] creates the story.</gloss> <en>Bear wrote the story.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />,=20 <quote>la cribe</quote>refers to someone whose naming predicate is=20 +<!-- ^^ naming predicate, 121 --> +<indexterm><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> <quote>cribe</quote>, i.e.=20 <quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 <quote>Frank</quote>coincides with the English word=20 <quote>frank</quote>, meaning=20 <quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating=20 <quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote>into Lojban would be:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-yyBX"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example7" /> @@ -309,20 +327,22 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />is about a specific= bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsica= lly or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />is about one or mor= e of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though= , each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more t= han one bear (or=20 <quote>bear</quote>) is meant.</para> <para>(The notion of a=20 <quote>really existing, objectively defined bear</quote>raises certain= difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 <quote>real bear</quote>? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 <quote>yes</quote>. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 +<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 --> +<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm> <quote>le</quote>may communicate better than=20 <quote>lo</quote>.)</para> <para>So while=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />could easily be tru= e (there is a real writer named=20 <quote>Greg Bear</quote>), and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />could be true if th= e speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,= =20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />is certainly false.= </para> <para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />respectively:</para= > @@ -385,44 +405,52 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section1" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2" />refer to individuals, whethe= r one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-mwhq"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example1" /> le prenu cu bevri le pipno One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= + +carry the piano The person(s) carry the piano. + +carry the piano (Of course the second=20 leshould really get the same translation as the first, = but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 le, the one preceding=20 prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) Suppose the context of=20 is such that you ca= n determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am= claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can = be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in = a variety of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must = be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 car= ried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example2" /> lei prenu cu bevri le pipno The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry t= he piano. + +carry the piano Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but = as a so-called=20 mass entity, or just=20 mass. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 + +piano-moving leisignals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appli= cable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiariti= es may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the comp= onent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that= a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of t= he parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. The descriptors=20 loiand=20 laiare analogous to=20 loand=20 larespectively, but refer to masses either by property = (=20 loi) or by name (=20 lai). A classic example of=20 loiuse is: @@ -455,56 +483,70 @@ cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons<= /gloss> dwell in-the African-land. The English dwell in Africa. since there is at least one English person living there.=20 explains another method of s= aying what is usually meant by=20 The lion lives in Africawhich does imply that living in= Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by E= nglish plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when = the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes = by singulars with no article: + +articles + +article <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example5" /> loi matne cu ranti + +matne Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. Butter is soft. Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen but= ter), so the=20 part-ofimplication of=20 loibecomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism= works is that the English words like=20 butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 matneis=20 + +matne x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butteris translated as something like=20 a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) The mass name descriptor=20 + +name descriptor + +mass name laiis used in circumstances where we wish to talk about= a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It i= s not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mas= s version of=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example6" /> lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear[past] creates the nearby book. The Bears wrote this book. in a context where=20 la cribewould be understood as plural, would mean that = either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the= book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using= =20 + +plural lainstead of=20 laiin=20 would give the impl= ication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.=
4. Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section: le'i @@ -517,20 +559,26 @@ the set of those which really are la'i LA the set of those named Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are = easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a = set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the= properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the indi= viduals that compose it. Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the = set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set= inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which - the superset = =E2=80=93 contains all the elements of the other - the subset). The set des= criptors=20 + +membership + +inclusion + +cardinality le'i,=20 lo'iand=20 la'icorrespond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 laiexcept that normally we talk of the whole of a set, = not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 loi, and=20 lo'i: @@ -539,67 +587,77 @@ lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. Some rats are brown. + +rats are brown loi ratcu cu cmalu Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.<= /gloss> Rats are small. lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. There are a lot of rats. The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge - it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some= of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats b= rown - brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess. + +set of rats Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing th= e set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set= sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of=20 fadniis: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members= of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadnito be a set? Because it makes no sense for an indi= vidual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a g= roup. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadniis about an entire group, its x3 place must be fil= led with a set: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section4-example4" /> mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. + +typical Lojban user Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 lo'iwere changed to=20 loin=20 , the meaning would= be something like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.
5. Descriptors for typical objects + +typical objects The following cmavo are discussed in this section: lo'e LE the typical le'e LE the stereotypical + +stereotypical As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for di= scriminating between=20 the lionwho lives in Africa and=20 the Englishmanwho, generally speaking, doesn't live in = Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 lo'emeans=20 the typical, as in @@ -634,76 +692,92 @@ <quote>le'e</quote>and=20 <quote>le'i</quote>:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-D88V"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example3" /> le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. + +stereotypical Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. + +Greek-Americans own restaurants Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans= , but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by o= ne (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypicalis often derogatory in English, but=20 + +stereotypical le'eneed not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggest= s that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in s= ome objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree= about what the features of=20 the typical lionare (some would include having a short = intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the = distinction between=20 lo'e cinfoand=20 le'e cinfomay be very fine. Furthermore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example4" /> le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. + +stereotypical + +Hollywood is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 lo'eand=20 le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 typical Georgeor a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. + +typical Smith
6. Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ro PA all of/each of su'o PA at least (one of) Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 + +mathematical expressions . For the purposes of this chapter, = a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the si= mple Lojban numbers=20 pa,=20 re,=20 ci,=20 vo, and=20 mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 fiverespectively, or else one of four special quantifie= rs, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four= quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two= of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the particu= lar kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later = in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 piroand=20 pisu'o, are explained in=20 + +pisu'o .) Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example2" /> @@ -727,41 +801,51 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example3" /> mi ponse su'o ci cutci I possess at-least three shoes. is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger nu= mber. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematica= l expressions in=20 + +vague numbers + +mathematical expressions .) Now consider=20 again. How many of = the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: a= ll of them, however many that is. So=20 and=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example4" /> ro do cadzu le bisli All-of you walk-on the ice. turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy= , because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice,= I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And = in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as=20 + +personal pro-sumti miand=20 mi'oand=20 koobey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti ha= ve a so-called=20 + +personal pro-sumti implicit quantifierof=20 ro(all). This just means that if no quantifier is given= explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been= used. + +no quantifier Not all sumti have=20 roas the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quo= tation in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example5" /> mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. @@ -871,20 +955,22 @@ le ci gerku cu blabi The three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white. There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what t= he implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant = to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily = to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit va= lues: + +lists le: ro le su'o lo: @@ -894,32 +980,38 @@ la: ro la su'o lei: pisu'o lei su'o + +pisu'o loi: pisu'o loi ro + +pisu'o lai: pisu'o lai su'o + +pisu'o le'i: piro le'i su'o lo'i: @@ -948,44 +1040,58 @@ When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully ar= bitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, t= he la-series (that is, the descriptors=20 la,=20 lai, and=20 la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors=20 le,=20 lei,=20 le'i, and=20 le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, s= o we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this dis= cussion:=20 le-series cmavowill refer to both the le-series proper = and to the la-series. + +le-series cmavo The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series = cmavo (namely,=20 + +lo-series cmavo lo,=20 loi,=20 lo'i, and=20 lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in= ner quantifier of=20 + +le-series cmavo su'o. Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the th= ings which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restric= ted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are = so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite= , of objects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one. Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of gr= eater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suff= ices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part o= f the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. = Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk = about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets wi= th the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for e= ither a set description or a mass description is=20 piro, the whole of it. (Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules c= omposing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of= water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about=20 re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I have in mi= nd.) Why=20 pi-? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just= as=20 + +decimal point pimumeans=20 .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion c= onsisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 piromeans a portion consisting of the all-ness =E2=80= =93 the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,=20 pisu'ospecifies a portion consisting of at least one pa= rt of a thing, i.e. some of it. + +pisu'o Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets.= Thus=20 + +subsets pimu le'i nanmuis a subset of the set of men I have in = mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it mu= st have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say=20 half of the men; saying=20 pimu le nanmuwould give us a half-portion of one of the= m instead! Of course, the result of=20 pimu le'i nanmuis still a set; if you need to refer to = the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 lu'ain=20 + +lu'a ). The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (includ= ing=20 le,=20 lo,=20 la, and the typical descriptors=20 le'eand=20 lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 rois appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it= is appropriate for=20 do. Reference to non-specific individuals with=20 @@ -1029,20 +1135,22 @@ rosays that each of the dogs in the restricted group is= white; in the case of=20 lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptio= ns is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exis= t which really fit the description. So examples like <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example6" /> [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi + +so'o [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white are semantically anomalous;=20 claims that some do= g (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the univer= se! Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 lodescriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasiona= lly be useful. Note that the inner quantifier of=20 le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 le ci nanmumeans=20 @@ -1062,87 +1170,109 @@ ci gerku [ku] cu blabi Three dogs are white. is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the d= escriptor is not present, the elidable terminator=20 kumay still be used. The name=20 indefinite descriptionfor this syntactic form is histor= ically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its coun= terpart with an explicit=20 + + + +sumti-based description A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would nor= mally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An = outer quantifier is permitted but not required. + +sumti-based description A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example2" /> re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men. le re do cu nanmu The two-of you are men. simply specifies th= at of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.=20 , which has the sum= ti-based description=20 + +sumti-based description le re do, says that of the two listeners, all (the impl= icit outer quantifier=20 ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 regives the number of individuals which the inner sumti= =20 + +inner sumti dorefers to. Here is another group of examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example5" /> re le ci cribe cu bunre Two-of the three bears are-brown. + +three bears le re le ci cribe cu bunre The two-of the three bears are-brown. + +three bears pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown. + +three bears In each case,=20 le ci criberestricts the bears (or alleged bears) being= talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.=20 says that two of th= em (which two is not stated) are brown.=20 says that a specifi= c pair of them are brown.=20 says that of a spec= ific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is = brown.
10. sumti qualifiers @@ -1158,66 +1288,92 @@ LAhE a reference to tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving lu'a + +lu'a LAhE an individual/member/component of lu'i + +lu'i LAhE a set formed from lu'o + +lu'o LAhE a mass formed from vu'i + +vu'i LAhE a sequence formed from lu'u + +lu'u LUhU elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO + +NAhE+BO Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the=20 sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 + +negation cmavo boof selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti = qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to a= dd the elidable terminator=20 + +simple sumti lu'uto show where the qualified sumti ends.) + +lu'u Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain = common special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 + +Red Pony The Red Ponyis the title of a book. How about: + +Red Pony <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example1" /> mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. But=20 doesn't work: it s= ays that you see a piece of text=20 The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 + +Red Pony The Red Ponyare presumably written. (More precisely, wh= ere the words=20 + +Red Pony le xunre cmaxirmaare written =E2=80=93 but we may suppo= se the book has been translated into Lojban.) What you really want to say is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example2" /> mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [un= quote]. @@ -1230,25 +1386,31 @@ sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 allows us to use a= symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol = of (namely the book itself). This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's use= ful to be able to say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example3" /> mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] + +lu'u + +la'e lu I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. So when=20 la'eis prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it pr= oduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargo= n,=20 + +jargon la'edereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too close= ly resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having = to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most = of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. The sumti qualifier=20 lu'eprovides the converse operation: it can be prefixed= to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign = or symbol for the thing. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example4" /> @@ -1269,23 +1431,31 @@ <jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo> <en>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>which is equivalent to=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example4" />, but longer.</par= a> <para>The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 <quote>tu'a</quote>is used in forming abstractions, and is explained m= ore fully in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11" />. The triplet=20 <quote>lu'a</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 --> +<indexterm><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>lu'i</quote>, and=20 +<!-- ^^ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 --> +<indexterm><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm> <quote>lu'o</quote>convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 +<!-- ^^ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 --> +<indexterm><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm> <quote>vu'i</quote>belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequen= ce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John an= d Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are= different.) Here are some examples:</para> +<!-- ^^ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence,= 134 --> +<indexterm><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-ioCu"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example6" /> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. I try (to open) the door. @@ -1300,95 +1470,125 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example9" /> lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu + +lu'a The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small. + +set of rats lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda + +lu'i Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-= large. Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large. + +set of rats mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma + +lu'o .i vu'i ri porsi + +vu'i I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE a= nd=20 boare all concerned with negation, which is discussed i= n detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negatio= n sumti qualifiers: + +negation sumti qualifiers <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example10" /> mi viska na'ebo le gerku + +na'ebo I see something-other-than the dog. This compound,=20 na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation sumti q= ualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, = with modifications, something already referred to: + +negation sumti qualifiers + +na'ebo <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example11" /> mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned. I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewa= rm food. + +lukewarm food (In=20 , the sumti=20 rarefers to some previously mentioned sumti other than = that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 rihere, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sumti available t= o=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 .)
11. The syntax of vocative phrases Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapte= r because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a v= ocative phrase is one of the so-called=20 + +vocative phrase free modifiersof Lojban, along with subscripts, parenth= eses, and various other constructs explained in=20 + +free modifiers . They can be placed after many, but= not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable term= inator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and en= ds of sentences, and in many other places. The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being add= ressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening.= A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which = are explained in more detail in=20 + +vocative phrase . Sometimes that is all there is to = the phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example2" /> coi [greetings] Hello. je'e + +je'e [acknowledgement] Uh-huh. Roger! In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the c= ontext. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI,= possibly followed by=20 doi, or else just=20 doiby itself) can be followed by one of several kinds o= f phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most co= mmon case is a name: @@ -1470,25 +1670,33 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example9" /> doi la djan. The-one-named John! Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 do'u(of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except wh= en a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may = also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative= clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 + +do'u free modifiers(vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinal= s - see=20 + +ordinals + +free modifiers - metalinguistic comments - see=20 - or reciprocals - see=20 ) which must be properly separated.<= /para> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is no= t affected by its position in the sentence: thus=20 + +vocative phrase and=20 mean the same thi= ng: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example11" /> @@ -1514,20 +1722,22 @@ djan. meris. djein. .alis. John. Mary. Jane. Alice. (Note that=20 .alis.begins as well as ends with a pause, because all = Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See=20 for more information.) Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a= vocative phrase (see=20 + +vocative phrase ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example3" /> @@ -1547,21 +1757,25 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />, the Joneses are = massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 <quote>djonz.</quote>I can mean whomever I want: that person need not = use the name=20 <quote>djonz.</quote>at all.</para> <para>The sumti in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example2" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />operate exactly li= ke the similar uses of=20 <quote>la</quote>and=20 <quote>lai</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />respectively. The o= nly difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words.= And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these = three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can= be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.</para> +<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138;= permissible consonant combinations, 138 --> +<indexterm><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm> <para>There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojba= n. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequen= ces)=20 +<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138;= permissible consonant combinations, 138 --> +<indexterm><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm> <quote>la</quote>,=20 <quote>lai</quote>, or=20 <quote>doi</quote>unless a consonant immediately precedes within the n= ame. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 <quote>la</quote>,=20 <quote>lai</quote>,=20 <quote>la'i</quote>, or=20 <quote>doi</quote>must be preceded by a pause instead:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-VIsx"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4" /> @@ -1585,116 +1799,156 @@ <para>Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that=20 <quote>zo</quote>is always followed by a single word, which is quoted)= , multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its t= erminating pause:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-cw3p"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example6" /> doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. + +Newport News + +John Paul Jones A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal= in Lojban words generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clustersof Lojban morphology (e= xplained in=20 + + +doubled consonants +consonant clusters ). Thus=20 djeimz.is not a valid version of=20 James(because=20 mzis invalid):=20 djeimyzwill suffice. Similarly,=20 lamay be replaced by=20 ly,=20 laiby=20 ly'i,=20 doiby=20 do'ior=20 dai. Here are a few examples: + +dai Doyle + +Doyle *doi,l do'il or dai,l + +dai Lyra + +Lyra *lairas ly'iras Lottie + +Lottie *latis LYtis. or lotis. Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitraril= y. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end wit= h a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj-for=20 logji(logical) and=20 ban-for=20 bangu(language) unite to form the name of this language= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example7" /> lojban. Lojban When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel,= or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, = the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but= not required) to use the consonants=20 + +borrowing sor=20 nwhen borrowing vowel-final names from English; speaker= s of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. + +borrowing The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 lafollowed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 lafollowed by a selbri.
13. Pro-sumti summary The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall in= to several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-= counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. Mo= re details are given in=20 ; this section mostly duplicates info= rmation found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each p= ro-sumti. The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless ot= herwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro(all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other = sumti, the=20 rosignifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. Personal pro-sumti (=20 mi,=20 do,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 + +mi'a ma'a,=20 + +ma'a do'o,=20 + +do'o ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example1" /> mi prami do I love you. The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either r= epresenting individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 + +personal pro-sumti pisu'orather than=20 + +pisu'o ro: in particular,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 + +mi'a ma'a, and=20 + +ma'a do'ospecifically represent mass combinations of the ind= ividuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) th= at make them up. + +do'o Definable pro-sumti (=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e,=20 ko'i,=20 ko'o,=20 ko'u,=20 fo'a,=20 + +fo'a fo'e,=20 fo'i,=20 fo'o,=20 fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 goi(of selma'o GOI), which means=20 defined-as. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example2" /> @@ -1714,20 +1968,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example3" /> ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. All persons love a fish (each his/her own). (This is not the same as=20 All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 + +quantificational pro-sumti . Roughly speaking, the quantifier i= s=20 su'o(at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, an= d=20 ro(all) thereafter. Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 vo'a,=20 vo'e,=20 vo'i,=20 vo'o,=20 vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: @@ -1752,32 +2008,36 @@ mi klama la frankfurt. ri I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route). Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 zo'e,=20 zu'i,=20 + +zu'i zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example6" /> mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-un= specified. The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indef= inite. It might be=20 + +indefinite pro-sumti ro(all) or=20 su'o(at least one) or conceivably even=20 no(none), though=20 nowould require a very odd context indeed. Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 ti,=20 ta,=20 tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: @@ -1788,77 +2048,109 @@ <jbo>ko muvgau</jbo> <gloss>ti ta tu</gloss> <gloss>You [imperative] move</gloss> <gloss>this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-plac= e.</gloss> <en>Move this from there to over there!</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 <quote>di'u</quote>,=20 <quote>de'u</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ de'u, 148 --> +<indexterm><primary>de'u</primary></indexterm> <quote>da'u</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ da'u, 148 --> +<indexterm><primary>da'u</primary></indexterm> <quote>di'e</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 --> +<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>de'e</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 --> +<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>da'e</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 --> +<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>dei</quote>,=20 <quote>do'i</quote>) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-8VYF"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example8" /> li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true. The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 + +metalinguistic pro-sumti su'o(at least one), because they are considered analogo= us to=20 lodescriptions: they refer to things which really are p= revious, current, or following utterances. The relative pro-sumti (=20 + +relative pro-sumti ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 for a discussion of relative clauses)= to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example9" /> mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. I see the cat(s) made of plastic. The question pro-sumti (=20 + +question pro-sumti ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example10" /> do klama ma You go to-what-sumti? Where are you going? The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 + +question pro-sumti su'o(at least one), because the listener is only being = asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related= selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti. + +definable pro-sumti
14. Quotation summary There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, wor= ds quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information= is provided in=20 + +word quotation + + +word quotation +single-word quotation + +word quotation + +non-Lojban quotation . Text quotations are preceded by=20 luand followed by=20 li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example1" /> @@ -1878,20 +2170,22 @@ mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u I say the-words [quote]=20 li mi[unquote]. I say=20 li mi. Note that the translation of=20 does not translate= the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fa= ct, they are ungrammatical). Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmav= o are not allowed. + +word quotation <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example3" /> mi cusku zo .ai I say the-word=20 .ai. @@ -1966,16 +2260,18 @@ me'o re su'i re the-expression two plus two 2+2 refer to different pieces of text. The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions= is=20 + +mathematical expressions su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 lodescriptions: they refer to things which actually are= numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears.
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index f72bf01..815df9e 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,32 +1,36 @@ Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-brid= i
1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require me= chanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to= express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what = we have to say. In English, we have words called=20 pronounswhich allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases= with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like = this: + +nouns <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example1" /> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talk= ing. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independe= nt of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: + +pronouns in English <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example2" /> John picked up a stick and shook it. and @@ -36,25 +40,29 @@ John picked up a stick and shook a stick. does not imply that= the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas=20 requires that they = are. In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of= pronouns are called by the hybrid term=20 + +nouns pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be=20 sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging t= o selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belon= ging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be cal= led=20 pro-bridior=20 bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of all the = members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known = as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the k= o'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumt= i is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is = explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analog= ues, however. A few technical terms: The term=20 + +technical terms referentmeans the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extens= ion, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the r= eferent of the word=20 Iis James. On the other hand, the term=20 antecedentrefers to a piece of language which a pro-sum= ti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example4" /> John loves himself @@ -67,29 +75,37 @@
2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mi KOhA mi-series I, me=20 do KOhA mi-series you mi'o KOhA mi-series you and I mi'a KOhA mi-series I and others, we but not you + +mi'a ma'a KOhA mi-series you and I and others + +ma'a do'o KOhA mi-series you and others + +do'o ko KOhA mi-series you-imperative The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, a= nd others in various combinations.=20 mirefers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the= speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 dorefers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 minor=20 dois specific about the number of persons referred to; = for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 + +foreman of a jury mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. The referents of=20 miand=20 doare usually obvious from the context, but may be assi= gned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 . The vocative=20 mi'eassigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 do. @@ -99,51 +115,69 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo> <gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u</gloss> <en>I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 <quote>I run</quote>.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>mi'o</quote>,=20 <quote>mi'a</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>ma'a</quote>, and=20 +<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>do'o</quote>express various combinations of the speaker and/or = the listener and/or other people:</para> +<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para> <quote>mi'o</quote>includes only the speaker and the listener but = no one else;</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para> <quote>mi'a</quote>includes the speaker and others but excludes th= e listener;</para> +<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm> </listitem> <listitem> <para> <quote>do'o</quote>includes the listener and others but excludes t= he speaker;</para> +<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm> </listitem> <listitem> <para> <quote>ma'a</quote>includes all three: speaker, listener, others.<= /para> +<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm> </listitem> </itemizedlist> <para>All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,=20 <quote>mi'o</quote>is the same as=20 <quote>mi joi do</quote>, the mass of me and you considered jointly.</= para> <para>In English,=20 <quote>we</quote>can mean=20 <quote>mi</quote>or=20 <quote>mi'o</quote>or=20 <quote>mi'a</quote>or even=20 +<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>ma'a</quote>, and English-speakers often suffer because they ca= nnot easily distinguish=20 +<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>mi'o</quote>from=20 <quote>mi'a</quote>:</para> +<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 --> +<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-22dg"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example2" /> We're going to the store. Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure= . @@ -226,48 +260,56 @@ thisrefers to something pointed at that is near the spe= aker, and=20 thatrefers to something further away. The Lojban pro-su= mti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo= =20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tuprovide only the pointing function of=20 thisand=20 that; they are not used to refer to things that cannot = be pointed at. There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two = because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more = than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly do= es this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun=20 thatreferred to something at a medium distance from the= speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun=20 yonto something far away. + +yon In conversation, there is a special rule about=20 taand=20 tuthat is often helpful in interpreting them. When used= contrastingly,=20 tarefers to something that is near the listener, wherea= s=20 turefers to something far from both speaker and listene= r. This makes for a parallelism between=20 tiand=20 mi, and=20 taand=20 do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; f= or example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, = the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken= as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as= =20 nearand=20 far awayis relative to the current situation. It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun=20 thisand the English adjective=20 thisas in=20 this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 + +this boat ti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example1" /> le ti bloti the this boat + +this boat does not mean=20 this boatbut rather=20 + +this boat this one's boat,=20 the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 . A correct Lojban translation of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example2" /> @@ -279,36 +321,48 @@ using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 blotito express that the boat is near the speaker. (Ten= ses are explained in full in=20 .) Another correct translation would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example3" /> ti noi bloti + +ti noi this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-ser= ies: you can't point to a relationship.
4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance=20 de'u KOhA di'u-series an earlier utterance + +de'u da'u KOhA di'u-series a much earlier utterance + +da'u di'e KOhA di'u-series the next utterance + +di'e de'e KOhA di'u-series a later utterance + +de'e da'e KOhA di'u-series a much later utterance + +da'e dei KOhA di'u-series this very utterance do'i KOhA di'u-series some utterance The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that= have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use=20 thisand=20 thatfor this (indeed, the immediately preceding=20 thisis an example of such a usage): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d1" /> @@ -342,37 +396,49 @@ <quote>tu</quote>, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a clos= e utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either i= n the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the=20 <quote>i</quote>/=20 <quote>a</quote>/=20 <quote>u</quote>vowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section3" />without causing collisions w= ith other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 <quote>i</quote>/=20 <quote>e</quote>/=20 <quote>a</quote>convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.</para> <para>Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been= said), so=20 <quote>di'e</quote>,=20 +<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 --> +<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>de'e</quote>, and=20 +<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 --> +<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>da'e</quote>are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they= are frequently handy:</para> +<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 --> +<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-erEL"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example3" /> la saimn. cusku di'e + +di'e Simon expresses the-following-utterance. Simon says: + +Simon says would typically be = followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of = something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would = appear after=20 , and so=20 di'eis appropriate. + +di'e The remaining two cmavo,=20 deiand=20 do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example5" /> @@ -404,60 +470,76 @@ mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= I love Jane, and I like that. The effect of=20 la'e di'uin=20 is that the speaker= likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred= to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound i= s often written as a single word:=20 la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up=20 + +la'edi'u di'uand=20 la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result: + +la'edi'u <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example7" /> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.
5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the = broda-series The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: + +cmavo and gismu ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1=20 ko'e KOhA ko'a-series it-2 ko'i KOhA ko'a-series it-3 ko'o KOhA ko'a-series it-4 ko'u KOhA ko'a-series it-5 fo'a KOhA ko'a-series it-6 + +fo'a fo'e KOhA ko'a-series it-7 fo'i KOhA ko'a-series it-8 fo'o KOhA ko'a-series it-9 fo'u KOhA ko'a-series it-10 broda BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-1 brode BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-2 brodi BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-3 brodo BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-4 brodu BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-5 goi GOI pro-sumti assignment + +pro-sumti assignment cei CEI pro-bridi assignment + +personal pro-sumti may have seemed incomplete. = In English, the personal pronouns include not only=20 + +personal pronouns Iand=20 youbut also=20 he,=20 she,=20 it, and=20 they. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group= : in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organiz= ed and used very differently. There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned= freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word=20 hecan refer only to males,=20 sheonly to females (and ships and a few other things),= =20 itonly to inanimate things, and=20 @@ -467,20 +549,22 @@ la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. The English gloss=20 it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 + +real world ko'arefers to the store; in other words, that its antec= edent is=20 le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 la .alis.is just as likely an antecedent, in which case= =20 means that Alice, n= ot the store, is blue. To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the = cmavo=20 goi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example2" /> @@ -523,80 +607,106 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example4" /> la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. Again,=20 ko'a goi la .alis.would have been entirely acceptable i= n=20 . This last form is= reminiscent of legal jargon:=20 + +legal jargon + +jargon The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, .... + +hereafter known as Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a s= umti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not wan= t to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a sel= bri or even a whole bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example5" /> ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda + +thingy The pro-bridi=20 brodahas as its antecedent the selbri=20 slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The cmavo=20 ceiperforms the role of=20 + +negation cmavo Another use of=20 brodaand its relatives, without assignment, is as=20 sample gismu: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example7" /> broda ke brode brodi a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3) represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) As is explained in=20 , the words for Lojban letters, belo= nging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assigna= ble pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series= pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are t= aken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with t= he same letter: + +Lojban letters + + + +ti-series pro-sumti +ri-series pro-sumti + +lerfu as pro-sumti +ko'a-series pro-sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example8" /> mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf. I see the dog. D expresses the-word=20 Arf!. @@ -630,37 +740,59 @@ 6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'= i-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti)=20 ra KOhA ri-series (repeats previous sumti) ru KOhA ri-series (repeats long-ago sumti) =20 go'i GOhA go'i-series (repeats last bridi) go'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats previous bridi) + +go'a go'u GOhA go'i-series (repeats long-ago bridi) + +go'u go'e GOhA go'i-series (repeats last-but-one bridi) + +go'e go'o GOhA go'i-series (repeats future bridi) + +go'o nei GOhA go'i-series (repeats current bridi) + +nei no'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats outer bridi) + +no'a =20 ra'o RAhO pro-cmavo update The term=20 anaphoraliterally means=20 + +anaphora repetition, but is used in linguistics to refer to pron= ouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their an= tecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,=20 + +anaphora ri,=20 ra, and=20 ru; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,=20 + +anaphora go'i,=20 go'a, and=20 + +go'a go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the = ti-series, but the=20 + +go'u distancesreferred to are not physical distances, but di= stances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent. The cmavo=20 riis the simplest of these; it has the same referent as= the last complete sumti appearing before the=20 ri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example1" /> @@ -807,21 +939,25 @@ allows the store to be referred to henceforth as=20 ko'awithout ambiguity.=20 is equivalent to=20 and eliminates any = possibility of=20 ko'abeing interpreted by the listener as referring to A= lice. The cmavo=20 go'i,=20 go'a, and=20 + +go'a go'ufollow exactly the same rules as=20 + +go'u ri,=20 ra, and=20 ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti - specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are = embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are = not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-seri= es copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 go'iby itself convenient for answering a question affir= matively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example9" /> @@ -833,34 +969,42 @@ <en>Is John your name? Yes.</en> <jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do go'i</jbo> <gloss>I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].</gloss> <en>I go to the store. You, too.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note that=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example9" />means the same as= =20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example6" />, but without the b= other of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long= -term reference, use=20 <quote>go'i cei broda</quote>or the like, analogously to=20 +<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -= -> +<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> <quote>ri goi ko'a</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example7" />.</para> <para>The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for con= venience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo=20 <quote>go'e</quote>means the same as=20 +<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 --> +<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>go'ixire</quote>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is us= eful in conversation:</para> +<!-- ^^ go'ixire, 154 --> +<indexterm><primary>go'ixire</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-9hf5"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example10" /> A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'e + +go'e A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one]. A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too. Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n Chapter 11):=20 le si'o mi go'imeans=20 @@ -884,84 +1028,108 @@ I like the idea of your going to the store. The repetition signalled by=20 go'iis not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally= , A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 do, meaning B. Note that in=20 , the tense=20 ba(future time) is carried along by both=20 go'iand=20 go'e. + +go'e Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example12" /> le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli The black cat goes-to the store. + +black cat That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks= -on the ice. The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. + +black cat Here the=20 go'irepeats=20 le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since=20 lemakes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pla= ce of this bridi is=20 le xekri mlatu,=20 le go'imeans=20 le xekri mlatu. The cmavo=20 go'o,=20 + +go'o nei, and=20 + +nei no'ahave been little used so far. They repeat respectiv= ely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the c= urrent bridi (=20 + +no'a no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: + +no'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example13" /> mi nupre le nu mi go'o + +go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] give the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter. (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 myin the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it= is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make t= he fact explicit, use=20 le bersa/tixnu be mi.) For good examples of=20 neiand=20 + +nei no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: + +no'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example15" /> mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte + +nei I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your actin= g). I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted. mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a + +no'a I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] I will go when you do. Finally,=20 ra'ois a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series = cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro= -bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpret= ed in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent= of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16" /> @@ -984,90 +1152,146 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>or:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-qW1B"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example18" /> mi go'i ra'o + +go'i ra'o I will wash my car. The=20 ra'oforces the second=20 mifrom the original bridi to mean the new speaker rathe= r than the former speaker. This means that=20 go'e ra'owould be an acceptable alternative to=20 + +go'e do go'ein B's statement in=20 + +go'e . The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotation= s, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, sin= ce speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.= + +anaphoric pro-sumti However, a=20 ri-series or=20 go'a-series reference within a quotation can refer to s= omething mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closel= y related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by n= arrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's = an example: + +go'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example19" /> la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. John says,=20 I am going to the store. Alice says,=20 Me too. Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring= to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are q= uoted, are aware of what they are doing.
7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the = co'e-series + +zo'e-series + +co'e The following cmavo are discussed in this section: zo'e KOhA zo'e-series the obvious value + +zo'e-series zu'i KOhA zo'e-series the typical value + +zu'i + +zo'e-series + +typical value zi'o KOhA zo'e-series the nonexistent value + +zo'e-series =20 co'e GOhA co'e-series has the obvious relationship + +co'e The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified s= umti. The cmavo=20 + +zo'e-series + +unspecified sumti zo'erepresents an elliptical value for this sumti place= ; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without be= ing specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical val= ue. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as= =20 + +typical value + +typical value +elliptical value + +elliptical sumti + +ellipsis whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, = or figure out how to express. The cmavo=20 zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value f= or this place of this bridi: + +zu'i + +typical value <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example1" /> mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i + +zu'i I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the hou= se [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means] In=20 , the first=20 zu'iprobably means something like=20 + +zu'i by the door, and the second=20 zu'iprobably means something like=20 + +zu'i on foot, those being the typical route and means for le= aving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise duri= ng a fire, neither=20 zu'iis appropriate. It's also common to use=20 + +zu'i zu'iin=20 + +zu'i by standardplaces. Finally, the cmavo=20 zi'orepresents a value which does not even exist. When = a bridi fills one of its places with=20 zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a pla= ce which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to expre= ss. For example, the place structure of=20 + +irrelevant zbasuis zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 Consider the sentence Living things are made from cells. This cannot be correctly expressed as: @@ -1078,20 +1302,22 @@ loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass= -of cells because the=20 zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 indicates that ther= e is still a=20 makerin this relationship. We do not generally suppose,= however, that someone=20 makesliving things from cells. The best answer is proba= bly to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a=20 + +living things maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use=20 zi'oto eliminate the maker place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example3" /> loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mas= s-of cells. @@ -1126,104 +1352,140 @@ If=20 is true, then=20 through=20 must be true also. = However,=20 does not correspond= to any sentence with three regular (non-=20 zi'o) sumti. The pro-bridi=20 co'e(which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of sel= ma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow = the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti= may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use o= f=20 + +co'e co'eas a selbri place-holder: + +co'e <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example8" /> mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme + +co'e I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. I try the door. + +try the door The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. The form of=20 co'ewas chosen to resemble=20 + +co'e zo'e; the cmavo=20 do'eof selma'o BAI (see=20 + +do'e ) also belongs to the same group of c= mavo. Note that=20 do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. + +indefinite pro-sumti
8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series + +reciprocal pro-sumti + +reciprocal The following cmavo are discussed in this section: vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi=20 vo'e KOhA vo'a-series x2 of this bridi vo'i KOhA vo'a-series x3 of this bridi vo'o KOhA vo'a-series x4 of this bridi vo'u KOhA vo'a-series x5 of this bridi =20 soi SOI reciprocity + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity =20 se'u SEhU soi terminator The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those = of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the ot= her places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places.= The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some = examples: + +anaphora <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example2" /> mi lumci vo'a I wash myself mi klama le zarci vo'e I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]. To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like=20 le se go'i kudo the job: this refers to the 2nd place o= f the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 . The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with=20 soi(of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, w= hich in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity vice versa: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example3" /> mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 Iand=20 you). The significance of=20 soi vo'a vo'eis that the bridi is still true even if th= e x1 (specified by=20 vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 soiis understood to be one of those involved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example4" /> mi prami do soi vo'a I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi]. + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity again involves the x1 and x2 places. Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be = used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reaso= nably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi pro= per. Here are several examples that mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example5" /> @@ -1232,35 +1494,43 @@ soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from = this). The elidable terminator for=20 soiis=20 se'u(selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if th= ere is just one sumti after the=20 soi, and the=20 soiconstruction is not at the end of the bridi. Constru= ctions using=20 soiare free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhe= re. Here is an example where=20 + +free modifiers se'uis required: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example6" /> mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.
9. sumti and bridi questions:=20 +<!-- ^^ bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23 --> +<indexterm><primary>bridi questions</primary></indexterm> <quote>ma</quote>and=20 <quote>mo</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ma KOhA sumti question @@ -1322,20 +1592,22 @@ doi ma O [what sumti?] which uses the vocative=20 doito address someone, and simultaneously asks who the = someone is.) + +and simultaneously A further example of=20 mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example5" /> lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. @@ -1359,20 +1631,22 @@
10. Relativized pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ke'a</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ke'a KOhA relativized sumti + +relativized sumti This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 ) to indicate how the sumti being rel= ativized fits within the clause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section10-example1" /> @@ -1393,58 +1667,70 @@ mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic I see a cat that makes plastic. The anaphora cmavo=20 + +anaphora ricannot be used in place of=20 ke'ain=20 and=20 , because the rela= tivized sumti is not yet complete when the=20 + +relativized sumti ke'aappears. Note that=20 ke'ais used only with relative clauses, and not with ot= her embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative c= lauses within relative clauses,=20 ke'amay be subscripted to make the difference clear (se= e=20 ).
11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ce'u</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ce'u KOhA abstraction focus The cmavo=20 ce'uis used within abstraction bridi, particularly prop= erty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 + +abstraction bridi ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 . In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one= of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 + + +relationship abstraction +property abstraction ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section11-example1" /> le ka ce'u gleki the property-of (X being-happy) the property of being happy happiness + +happiness and <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section11-example2" /> le ka gleki ce'u @@ -1457,21 +1743,25 @@ 12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and t= he bu'a-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: da KOhA da-series something-1=20 de KOhA da-series something-2 di KOhA da-series something-3 =20 bu'a GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-1 bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2 + +bu'e bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3 + +bu'i Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, an= d are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in=20 . It is worth mentioning that the Lo= jban translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section12-example1" /> @@ -1480,43 +1770,59 @@ John picked up a stick and shook it.
13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling The following cmavo are discussed in this section: da'o + +da'o DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other w= ords, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can w= e be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The an= swer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to. Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker= or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro= -bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 goior=20 cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 + +reflexive pro-sumti ke'ais stable only within its relative clause. Anaphori= c pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on= the rules for the particular cmavo. Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and= sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are= used. + +indefinite pro-sumti + +bridi questions However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, s= o that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as=20 mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are = used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything i= s with the cmavo=20 da'oof selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purp= ose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts cont= aining it. One use of=20 + +da'o da'ois when entering a conversation, to indicate that o= ne's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already = made by other participants in the conversation. + +da'o In addition, the cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 no'iof selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indica= te shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro= -bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explana= tions of NIhO can be found in=20 .
14. The identity predicate: du + +identity predicate The following cmavo is discussed in this section: du GOhA identity The cmavo=20 duhas the place structure: @@ -1539,243 +1845,331 @@ and <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section14-example2" /> ko'a mintu le nanmu + +mintu It-1 is-the-same-as the man is this defining nature.=20 presumes that the = speaker is responding to a request for information about what=20 ko'arefers to, or that the speaker in some way feels th= e need to define=20 ko'afor later reference. A bridi with=20 duis an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically = saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. T= here may be any number of sumti associated with=20 du, and all are said to be identical. , however, predica= tes; it is used to make a claim about the identity of=20 ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously. Note:=20 duhistorically is derived from=20 dunli, but=20 + +dunli dunlihas a third place which=20 + +dunli dulacks: the standard of equality.
15. lujvo based on pro-sumti There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but = they are rarely used. (See=20 for a complete list.) The o= bvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate plac= e of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually s= tand as the first rafsi in their lujvo. Thus=20 donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 + +you-talk tavla be do, and would have the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example1" /> t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be=20 do. On the other hand, the lujvo=20 donma'o, literally=20 you-cmavo, which means=20 + +you-cmavo a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example2" /> c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place= (the meaning) are obvious from the context=20 do. An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 + +anticipated fo'aseries is to express lujvo which can't be expressed= in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are f= ormally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be: + +too long + +rafsi form + +fo'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example3" /> fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga + +fo'a x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. Finally, lujvo involving=20 zi'oare also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 . In brief, the convention is to use= the rafsi for=20 zi'oas a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for t= he number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (some= thing drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 + +beverage + +anyone se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to this is=20 zilrelselpinxe(deleting the second place of=20 se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would = move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 zilpavypinxehas the same place structure as=20 zilrelselpinxe, and=20 lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and not to a n= on-existent drinker. + +beverage The pro-bridi=20 co'e,=20 + +co'e du, and=20 bu'aalso have rafsi, which can be used just as if they = were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.
16. KOhA cmavo by series mi-series: mi I (rafsi:=20 mib) do you (rafsi:=20 don and=20 doi) mi'o you and I mi'a I and others, we but not you + +mi'a ma'a you and I and others + +ma'a do'o you and others + +do'o ko you-imperative =20 ti-series: ti this here; something nearby (rafsi:=20 tif) ta that there; something distant (rafsi:=20 taz) tu that yonder; something far distant (rafsi:=20 tuf) =20 di'u-series: di'u the previous utterance de'u an earlier utterance + +de'u da'u a much earlier utterance + +da'u di'e the next utterance + +di'e de'e a later utterance + +de'e da'e a much later utterance + +da'e dei this very utterance do'i some utterance =20 ko'a-series: ko'a it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti ko'e it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti ko'i it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti ko'o it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti ko'u it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti =20 fo'a it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:=20 + +fo'a fo'a) + +fo'a fo'e it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:=20 fo'e) fo'i it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:=20 fo'i) fo'o it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti fo'u it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti =20 ri-series: ri (repeats the last sumti) ra (repeats a previous sumti) ru (repeats a long-ago sumti) =20 zo'e-series: + +zo'e-series zo'e the obvious value zu'i the typical value + +zu'i + +typical value zi'o the nonexistent value (rafsi:=20 zil) =20 vo'a-series: vo'a x1 of this bridi vo'e x2 of this bridi vo'i x3 of this bridi vo'o x4 of this bridi vo'u x5 of this bridi =20 da-series: da something-1 (rafsi:=20 dav/ dza) de something-2 di something-3 =20 others: ke'a relativized sumti + +relativized sumti ma sumti question ce'u abstraction focus
17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series broda-series (not GOhA): broda is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi brode is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi brodi is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi brodo is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi brodu is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi =20 go'i-series: go'i (repeats the last bridi) go'a (repeats a previous bridi) + +go'a go'u (repeats a long-ago bridi) + +go'u go'e (repeats the last-but-one bridi) + +go'e go'o (repeats a future bridi) + +go'o nei (repeats the current bridi) + +nei no'a (repeats the next outer bridi) + +no'a =20 bu'a-series: bu'a some-predicate-1 (rafsi:=20 bul) bu'e some-predicate-2 + +bu'e bu'i some-predicate-3 + +bu'i =20 others: co'e has the obvious relationship (rafsi:=20 + +co'e com/ co'e) + +co'e mo bridi question du identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi:=20 dub/ du'o)
18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter goi GOI pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) + +pro-sumti assignment cei + +pro-bridi update soi SOI reciprocity + + +vo'a-series pro-sumti +reciprocity se'u SEhU soi terminator da'o + +da'o DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 8617a9e..830d902 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1,25 +1,29 @@ Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicate= d
1. What are you pointing at? The following cmavo are discussed in this section: poi NOI restrictive relative clause introducer + +restrictive relative clause ke'a GOhA relative pro-sumti + +relative pro-sumti ku'o KUhO relative clause terminator Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 tiif it is nearby, or=20 taif it is somewhat further away, or=20 @@ -32,32 +36,36 @@ ti cu barda This-one is-big. What is the referent of=20 ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nos= e? Or even (for=20 tican be plural as well as singular, and mean=20 + +plural these onesas well as=20 this one) the pores on the person's nose? To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a= =20 relative clause. Relative clauses are usually attached = to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, = as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of= selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator=20 ku'o(of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,=20 noiis a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will di= scuss the cmavo=20 poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. In between the=20 poiand the=20 ku'oappears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any o= ther bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti= =20 ke'a(of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for th= e sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: + +relativized sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example4" /> @@ -183,27 +191,35 @@ thatare used in literal translations in this chapter in= order to make them read more smoothly.
2. Incidental relative clauses The following cmavo is discussed in this section: noi NOI incidental relative clause introducer + +incidental relative clause There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relat= ive clauses introduced by=20 + +restrictive relative clauses poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 are restrictive relative cla= uses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification= . (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)<= /para> + +restrictive relative clauses + +incidental relative clause Consider the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example2" /> le gerku poi blanu cu barda @@ -214,20 +230,24 @@ The dog, which is blue, is large. In=20 , the information c= onveyed by=20 poi blanuis essential to identifying the dog in questio= n: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that ar= e blue. This is why=20 poirelative clauses are called restrictive. In=20 , on the other hand= , the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clear= ly, and the relative clause=20 noi blanujust provides additional information about it.= (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clau= se does not help identify it further.) In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental r= elative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not = restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parenthes= es, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This= distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in ton= e of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introd= uced by=20 + +tone of voice + +restrictive relative clauses thatas well as=20 whichand=20 who, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin w= ith=20 that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo=20 poiand=20 noirather than punctuation or intonation to make the di= stinction. Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3" /> @@ -248,21 +268,25 @@ xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. Do you see my car, which is white? In=20 , the speaker is pr= esumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that i= t is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since= =20 le karcecan be plural, in which case the incidental inf= ormation is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 + +plural with a restrictive = relative clause: + +restrictive relative clause <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example5" /> xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi [True?] You see my car which is-white. Do you see my car that is white? Do you see my white car? @@ -277,56 +301,74 @@ xu do viska le mi blabi karce [True?] You see my white car. Do you see my car, the white one? So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can o= ften mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,=20 + +restrictive relative clause blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in prin= ciple, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express = some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restric= tive relative clause of=20 + +restrictive relative clause can only refer to a= car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.
3. Relative phrases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pe GOI restrictive association po GOI restrictive possession po'e + +po'e GOI restrictive intrinsic possession + + +po'e +intrinsic possession po'u GOI restrictive identification ne GOI incidental association + +incidental association no'u + + +specificity steciin Lojban). Here is an example of=20 po'e, as well as another example of=20 + +po'e po: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example7" /> le birka po'e mi cu spofu + +po'e The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-with) = me is-broken. le botpi po mi cu spofu The bottle specific-to me is-broken and=20 on the one hand, an= d=20 on the other, illus= trate the contrast between two types of possession called=20 intrinsicand=20 extrinsic, or sometimes=20 inalienableand=20 + +inalienable alienable, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or= inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possess= or, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of=20 , people are usuall= y taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it = remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another pers= on, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so= intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.) + + +po'e +intrinsic possession By contrast, the bottle of=20 can be given away, = or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alien= ably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is cultura= lly dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the=20 + +extrinsic possession inalienable rightsof men, but just what those rights ar= e, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to = culture. + +inalienable Note that=20 can also be express= ed without a relative clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example8" /> le birka be mi cu spofu The arm of-body me is broken reflecting the fact that the gismu=20 birkahas an x2 place representing the body to which the= arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus = covered without using=20 + + +po'e +intrinsic possession po'eby placing the possessor into the appropriate place= of the description selbri. + +po'e Here is an example of=20 po'u: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example10" /> @@ -484,61 +548,71 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example15" /> le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu The cup associated-with my friend is small. My friend's cup is small + +friend's cup le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu My friend associated-with the cup is small. My friend, the one with the cup, is small. is useful in a con= text which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whe= reas=20 is useful in a con= text that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 possessthe person! English can't even express this rela= tionship with a possessive -=20 the cup's friend of minelooks like nonsense - but Lojba= n has no trouble doing so. + +cup's friend Finally, the cmavo=20 neand=20 no'ustand to=20 + +relativized sumti , as it is not semantically akin to t= he other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)
4. Multiple relative clauses:=20 <quote>zi'e</quote> zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner @@ -644,41 +720,47 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section4-example4" /> mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. + +my chair illustrates that mo= re than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily connected= with me, and=20 po do, implying that the chair has a more permanent ass= ociation with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the c= hair would naturally be your property.) Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section4-example5" /> mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi I [future] eat the beans associated-with me + +beans and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.<= /en> + +beans
5. Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 <quote>voi</quote> voi NOI @@ -743,20 +825,22 @@
6. Relative clauses and descriptors So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 le,=20 lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 ku), and after the=20 ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out wi= th all elidable terminators, would appear as: + +elidable terminators <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example1" /> le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. The dog which is white is going. @@ -799,20 +883,22 @@ outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example4" /> re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. + +five people muis the inner quantifier and=20 reis the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attachi= ng a relative clause to the sumti=20 re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause is=20 poi ninmu(meaning=20 who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. @@ -823,20 +909,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example7" /> re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-t= he market. Two women out of the five persons go to the market. re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.= Two of the five women go to the market. + +five women re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.= Two women out of the five persons go to the market. As the parentheses show,=20 means that all five= of the persons are women, whereas=20 means that the two = who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? I= f the relative clause comes after the explicit=20 ku, as in=20 , then the sumti as= a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no=20 @@ -873,24 +961,28 @@ Both=20 and=20 tell us that one or= more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different in= cidental claims. Now, what does=20 lo prenu noi blabimean? Well, the default inner quantif= ier is=20 ro(meaning=20 all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 su'o(meaning=20 at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= + +all persons In=20 , the relative clau= se described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more p= eople, who are white, are going. But in=20 , the relative clau= se actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied,= so that it ends up meaning=20 First take all persons - by the way, they're all white.= But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is f= alse. + +all persons The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 kuwhen attaching a=20 noirelative clause to a=20 lodescriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too = much. When the descriptor is=20 la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 kuis not. Therefore, @@ -914,35 +1006,45 @@ <jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo> <gloss>I see that-named(=20 <quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss> <en>I see the person named=20 <quote>Man</quote>who is afraid of his horse.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>refers to one (or more) of those named=20 <quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> <para>Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 +<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to s= umti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sent= ence, 398 --> +<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 --> +<indexterm><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm> <quote>re karce</quote>, which means almost the same as=20 <quote>re lo karce</quote>(which in turn means the same as=20 <quote>re lo ro karce</quote>), can have relative clauses attached; th= ese are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 <quote>ku</quote>variety. Here is an example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-J11I"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example12" /> mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri I possess two cars which-are black. The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being = affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to= try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before= an explicitly expressed terminating=20 + +restrictive relative clause + + +sumti with lo +indefinite sumti ku.) Use an explicit=20 loinstead.
7. Possessive sumti In=20 through=20 , the sumti=20 le mi karceappears, glossed as=20 my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 @@ -975,64 +1077,80 @@ le karce pe mi cu xunre The car associated-with me is-red. means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in=20 is called a=20 possessive sumti. Of course, it does not really indicat= e possession in the sense of ownership, but like=20 + +possessive sumti perelative phrases, indicates only weak association; yo= u can say=20 le mi karceeven if you've only borrowed it for the nigh= t. (In English,=20 my carusually means=20 le karce po mi, but we do not have the same sense of po= ssession in=20 my seat on the bus; Lojban simply makes the weaker sens= e the standard one.) The inner sumti,=20 + +inner sumti miin=20 , is correspondingl= y called the=20 possessor sumti. Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of = relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative= phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up= . When preposed relative clauses of the=20 + +possessive sumti type were devised, = possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them. + +possessive sumti Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledge= d relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without= a=20 + +simple sumti pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 descriptor + quantifier + sumtitype of description. All= these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 . Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> + +possessive sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example4" /> le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. The man's car is blue. Note the explicit=20 kuat the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the= selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main des= cription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. + +personal pro-sumti And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example5" /> le li mu jdice se bende The of-the-number-five judging team-member Juror number 5 which is not quite the same as=20 the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attach= ed to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following speci= al rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is und= erstood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example: + +possessive sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example6" /> le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going. @@ -1045,116 +1163,148 @@ le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama The of-me car which sleeps isn't going. Note that=20 uses=20 vaurather than=20 ku'oat the end of the relative clause: this terminator = ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though= , it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 + +simple bridi ku'o.
8. Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 <quote>vu'o</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: + +simple sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example1" /> li pai noi na'e frinu namcu The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= The irrational number pi + +irrational number And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotatio= n: + +incidental relative clause <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example2" /> lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence. I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. + +simple sumti In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAh= E or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in=20 + +NAhE+BO ) can have a relative clause appearin= g after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example3" /> la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 The Red Ponyis in the far room. + +Red Pony is a bit complex, a= nd may need some picking apart. The quotation=20 lu le xunre cmaxirma li'umeans the string of words=20 The Red Pony. If the=20 + +Red Pony la'eat the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 would claim that a = certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviousl= y a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 la'eis to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the= words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Stei= nbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 The Red Ponyis identified by the restrictive relative c= lause.=20 + +restrictive relative clause + +Red Pony means exactly the s= ame as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example4" /> la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u + +lu'u + +la'e lu poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which is-old is-at the [far distance] room. and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note= the required=20 lu'uterminator, which prevents the relative clause from= attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quota= tion! + +lu'u Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause ap= ply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non= -logical connection (explained in=20 + +non-logical connection ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example5" /> la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. The incidental claim in=20 is not that Frank a= nd George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental re= lative clause attaches only to=20 + +incidental relative clause la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sumti. + +simple sumti To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically = connected sumti in=20 , a new cmavo is ne= eded,=20 vu'o(of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti a= nd the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relativ= e clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or n= on-logical connectives there may be. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example6" /> la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani @@ -1164,20 +1314,24 @@ The presence of=20 vu'ohere means that the relative clause=20 noi nanmuextends to the entire logically connected sumt= i=20 la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, both Frank and= George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows. English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case= of=20 and=20 by making use of nu= mber:=20 who israther than=20 who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular an= d plural verbs:=20 + +verbs + +plural nanmucan mean=20 is a manor=20 are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 nanmu(meaning=20 is-a-man) were replaced with=20 pu bajra(=20 ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7" /> @@ -1188,20 +1342,22 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo> <gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss> <en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en> <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</= jbo> <gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss> <en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para> +<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 --> +<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9"> <title>9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in=20 . Briefly, they are a method of indic= ating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inten= ded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from = selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example1" /> @@ -1209,20 +1365,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example3" /> coi. frank. Hello, Frank. co'o xirma Goodbye, horse. fi'i la frank. .e la djordj. + +fi'i Welcome, Frank and George! Note that=20 says farewell to so= mething which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker= simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, f= or example) who is named=20 Horse. In a sense,=20 is ambiguous betwee= n=20 co'o le xirmaand=20 co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, si= nce names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 Georgedoesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.= @@ -1248,22 +1406,26 @@ coi. frank. poi xunre se bende Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member Hello, Frank from the Red Team! The restrictive relative clause in=20 + +restrictive relative clause suggests that there= is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the = one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished. A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses = either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here a= re some examples: + +vocative phrase <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example7" /> co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse @@ -1294,25 +1456,29 @@ ke'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example2" /> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. The person who is in the room which he built is slow. + +room which he built Here, the meaning of=20 IT-sub-2is that sumti attached to the second relative c= lause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 ke'axipa(IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 + +ke'axipa ke'a. Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in=20 ), which is syntactically a series o= f sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example3" /> @@ -1334,30 +1500,46 @@ 11. Index of relative clause cmavo Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI): noi incidental clauses poi restrictive clauses voi restrictive clauses (non-veridical) Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI): goi pro-sumti assignment + +pro-sumti assignment pe restrictive association ne incidental association + +incidental association po extrinsic (alienable) possession po'e intrinsic (inalienable) possession + +po'e + +inalienable po'u restrictive identification no'u incidental identification + + +relativized sumti Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE): zi'e joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO): vu'o causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o): diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index dee4c77..5326d9d 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -22,20 +22,22 @@
2. Standard bridi form:=20 <quote>cu</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section: cu CU prefixed selbri separator + +selbri separator The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as= =20 klamaand an appropriate number of sumti is to place the= sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti= in order after the selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example1" /> @@ -48,20 +50,24 @@ x1 agent mi x2 destination la bastn. x3 origin la .atlantas. x4 route le dargu x5 means le karce (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will tur= n out to have the same meaning as=20 ; this fact will no= t be reiterated.) This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other= places in natural order after the selbri, is called=20 standard bridi form, and is found in the bulk of Lojban= bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, = many other forms are possible, such as: + +subordinate clauses + +standard bridi form <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example2" /> mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go. @@ -77,73 +83,85 @@ I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. All of the variant forms in this section and following sections = can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved ou= t of their standard places. Thus,=20 places emphasis on = the selbri (because it is at the end);=20 emphasizes=20 la bastn., because it has been moved before the selbri.= Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, = but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reorderi= ng. In all these examples, the cmavo=20 cu(belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the sel= bri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use=20 cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener = to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex s= umti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminat= ors, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary. + +elidable terminators The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in= the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (a= nd it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumt= i is taken to have been omitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example4" /> klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car= ! + +Boston from Atlanta Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context= who is going to Boston. In=20 ,=20 klamais glossed=20 a goerrather than=20 gobecause=20 Goat the beginning of an English sentence would suggest= a command:=20 Go to Boston!.=20 is not a command, s= imply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasi= s to fall on the selbri=20 klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an=20 observative, because it usually calls on the listener t= o observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. = The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is = the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe. + +observative (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put= the selbri first in the bridi: see=20 .) Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 pl= ace? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth say= ing.) Places at the end may simply be dropped: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example5" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using a= n unspecified means). + +unspecified route has empty x4 and x5= places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. = However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around i= t are to be specified: in <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example6" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. le karceoccupies the x4 place, and therefore=20 means: I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. + +go to Boston from Atlanta + +Boston from Atlanta This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example7" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-th= e car. @@ -178,40 +196,46 @@ FA tags x4 place fu FA tags x5 place fi'a + +fi'a FA place structure question In sentences like=20 , it is easy to get= lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti = are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure= tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five = cmavo=20 fa,=20 fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fumay be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5= places respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example1" /> fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + +go to Boston from Atlanta + +Boston from Atlanta In=20 , the tag=20 fubefore=20 le karceclarifies that=20 le karceoccupies the x5 place of=20 klama. The use of=20 futells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the = x5 place; it simply says that=20 le karceoccupies it. @@ -264,20 +288,22 @@ fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I. exhibits the revers= e of the standard bridi form seen in=20 + +standard bridi form and=20 , but still means e= xactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example5" /> le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> @@ -304,20 +330,22 @@ What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is t= hat after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numer= ically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place i= s skipped: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example7" /> klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + +Boston from Atlanta In=20 , the=20 facauses=20 mito occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagg= ed sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by= which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for = the x1 place. Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8" /> @@ -326,20 +354,22 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo= > <gloss>I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car.</gloss> <en>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example8" />,=20 <quote>mi</quote>occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti i= n the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 <quote>la .atlantas.</quote>, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the t= ag=20 +<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 --> +<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm> <quote>fi</quote>, and=20 <quote>le dargu</quote>occupies the x4 place as a result of following= =20 <quote>la .atlantas.</quote>. Finally,=20 <quote>la bastn.</quote>occupies the x2 place because of its tag=20 <quote>fe</quote>, and=20 <quote>le karce</quote>skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 place= s to land in the x5 place.</para> <para>Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except = when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-lan= guage) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standa= rd interpretation is possible.</para> <para>It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with th= e same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-N1aE"> <title> @@ -348,49 +378,59 @@ [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to x2=3D the movie x2=3D the hous= e x2=3D the office may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the= house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, = it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logic= al connectives (explained in=20 ), to say such things in Lojban. In = fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can on= ly be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso abo= ve, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be = forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tag= ging it. The cmavo=20 fi'aalso belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users= to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 + +fi'a fi'ais a question, asking the listener to supply the ap= propriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: + +fi'a <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example10" /> fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu + +fi'a [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? In=20 , the speaker uses= the selbri=20 dunda, whose place structure is: dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3 The tagged sumti=20 fi'a doindicates that the speaker wishes to know whethe= r the sumti=20 + +fi'a dofalls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is alre= ady occupied by=20 le rozgu). The listener can reply with a sentence consi= sting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 faif the listener is the giver,=20 fiif he/she is the receiver. I have inserted the tag=20 fein brackets into=20 , but it is actual= ly not necessary, because=20 fi'adoes not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 + +fi'a le vi rozguwould necessarily be in the x2 place even if= no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. There is also another member of FA, namely=20 fai, which is discussed in=20 .
4. Conversion: SE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -408,35 +448,43 @@ SE 4th place conversion xe SE 5th place conversion So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, bu= t the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. T= he conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself= , and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different pla= ce structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the num= ber and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been e= xchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 = depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when=20 + +converted selbri seis used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place. Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in a= lphabetical order. There is no=20 1st place conversioncmavo, because exchanging the x1 pl= ace with itself is a pointless maneuver. Here are the place structures of=20 se klama: x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5 + +the destination and=20 te klama: x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5 + +the destination and=20 ve klama: + +ve klama x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 and=20 xe klama: x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5 Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to b= e listed in the usual order, x1 to x5. Consider the following pair of examples: @@ -453,83 +501,105 @@ Boston is my destination. Boston is gone to by me. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi x2 =3D Boston go x1=3DI. To Boston go I. and=20 mean the same thing= , in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as th= e agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, = and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different.=20 + +the destination has=20 la bastn.in the x1 place and=20 miin the x2 place of the selbri=20 se klama, and uses standard bridi order;=20 has=20 miin the x1 place and=20 la bastn.in the x2 place of the selbri=20 klama, and uses a non-standard order. The most important use of conversion is in the construction of d= escriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o = LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selb= ri. We have already seen the descriptions=20 le darguand=20 le karce. To this we could add: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example3" /> le klama the go-er, the one who goes + +the go-er In every case, the description is about something which fits int= o the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destinatio= n (that is, something fitting the x2 place of=20 klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The result i= s <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example4" /> le se klama the destination gone to by someone + +the destination Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example7" /> le te klama the origin of someone's going le ve klama + +ve klama the route of someone's going le xe klama the means by which someone goes does not mean=20 the routeplain and simple: that is=20 le pluta, using a different selbri. It means a route th= at is used by someone for an act of=20 + + +ve klama +pluta klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 roadon Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever li= kely to, may be called=20 le pluta, but it cannot be=20 + + +ve klama +pluta le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom it is= =20 + +ve klama le ve klama be fo da(the route taken in an actual journ= ey by someone [da]). + +ve klama When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivl= a, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the foll= owing brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it = is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 + +converting ke ... ke'ebrackets: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example8" /> mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing @@ -549,34 +619,42 @@ Consequently,=20 means: I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 . It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; la= ter (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For exampl= e, the place structure of=20 se te klamais achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 plac= e of=20 + +se te te klama, producing: x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using= x5 + +the destination On the other hand,=20 te se klamahas a place structure derived from swapping = the x1 and x3 places of=20 se klama: x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5 which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like thi= s are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more = easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion= is ever needed in a description. (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps wort= h noting that compound conversions of the form=20 setese, where the first and third cmavo are the same, e= ffectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1= , alone:=20 + +setese setese(or equivalently=20 + +setese tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 texete(or=20 xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)
5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: fi'o @@ -628,22 +706,28 @@ fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of= =20 kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 fe'u(of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is = rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting= =20 fe'uin that case would make the connective affect the s= elbri). The term for such an added place is a=20 modal place, as distinguished from the regular numbered= places. (This use of the word=20 modalis specific to the Loglan Project, and does not ag= ree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too e= ntrenched to change easily.) The=20 fi'oconstruction marking a modal place is called a=20 modal tag, and the sumti which follows it a=20 modal sumti; the purely Lojban terms=20 + + +seltcita sumti +modal sumti sumti tcitaand=20 seltcita sumti, respectively, are also commonly used. M= odal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have= no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered p= laces, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. + +seltcita sumti Consider=20 again. Another way = to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a to= ol for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 pilno, whose place structure is pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 and we can rewrite=20 as @@ -653,84 +737,108 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo> <gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss> <en>I see you using my left eye.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here the selbri belonging to the modal is=20 <quote>se pilno</quote>. The conversion of=20 <quote>pilno</quote>is necessary in order to get the=20 <quote>tool</quote>place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti= . The=20 +<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag se= lbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place struc= ture, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 --> +<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 --> +<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm> <quote>tool user</quote>place is the x2 of=20 <quote>se pilno</quote>(because it is the x1 of=20 <quote>pilno</quote>) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 <quote>fi'o pilno</quote>would mean=20 <quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6"> <title>6. Modal tags: BAI There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 pilnois one of them. The place structure of=20 pilnois: pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to spe= cify a tool. Having to say=20 fi'o se pilnofrequently would make many Lojban sentence= s unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the l= anguage design: the compound cmavo=20 sepi'o. + +sepi'o Here=20 seis used before a cmavo, namely=20 pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 + +pi'o fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag based on= =20 se pilnorather than=20 pilno- the tool, not the tool user - the grammar allows= a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be re= written as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example1" /> mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla + +sepi'o I see you with-tool: the left eye I see you using my left eye. The compound cmavo=20 sepi'ois much shorter than=20 + +sepi'o fi'o se pilno [fe'u]and can be thought of as a single w= ord meaning=20 with-tool. The modal tag=20 pi'o, with no=20 + +pi'o se, similarly means=20 with-tool-user, probably a less useful concept. Neverth= eless, the parallelism with the place structure of=20 pilnomakes the additional syllable worthwhile. Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; fo= r example,=20 ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu=20 + +ka'a klama, has five usable forms corresponding to the five = places of=20 klamarespectively: ka'a with-goer + +ka'a seka'a with-destination teka'a with-origin veka'a with-route xeka'a with-means-of-transport Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example2" /> la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi + +ka'a Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. + +Avon I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. + +Avon (=20 may seem a bit stra= ined, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 vecnuin this case, may have a place added to it which m= ight otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d4" /> @@ -749,130 +857,188 @@ <en>A boat from New York!</en> <jbo>do bajra veka'a lo djine</jbo> <gloss>You run with-route a circle.</gloss> <en>You are running in circles.</en> <jbo>mi citka xeka'a le vinji</jbo> <gloss>I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.</gloss> <en>I eat in the airplane.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gism= u that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased = toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of cor= responding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as=20 +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness,= 196 --> +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>English prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 --> +<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm> <quote>with</quote>,=20 <quote>without</quote>, and=20 <quote>by means of</quote>. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more preci= se than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place= structures of the corresponding gismu.</para> +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness,= 196 --> +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<indexterm><primary>English prepositions</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 --> +<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm> <para>All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, = where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two V= s are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section16" />shows the exceptions.</para= > <para>There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gis= mu:=20 <quote>do'e</quote>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place:</para> +<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 --> +<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-2vMd"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example7" /> lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu + +do'e Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. A man of the north came to the city. Here=20 le bertiis provided as a modal place of the selbri=20 nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 of.=20 also illustrates a = modal place bound into a selbri with=20 be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 beare more fully explained in=20 .
7. Modal sentence connection: the causals + +causals The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ri'a BAI rinka modal: physical cause ki'u + +ki'u BAI krinu modal: justification mu'i + +mu'i BAI mukti modal: motivation ni'i + +ni'i BAI nibli modal: logical entailment This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the = grammatical construct called=20 modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies= some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo= which have causal implications:=20 + +modal sentence connection + +causals ja'emeans=20 with result, and so=20 seja'emeans=20 with cause of unspecified nature; likewise,=20 gaumeans=20 with agentand=20 tezu'emeans=20 with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) + +modal sentence connection + +modal cmavo There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different = versions of the relationships lumped in English as=20 causal: rinka: event x1 physically causes event x2 krinu: event x1 is the justification for event x2 mukti: event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2 nibli: event x1 logically entails event x2 Each of these gismu has a related modal:=20 ri'a,=20 ki'u,=20 + +ki'u mu'i, and=20 + +mu'i ni'irespectively. Using these gismu and these modals, w= e can create various causal sentences with different implications: + +ni'i <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example4" /> le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water = give to the plant. The plant grows because you water it. la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga + +ki'u John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of J= ohn wins. John got the first prize because he won. mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta + +mu'i I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book= . I took the book because I saw it. la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna + +ni'i Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is= -human. + +Socrates Socrates died because Socrates is human. + +Socrates In=20 through=20 , the same English = word=20 becauseis used to translate all four modals, but the ty= pes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 , and explore some = variations on it. As written,=20 claims that the pla= nt grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bri= di (abstractions are explained in=20 + +abstraction bridi ) without actually making a claim. I= f I express=20 , I have said that = the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, me= rely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This= is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was= being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then = we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: + +abstraction bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example5" /> do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> You water the plant; therefore, it grows. @@ -902,48 +1068,56 @@ Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example8" /> le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati + +iri'abo The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant. The plant grows because you water it. do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows. You water the plant; therefore, it grows. The compound cmavo=20 .iri'aboand=20 + +iri'abo .iseri'aboserve to connect two bridi, as the initial=20 .iindicates. The final=20 bois necessary to prevent the modal from=20 taking overthe following sumti. If the=20 bowere omitted from=20 we would have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example9" /> le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.<= /en> Because=20 ri'a dois a modal sumti in=20 + + +seltcita sumti +modal sumti , there is no longe= r an explicit sumti in the x1 place of=20 djacu dunda, and the translation must be changed. The effect of sentences like=20 and=20 is that the modal,= =20 ri'ain this example, no longer modifies an explicit sum= ti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthe= rmore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 pla= ce of the gismu=20 rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective = of the type exemplified by=20 and=20 . However, it makes= little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstrac= tions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connectiv= e=20 @@ -955,28 +1129,36 @@ Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 for a more detailed discussion of Lo= jban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthough= t modal connection, illustrated here by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example1" /> mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri + +iri'abo I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. I grasp the water because I grasp the cup. An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cma= vo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being con= nected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construc= t and between the two: the use of=20 + +afterthought connection bothand=20 andin the first half of this sentence represents a fore= thought connection (though not a modal one). + + +observatives +forethought connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place = the modal plus=20 gibefore the first bridi, and=20 gibetween the two. No=20 .iis used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example2" /> @@ -999,21 +1181,25 @@ With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cu= p. In English, the sentence=20 *Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cupis ungramm= atical, because=20 thereforeis not grammatically equivalent to=20 because. In Lojban,=20 seri'agican be used just like=20 ri'agi. When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more= elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed = forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both= bridi completely stated. + +modal sentence connection When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Exa= mples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed: + +sumti modal connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example4" /> mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. @@ -1040,20 +1226,22 @@ nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'= u dunda [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me= [end] gives. Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which= differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal = connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in=20 + +bridi-tail modal connection , but essentially it consists of a s= elbri with optional sumti following it.=20 is suitable for bri= di-tail connection, and could be shortened to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example7" /> mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta I, because saw the book, took the book. @@ -1114,40 +1302,48 @@ The cmavo=20 veiand=20 ve'orepresent mathematical parentheses, and are require= d so that=20 ni'igiaffects more than just the immediately following = operand, namely the first=20 re. (The right parenthesis,=20 ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 justice. Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is= not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 + +modal connectives fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined mod= als of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 and=20 .
9. Modal selbri Consider the example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example1" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. + +under compulsion has two modal sumti= , using the modals=20 + + +seltcita sumti +modal sumti bauand=20 bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example2" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku]. @@ -1175,20 +1371,22 @@ bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. An alternative to using=20 kuis to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, = following the=20 + +modal cmavo cuwhich often appears there. When a modal is present, t= he=20 cuis almost never necessary. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example5" /> mi bai tavla bau la lojban. I compelledly speak in-language Lojban. @@ -1228,20 +1426,22 @@ There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a= pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-log= ical, or modal connection (see=20 for more on logical and non-logical = connections): <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example8" /> mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] + +bai ke I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.= Here the=20 baiis spread over both=20 klama le zarciand=20 cadzu le bisli, and the=20 ge ... girepresents the logical connection=20 both-andbetween the two. @@ -1273,108 +1473,148 @@ GOI restrictive relative phrase ne GOI incidental relative phrase mau + +mau BAI zmadu modal me'a + +me'a BAI mleca modal Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 . However, there is a construction wh= ich combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapt= er. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example2" /> la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-li= ked-by me. + +Appassionata la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-by m= e. + +Beethoven + +Appassionata In=20 ,=20 la .apasionatas.refers to a particular performance of t= he sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative = clause=20 poi se cuskuuses the cmavo=20 poi(of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of=20 la .apasionatasto the performance in question. In=20 , however,=20 la .apasionatas.refers to the sonata as a whole, and th= e information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The c= mavo=20 + +Beethoven noi(also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natur= e of this relationship. The cmavo=20 peand=20 ne(of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to=20 poiand=20 noirespectively, but are followed by sumti rather than = full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 and=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example4" /> la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. + +Appassionata la .apasionatas ne la betovn. se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me. + +Beethoven + +Appassionata Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we = can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein = (in=20 + +Appassionata ) and Beethoven (i= n=20 + +Beethoven ), and that the re= lationships are respectively restrictive and incidental. It happens that both=20 cuskuand=20 fintihave BAI cmavo, namely=20 cu'uand=20 + +cu'u fi'e. We can recast=20 + +fi'e and=20 as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example6" /> la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi + +cu'u The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me= . + +Appassionata la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi + +fi'e The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me. + +Beethoven + +Appassionata and=20 have the full sema= ntic content of=20 and=20 respectively. Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo=20 mauand=20 + +mau me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 + +me'a zmadu(more than) and=20 mleca(less than) respectively. The place structures are= : zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4 mleca: x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4 Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7" /> @@ -1383,83 +1623,111 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo> <gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss> <en>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example7" />requires that Fran= k likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds h= is liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 <quote>semau</quote>because the x2 place of=20 <quote>zmadu</quote>is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's= liking for Mary.</para> +<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 --> +<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm> +<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 --> +<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-ecf1"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example8" /> la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty;= the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to = rephrase=20 + +comparison using=20 me'arather than=20 + +me'a semau, and=20 using=20 maurather than=20 + +mau seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing= . Like many BAI cmavo,=20 mauand=20 + +mau me'aare more useful when converted with=20 + +me'a se. If the=20 newere omitted in=20 and=20 , the modal sumti = (=20 + + +seltcita sumti +modal sumti la meiris.and=20 la betis.respectively) would become attached to the bri= di as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 would become: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example9" /> la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense= . Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information b= ut says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he= may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently,= as: + +comparison <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example10" /> le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelci la meiris. The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary. The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many= modals other than=20 semauand=20 seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated wit= h relative phrases are:=20 seba'i(=20 + +seba'i instead of),=20 ci'u(=20 + +ci'u on scale),=20 de'i(=20 + +de'i dated),=20 du'i(=20 + +du'i as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
11. Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 ) with modal connection, in a way th= at simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship= . Consider the sentences: @@ -1493,35 +1761,41 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo> <en>I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here the two sentences=20 <quote>mi nelci do</quote>and=20 <quote>mi nelci la djein.</quote>are simultaneously asserted, their lo= gical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. Th= e logical connective=20 <quote>je</quote>comes before the modal=20 <quote>ki'u</quote>in all such mixed connections.</para> +<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 --> +<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm> <para>Since=20 <quote>mi nelci do</quote>and=20 <quote>mi nelci la djein.</quote>differ only in the final sumti, we ca= n transform=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example3" />into a mixed sumti= connection:</para> +<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 --> +<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-gE1z"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example4" /> mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. I like you and/because Jane. Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connecti= ves are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical= or modal. + +forethought connectives There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical co= nnectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example,= a bridi-tail connected version of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example5" /> mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein. I like you and/because like Jane. @@ -1573,20 +1847,22 @@ fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
12. Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: jai JAI modal conversion + +modal conversion fai FA modal place structure tag So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addi= tion of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. H= owever, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than = exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place= . For example, @@ -1595,41 +1871,49 @@ mi cusku bau la lojban. I express [something] in-language Lojban. has an explicit x1 place occupied by=20 miand an explicit=20 bauplace occupied by=20 la lojban.To exchange these two, we use a modal convers= ion operator consisting of=20 + +modal conversion jai(of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, = the modal conversion of=20 + +modal conversion + +modal cmavo is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example2" /> la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me. In=20 , the modal place= =20 la lojban.has become the x1 place of the new selbri=20 jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 place? T= here is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special=20 unnumbered placemarked by the tag=20 faiof selma'o FA. Note: For the purposes of place numbering,=20 faibehaves like=20 fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the other pla= ces around it. + +fi'a Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient i= n descriptions. We may refer to=20 the language of an expressionas=20 le jai bau cusku, for example. In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 jaiwithout a following modal. This usage is not related= to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 jaiby itself is to send the x1 place, which should be a= n abstraction, into the=20 faiposition, and to raise one of the sumti from the abs= tract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discus= sed in more detail in=20 . The following two examples mean th= e same thing: @@ -1685,20 +1969,22 @@ le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you water-give to the plant. says that the rela= tionship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of moti= vation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something whi= ch can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship betwe= en watering and growth exists, but=20 + +plants doesn't say what i= t is (presumably=20 ri'a). Note: Modals made with=20 fi'oplus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbr= i can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, = however.
14. Sticky modals The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -1754,20 +2040,22 @@ mi ki tavla I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). Note: Modals made with=20 fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.
15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals + +non-logical connection Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in= =20 . For the purposes of this chapter, = it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between= two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi wi= th a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thin= g: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example2" /> @@ -1794,58 +2082,66 @@ </example> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>ce'e</quote>creates a termset containing two terms (termsets ar= e explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16" />). When a termset contains more than= one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two ta= gs are derived from a common event.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section16"> <title>16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 do'e, discussed in=20 + +do'e ), are derived directly from= selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the fo= rm CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the= Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irr= egular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is d= ivided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo= appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted. cmavo gismu comments =20 Monosyllables of the form CVV: =20 bai bapli bau bangu cau claxu fau fasnu gau gasnu kai ckaji uses 2nd consonant of gismu mau zmadu uses 2nd consonant of gismu + +mau koi korbi rai traji uses 2nd consonant of gismu sau sarcu tai tamsmi based on lujvo, not gismu zau zanru =20 Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always of the form CCVCV) =20 ga'a zgana kai ckaji has CVV form (monosyllable) ki'i ckini la'u klani has irregular 2nd V le'a klesi has irregular 2nd V mau zmadu has CVV form (monosyllable) + +mau me'e cmene ra'a srana ra'i krasi rai traji has CVV form (monosyllable) ti'i stidi tu'i stuzi =20 Irregular 2nd V: =20 fi'e finti + +fi'e la'u klani uses 2nd consonant of gismu le'a klesi uses 2nd consonant of gismu ma'e marji mu'u mupli ti'u tcika va'o vanbi =20 Special cases: =20 ri'i lifri uses 3rd consonant of gismu @@ -1870,83 +2166,117 @@ bau bangu in language in language of be'i benji sent by transmitting te=3Dsent to ve=3Dwith transmit or= igin xe=3Dtransmitted via ca'i catni by authority of with authority over cau claxu lacked by without ci'e ciste in system with system function te=3Dof system components ci'o cinmo felt by feeling emotion ci'u ckilu on the scale on scale measuring + +ci'u cu'u cusku as said by expressing + +cu'u te=3Das told to ve=3Dexpressed in med= ium de'i detri dated on the same date as + +de'i di'o diklo at the locus of at specific locus do'e ----- vaguely related to + +do'e du'i dunli as much as equal to + +dunli + +du'i du'o djuno according to knowing facts te=3Dknowing about ve=3Dunder epistemology fa'e fatne reverse of in reversal of fau fasnu in the event of fi'e finti created by creating work + +fi'e te=3Dcreated for purpose ga'a zgana to observer observing te=3Dobserved by means ve=3Dobserved under conditions gau gasnu with agent as agent in doing ja'e jalge resulting in results because of ja'i javni by rule by rule prescribing ji'e jimte up to limit as a limit of ji'o jitro under direction controlling ji'u jicmu based on supporting ka'a klama gone to by with destination + +ka'a te=3Dwith origin ve=3Dvia route xe=3Dby transport mode ka'i krati represented by on behalf of kai ckaji characterizing with property ki'i ckini as relation of related to te=3Dwith relation ki'u krinu justified by with justified result + +ki'u koi korbi bounded by as boundary of te=3Dbordering ku'u kulnu in culture in culture of la'u klani as quantity of in quantity le'a klesi in category as category of te=3Ddefined by quality li'e lidne led by leading ma'e marji of material made from material te=3Din material form of ma'i manri in reference frame as a standard for + +reference frame + +ma'i mau zmadu exceeded by more than + +mau me'a mleca undercut by less than + +me'a me'e cmene with name as a name for te=3Das a name to mu'i mukti motivated by motive therefore + +mu'i mu'u mupli exemplified by as an example of ni'i nibli entailed by entails + +ni'i pa'a panra in addition to similar to te=3Dsimilar in pattern ve=3Dsimilar by standard pa'u pagbu with component as a part of pi'o pilno used by using tool + +pi'o po'i porsi in the sequence sequenced by rule pu'a pluka pleased by in order to please pu'e pruce by process processing from te=3Dprocessing into ve=3Dpassing through stages ra'a srana pertained to by concerning ra'i krasi from source as an origin of rai traji with superlative superlative in te=3Dat extreme ve=3Dsuperlative amon= g ri'a rinka caused by causing ri'i lifri experienced by experiencing + +experienced sau sarcu requiring necessarily for te=3Dnecessarily under conditions si'u sidju aided by assisting in ta'i tadji by method as a method for tai tamsmi as a form of in form te=3Din form similar to ti'i stidi suggested by suggesting te=3Dsuggested to ti'u tcika with time at the time of tu'i stuzi with site as location of diff --git a/todocbook/README b/todocbook/README index 29aac60..966282f 100644 --- a/todocbook/README +++ b/todocbook/README @@ -69,10 +69,17 @@ on: docbook2html_preprocess.xsl identity.xsl =20 The third pass was pretty limited, and was basically just: =20 make_cmavo.pl massage2.sh =20 (with the .orig trick as above). It create the entries. + +The fourth pass was similarily limited, and was just about the +index: + + make_index.sh + cllindex.txt + TODO-index diff --git a/todocbook/TODO-index b/todocbook/TODO-index new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca46523 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/TODO-index @@ -0,0 +1,1507 @@ +# ' symbol: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; definition = (see also apostrophe), 31 +# &: word for, 416 +# (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n^2 + 2n + 1: example, 437 +# (n+1)-th rat: example, 448 +# .: word for, 416 +# .1010_2 ( 2^{110_2}: example, 451 +# : , word for, 416 +# +1 + -1 =3D 0: example, 436 +# -1: example, 433 +# +# 1 + 1 =3D 2: example, 435 +# +# 10^20: example, 451 +# +# 123: example, 432 +# +# 12-point: example, 418 +# +# 2 + 2: example, 262 +# +# 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals: example, 456 +# +# 2/7: example, 433 +# +# 3 ( 10^8: example, 451 +# +# 3 grams: example, 435 +# +# 3.1415: example, 433 +# +# 4-letter rafsi: definition, 57 +# +# 5-letter rafsi: definition, 57 +# +# 8 out of ten: example, 448 +# a: example, 322 +# a is letteral: example, 422 +# A selma'o, 336, 340, 341, 352, 354, 361, 364, 453, 489 +# a/an: contrasted with the, 322 +# an: example, 322 +# but/and equivalence, 25 +# C/C string: as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, 50 +# C/CC string: as a symbol for a consonant triple, 50 +# di'u-series pro-sumti /r dihuseries, 148 +# me/du equivalence, 99 +# or": "and/or" contrasted with "either ... or ... but not both, 334 +# pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others: as masses, 146; relation to joi,= 146 +# rounded/unrounded vowels, 31 +# space/time metaphor: expressing direction mapping for, 231 +# tan(pi/2) =3D infinity: example, 456 +# tense direction/distance as sumti tcita: contrasted with event contours= , 232 +# this/that in English: compared with ti-series pro-sumti, 147 +# topic/comment: multiple sentence, 468 +# voiced/unvoiced consonants: restrictions on, 36 +# when/where/how: example, 250 +# yes/no questions, 321; quick-tour version, 23 +# z =3D f(x): example, 438 +# +abbreviated lujvo and plausibility -- has count 0, skipping -- abbreviat= ed lujvo and plausibility, 284 +abstraction contours -- has count 0, skipping -- abstraction contours: c= ompared with contour tenses, 268 +abstraction -- has count 119, skipping -- abstraction(s): achievement, 2= 58; activity, 258; amount, 261; amount contrasted with property, 261; conce= pt, 265; connection, 269; creating new types, 266; event, 256; experience, = 265; forethought connection in, 365; grammatical uses, 255; grouping of con= nectives in, 365; idea, 265; implicit in sumti, 257; logical connection of,= 365; making concrete, 267; mental activity, 262; place structure, 255; poi= nt-event, 258; predication/sentence, 262; process, 258; property, 259; sent= ence, contrasted with quotation, 263; simplification to sumti, 266; simplif= ication to sumti with jai, 267; simplification to sumti with tu'a, 266; spe= aking, writing, etc., 263; state, 258; sumti ellipsis in, 256; syntax, 255;= table, 269; truth-value, 262; truth-value contrasted with amount, 262; tr= uth-value and fuzzy logic, 262; types, 265; vague, 265; with knowing, belie= ving, etc., 262; with wonder, doubt, etc., 264 +abstractors -- has count 19, skipping -- abstractors, 502 +accented letters -- has count 0, skipping -- accented letters: considere= d as distinct from unaccented, 419 +achievative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- achievative event = contour, 228 +achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstract= ion: place structure, 259 +achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstract= ion(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269 +achievement event -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement event: describ= ed, 258 +acronym names from lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronym names= from lerfu words: assigning final consonant, 424 +acronyms names based on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronyms= names based on lerfu words: omitting bu, 424; using "z" instead of " ' "in= , 424 +activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction: p= lace structure, 259 +activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction(s)= : definition, 258; related tense contours, 268 +activity event -- has count 0, skipping -- activity event: described, 25= 8 +actual stop -- has count 0, skipping -- actual stop: contrasted with nat= ural end, 229 +addition -- has count 73, skipping -- addition: a mathematical operator,= 436 +addition operator -- has count 0, skipping -- addition operator: contras= ted with positive sign, 436 +adjective-noun combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adjective-noun co= mbination: with tanru, 84 +adverb-verb combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adverb-verb combinat= ion: with tanru, 84 +affirmative answer -- has count 0, skipping -- affirmative answer: quick= -tour version, 23 +afraid of horse -- has count 0, skipping -- afraid of horse: example, 17= 9 +after sleep -- has count 0, skipping -- after sleep: example, 303 +afterthought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought = bridi connectives: contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, 338 +afterthought connective -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought connect= ive(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with forethought= connective, 338 +afterthought sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthough= t sentence connection: modal contrasted with tense, 248 +ai -- has count 23, skipping -- ai, 302 +aleph null -- has count 0, skipping -- aleph null: example, 434 +alienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- alienable possession: d= efinition, 173 +aliens -- has count 0, skipping -- aliens: communication with, 329 +allowable diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- allowable diphthongs: i= n fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu/lujvo, 63 +all-th -- has count 0, skipping -- all-th: example, 447 +alphabet -- has count 44, skipping -- alphabet: Latin used for Lojban, 4= 13; Lojban, 29; words for letters in, rationale, 413; words for non-Lojban = letters, rationale, 413 +American Indian languages and evidentials -- has count 0, skipping -- Am= erican Indian languages and evidentials, 315 +amount abstraction and mathematics -- has count 0, skipping -- amount ab= straction and mathematics, 261 +Amsterdam -- has count 0, skipping -- Amsterdam: example, 38 +anaphoric pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- anaphoric pro-bridi: sta= bility of, 162 +and -- has count 2881, skipping -- and: as non-logical connective, 353; = compared with but, 353; contrasted with cross-product, 357 +and earlier -- has count 0, skipping -- and earlier: example, 364 +and then -- has count 39, skipping -- and then: example, 240, 364 +animals -- has count 11, skipping -- animals: use of fu'ivla for specifi= c, 61 +anomalous ordering of lujvo places -- has count 0, skipping -- anomalous= ordering of lujvo places, 283 +answers -- has count 14, skipping -- answers, 469; go'i for yes/no quest= ions, 154; to operator questions, 457; to place structure questions, 191; t= o tense-or-modal questions, 250 +antecedent -- has count 15, skipping -- antecedent: for pro-bridi, 151; = for pro-bridi as full bridi, 151 +antecedent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-br= idi: definition, 145 +antecedent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-su= mti: definition, 145 +any -- has count 324, skipping -- any: as a restricted universal claim, = 399; as a translation problem, 399; as a universal claim, later restricted,= 400; as an existential claim, 400; expressing as existential by variable i= n subordinate bridi, 401 +apostrophe -- has count 27, skipping -- apostrophe: and consonant cluste= r determination in lujvo, 56; as not a consonant for morphological discussi= ons, 49; as preferable over comma in names, 33; definition of, 31; example = of, 33; purpose of, 31; quick-tour version, 12; type of letter in word-form= ation, 31; use in vowel pairs, 34; variant of, 31 +approximate numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- approximate numbers: exp= ressing, 442; expressing some exactness of, 443 +Artur Rubenstein -- has count 0, skipping -- Artur Rubenstein: example, = 202 +assignable pro-sumti -- has count 11, skipping -- assignable pro-sumti: = explicit cancellation of by rebinding, 162; stability of, 162 +assumption -- has count 13, skipping -- assumption: example, 317 +asymmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- asymmetrical tanru = types: activity + implement-used, 110; cause + effect, 107; characteristic/= detail + object, 106; characteristic-time + event, 110; effect + causative = agent, 107; elements-in-set + set, 105; energy-source + powered, 110; gener= al-class + sub-class, 106; inhabitant + habitat, 106; locus-of-application = + object, 110; miscellaneous, 111; object + component/detail, 106; object += place-sold, 110; object + usual-container, 110; object-giving-characterist= ic + other-object, 109; object-measured + standard-object, 108; object-of-a= ction + action, 105; object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; ove= rriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, 108; possessor + object= , 106; product + producer, 109; product + source, 108; purpose-of-instrumen= t + instrument, 107; set + element-of-set, 105; similar-appearance-object += object, 109; source + product, 107; source-material + object, 108; typical= -place + object, 109; undesired-object + protection-object, 110; whole + pa= rt, 109 +at least -- has count 53, skipping -- at least: contrasted with more tha= n, less than, at most, 443; example, 443 +attend school -- has count 0, skipping -- attend school: example, 226 +attitude -- has count 41, skipping -- attitude, 297; avoidance of expres= sion, 322; scalar, 305 +attitudes -- has count 21, skipping -- attitudes: beginning, 314; ceasin= g, 314; continuing, 314; empathy contrasted with sympathy, 314; expressing = changes in, 314 +attitudinal -- has count 53, skipping -- attitudinal: example of scale e= ffect, 305; scope, 474; signaling as non-propositional, 304 +attitudinal answers -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal answers: pla= usibility, 313 +attitudinal categories -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal categorie= s, 306; example of effect, 307; mnemonic for, 307; rationale, 306 +attitudinal indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal indicator:= unspecified, 311 +attitudinal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal questions,= 313; asking about specific attitude, 313; asking intensity, 313 +attitudinal scale -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scale: as axis= in emotion-space, 306; neutral compared with positive + negative, 306; sev= en-position, 305; stand-alone usage, 305; usage, 305 +attitudinal scales -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scales: ratio= nale for assignment, 304 +attitudinals -- has count 38, skipping -- attitudinals: a- series, 301; = affecting whole grammatical structures, 312; ambivalent emotion words, 300;= and logic, 392; at beginning of text, 312; attributing emotion to others, = 314; benefit in written expression, 312; categories with nai, 307; categori= es with scale markers, 307; comparison of meaning based on position, 301; c= omplex emotion words, 300; complexity, 310; compound, 298; contours, 314; c= ontrasted with bridi, 303, 306; contrasted with discursives, 317; contraste= d with rationalizations of emotion, 306; design benefit, 306; difficult emo= tion words, 300; e- series, 301; effect of cu'i, 299; effect of nai, 299; e= motional contrasted with propositional, 301; emotional/propositional caveat= , 302; exceptions, 314; external grammar, 312; grammar of internal compound= ing, 311; grammar of placement in bridi, 312; i- series, 298, 301; internal= grammar, complete, 311; logical language and, 302; negative, 304; neutral,= 304; non-speaker attitudes, 314; o- series, 298; order of, 306; placement = for prevailing attitude, 297; placement in sentences with "nai", 311; posit= ive, 304; prevailing attitude, 297; propositional contrasted with emotional= , 301; propositional effect on claim, 301; propositional indicators, 301; p= ropositional/emotional caveat, 302; pure emotion, 298; rationale for, 303; = referent uncertainty, 312; scale of, 304; stand-alone categories, 307; u- s= eries, 298; word-form for primary, 297 +attitudinals and claims -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and cla= ims, 298 +attitudinals and irony -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and iron= y, 299 +attitudinals and truth value -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals an= d truth value, 298 +attitudinals for emotional reaction -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudi= nals for emotional reaction, 299 +au -- has count 14, skipping -- au, 302 +author of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- author of this book, 5 +ba -- has count 107, skipping -- ba, 219, 363 +back-counting pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- back-counting pro-su= mti, 139 +ba'e -- has count 10, skipping -- ba'e, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 4= 16 +BAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAhE selma'o, 479, 480, 489 +bai -- has count 21, skipping -- bai, 201 +BAI modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI modal tags: rationale for= , 195 +BAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI selma'o, 195, 205, 224, 489;= as short forms for fi'o constructs, 195; effect of conversion on, 196; for= m of cmavo in, 197; rationale for selection, 196 +ba'o -- has count 20, skipping -- ba'o, 228; as futureward of event, 229= ; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229 +base -- has count 37, skipping -- base: assumed, 444; changing permanent= ly, 444; non-constant, 444; specifying, 444; vague, 445 +base greater than 16 -- has count 0, skipping -- base greater than 16: c= ompound single-digits contrasted with two digits, 445; expressing numbers i= n, 445; two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, 445 +base varying for each digit -- has count 0, skipping -- base varying for= each digit: separator for, 445 +be -- has count 1573, skipping -- be, 93, 197, 262 +BE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BE selma'o, 93, 489; terminator f= or, 490 +bear wrote story -- has count 0, skipping -- bear wrote story: example, = 121 +Bears wrote book -- has count 0, skipping -- Bears wrote book: example, = 124 +beautiful dog -- has count 0, skipping -- beautiful dog: example, 20 +because -- has count 247, skipping -- because: English word, four variet= ies of, 198 +begin -- has count 35, skipping -- begin: contrasted with resume, 229 +BEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEhO selma'o, 93, 490 +bei -- has count 20, skipping -- bei, 93 +BEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEI selma'o, 93, 489 +be'o -- has count 40, skipping -- be'o, 93; effect of ku on elidability = of, 94; effect of relative clauses on elidability of, 94; elidability of, 9= 4 +better -- has count 20, skipping -- better: example, 293 +bibliography -- has count 0, skipping -- bibliography, 6 +bicycle race -- has count 0, skipping -- bicycle race: example, 266 +big nose -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose: example, 169 +big nose-pores -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose-pores: example, 170 +BIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhE selma'o, 437, 490 +BIhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhI selma'o, 246, 359, 360, 36= 1, 455, 490; grammar of, 360 +bi'i -- has count 17, skipping -- bi'i, 359, 362 +binary system -- has count 0, skipping -- binary system: specifying numb= ers in (see also base), 444 +bi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- bi'o, 359 +blue -- has count 128, skipping -- blue: as sad, example, 322 +blue house -- has count 30, skipping -- blue house: example, 193, 349 +blueness -- has count 11, skipping -- blueness: example, 261 +blueness varying -- has count 0, skipping -- blueness varying: example, = 261 +bo -- has count 126, skipping -- bo, 86, 198, 238, 240, 342, 343, 349, 3= 61, 364, 459, 466; contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, 364; c= ontrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, 364; for right-grouping = in tanru, 87; in jeks for operators, 361; in joiks for operators, 361; in l= ogical connectives, 342; right-grouping, 343 +bo and forethought connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- bo and foreth= ought connectives, 343 +BO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BO selma'o, 86, 133, 342, 343, 34= 9, 361, 364, 454, 466, 490 +boi -- has count 31, skipping -- boi, 362, 421, 438, 449, 450, 458; effe= ct on elidability of me'u, 449; eliding from lerfu strings, 421; exception = before MAI, 458; exception before MOI, 449; exception before ROI, 458; in P= olish notation, 438; required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier= , 421 +BOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BOI selma'o, 421, 490 +bold -- has count 0, skipping -- bold: example, 418 +bomb destroyed fifty miles -- has count 0, skipping -- bomb destroyed fi= fty miles: example, 360 +boring legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- boring legalities, 8 +borrowing from other language -- has count 0, skipping -- borrowing from= other language: fu'ivla as, 53 +bound variable pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bound variable pro-= sumti: stability of, 162 +brackets -- has count 22, skipping -- brackets: use in IPA notation, 29 +bridi -- has count 632, skipping -- bridi: building from selbri and sumt= i, 187; compared with predication, 11; concept of, 11; definition, 83, 187;= definition, quick-tour version, 26; effect of alternate form on sumti orde= r, 188; effect of using non-standard form, 188; exception to sumti place st= ructure in, 188; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; leavi= ng end sumti places unspecified in, 189; logical connection with negation, = 337; logical connective for, 336; non-standard form, 188; omitting the firs= t sumti place, 188; quick-tour version, 14; relation to selbri, 83; selbri-= first as exceptional, 188; standard form of, 188 +bridi negation -- has count 32, skipping -- bridi negation: and DeMorgan= 's Law, 408; and negation boundary, 408; compared with negation between sen= tences, 404; multiple, 104; na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, 40= 1; naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, 401; relative order with te= nse, 103; two forms of, 401 +bridi-based comparison -- has count 0, skipping -- bridi-based compariso= n: contrasted with comparison with relative phrase, in claims about parts, = 204 +bridi-tail -- has count 33, skipping -- bridi-tail: definition, 344, 495 +bridi-tails -- has count 20, skipping -- bridi-tails: eliding vau in, 34= 5; forethought tense connection of, 240 +brivla -- has count 110, skipping -- brivla: as one of the 3 basic word = classes, 50; consonant pairs in, 53; definition, 52; definition, quick-tour= version, 27; from tanru, 55; properties of, 53; recognition of, 53; relati= on to bridi, 11; stress on, 40; subtypes of, 53; types, 83; types of, quick= -tour version, 20 +brivla as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla as selbri, 83 +brivla equivalents -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla equivalents, 97 +brivla form -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla form: contrasted with cma= vo form, 53; contrasted with cmene form, 53 +broda -- has count 27, skipping -- broda, 151 +broda-series for pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series for = pro-bridi: compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, 151 +broda-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series pro-brid= i, 151; assigning with cei, 151; use as abstract pattern, 151; use as sampl= e gismu, 151; with no assignment, 151; word-form rationale, 151 +bu -- has count 235, skipping -- bu, 414; and compound cmavo, 416; effec= t of multiple, 416; effect on preceding word, 414; for extension of lerfu w= ord set, 416; grammar of, 416; interactions, 416, 417; omitting in acronyms= names based on lerfu words, 424 +BU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BU selma'o, 414, 490 +bu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- bu'a, 164, 409 +bu'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bu'a-series pro-sumti:= for bound variables, 161 +bubu -- has count 0, skipping -- bubu, 416 +but -- has count 617, skipping -- but: compared with and, 353; example, = 318 +butter is soft -- has count 0, skipping -- butter is soft: example, 124 +BY selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BY selma'o, 414, 418, 425, 491; t= erminator for, 490 +C string -- has count 0, skipping -- C string: as a symbol for a single = consonant, 49 +ca -- has count 94, skipping -- ca, 219, 232; compared with bu'u, 219; m= eaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification= , 221; rational for, 219 +CAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAhA selma'o, 243, 491; making = sticky, 243; order in tense construct, 243 +CAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAI selma'o, 305, 491 +cancellation of indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of i= ndicators, 494 +cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment -- has count 0, skipping --= cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: with da'o, 162 +cancellation of sumti assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellatio= n of sumti assignment, 492 +ca'o -- has count 14, skipping -- ca'o, 228; derivation of word, 228 +canceling letter shifts -- has count 0, skipping -- canceling letter shi= fts, 418 +captions to pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- captions to pictures, 7 +carried piano -- has count 0, skipping -- carried piano: example, 353 +carry sack -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack: example, 205 +carry sack and dog -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack and dog: examp= le, 241 +Carthage destroyed -- has count 0, skipping -- Carthage destroyed: examp= le, 317 +case -- has count 155, skipping -- case: upper/lower specification, 415 +cat of plastic -- has count 0, skipping -- cat of plastic: example, 160 +cause death -- has count 0, skipping -- cause death: example, 267, 287 +CC string -- has count 0, skipping -- CC string: as a symbol for a permi= ssible initial consonant pair, 50 +CCVVCV fu'ivla -- has count 0, skipping -- CCVVCV fu'ivla: and rafsi fu'= ivla proposal, 80 +ce -- has count 61, skipping -- ce, 354, 355 +ce'e -- has count 13, skipping -- ce'e, 208, 347, 399 +CEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEhE selma'o, 347, 399, 491 +cei for broda-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cei for brod= a-series assignment: compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, 151 +CEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEI selma'o, 491 +ce'u -- has count 21, skipping -- ce'u, 161, 260, 261; use in specifying= sumti place of property in abstraction, 161 +cessitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- cessitive event cont= our, 228 +chapter numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter numbering, 458 +chapter titles -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter titles: intent of, 4 +character encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- character encodin= g schemes: application to lerfu words, 425 +characters -- has count 11, skipping -- characters: definition, 425; spe= cial, 31 +child on ice -- has count 0, skipping -- child on ice: example, 221 +choose from -- has count 0, skipping -- choose from: example, 355 +ch-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- ch-sound in English: rep= resentation in Lojban, 31 +claims -- has count 33, skipping -- claims: contrasted with expression o= f feelings, 298 +clarity of sounds -- has count 0, skipping -- clarity of sounds, 31 +Classical Greek aorist tense -- has count 0, skipping -- Classical Greek= aorist tense: compared with Lojban tense, 223 +clause -- has count 98, skipping -- clause: subordinate using abstractio= n, 255 +closings -- has count 0, skipping -- closings: letter, 325 +cmavo -- has count 2065, skipping -- cmavo: as one of the 3 basic word c= lasses, 50; compound, 51; contrasted with rafsi in usage, 61; contrasted wi= th same-form rafsi in meaning, 56; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour v= ersion, 27; diphthongs in, 51; experimental, 51; for experimental use, 51; = interaction list, 485; lack of relation of form to grammatical use, 51; rul= es for pause after Cy-form, 69; simple, 51; stress on, 40, 52; structure of= , 51 +cmavo as brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as brivla, 495 +cmavo as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as selbri: quick-tour = version, 20 +cmavo as sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as sumti, 497 +cmavo without rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo without rafsi: met= hod of including in lujvo, 60 +cmene -- has count 33, skipping -- cmene: algorithm for, 66; alternative= s for restricted sequences in, 66; and analyzability of speech stream, 64; = as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; authority for, 65; avoiding impermi= ssible consonant clusters in, 67; consonant clusters permitted in, 66; defi= nition, 64; examples of, 64; final letter in, 66; from Lojban words, 66; me= thod of including in lujvo, 60; proscribed syllables in, 67; purpose of, 64= ; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restricti= ons on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; rules for pause= before, 68; stress in, 65, 66; unusual stress in, 65 +cmene form -- has count 0, skipping -- cmene form: contrasted with brivl= a form, 53 +co -- has count 71, skipping -- co, 95 +CO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CO selma'o, 491 +co'e-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- co'e-series pro-bridi,= 157 +coffee mixed with tea -- has count 0, skipping -- coffee mixed with tea:= example, 359 +coi -- has count 18, skipping -- coi, 136, 324; quick-tour version, 21 +coin heads -- has count 0, skipping -- coin heads: example, 447 +combining words into one -- has count 0, skipping -- combining words int= o one, 507 +comma -- has count 24, skipping -- comma: definition of, 32; effect on r= elative clause in English, 171; example of, 32; main use of, 32; optional, = 32; quick-tour version, 12; variant of, 32 +command -- has count 10, skipping -- command: contrasted with observativ= e form, 188 +commas in numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- commas in numbers: as nume= rical punctuation, 433; effect of other notation conventions, 433; with eli= ded digits, 433 +commutative truth functions -- has count 0, skipping -- commutative trut= h functions, 335 +comparison with relative phrase -- has count 0, skipping -- comparison w= ith relative phrase: contrasted with bridi-based comparison, in claims abou= t parts, 204 +completitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- completitive even= t contour, 228 +complex logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- complex logical c= onnection: grouping strategies contrasted, 343 +complex negation -- has count 0, skipping -- complex negation: examples,= 102 +complex numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- complex numbers: expressing,= 434 +components contrasted with mass -- has count 0, skipping -- components c= ontrasted with mass: in properties of, 354 +compound bridi with more than one sumti in common -- has count 0, skipping= -- compound bridi with more than one sumti in common: with common sumti = first, 345; with vau, 345 +compound cmavo -- has count 41, skipping -- compound cmavo: compared wit= h sequence of simple cmavo, 51; definition, 51; recognition of, 51 +compound letter marker -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letter marke= r, 505 +compound letters -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letters: native la= nguage, representing as distinct letters, 419 +compound logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- compound logica= l connectives: components, 336; naming convention, 336 +compound of gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- compound of gismu: lujvo a= s, 53 +compound spatial tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound spatial tens= e: as direction with-or-without distance, 218; beginning with distance only= , 218; effect of different ordering, 218; explanation of, 218; with directi= on and distance, 218 +compound temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound temporal te= nse: beginning with distance only, 220 +compound tense ordering -- has count 0, skipping -- compound tense order= ing: Lojban contrasted with English, 218 +concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction, 265 +concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction(s): = place structure, 265 +concrete terms -- has count 0, skipping -- concrete terms: use of fu'ivl= a for, 61 +confusion -- has count 19, skipping -- confusion: metalinguistic, 321 +confusion about what was said -- has count 0, skipping -- confusion abou= t what was said, 321 +connecting operands -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operands: wit= h bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361 +connecting operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operators: w= ith bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361 +connection -- has count 147, skipping -- connection: forethought, 494; f= orethought separator, 495; non-distributed, 356; of bridi-tails, 495; of su= mti, 489, 496; of tanru units, 495, 496; simultaneously modal and logical, = 204 +connection of operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connection of operat= ors: grouping, 454 +connective answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective answers: non-l= ogical, 359 +connective question answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective quest= ion answers: contrasted with other languages, 353 +connective -- has count 124, skipping -- connective(s): as complete gram= matical utterance, 352; as ungrammatical utterance, 352 +connectives -- has count 107, skipping -- connectives: for abstractions,= 269; table by constructs connected, 366 +consonant -- has count 119, skipping -- consonant: definition, 35; effec= t on syllable count, 35 +consonant-final words -- has count 0, skipping -- consonant-final words:= necessity for pause after, 68 +consonants -- has count 59, skipping -- consonants: contrasted with vowe= ls, 33; final, 36; position of, 36; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 1= 2; restrictions on, 36; syllabic, 34; voiced/unvoiced equivalents, 35; voic= ing of, 35 +continuitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- continuitive even= t contour, 228 +contradictory negation -- has count 14, skipping -- contradictory negati= on: using naku before selbri, 405 +contradictory negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- contradicto= ry negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207 +contradictory negation of tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- contradicto= ry negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 +contributors to this book -- has count 0, skipping -- contributors to th= is book, 5 +conversion -- has count 45, skipping -- conversion: accessing tense of b= ridi with jai, 247; definition, 100, 247; effect of multiple on a selbri, 1= 94; effect on BAI, 196; extending scope of, 193; modal, 206, 496; of BAI, 1= 95; of operator places, 459; of selbri, 504; scope of, 193; swapping non-fi= rst places, 194; swapping with modal place, 205; using jai, 101 +conversion and tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion and tanru, 1= 00 +conversion into sumti from mekso -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion = into sumti from mekso, 436 +conversion of mekso into sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of= mekso into sumti, 436 +conversion of operand into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversi= on of operand into operator, 460 +conversion of operator into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversi= on of operator into operand, 460 +conversion of operator into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversio= n of operator into selbri, 457 +conversion of selbri into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion= of selbri into operand, 456 +conversion of selbri into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversio= n of selbri into operator, 456 +conversion of selbri to modal -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of = selbri to modal, 493 +conversion of sentence with quantified variables -- has count 0, skipping = -- conversion of sentence with quantified variables: technique, 407 +conversion of sumti into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion = of sumti into operand, 456 +conversion of sumti into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion o= f sumti into selbri, 98 +conversion with `ke' -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with `ke', 1= 01 +conversion with se -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with se: effec= t of naku negation boundary on, 406 +converting sumti to related meaning -- has count 0, skipping -- converti= ng sumti to related meaning, 498 +co'o -- has count 11, skipping -- co'o, 324; quick-tour version, 21 +credits for pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for pictures, 6 +credits for this book -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for this book,= 6 +cu -- has count 460, skipping -- cu, 188, 190, 216; as selbri separator,= 188; effect of selbri-first bridi on, 190; effect of tense specification, = 216; effect on elidability of ku, 122; effect on elidable terminators, 188;= necessity of, 188; need for, quick-tour version, 19; omission of, quick-to= ur version, 14; quick-tour version, 14; use of, quick-tour version, 14; use= fulness of, 188 +CU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CU selma'o, 188, 492 +cu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- cu'e: combining with other tense cmavo= , 250 +CUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CUhE selma'o, 238, 492 +cultural knowledge -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural knowledge: examp= le, 316 +cultural words -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural words: rafsi fu'ivla= proposal for, 80 +culturally dependent lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- culturally depend= ent lujvo, 322 +cycles -- has count 0, skipping -- cycles, 230 +Cy-form cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- Cy-form cmavo: rules for pause= after, 69 +da -- has count 156, skipping -- da, 162, 392, 473; as a translation for= "something", 392; contrasted with zo'e, 392 +da poi -- has count 25, skipping -- da poi, 394 +da prami de -- has count 18, skipping -- da prami de: contrasted with da= prami da, 393 +DA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DA selma'o, 473 +da'a -- has count 10, skipping -- da'a, 441; default number for, 441 +DAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DAhO selma'o, 162, 466, 492 +da-series -- has count 10, skipping -- da-series: after third, 472 +da-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- da-series pro-sumti: for= bound variables, 161 +default operator precedence -- has count 0, skipping -- default operator= precedence: contrasted with mekso goal, 436 +definite numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- definite numbers: combined = with indefinite, 442 +dei -- has count 14, skipping -- dei, 149 +demonstrated potential -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrated potentia= l: expressing, 244 +demonstrative pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrative pro-su= mti, 140, 147; stability of, 162 +DeMorgan's Law -- has count 13, skipping -- DeMorgan's Law: and bridi-ta= il logical connection, 408; and distributing a negation, 407; and internal = naku negations, 409; and logically connected sentences, 408; and moving a l= ogical connective relative to "naku", 407; sample applications, 408 +dereferencing a pointer -- has count 0, skipping -- dereferencing a poin= ter: with la'e, 134 +descriptions -- has count 54, skipping -- descriptions: and abstractions= , 255; as based on first place of following selbri, 193; as possessive sumt= i, 180; based on go'i-series pro-bridi, 155; components of, 120; importance= of selbri first place in, 120; non-specific, 121; quick-tour version, 19; = specific, 121; types of, 120; use of SE in, 193 +descriptions with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptions with lo: t= eddy bear contrasted with real bear, 122 +descriptor -- has count 26, skipping -- descriptor, 498; as part of desc= ription, 120 +descriptor for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptor for number= s, 499 +descriptors -- has count 20, skipping -- descriptors: different implicit= outer quantifiers among, 131; implicit quantifiers for, 129; omission of, = 132; purpose of, 120 +diacritic marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritic marks: proposed le= rfu words for, 429 +diacritical marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritical marks: as lerf= u, 418; considered as forming distinct letters, 419; order of specification= within tei...foi, 419; problem of position, 418; problem with multiple on = one lerfu, 419; specifying with tei...foi, 419 +dictionary -- has count 22, skipping -- dictionary: superior authority o= f, 5 +die after living -- has count 0, skipping -- die after living: example, = 232 +digit questions -- has count 0, skipping -- digit questions, 449 +digits -- has count 20, skipping -- digits, 502; cmavo for, 432; list of= decimal, 462; list of hexadecimal, 462; names from, 459; rafsi for, 459; r= ationale for having 16, 444 +digits beyond 9 -- has count 0, skipping -- digits beyond 9: word patter= n, 444 +dimensionality of interval -- has count 0, skipping -- dimensionality of= interval: as subjective, 224 +diphthongs -- has count 21, skipping -- diphthongs: classification of, 3= 4; contrasted with vowel pairs, 34; definition of, 33; English analogues of= , 45; in fu'ivla, 63; IPA for, 33; list of, 33; pronunciation of, quick-tou= r version, 12; specific to cmene, 66; specific to names, 66 +direction -- has count 37, skipping -- direction: following interval in = tense construct, 221; interaction with movement specification in tenses, 22= 4; order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, 217; reference frame fo= r, 224; spatial, 493; specification with FAhA, 217; time, 503 +directions -- has count 15, skipping -- directions: multiple with moveme= nt, 225 +disclaimers -- has count 0, skipping -- disclaimers, 5 +discourse -- has count 33, skipping -- discourse: commentary on, 319; ex= pressing utterance relation to, 317; gesture markers, 319; tone of voice ma= rkers, 319 +discrete -- has count 0, skipping -- discrete: of tense intervals, 225 +discursives -- has count 11, skipping -- discursives: as metalinguistic = claims, 317; contrasted with attitudinals, 317; definition, 317; discourse = commentary, 319; discourse management, 320; embedded, 481; expressing how t= hings are said, 318; knowledge, 319; placement in sentence, 317; quick-tour= version, 25; su'a, 316; word-level, 318 +discursives for consecutive discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- discur= sives for consecutive discourse, 317; contrasted, 318 +discursives for managing discourse flow -- has count 0, skipping -- disc= ursives for managing discourse flow, 320 +discuss in language -- has count 0, skipping -- discuss in language: exa= mple, 357 +distance -- has count 52, skipping -- distance: order of relative to dir= ection in spatial tenses, 217; spatial, 506; specification with VA, 217; ti= me, 507 +distributing a negation -- has count 0, skipping -- distributing a negat= ion, 407 +distribution of quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- distributio= n of quantified sumti, 398 +di'u -- has count 33, skipping -- di'u, 148; contrasted with la'edi'u, 1= 49; contrasted with ta, 148; quick-tour version, 21 +do -- has count 425, skipping -- do, 146 +doctor and then rich -- has count 0, skipping -- doctor and then rich: e= xample, 364 +dog or cat -- has count 0, skipping -- dog or cat: example, 351 +doghouse -- has count 10, skipping -- doghouse: example, 72, 277 +DOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DOhU selma'o, 137, 323, 492 +do'i -- has count 10, skipping -- do'i, 149; compared with zo'e-series a= s indefinite pro-sumti, 158 +doi -- has count 48, skipping -- doi, 136, 138, 323; effect on necessity= for pause before name-word, 138; effect on pause before name, 323; quick-t= our version, 21 +double negation -- has count 0, skipping -- double negation: and naku, 4= 07 +du -- has count 165, skipping -- du, 162, 164; as an exception within GO= hA selma'o, 97; compared with me in effect, 99; contrasted with dunli, 163,= 439; contrasted with mintu, 163; derivation of, 163; grammar of, 435; mean= ing of, 163; rationale for selection of selma'o for, 162; with complex meks= o on both sides, 436 +du'u -- has count 33, skipping -- du'u, 263, 264 +e -- has count 1064, skipping -- e, 340; contrasted with fa'u, 356; cont= rasted with pi'u, 357 +eat bread -- has count 0, skipping -- eat bread: example, 441 +eat in airplane -- has count 0, skipping -- eat in airplane: example, 22= 5 +EBNF grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- EBNF grammar, 552 +editorial commentary -- has count 0, skipping -- editorial commentary, 4= 80 +Eek! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eek!: example, 301 +ei -- has count 20, skipping -- ei, 303, 305 +-ek -- has count 0, skipping -- -ek: in name for logical connectives, 33= 6 +ek -- has count 27, skipping -- ek: definition, 336 +eks -- has count 15, skipping -- eks: connecting operands, 361; in sumti= forethought logical connection, 340 +elidability of be'o -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of be'o, 94 +elidability of me'u -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of me'u, 99 +elided tense -- has count 0, skipping -- elided tense: meaning of, 215 +elliptical pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-bridi, 1= 57 +elliptical pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-sumti, 1= 57 +embedded bridi tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- embedded bridi tenses:= effect of main bridi tense on, 235 +emotion -- has count 51, skipping -- emotion, 297 +emotional categories -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional categories, 3= 06 +emotional indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional indicators: n= oticeable effects of, 330 +emotions -- has count 38, skipping -- emotions: compound, 306; cultural = bias of expression, 329; insights, 306; marking, 505; marking intensity of,= 491; recording using indicators, 329; research using indicators, 329; when= expressed, 306 +emphasis -- has count 44, skipping -- emphasis, 479; changing by using n= on-standard form of bridi, 188; marking, 489 +end of file -- has count 0, skipping -- end of file, 484 +end of text indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- end of text indicator,= 493 +endpoints -- has count 10, skipping -- endpoints: inclusion in interval,= 360 +Englishman in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- Englishman in Africa: e= xample, 124 +equivalents to brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- equivalents to brivla,= 97 +error marking -- has count 0, skipping -- error marking: metalinguistic,= 321 +e'u -- has count 10, skipping -- e'u, 303, 317; compared with ru'a, 317 +-er -- has count 0, skipping -- -er: use of zmadu in forming, 58 +'et'e -- has count 0, skipping -- 'et'e: example, 419 +Eureka! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eureka!: example, 299 +event contours as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- event contours= as sumti tcita: contrasted with direction and distance, 232 +events -- has count 39, skipping -- events: considered as a process, 228= ; duration, 256; place structure, 257 +everybody loves something -- has count 0, skipping -- everybody loves so= mething: example, 401 +everyone -- has count 12, skipping -- everyone: contrasted with anyone i= n assumption of existence, 399 +everyone bitten by dog -- has count 0, skipping -- everyone bitten by do= g, 396 +everything -- has count 30, skipping -- everything: expressing with "ro = da", 394 +everything breathes -- has count 0, skipping -- everything breathes: exa= mple, 395 +everything loves everything -- has count 0, skipping -- everything loves= everything: example, 394 +everything sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees me: examp= le, 394 +everything sees something -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees so= mething: example, 394 +exact number -- has count 0, skipping -- exact number: expressing, 443 +exactly two -- has count 10, skipping -- exactly two: example, 443 +example of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- example of examples, 5 +examples -- has count 151, skipping -- examples: structure of, 5 +expanding "no" quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- expanding "no" qua= ntifier, 403 +experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstractio= n, 265 +experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstractio= n(s): place structure, 265 +experimental cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- experimental cmavo: defin= ition, 51; forms for, 51 +exporting negation to prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- exporting negat= ion to prenex: "naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, 406; interna= l bridi negation contrasted with "naku", 406 +fa -- has count 44, skipping -- fa, 189 +FA in selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- FA in selbri: compared with con= verted selbri in meaning, 193; contrasted converted selbri with in structur= e, 193 +FA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FA selma'o, 93, 189, 206, 247, 49= 3; after 5th place, 472; as a reminder of place in place structure, 190; av= oidance of complex usage of, 191; compared with zo'e for omitting places, 1= 90; effect on place structure, 190; effect on place structure order, 190; e= ffect on subsequent non-tagged places, 191; for accessing a selbri place ex= plicitly by relative number, 190; for putting more than one sumti in a sing= le place, 191; syntax of, 189 +FA tags and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- FA tags and linked = sumti, 93 +face -- has count 11, skipping -- face: specifying for letters, 418 +FAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhA selma'o, 217, 242, 493; an= d direction, 217; contradictory negation of, 241; use in specifying space/t= ime mapping direction, 231 +FAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhO selma'o, 484, 493 +fancy E -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy E: notation convention, 335 +fancy O -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy O: notation convention, 335 +fai -- has count 15, skipping -- fai, 206, 247, 287; as allowing access = to original first place in modal conversion, 206; effect on numbering of pl= ace structure places, 206 +falsity of mathematical relation -- has count 0, skipping -- falsity of = mathematical relation: expressing, 440 +fancy A -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy A: notation convention, 335 +fancy U -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy U: notation convention, 335 +fast-talker shoe -- has count 0, skipping -- fast-talker shoe: example, = 17 +father -- has count 21, skipping -- father: example, 11 +fa'u -- has count 12, skipping -- fa'u, 354, 356, 470; compared to terms= ets, 356; contrasted with .e, 356 +fe -- has count 65, skipping -- fe, 189 +fe'e -- has count 13, skipping -- fe'e, 230, 231, 232; effect of TAhE/RO= I with ZAhO on, 231 +feeling -- has count 15, skipping -- feeling, 297 +FEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhE selma'o, 230, 493 +FEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhU selma'o, 194, 493 +fe'o -- has count 11, skipping -- fe'o, 325; contrasted with fa'o, 325 +fe'u -- has count 10, skipping -- fe'u, 194 +fi -- has count 103, skipping -- fi, 189 +Fido -- has count 13, skipping -- Fido: example, 396 +figurative lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- figurative lujvo, 322; plac= e structure, 322 +FIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FIhO selma'o, 194, 493; termina= tor for, 493 +final syllable stress -- has count 0, skipping -- final syllable stress:= rules for pause after, 69 +finish -- has count 0, skipping -- finish: contrasted with stop, 229 +fi'o -- has count 24, skipping -- fi'o, 194; and modal conversion, 206; = as modal tag, 194; effect on following selbri, 194; mixed modal connection = with, 205; proscribed for sticky modals, 208; restriction on use, 201; use = in adding places to place structure, 194 +fi'o constructs -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o constructs: short forms= as BAI, 195 +fi'o modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modal fol= lowed by selbri: effect on eliding fe'u, 202 +fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modals: negation of by nega= ting selbri, 207; usage in relative phrases, 204 +fi'o tag -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o tag: relation of modal sumti f= ollowing to selbri, 195 +fi'o with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o with selbri: meaning o= f, 194 +fish eat -- has count 0, skipping -- fish eat: example, 468 +fish on right -- has count 0, skipping -- fish on right: example, 222 +flashbacks in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- flashbacks in story= time: example, 237 +floating point numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- floating point number= s: expressing, 451 +flow of discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- flow of discourse: managin= g with discursives, 320 +fo -- has count 40, skipping -- fo, 189 +foi -- has count 13, skipping -- foi, 419 +FOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FOI selma'o, 419, 494 +food -- has count 18, skipping -- food: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 +forethought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought br= idi connectives: contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, 338 +forethought connectives and bo -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought c= onnectives and bo, 343 +forethought interval -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought interval: G= AhO position, 361 +forethought logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- for= ethought logical connectives in tanru: effect on tanru grouping, 92 +forethought mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- forethoug= ht mathematical notation (see also Polish), 438 +forethought modal sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- foreth= ought modal sentence connection, 199; relation to modal of first bridi in, = 199; relation to modal of second bridi in, 199 +forethought modal sentence connection for causals -- has count 0, skipping= -- forethought modal sentence connection for causals: order of cause and= effect, 199 +forethought tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tan= ru connection, 350 +forethought tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- = forethought tense connection of bridi-tails: order of, 240 +forethought tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- fo= rethought tense connection of sentences: order of, 239 +forethought tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- foreth= ought tense connection of sumti: order of, 239 +formulae -- has count 0, skipping -- formulae: expressing based on pure = dimensions, 456 +four "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- four "e"s: example, 422 +fourteen "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- fourteen "e"s: example, 413 +frequency within interval -- has count 0, skipping -- frequency within i= nterval: specifying, 504 +from one to two o'clock -- has count 0, skipping -- from one to two o'cl= ock: example, 359 +fu -- has count 93, skipping -- fu, 189 +FUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhA selma'o, 494 +FUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhE selma'o, 475, 494 +FUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhO selma'o, 475, 494 +fu'ivla -- has count 59, skipping -- fu'ivla: algorithm for constructing= , 62; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as Stage 3 borrowings, 61; as Stage 4 bor= rowings, 62; categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construct= ion, 62; considerations for choosing basis word, 64; consonant clusters in,= 62; construction of, 62; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in= , 63; disambiguation of, 64; form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80; form of, = 62; initial consonant cluster in, 62; method of including in lujvo, 60; qui= ck-tour version, 20; rules for formation of, 62; stress in, 62; uniqueness = of meaning in, 61; use of, 61; with invalid diphthongs, 64 +fu'ivla categorizer -- has count 0, skipping -- fu'ivla categorizer, 61;= for distinguishing fu'ivla form, 64; for distinguishing specialized meanin= gs, 64; selection consideration for, 62 +fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- fuzz= y logic and truth-value abstraction, 262 +ga -- has count 59, skipping -- ga, 408 +GA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GA selma'o, 336, 338, 339, 340, 3= 41, 352, 361, 453, 494 +GAhO position in forethought intervals -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO = position in forethought intervals, 361 +GAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO selma'o, 246, 360, 361, 49= 4; grammar of, 360 +ganai -- has count 13, skipping -- ganai, 339, 340 +ga'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ga'o, 360, 362; etymology of, 360 +ge -- has count 73, skipping -- ge, 408 +ge'a -- has count 12, skipping -- ge'a, 450, 452, 453; for infix operati= ons with too many operands, 451 +GEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GEhU selma'o, 175, 495 +gei -- has count 18, skipping -- gei, 450; as a binary operator, 450; as= a ternary operator, 451; rationale for order of places, 451 +gek -- has count 19, skipping -- gek: definition, 338 +gek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- gek bridi connectives:= contrasted with ijeks, 338 +geks -- has count 12, skipping -- geks: connecting operands, 361; in for= ethought sumti connection, 341; syntax of, 340 +German rich man -- has count 0, skipping -- German rich man: example, 34= 4 +gerund -- has count 0, skipping -- gerund: using abstraction, 255 +ge'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ge'u, 151, 175, 318; effect of followi= ng logical connective on elidability, 175; elidability of from relative phr= ases, 175 +gi -- has count 168, skipping -- gi, 92, 199, 239, 240, 340, 361, 408 +GI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GI selma'o, 336, 339, 340, 361, 4= 95 +gi'e -- has count 28, skipping -- gi'e, 344 +GIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GIhA selma'o, 336, 344, 346, 35= 2, 364, 495; terminator for, 506 +gihek -- has count 17, skipping -- gihek: definition, 344 +gik -- has count 14, skipping -- gik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; d= efinition, 340 +ginai -- has count 18, skipping -- ginai, 340 +girls' school -- has count 20, skipping -- girls' school: little, exampl= e, 85 +gismu -- has count 211, skipping -- gismu: algorithm for, 75; and cmavo,= major, 53; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as partitioning semantic space, 53;= basic rafsi for, 57; coined, 77; conflicts between, 54; creation, and tran= scription blunders, 76; creation, considerations for selection after scorin= g, 75; creation, proscribed gismu pairs, 76; creation, scoring rules, 75; c= ultural, 78; definition, 53; definition, quick-tour version, 27; ethnic, 79= ; examples of, 54; exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, 77; for count= ries, 79; for languages, 78; for Lojban source languages, 78; geographical,= 79; length of, 54; level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, 57; Lojban-sp= ecific, 77; place order, rationale, 295; place structures, 294; place struc= tures, rationale, 294; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; rational= e for choice of, 53; religious, 80; rules for, 54; scientific-mathematical,= 77; selection of, 53; source of, 54; source-language weights for, 76; spec= ial, 54; too-similar, 76 +give -- has count 39, skipping -- give: example, 11 +give or receive? -- has count 0, skipping -- give or receive?: example, = 191 +global attitudinals -- has count 0, skipping -- global attitudinals, 475 +glue in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- glue in lujvo: n-hyphen as, 56= ; r-hyphen as, 56; y-hyphen as, 56 +go -- has count 440, skipping -- go: example, 187 +go to market -- has count 0, skipping -- go to market: example, 215 +go to Paris or Rome -- has count 0, skipping -- go to Paris or Rome: exa= mple, 408 +go to the store -- has count 28, skipping -- go to the store: example, 4 +go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi:= assigning for permanent reference, 154; in narrative about quotation, 156;= in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156 +goal of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- goal of this book, 3 +goer table -- has count 0, skipping -- goer table: example, 85 +GOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOhA selma'o, 97, 145, 409, 470= , 495; as component in tanru, 97; as selbri, 97 +go'i -- has count 73, skipping -- go'i, 97, 154, 318; as affirmative ans= wer to yes/no question, 154; compared with mo in overriding of arguments, 1= 60; contrasted with go'i ra'o, 156; contrasted with mi'u, 318 +goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- goi = assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti: use in speech contrasted with writing,= 151 +goi for ko'a-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- goi for ko'a-= series assignment: compared with cei for broda-series assignment, 151 +GOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOI selma'o, 172, 495; terminato= r for, 495 +go'i with xu -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i with xu: quick-tour versio= n, 23 +go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi,= 152; as basis for description, 155; as main-bridi anaphora only, 154; as m= ain-bridi anaphora only, exception, 155; as repeating referent concept, 155= ; compared with ri-series in word formation, 152; compared with ri-series p= ro-sumti in rules of reference, 154; effect of sub-clauses on, 154; effect = of sumti of referent bridi on, 154; no'a as exception to only main-bridi an= aphora, 155; referent of, 154; reinterpreting sumti references with ra'o, 1= 56 +goi -- has count 35, skipping -- goi, 150, 154, 162, 421; rationale for = non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, 175; use in assigning lerfu as pr= o-sumti, 152; use in assigning name, 152 +grammatical categories -- has count 0, skipping -- grammatical categorie= s: use of upper case for, 5 +grasp water -- has count 0, skipping -- grasp water: example, 199 +grouping -- has count 75, skipping -- grouping: indicator for, 496; of c= onnection in abstractions, 365; of connection in tenses, 363 +gu -- has count 34, skipping -- gu, 339 +GU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GU selma'o, 339 +gu'e -- has count 15, skipping -- gu'e, 92 +GUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GUhA selma'o, 350, 352, 361, 49= 5 +guheks for tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- guheks for tanru= connection: rationale, 350 +han4zi4 -- has count 0, skipping -- han4zi4: example, 420 +hands in pockets -- has count 0, skipping -- hands in pockets: example, = 175 +having -- has count 28, skipping -- having: of properties, 259 +hexadecimal system -- has count 0, skipping -- hexadecimal system: speci= fying numbers in (see also base), 444 +hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form -- has count 0, skipping = -- hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, 72 +hit cousin -- has count 0, skipping -- hit cousin: example, 318 +hit nose -- has count 0, skipping -- hit nose: example, 318 +Hooray! -- has count 0, skipping -- Hooray!: example, 299 +huh? -- has count 0, skipping -- huh?: example, 321 +hyphens in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- hyphens in lujvo: proscribe= d where not required, 70 +hypothetical world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- hypothetica= l world point of view, 320 +i -- has count 1028, skipping -- i, 198, 238, 465; quick-tour version, 1= 6; regarding forethought bridi connection, 339 +I selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- I selma'o, 336, 337, 338, 339, 358= , 364, 465, 495 +idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction, 265 +idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction(s): place = structure, 265 +identity -- has count 13, skipping -- identity: expressing with po'u, 17= 4 +ie -- has count 13, skipping -- ie, 304 +if -- has count 339, skipping -- if: English usage contrasted with Lojba= n logical connective, 337; expressing real world, 320; meaning in logical c= onnections, 337 +if coffee -- has count 0, skipping -- if coffee: bring tea, example, 353 +if -- has count 349, skipping -- if, expressing hypothetical world, 320 +ii -- has count 11, skipping -- ii, 301 +ijek -- has count 10, skipping -- ijek: definition, 336 +ijek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek bridi connective= s: contrasted with geks, 338 +ijek logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek logical connect= ive(s): connecting bridi, 336 +ijeks -- has count 10, skipping -- ijeks: syntax of, 338 +imaginary journey -- has count 14, skipping -- imaginary journey: and sp= atial tense, 217; ending point, 217; origin in tense forethought bridi-tail= connection, 240; origin in tense forethought sentence connection, 239; ori= gin in tense forethought sumti connection, 239; origin of in tense-connecte= d sentences, 239; stages of in compound tenses, 218; starting at a differen= t point, 232; starting point, 217, 232; with interval direction, 222 +imaginary journey origin -- has count 0, skipping -- imaginary journey o= rigin: with sticky tenses, 234 +implicit quantifier -- has count 14, skipping -- implicit quantifier: de= finition, 128; for quotations, 128; on personal pro-sumti, 128; on quotatio= ns, discussion of, 128 +importance of point -- has count 0, skipping -- importance of point: sca= le with ra'u, 320 +inalienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- inalienable possessio= n: definition, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 +inchoative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- inchoative event co= ntour, 228 +indefinite portions -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite portions: sub= jective, 442 +indefinite pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite pro-bridi, 1= 57; stability of, 162 +index numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- index numbering, 500 +indicator tables -- has count 0, skipping -- indicator tables: format co= nvention, 298 +indicators -- has count 87, skipping -- indicators, 298; cancellation of= , 494; derived from gismu, 298; evolutionary development of, 329; grammar f= or compounding, 310; meaning when compounded, 310; placement of, 298; quick= -tour version, 24; ramifications, 329; rationale for selection, 329; scope = effect of new paragraph, 466; types of, 298 +indicators derived from gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- indicators der= ived from gismu: notation convention, 298 +indirect question involving sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect q= uestion involving sumti, 265 +indirect questions without "kau" -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect qu= estions without "kau", 265 +individual -- has count 28, skipping -- individual: example, 446 +individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- individual objects: multi= ple, 123 +individuals -- has count 24, skipping -- individuals: expressing relatio= n with mass formed, 446; expressing relation with set formed, 446 +individuals into mass -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into mass:= by non-logical connection, 355 +individuals into set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into set: b= y non-logical connection, 355 +individuals of set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals of set: expre= ssing measurement standard for indefinites, 446 +inexact numbers with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact numbers = with bounds, 443 +inexact portions with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact portion= s with bounds, 444 +inferior -- has count 0, skipping -- inferior: example, 308 +infix mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- infix mathematic= al notation: shortcomings of, 438 +infix notation mixed with Polish -- has count 0, skipping -- infix notat= ion mixed with Polish, 455; example, 455 +initiative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- initiative event co= ntour, 228 +innate property -- has count 0, skipping -- innate property: extension o= f from mass to individuals, 243; extension to individuals not actually capa= ble, 244 +inner product -- has count 0, skipping -- inner product, 452 +inner quantifier -- has count 27, skipping -- inner quantifier: contrast= ed with outer quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; = explicit, 129; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132 +inner quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- inner quantifier o= f sumti: meaning of, 178 +interaction list -- has count 0, skipping -- interaction list: cmavo, 48= 5 +internal naku negations -- has count 0, skipping -- internal naku negati= ons: and DeMorgan's Law, 409 +internal world -- has count 0, skipping -- internal world, 301 +International Phonetic Alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- Internation= al Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), 29 +interval -- has count 130, skipping -- interval: closed, 360; effect of = nai on, 360; expressed as center and distance, 359; expressed as endpoints,= 359; expressing by endpoints with bi'o, 246; followed by direction in tens= e construct, 221; forethought, 361; forming, 490; inclusion of endpoints, 3= 60; open, 360; open/closed specification, 494; relation to point specified = by direction and distance, 221; relative order with direction and distance = in tense, 221; specifying relation to point specified by direction and dist= ance, 221; spread of actions over, 225 +interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- interval continuousn= ess: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 +interval direction -- has count 0, skipping -- interval direction: speci= fying, 221 +interval spread -- has count 0, skipping -- interval spread: expressing = English intermittently, 226; mutually contrasted, 226; negation with nai, 2= 26; with unspecified interval, 226 +invalid diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid diphthongs: in fu= 'ivla, 64 +invalid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid speech: marking as er= ror with na'i, 321 +inversion of quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inversion of quanti= fiers: definition, 402; in moving negation boundary, 402 +inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary -- has count 0, skip= ping -- inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary: rationale = for, 402 +inverting a tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting a tanru, 491 +inverting quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting quantifiers:= with movement relative to fixed negation, 406; with movement relative to n= aku, 405 +IPA -- has count 158, skipping -- IPA, 29 +IPA pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- IPA pronunciation: descrip= tion, 42 +IT -- has count 19, skipping -- IT: as notation convention in relative c= lause chapter, 170 +italic -- has count 0, skipping -- italic: example, 418 +-ity -- has count 0, skipping -- -ity, 259 +iu -- has count 11, skipping -- iu, 301 +iy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- iy diphthong: in cmene, 66 +JA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JA selma'o, 90, 245, 336, 337, 33= 8, 350, 352, 354, 361, 364, 365, 496 +jai -- has count 28, skipping -- jai, 206, 247, 267, 287; conversion usi= ng, 101 +JAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JAI selma'o, 206, 267, 496 +jai with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- jai with tense: as equivalent= of SE in grammar, 247 +jai without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- jai without modal: meaning= , 206 +James -- has count 89, skipping -- James: example, 36 +Jane -- has count 38, skipping -- Jane: example, 65 +ja'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ja'o, 316 +je -- has count 141, skipping -- je, 89, 208 +jei -- has count 19, skipping -- jei, 262; place structure, 262 +jek -- has count 32, skipping -- jek: definition, 336 +jeks -- has count 11, skipping -- jeks: connecting abstractors, 365; con= necting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 +ji -- has count 29, skipping -- ji, 352 +ji'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ji'i, 442; effect of placement, 442; w= ith elided number, 443 +Jim -- has count 25, skipping -- Jim: example, 65 +JOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOhI selma'o, 451, 496; termina= tor for, 505 +John is coming -- has count 13, skipping -- John is coming: example, 297 +John says that George goes to market -- has count 0, skipping -- John sa= ys that George goes to market: example, 238 +jo'i -- has count 11, skipping -- jo'i, 451; precedence of, 451 +joi -- has count 22, skipping -- joi, 353, 354, 355 +joi grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- joi grammar: contrasted with eks= , 354; contrasted with jeks, 354 +JOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOI selma'o, 246, 336, 353, 354,= 355, 357, 358, 360, 361, 364, 455, 470, 496 +joik -- has count 39, skipping -- joik: as name for compound cmavo, 336;= definition, 354 +joiks -- has count 11, skipping -- joiks: effect of nai on, 358; groupin= g, 357; syntax of, 360; use of "se" in, 355 +Jones -- has count 15, skipping -- Jones: John, example, 65 +j-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- j-sound in English: repre= sentation in Lojban, 31 +Jupiter life -- has count 0, skipping -- Jupiter life: example, 365 +juror 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- juror 5: example, 181 +ju'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ju'u: grammar of, 444 +ka -- has count 58, skipping -- ka, 259 +ka'u -- has count 10, skipping -- ka'u, 316 +ke -- has count 239, skipping -- ke, 88, 193, 205, 343, 344, 346, 350, 3= 61, 364; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; for convers= ion of tanru, 101; for expanding scope of scalar negation, 101 +ke in sumti grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- ke in sumti grouping: w= here allowed, 344 +KE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KE selma'o, 88, 343, 344, 350, 36= 1, 364, 454, 496; terminator for, 497 +ke'a -- has count 46, skipping -- ke'a, 160, 169; ambiguity when omitted= , 161; and abstract descriptions, 161; as referent for relativized sumti, 1= 69; contrasted with ri in relative clauses, 161; effect of omission of, 170= ; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; meaning in relative claus= e inside relative clause, 184; non-initial place use in relative clause, 17= 0; stability of, 162; subscripting for nested relative clauses, 161 +ke'a with subscript -- has count 0, skipping -- ke'a with subscript: use= for outer sumti reference, 184 +ke'e -- has count 125, skipping -- ke'e, 88, 193, 205, 343, 361 +KEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEhE selma'o, 88, 343, 346, 497 +ke'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ke'i, 360, 362; etymology of, 360 +KEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEI selma'o, 98, 255, 497; elidi= ng, 255 +kei -- has count 53, skipping -- kei, 255, 262 +kept on too long -- has count 0, skipping -- kept on too long: example, = 230 +ki -- has count 54, skipping -- ki, 207, 234, 243; with no tense, 235 +KI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KI selma'o, 234, 497 +ki'a -- has count 11, skipping -- ki'a, 321; compared to ke'o, 325 +klama -- has count 431, skipping -- klama, 187; place structure of, 187 +know -- has count 87, skipping -- know: example, 263 +knowledge discursives -- has count 0, skipping -- knowledge discursives,= 319; compared with propositional attitudes, 319 +ko -- has count 133, skipping -- ko, 119, 146; in later selbri place in = imperative, 147; in sub-clause of main bridi, 147; quick-tour version, 22; = use for commands, 146; use for imperatives, 146 +ko'a -- has count 59, skipping -- ko'a, 150 +ko'a-series -- has count 24, skipping -- ko'a-series: after tenth, 472 +ko'a-series for pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- ko'a-series for pr= o-sumti: compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, 151 +KOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KOhA selma'o, 145, 260, 469, 49= 7 +ku -- has count 138, skipping -- ku, 122, 177, 201, 216, 354; as elidabl= e terminator for descriptions, 122; effect of following selbri on elidabili= ty of, 122; effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, 181; effect on of= omitting descriptor, 132; quick-tour version, 19; uses of, 122; with tense= , 216 +KU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KU selma'o, 354, 497; quick-tour = version, 19 +ku'e -- has count 15, skipping -- ku'e, 438 +KUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhE selma'o, 497 +KUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhO selma'o, 169, 498 +ku'o -- has count 33, skipping -- ku'o, 169, 178, 394; effect of relativ= e clause after descriptor on elidability, 178; effect of vau on elidability= , 181; elidability for relative clauses, 170 +la -- has count 594, skipping -- la, 119, 121, 129, 137, 138; compared w= ith le in specificity, 121; contrasted with lai in implications, 124; contr= asted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implications, 122= ; contrasted with vocatives, 323; contrasted with zo, 478; implications of,= 121; use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, 12= 1 +LA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LA selma'o, 120, 138, 193, 498; c= ontrasted with LE in use of name-words, 138; effect on necessity for pause = before name-word, 138; terminator for, 497 +la'e -- has count 21, skipping -- la'e, 134, 149, 182, 422, 459, 478; as= short for "le selsinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134 +LAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAhE selma'o, 133, 149, 182, 26= 6, 478, 498; effect of relative clause placement with, 182; terminator for,= 499 +la'i -- has count 10, skipping -- la'i, 125, 130, 138; as set counterpar= t of lai, 125 +lai -- has count 22, skipping -- lai, 123, 130, 137, 138; as mass counte= rpart of lai, 123; contrasted with la in implications, 124 +language shift -- has count 12, skipping -- language shift: based on nam= e + bu, 418; choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, 417; compound, 418; e= ffect on following words, 417; formation of shift alphabet name, 418; inter= action with bu, 417; rationale for, 417; standardization of, 418 +languages -- has count 96, skipping -- languages: abbreviations for, 104 +la'o -- has count 11, skipping -- la'o, 61, 416, 479; interaction with b= u, 416 +Laplace -- has count 0, skipping -- Laplace: example, 65 +large-base decimal fraction -- has count 0, skipping -- large-base decim= al fraction: expressing, 445 +la-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- la-series descriptors:= compared with le-series in implicit quantification, 130 +Latin -- has count 16, skipping -- Latin: alphabet of Lojban, 413 +LAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAU selma'o, 415, 418, 419, 498;= grammar of following BY, 426 +le -- has count 1039, skipping -- le, 119, 129, 177, 354; and specificit= y, 120; and truth of selbri, 120; compared with English "the", 120; compare= d with la in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; con= trasted with lo in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with lo in spec= ificity, 121; contrasted with lo in truth requirement, 121; implications of= , 120; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; in false-to-fact descriptions, 1= 20; meaning of in the plural, 123 +le contrasted with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- le contrasted with lo:= for relative clause placement considerations, 179 +le nu -- has count 75, skipping -- le nu: definition, 256 +le'e -- has count 12, skipping -- le'e, 126, 130; relationship to le'i, = 126 +left-grouping rule -- has count 12, skipping -- left-grouping rule: defi= nition of, 86 +legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- legalities: boring, 8 +LEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LEhU selma'o, 476, 498 +le'i -- has count 14, skipping -- le'i, 125, 130; as set counterpart of = lei, 125; relationship to le'e, 126 +lei -- has count 30, skipping -- lei, 123, 130; contrasted with loi in s= pecificity, 124 +Length -- has count 0, skipping -- Length ( Width ( Depth =3D Volume: e= xample, 456 +lerfu -- has count 217, skipping -- lerfu: as assignable pro-sumti, 152;= contrasted with lerfu word, 413; definition, 413; reference to, 422; refer= ring to with me'o, 422 +lerfu juxtaposition interpretation -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu jux= taposition interpretation: contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423 +lerfu pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu pro-sumti: effect on r= i-series pro-sumti, 153 +lerfu shift scope -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu shift scope: excepti= on for mathematical texts, 423 +lerfu string -- has count 32, skipping -- lerfu string: as acronym using= "me", 424; as function name, 423; as function, in mathematics, 438; as mat= hematical variable, 422; as pro-sumti, 421; as pro-sumti assigned by goi, 4= 21; as pro-sumti, assumption of reference, 421; as pro-sumti, for multiple = sumti separated by boi, 421; as quantifier, 423; as quantifier, avoiding in= teraction with sumti quantifier, 423; as selbri, 423; as subscript, 423; as= utterance ordinal, 423; as variable, in mathematics, 438; definition, 420;= in mathematical expressions, 437; interpretation of contrasted with normal= mathematical interpretation, 437; interpretation, contrasted with mathemat= ical interpretation, 423; use in mathematics, 422; with numerical selbri, 4= 48 +lerfu word -- has count 47, skipping -- lerfu word: contrasted with lerf= u, 413; for " ' ", 414 +lerfu word cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word cmavo: list of a= uxiliary, 425 +lerfu word set extension -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word set exte= nsion: with bu, 416 +lerfu words -- has count 81, skipping -- lerfu words: as a basis for acr= onym names, 423; composed of compound cmavo, 414; composed of single cmavo,= 414; consonant words contrasted with vowel words, 414; effect of systemati= c formulation, 414; for consonants, 414; for vowels, 414; formation rules, = 414; forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, 419; list of proposed, no= tation convention, 426; Lojban coverage requirement, 413; proposed for acce= nt marks, 429; proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, 427; proposed for diacritic = marks, 429; proposed for Greek alphabet, 426; proposed for Hebrew alphabet,= 428; proposed for multiple letters, 429; proposed for noisy environments, = 429; proposed for radio communication, 429; table of Lojban, 414; using com= puter encoding schemes with se'e, 425; vowel words contrasted with consonan= t words, 414 +lerfu words ending with "y" -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words endi= ng with "y": pause after, rationale, 414 +lerfu words for vowels -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words for vowel= s: pause requirement before, 414 +lerfu words with numeric digits -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words = with numeric digits: grammar considerations, 420 +le-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- le-series descriptors:= compared with la-series in implicit quantification, 130 +less -- has count 81, skipping -- less: English word, expressing with re= lative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204 +less than -- has count 27, skipping -- less than: contrasted with more t= han, at least, at most, 443; example, 443 +letter -- has count 88, skipping -- letter: alphabet, 413; contrasted wi= th word for the letter, 413; making a word into, 490 +letter encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- letter encoding sche= mes: application to lerfu words, 425 +letteral -- has count 20, skipping -- letteral: definition, 413 +letters -- has count 79, skipping -- letters, 491; non-Lojban, represent= ation of diacritical marks on, 418; non-Lojban, representation with consona= nt-word + bu, 417; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, dra= wback, 417; non-Lojban, representation with language-shift, 417; non-Lojban= , representation with names, 416; sound contrasted with symbol for spelling= , 417; symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, 417 +le'u -- has count 28, skipping -- le'u, 119, 141, 476; interaction with = zoi, 478 +li -- has count 200, skipping -- li, 119, 141, 435; as converter of meks= o into sumti, 436; contrasted with me'o, 457; relation to me'o compared wit= h la/zo relation, 457; terminator for, 454 +LI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LI selma'o, 142, 422, 499; termin= ator for, 499 +LIhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LIhU selma'o, 476, 499 +likes more than -- has count 0, skipping -- likes more than: example, 20= 3 +linked sumti and FA tags -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti and FA= tags, 93 +linked sumti and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti an= d sumti tcita, 94 +Linnaean names -- has count 0, skipping -- Linnaean names: rules for, 67 +lion in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lion in Africa: example, 126 +lions in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lions in Africa: example, 12= 4 +list -- has count 302, skipping -- list: as a physical object, 355; cont= rasted with sequence, 355; example, 355 +list of things to do -- has count 0, skipping -- list of things to do: e= xample, 358 +listen attentively -- has count 0, skipping -- listen attentively: examp= le, 278 +literally -- has count 14, skipping -- literally, 322 +li'u -- has count 40, skipping -- li'u, 119, 141, 476 +Livingston -- has count 0, skipping -- Livingston: example, 317 +lo -- has count 207, skipping -- lo, 121, 129; and truth of selbri, 121;= contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with le in implicit qu= antification, 131; contrasted with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with = le in truth requirement, 121; contrasted with loi and lo'i, 125; implicatio= ns of, 121; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; omission of, 132 +lo contrasted with le -- has count 0, skipping -- lo contrasted with le:= for relative clause placement considerations, 179 +lo'e -- has count 13, skipping -- lo'e, 126, 130; relationship to lo'i, = 126 +logic -- has count 26, skipping -- logic: and attitudinals, 392; limits = of, 392; resolving ambiguities of "nobody", 391 +logical connection -- has count 67, skipping -- logical connection: effe= ct on elidability of lo'o, 454; grouping strategies for complex cases contr= asted, 343; in abstraction(s), inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, 365= ; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, contrasted with unconnected v= ersion, 349; in tanru, expandability of, 349; in tanru, grouping with bo, 3= 49; in tanru, grouping with ke, 350; inside an abstraction(s), contrasted w= ith outside, 365; interaction with tenses, 363; negation in connecting more= than 2 sentences, 342; of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, 350; of bridi-ta= ils, forethought, 347; of bridi-tails, restriction on ke, 346; of forethoug= ht termsets, 348; of modals, 208; of more than 2 sentences, all or none, 34= 2; of more than 2 sentences, forethought, 342; of more than 2 sentences, mi= xed "and" and "or", 342; of more than 2 sentences, things to avoid, 342; of= observatives, relation of first places, 345; of selbri, 344; of sumti, gro= uping with parenthesis, 344; of sumti, restriction on ke, 344; of tanru as = opposed to bridi-tail, 350; of tanru, caveat, 350; termsets, 347; transform= ation between forms, 340; with bo, precedence, 342 +logical connectives -- has count 90, skipping -- logical connectives, 33= 3; associative, 341; bridi-tail connection, 345; cmavo, format for each sel= ma'o, 336; effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, 17= 5; grouping with bo, 342; in tanru, 89; more than 2 sentences, 341; negated= first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, 339; observative = sentence connection, 345; pairing from left, 342; rationale for multiple se= ts in grammar, 335; recipes, simplified for logic chapter discussion, 403; = relation to truth functions, 334; relative precedence with me'u, 99; right-= grouping with bo, 343; selma'o, enumerated, 336; syntax rules summary, 366;= table by truth function value, 366; tensed, 240 +logical connectives and bridi negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logic= al connectives and bridi negation, 403 +logical connectives and negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical con= nectives and negation: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 +logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connect= ives in tanru, 349; ambiguity of, 90; effect on formal logical manipulation= s, 90; effect on tanru grouping, 89; usefulness of, 90 +logical connectives within negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical = connectives within negation: effects of expansion on, 407 +Logical Language Group -- has count 10, skipping -- Logical Language Gro= up: example, 74; relation to Lojban, 3 +logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- logical variables: creatin= g more by subscripting, 410; effect of global substitution, 393; effect of = order in prenex, 394; effect of using multiple different, 393; explicitly p= lacing in outer prenex, 400; for selbri, 409; implicit placement in smalles= t enclosing bridi prenex, 400; notation convention, 392; when not in main b= ridi, 393; with multiple appearances in bridi, 393; with poi, in multiple a= ppearances, 396; with ro, in multiple appearances, 396 +Loglan -- has count 16, skipping -- Loglan, 6 +LOhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhO selma'o, 499 +LOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhU selma'o, 476, 499; termina= tor for, 498 +lo'i -- has count 23, skipping -- lo'i, 125, 130, 447; as set counterpar= t of loi, 125; contrasted with lo and loi, 125; relationship to lo'e, 126; = with elided quantifiers, 447 +loi -- has count 47, skipping -- loi, 123, 130; as mass counterpart of l= o, 123; contrasted with lei in specificity, 124; contrasted with lo and lo'= i, 125 +Lojban -- has count 992, skipping -- Lojban: features of, 3; history of,= 3; stability of, 4 +long rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- long rafsi form: compared wi= th short form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56 +loose association -- has count 0, skipping -- loose association: express= ing with pe, 172 +lo-series description -- has count 0, skipping -- lo-series description:= caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, 131 +lo'u -- has count 30, skipping -- lo'u, 141, 416, 476; interaction with = bu, 416; interaction with zoi, 478 +love more -- has count 0, skipping -- love more: example, 260 +lower case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower case letters: use i= n Lojban, 415 +lower-case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case letters: Engli= sh usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English,= 415 +lower-case word -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case word: effect on f= ollowing lerfu words, 415 +lu -- has count 75, skipping -- lu, 119, 141, 422, 476; contrasted with = me'o for representing lerfu, 422 +LU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator = for, 499 +lu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- lu'e, 134, 264, 459, 478; as short for= "le sinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134 +LUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LUhU selma'o, 267, 499 +lujvo -- has count 335, skipping -- lujvo: abbreviated, 284; abstract, 2= 86; algorithm for, 70; and consonant pairs, 59; and plausibility, 70; and s= eltau/tertau relationship, 276; and the listener, 70; anomalous, 290; as a = subtype of brivla, 53; as suppliers of agent place, 295; asymmetric abstrac= tion, 288; asymmetrical, 278; based on multiple tanru, 70; cmavo incorporat= ion, 274; comparatives, 292; compared with tanru, 273; consideration in cho= osing meaning for, 69; considerations for retaining elements of, 70; constr= uction of, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; design consideration for= relationship, 276; dropping elements of, 69; dropping NU in implicit abstr= actions, 288; dropping NU rafsi, 288; dropping SE rafsi, 283; examples of m= aking, 72; from cmavo with no rafsi, 60; from tanru, 55; fully reduced, 59;= grammar of, 273; guidelines for place structure, 273; implicit-abstraction= , 288; interpreting, 276; invention of, 57; meaning drift of, 69; meaning o= f, 56; multiple forms of, 56; NU-dropping contrasted with SE-dropping, 288;= place structure of, 273; place structure of figurative lujvo, 322; pro-sum= ti rafsi effect on place structure of, 163; quick-tour version, 20; rationa= le for, 273; recognizing, 59; rules for formation of, 56; scope abstraction= in underlying veljvo, 287; scored examples of, 72; scoring of, 71; selecti= on of best form of, 71; shorter for more general concepts, 70; summary of f= orm characteristics, 59; superlatives, 292; symmetrical, 278; ultimate guid= eline for choice of meaning/place-structure, 69; unambiguity of, 69; unambi= guous decomposition of, 56; unreduced, 57; unsuitability of for concrete/sp= ecific terms and jargon, 61; with "jai", 287; with zei, 60; zi'o rafsi effe= ct on place structure of, 163 +lujvo place order -- has count 0, skipping -- lujvo place order, 281; as= ymmetrical lujvo, 282; based on 3-or-more part veljvo, 282; comparatives, 2= 92; complex relation, 290; elliptical lujvo, 291; multi-part with NU, 287; = non-overlapping place structures, 290; rationale for standardization, 281; = redundant non-first places, 290; superlatives, 294; superlatives as excepti= ons, 294; symmetrical lujvo, 282 +ma -- has count 101, skipping -- ma, 159, 249, 469; as sumti question, 1= 59; for tense questions, 249; quick-tour version, 22 +MAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAhO selma'o, 500; terminator f= or, 505 +MAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAI selma'o, 458, 474, 500; exce= ption on use of boi before, 458 +male sexual teacher -- has count 0, skipping -- male sexual teacher: exa= mple, 74 +man biting dog -- has count 0, skipping -- man biting dog, 217 +man or woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man or woman: example, 333 +ma'o -- has count 15, skipping -- ma'o, 438, 460; potential ambiguity ca= veat, 460 +mai -- has count 10, skipping -- mai, 458, 474; contrasted with mo'o, 45= 8 +man is woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man is woman: example, 177 +man-woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man-woman: example, 350 +Mars road -- has count 0, skipping -- Mars road: example, 193 +mass -- has count 110, skipping -- mass: compared with set as abstract o= f multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; contras= ted with set in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with s= et in distribution of properties, 355; expressing measurement standard for = indefinites, 446; expressing portions of, 441; expressing relation with ind= ividuals forming, 446; expressing relation with set forming, 446; joining e= lements into a, 353; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130 +mass contrasted with components -- has count 0, skipping -- mass contras= ted with components: in properties of, 354 +mass object -- has count 0, skipping -- mass object: and logical reasoni= ng, 123; as dependent on intention, 124; contrasted with multiple individua= l objects, 123; properties of, 123 +mass objects -- has count 0, skipping -- mass objects: peculiarities of = English translation of, 124 +mathematical expression -- has count 10, skipping -- mathematical expres= sion: abbreviation notation, 431; definition (see also "mekso"), 431; refer= ring to, 457 +mathematical expressions in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematic= al expressions in tanru, 97 +mathematical inequalities -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical inequ= alities: expressing, 439 +mathematical texts -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical texts: effec= t on lerfu shift scope, 423 +mathematical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical variable= s: lerfu strings as, 422 +mathematics -- has count 18, skipping -- mathematics: use of lerfu strin= gs in, 422 +matrix -- has count 12, skipping -- matrix: as combination of vectors, 4= 52; definition, 451; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452; wit= h ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, 452; with more than 2 dimensions, 452 +ma'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ma'u, 442; with elided number, 442 +me -- has count 277, skipping -- me, 98, 424, 448; compared with du in e= ffect, 99; effect of MOI on, 448; explicitly specifying, 325; place structu= re of, 98; used with names, 99 +ME selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ME selma'o, 98, 448, 500; termina= tor for, 500 +MEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MEhU selma'o, 98, 500 +mei -- has count 11, skipping -- mei, 446; place structure formed for ob= jective indefinites, 446 +mekso -- has count 71, skipping -- mekso: and literary translation, 460;= complex used as quantifier, 454; definition, 431; design goals, 431; list = of selma'o for, 461 +mekso chapter -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso chapter: completeness, 4= 31; table notation convention, 431 +mekso goal -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goal: coverage, 431; expand= able, 431; for common use, 431; for mathematical writing, 431; precision, 4= 31; unambiguous, 431 +mekso goals -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goals: and ambiguity, 431;= and non-mathematical expression, 431; mathematical notation form, 431 +me'o -- has count 21, skipping -- me'o, 142, 422, 457; compared with la'= e lu, 422; contrasted with li, 457; contrasted with lu...li'u for represent= ing lerfu, 422; contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, 422; rela= tion to li compared with la/zo relation, 457 +metalinguistic levels or reference -- has count 0, skipping -- metalingu= istic levels or reference, 481 +metalinguistic words -- has count 0, skipping -- metalinguistic words: q= uick-tour version, 25 +me'u -- has count 20, skipping -- me'u, 98, 448, 449; relative precedenc= e with logical connectives, 99 +mi -- has count 799, skipping -- mi, 119, 146 +mi'e -- has count 13, skipping -- mi'e, 146, 325; contrasted with other = members of COI, 325; effect of ordering multiple COI, 325 +mi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mi'o, 146 +mi-series -- has count 12, skipping -- mi-series: of pro-sumti, 146 +mi-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- mi-series pro-sumti: lac= k of pro-bridi equivalent, 147 +mixed claim -- has count 10, skipping -- mixed claim: definition, 394 +mixed modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- mixed modal connectio= n: afterthought, 205; as proscribed in forethought, 205; definition, 204; o= f bridi-tails, 205; of sentences, 204; of sumti, 205 +mo -- has count 70, skipping -- mo, 160, 470; as selbri question, 160; c= ompared with go'i in overriding of arguments, 160; quick-tour version, 23 +modal bridi-tail connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal bridi-tail= connection, 200 +modal causals -- has count 0, skipping -- modal causals: implication dif= ferences, 197 +modal cmavo table -- has count 0, skipping -- modal cmavo table: format = of, 210 +modal connection -- has count 12, skipping -- modal connection: simultan= eous with logical, 204 +modal connection of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal connection = of selbri: using bridi-tail modal connection, 200 +modal conversion with fi'o -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversion = with fi'o, 206 +modal conversion without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- modal convers= ion without modal: as vague, 206 +modal conversions -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversions: in desc= riptions, 206 +modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal followed by s= elbri: compared with tanru modification in meaning, 202; contrasted with ta= nru modification in grammar, 202; effect on eliding cu, 201 +modal operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal operand conne= ction, 201 +modal place -- has count 10, skipping -- modal place: definition, 195; o= n description selbri, 197; rationale for term name, 195; relation of to sel= bri, 195 +modal place relation -- has count 0, skipping -- modal place relation: i= mportance of first place in, 195 +modal sumti connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal sumti connectio= n, 200 +modal tag -- has count 15, skipping -- modal tag: and sumti tcita, 94; c= ontrasted with English preposition in preciseness, 196; definition (see als= o sumti tcita), 195; fi'o with selbri as, 194; for vague relationship, 197;= short form as BAI, 195 +modal with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- modal with no sumti: ind= icator for, 497 +modal-or-tense question -- has count 0, skipping -- modal-or-tense quest= ion: with cu'e, 250 +modals -- has count 42, skipping -- modals: compared with tenses in synt= ax, 248; contradictory negation of, 206; contrasted with tenses in semantic= s, 248; expanding scope over inner modal connection, 202; expanding scope o= ver logical connection with ke...ke'e, 202; expanding scope over multiple s= entences with tu'e...tu'u, 202; expanding scope over non-logical connection= , 202; for causal gismu, 197; importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita= use, 248; improving relative phrase preciseness with, 203; making long-sco= pe, 207; making sticky, 207; negation of, 206; scalar negation of, 207; ter= mset connection, 200 +modals often attached with relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- = modals often attached with relative phrases: list, 204 +modified -- has count 19, skipping -- modified: of a tanru, 274 +modifier -- has count 27, skipping -- modifier: of a tanru, 274; seltau = as, 84 +modifying brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- modifying brivla (see also= seltau), 55 +MOhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhE selma'o, 500; terminator f= or, 505 +MOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhI selma'o, 224, 501 +mo'i -- has count 13, skipping -- mo'i, 224 +mo'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mo'o, 458, 474; contrasted with mai, 4= 58 +moi -- has count 14, skipping -- moi, 447 +MOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOI selma'o, 98, 446, 449, 463, = 500; list of cmavo in, 463; use of boi before, 449 +more -- has count 452, skipping -- more: English word, expressing with r= elative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204 +more than -- has count 121, skipping -- more than: contrasted with less = than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443 +morphology -- has count 12, skipping -- morphology: conventions for, 49;= definition, 49; derivational, 49; simplicity of, 49; symbolic conventions = for discussing, 49 +movement -- has count 13, skipping -- movement: order in tense construct= s, 225; time, 225; with multiple directions, 225 +movement specification -- has count 0, skipping -- movement specificatio= n: interaction with direction in tenses, 224 +multiple compound bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple compound br= idi: restriction on ke, 346 +multiple conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple conversion: avo= iding, 194; effect of ordering, 194 +multiple indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple indefinit= e sumti: effect of re-ordering in sentence, 399; expressing with equal scop= e, 399; meaning, 398 +multiple indefinite sumti scope -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple ind= efinite sumti scope: in termset, 399 +multiple individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple individ= ual objects: contrasted with mass object, 123; meaning of, 123 +multiple logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple logica= l connectives: within tanru, 91 +multiple ma -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple ma: as multiple questio= ns, 160 +multiple mo -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple mo: as multiple questio= ns, 160 +multiple quantification -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple quantificat= ion: effect on selbri placement among sumti, 407 +multiple questions in one bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple que= stions in one bridi: expressing, 160 +multiple relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple relative = clauses: attaching with zi'e, 175; connecting different kinds with zi'e, 17= 6 +multiple sumti in one place -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple sumti i= n one place: avoiding, 191; meaning, 191 +multiple tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple tanru inve= rsion: effect on grouping, 96 +my -- has count 168, skipping -- my: example, 180 +n people -- has count 0, skipping -- n people: example, 423 +na -- has count 261, skipping -- na, 104, 338, 346, 350, 401, 408; and n= egation boundary, 408; order in logical connectives with se, 338 +na and tense -- has count 0, skipping -- na and tense: multiple, 104 +NA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NA selma'o, 501 +na writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- na writing convention:= in eks, 341 +na.a -- has count 12, skipping -- na.a, 341 +na'e -- has count 82, skipping -- na'e, 207; before gu'e, 103; contraste= d with na'e ke, 102 +NAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhE selma'o, 101, 133, 182, 24= 2, 459, 501; effect of relative clause placement with, 182 +NAhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhU selma'o, 501; terminator f= or, 505 +na'i -- has count 19, skipping -- na'i, 321 +NAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAI selma'o, 501 +naku -- has count 66, skipping -- naku, 401; as creating a negation boun= dary, 405; compared with sumti in grammar, 405; effect on moving quantifier= s, 405; in linked sumti places, 407; multiple in sentence, 407; outside of = prenex, 405 +naku negation -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation: rationale for c= onsidering an advanced technique, 406 +naku negation boundary -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation boundar= y: effect on conversion with se, 406 +naku zo'u -- has count 12, skipping -- naku zo'u, 408; and negation boun= dary, 408 +name equivalent for "typical" -- has count 0, skipping -- name equivalen= t for "typical": rationale for lack of, 127 +names -- has count 99, skipping -- names: algorithm for, 66; alternative= s for restricted sequences in, 66; as possessive sumti, 180; assigning with= goi, 152; authority for, 65; borrowing from other languages, 138; examples= of, 64; from Lojban words, 66; in vocative phrase, 137; multiple, 138; non= -Lojban, 479; pause requirement in lerfu words, 416; purpose of, 64; quick-= tour version, 13; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause afte= r, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65;= stress in, 65, 66; stress on, 40; two kinds of, 137; unusual stress in, 65= ; uses of, 137; using rafsi, 138; with LA descriptor, 137; with zo versus l= a, 478 +names from vowel-final base -- has count 0, skipping -- names from vowel= -final base: commonly used consonant endings, 138 +names in Lojban -- has count 0, skipping -- names in Lojban (see also c= mene), 64 +names with la -- has count 0, skipping -- names with la: implicit quanti= fier for, 139 +na'u -- has count 13, skipping -- na'u, 456; terminator for, 456; use in= asking operator questions, 457 +nai -- has count 87, skipping -- nai, 206, 226, 241, 299, 338, 340, 346,= 350, 358, 360, 361, 408; effect on intervals, 360; effect on joiks, 358; p= lacement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, 339;= placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, 33= 9 +ne -- has count 22, skipping -- ne, 174, 203; compared with pe, 174 +Nederlands -- has count 0, skipping -- Nederlands: example, 65 +negated interval -- has count 0, skipping -- negated interval: meaning o= f, 360 +negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair -- has count 0, skipping = -- negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, 347 +negating a forethought-connected sentence pair -- has count 0, skipping --= negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, 347 +negation -- has count 228, skipping -- negation: complex examples, 102; = form for emulating natural language negation, 405; of operand, 459; of oper= ator, 459; of tenses, 241 +negation between sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- negation between = sentences: compared with bridi negation, 404; meaning of, 404 +negation boundary -- has count 15, skipping -- negation boundary: and ze= ro, 402; effect of moving, 402; forming, 497 +negation in prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- negation in prenex: effec= ts of position, 401 +negation manipulation -- has count 0, skipping -- negation manipulation:= "na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, 407; "naku" contrasted with = "na" in difficulty of, 407 +negation of fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of fi'o mod= als: by negating selbri, 207 +negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of modals, 206; = contradictory, 206; scalar, 207 +negations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- negations= with logical connectives: effects on expansion of sentence, 407 +negative numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- negative numbers: expressin= g, 432 +negator -- has count 11, skipping -- negator: contradictory, 501; moveme= nt from bridi to sumti, 408; scalar, 501; single-word, 501 +-ness -- has count 0, skipping -- -ness, 259 +New York city -- has count 0, skipping -- New York city: example, 174 +New York state -- has count 0, skipping -- New York state: example, 174 +-ng -- has count 0, skipping -- -ng: Lojban contrasted with English, 41 +ni -- has count 97, skipping -- ni, 261, 262 +NIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhE selma'o, 501; terminator f= or, 505 +NIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhO selma'o, 466, 467, 502; qu= ick-tour version, 16 +ni'o -- has count 24, skipping -- ni'o, 466; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bri= di assignments, 162; quick-tour version, 16 +ni'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ni'u, 432, 438, 442; contrasted with v= a'a and vu'u, 438; with elided number, 442 +nobody -- has count 12, skipping -- nobody: ambiguous interpretations of= , 391; interpretation of, 391; Lojban contrasted with English, 391 +no'i -- has count 11, skipping -- no'i, 467; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bri= di assignments, 162 +noi -- has count 39, skipping -- noi, 171, 203 +NOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NOI selma'o, 169, 502; terminato= r for, 498 +non-logical connectives -- has count 17, skipping -- non-logical connect= ives: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; including tense, 364; intervals= , 359; ordered intervals, 359; sentence, 358; syntax rules summary, 366; un= -ordered intervals, 359; within tanru, 91 +non-logical forethought termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logical= forethought termsets: connecting tagged sumti, 358 +non-logically connected tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logically= connected tenses, 363 +non-restrictive relative clause -- has count 0, skipping -- non-restrict= ive relative clause: definition (see also incidental relative clause), 171 +non-specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- non-specific descr= iptions, 121 +non-standard orthographies -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard orth= ographies: caveat, 46; Cyrillic, 46; Tengwar, 46 +non-standard words -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard words: marki= ng, 480 +nothing sits -- has count 0, skipping -- nothing sits: example, 401 +nu -- has count 169, skipping -- nu, 256, 259, 261; definition, 256; pla= ce structure, 257 +NU compared with ZAhO -- has count 0, skipping -- NU compared with ZAhO,= 268 +NU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NU selma'o, 98, 255, 256, 257, 26= 2, 263, 268, 365, 502; syntax, 255; terminator for, 497 +nu'a -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'a, 97, 457; use in answering operat= or questions, 457 +NUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhA selma'o, 502 +NUhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhI selma'o, 348, 399, 502 +NUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhU selma'o, 348, 399, 502; te= rminator for, 502 +nu'i -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'i, 200, 348, 399 +number questions -- has count 0, skipping -- number questions, 449; answ= ers to, 449 +number words -- has count 0, skipping -- number words: pattern in, 432 +numbers -- has count 85, skipping -- numbers: as compound cmavo, 432; as= grammatically complete utterances, 449; as possessive sumti, 180; cmavo as= Lojban equivalents, 50; descriptor for, 499; English contrasted with Lojba= n on exactness, 397; expressing simple, 432; greater than 9, 432; implicit = quantifier for, 142; indefinite, 440; list of indefinite, 463; list of spec= ial, 462; Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, 397; meaning when us= ed as quantifiers, 127; on logical variables, 397; rafsi for, 59; special, = 434; talking about contrasted with using for quantification, 435; using for= quantification contrasted with talking about, 435 +numeric digits in lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- numeric digits= in lerfu words: grammar considerations, 420 +numerical punctuation -- has count 14, skipping -- numerical punctuation= , 433; undefined, 434 +numerical tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- numerical tenses: effect on= use of boi, 458 +nu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- nu'u, 200, 348, 399 +ny -- has count 40, skipping -- ny, 437 +observation evidential -- has count 0, skipping -- observation evidentia= l: contrasted with observative, 316 +observative form -- has count 0, skipping -- observative form: contraste= d with command, 188 +observative with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- observative wit= h elided CAhA: convention, 245 +octal system -- has count 0, skipping -- octal system: specifying number= s in (see also base), 444 +office or ice-dance -- has count 0, skipping -- office or ice-dance: exa= mple, 347 +Old McDonald -- has count 0, skipping -- Old McDonald: example, 32 +on right -- has count 0, skipping -- on right: contrasted with toward ri= ght, 224 +on two occasions -- has count 0, skipping -- on two occasions: example, = 246 +on verge -- has count 0, skipping -- on verge: example, 228 +once -- has count 36, skipping -- once: example, 226, 458 +one-third of food -- has count 0, skipping -- one-third of food, 447 +only if -- has count 27, skipping -- only if: compared with if ... then,= 338 +of -- has count 4492, skipping -- of: in English, compared with do'e, 19= 7 +oi -- has count 16, skipping -- oi: example, 300 +omission of descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- omission of descripto= r: effect on ku, 132 +once and future king -- has count 0, skipping -- once and future king: e= xample, 363 +One -- has count 43, skipping -- One: the, example, 66 +only -- has count 371, skipping -- only: example, 318 +open interval -- has count 0, skipping -- open interval, 360; expressed = with mi'i, 455 +operand -- has count 86, skipping -- operand: converting from operator, = 460; converting into operator, 460; converting selbri into, 456; converting= sumti into, 456 +operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand connection: after= thought, 453; forethought, 453 +operand modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand modal conne= ction, 201 +operands -- has count 87, skipping -- operands: connecting, 361; contras= ted with general sumti, 436; too few for infix operation, 450; too many for= infix operation, 451 +operator -- has count 158, skipping -- operator: converting from operand= , 460; converting into operand, 460; converting into selbri, 457; convertin= g selbri into, 456; forethought marker, 503 +operator ...ku'e in Polish notation -- has count 0, skipping -- operator= ...ku'e in Polish notation: contrasted with vei ...ve'o, 438 +operator connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operator connection: aft= erthought, 453; forethought, 453 +operator derived from selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- operator derive= d from selbri: effect of selbri place structure on, 456 +operator left-right grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- operator left-r= ight grouping: as Lojban default, 436 +operator precedence in other languages -- has count 0, skipping -- opera= tor precedence in other languages, 436 +operator priority -- has count 0, skipping -- operator priority, 490 +operators -- has count 86, skipping -- operators: analogue of tanru in, = 361; connecting, 361; list of simple, 461; mathematical, 507 +operators of VUhU -- has count 0, skipping -- operators of VUhU: grammar= of operands, 436 +ordered sequence -- has count 0, skipping -- ordered sequence: by listin= g members, 355; contrasted with mass, 355; contrasted with set, 355 +outer product -- has count 0, skipping -- outer product, 452 +outer quantifier -- has count 23, skipping -- outer quantifier: contrast= ed with inner quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; = for expressing subset, 131; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite des= cription, 132; rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descript= ors, 131 +outer quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer quantifier o= f sumti: meaning of, 178 +outer sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer sumti: prenex for referrin= g to from within relative clause within relative clause, 185; referring to = from within relative clause within relative clause, 184 +owe money -- has count 0, skipping -- owe money: example, 346 +pa -- has count 65, skipping -- pa, 433 +PA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PA selma'o, 397, 432, 440, 449, 5= 02; exception on use of boi with MOI, 449; members with rafsi, 460; termina= tor for, 490 +paragraph marker -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph marker, 502 +paragraph separation -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph separation: s= poken text, 467; written text, 466 +paragraphs -- has count 12, skipping -- paragraphs: effects on scope, 46= 6; separating, 466; separator, 466 +parentheses -- has count 35, skipping -- parentheses: for complex mekso = used as quantifier, 454 +parenthesis -- has count 29, skipping -- parenthesis: discourse, 505; ma= thematical, 437; textual, 480 +partial quotation -- has count 0, skipping -- partial quotation, 321 +pausative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- pausative event cont= our, 228 +pause -- has count 95, skipping -- pause: and cmene, 68; and consonant-f= inal words, 68; and Cy-form cmavo, 69; and final-syllable stress, 69; and n= on-Lojban text, 69; and vowel-initial words, 68; between words, 68; contras= ted with stop, 229; contrasted with syllable break, 32; proscribed within w= ords, 68; representation of in Lojban, 31; requirement between stressed syl= lables, 52; symbol for, 416; word for, 416 +pauses -- has count 16, skipping -- pauses: before vowels, 52; rules for= , 68 +pe -- has count 65, skipping -- pe, 172, 180, 203; as loose association,= 172; compared with ne, 174; compared with poi ke'a srana, 172; contrasted = with po, 173 +peace symbol -- has count 0, skipping -- peace symbol, 425 +PEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhE selma'o, 347, 503 +PEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhO selma'o, 503; terminator f= or, 497 +pei -- has count 14, skipping -- pei, 313 +perfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- perfective event co= ntour, 228 +perils of omitting terminators -- has count 0, skipping -- perils of omi= tting terminators, 102 +period -- has count 17, skipping -- period: definition of, 31; example o= f, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; within a word, 32 +permissions notice -- has count 0, skipping -- permissions notice, 8 +personal pronouns for he/she/it/they -- has count 0, skipping -- persona= l pronouns for he/she/it/they: English contrasted with Lojban in organizati= on, 150 +person's arm -- has count 0, skipping -- person's arm: example, 173 +pe'u -- has count 12, skipping -- pe'u, 324; contrasted with e'o, 324 +phonetic alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- phonetic alphabet, 29; pro= posed lerfu words for, 429 +physical distress -- has count 0, skipping -- physical distress: example= , 307 +pi -- has count 84, skipping -- pi, 130, 433, 441, 442, 444; effect on i= ndefinite numbers, 441 +pi'e -- has count 14, skipping -- pi'e, 445 +pi'i -- has count 27, skipping -- pi'i, 436 +piro -- has count 10, skipping -- piro, 130; explanation of meaning, 130 +place of eating -- has count 0, skipping -- place of eating: example, 24= 7 +place structure -- has count 216, skipping -- place structure: adding ne= w places to with modal sumti, 194; definition, 12, 187; effect of FA on, 19= 0; effect of modal conversion on, 206; empty slots in, 187; explicitly mapp= ing sumti to place with FA, 190; gismu, 294; instability of, 187; leaving a= sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; notation conventions, 187; omit= ting places with FA, 190; omitting places with zo'e, 189; re-ordering by co= nversion, 100 +place structure and tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- place st= ructure and tanru inversion, 95 +place structure of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure of= selbri: determining, 187 +place structure questions -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure qu= estions, 191 +plant grows -- has count 11, skipping -- plant grows: example, 197, 207 +plural masses -- has count 0, skipping -- plural masses: possible use fo= r, 130 +plus negative of -- has count 0, skipping -- plus negative of: example, = 438 +po -- has count 51, skipping -- po, 173; as restrictive possession, 173;= compared with poi ke'a se steci srana, 173; contrasted with English posses= sion, 173; contrasted with pe, 173; contrasted with po'e, 173 +point -- has count 143, skipping -- point: event considered as, 230 +point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstract= ion: place structure, 259 +point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstract= ion(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269 +pointing cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- pointing cmavo: quick-tour ve= rsion, 13 +Polish notation -- has count 10, skipping -- Polish notation: and mekso = goals, 431; and use of boi, 438; definition, 438; end-of-operands indicator= , 438; explicitly marking as, 439; operands with infix expressions, 439; op= erator ...ku'e compared with parenthesization, 438; separating operands in,= 438; vei ...ve'o contrasted with operator ...ku'e, 438 +Polish notation mixed with infix -- has count 0, skipping -- Polish nota= tion mixed with infix, 455; example, 455 +politeness -- has count 0, skipping -- politeness: thank you and you're = welcome, 324; you're welcome, 324, 325 +poi -- has count 138, skipping -- poi, 169, 203, 394, 396; contrasted wi= th voi in veridicality, 177; discussion of translation, 170; dropping from = multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; syntax of, 169 +pointing -- has count 15, skipping -- pointing: reference by, 147 +portion -- has count 23, skipping -- portion: on set contrasted with on = individual, 131 +portion of whole -- has count 0, skipping -- portion of whole: expressin= g, 441 +positive numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- positive numbers: explicit = expression, 432 +possessed in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessed in r= elative phrases: compared with possessor, 174 +possession -- has count 38, skipping -- possession: expressing with po, = 173; intrinsic, expressing with po'e, 173; Lojban usage compared with Frenc= h and German in omission/inclusion, 175; Lojban usage contrasted with Engli= sh in omission/inclusion, 175; quick-tour version, 21 +possession not ownership -- has count 0, skipping -- possession not owne= rship: quick-tour version, 21 +possessive sumti and relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- posses= sive sumti and relative clauses: development history, 180 +possessive sumti with relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- posse= ssive sumti with relative clauses: effect of placement, 181 +possessor in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessor in r= elative phrases: compared with possessed, 174 +potential -- has count 20, skipping -- potential: expressing in past/fut= ure, 244 +po'u -- has count 22, skipping -- po'u, 174; as identity, 174; compared = with no'u, 174; compared with poi ke'a du, 174; contrasted with no'u, 175; = relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, 174 +prayer -- has count 10, skipping -- prayer: example, 281, 290 +precedence -- has count 32, skipping -- precedence: mathematical default= , 436 +predication -- has count 14, skipping -- predication: as a relationship,= 11; compared with bridi, 11 +pregnant sister -- has count 0, skipping -- pregnant sister: example, 32= 0 +prenex -- has count 71, skipping -- prenex: considerations for dropping,= 395; dropping for terseness, 397; effect of order of variables in, 396; ex= planation, 392; internal to a bridi, 400; purpose of, 396; removing when nu= meric quantifiers present, 397; syntax of, 392; use for outer sumti referen= ce, 185 +prenex marker -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex marker, 508 +prenex scope -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex scope: for sentences joi= ned by .i, 410; for sentences joined by ijeks, 410; in abstractions, 410; i= n embedded bridi, 410; in relative clauses, 410; informal, 410 +pretty -- has count 68, skipping -- pretty: English ambiguity of, 87 +pro-bridi -- has count 76, skipping -- pro-bridi: as abbreviation for br= idi, 151; broda-series, 151; broda-series list, 165; bu'a-series list, 165;= compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, 145; definition, 145; go'i= -series list, 165; list by series, 165; list of miscellaneous cmavo used wi= th, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for,= 151; quotation of, 476; scope effect of new paragraph, 466 +pro-bridi assignment -- has count 19, skipping -- pro-bridi assignment: = explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of,= 162 +pro-bridi rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-bridi rafsi: as producin= g context-dependent meanings, 164 +process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction: pla= ce structure, 259 +process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction(s): = definition, 258; related tense contours, 268 +process event -- has count 0, skipping -- process event: described, 258 +pronouncement -- has count 0, skipping -- pronouncement: example, 316 +pronouns -- has count 10, skipping -- pronouns: as anaphora, 152; compar= ed to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, 145 +pronunciation -- has count 64, skipping -- pronunciation: IPA for Lojban= , 30; quick-tour version, 12; relation to orthography, 29; standard, 29 +properties -- has count 33, skipping -- properties: place structure, 261 +property abstraction -- has count 12, skipping -- property abstraction(s= ): contrasted with amount abstraction, 261; specifying determining place by= sumti ellipsis, 259; specifying determining place with ce'u, 260; specifyi= ng sumti place of property with ce'u, 161; sumti ellipsis in, 259 +property of loving -- has count 0, skipping -- property of loving: examp= le, 260 +proposed lerfu words -- has count 23, skipping -- proposed lerfu words: = as working basis, 426 +propositional -- has count 15, skipping -- propositional: of attitudinal= s, 301 +pro-sumti -- has count 162, skipping -- pro-sumti: and discursive uttera= nces, 481; as possessive sumti, 180; classes of, 139; compared to pro-bridi= as means of abbreviation, 145; compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviati= ons, 145; contrasted with description, 119; da-series list, 165; definition= , 145; di'u-series, 148; di'u-series list, 164; for listener(s), 146; for l= isteners and/or speakers and/or others, 146; for relativized sumti in relat= ive clauses, 160; for speaker(s), 146; implicit quantifier for, 139; ko'a-s= eries, 150; ko'a-series list, 164; lerfu as, 152; lerfu string, effect on r= eference to lerfu itself, 422; lerfu string, interaction with quantifier an= d boi, 421; list by series, 164; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166= ; miscellaneous list, 165; mi-series, 146; mi-series list, 164; quick-tour = version, 13; quotation of, 476; rafsi for, 163; referring to place of diffe= rent bridi with go'i-series, 159; referring to place of same bridi with vo'= a-series, 158; ri-series list, 164; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; ser= ies, 145; ti-series, 147; ti-series list, 164; typical, 157; unspecified, 1= 57; vo'a-series, 158; vo'a-series list, 165; zo'e-series list, 164 +pro-sumti for utterances -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti for utter= ances, 148 +pro-sumti rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti rafsi: anticipated= use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, 163; effect of on place struct= ure of lujvo, 163 +pu -- has count 134, skipping -- pu, 219, 232; meaning as a sumti tcita,= 232; meaning when following interval specification, 222 +PU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PU selma'o, 219, 227, 242, 362, 5= 03; compared with FAhA, 219; contradictory negation of, 241 +punctuation -- has count 36, skipping -- punctuation, 297; in numbers, 4= 33; list of numerical, 462 +punctuation lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- punctuation lerfu wo= rds: interaction with different alphabet systems, 420; mechanism for creati= ng, 419; rationale for lau, 419 +pu'o -- has count 16, skipping -- pu'o, 228; as pastward of event, 229; = derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229 +quadratic formula -- has count 0, skipping -- quadratic formula: example= , 455 +qualified sumti -- has count 12, skipping -- qualified sumti: contrasted= with unqualified sumti, 133 +quantification -- has count 11, skipping -- quantification: before descr= iption sumti compared with before non-description sumti, 129 +quantified temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified tempora= l tense: definition, 226; negating with nai, 227 +quantified temporal tense with direction -- has count 0, skipping -- qua= ntified temporal tense with direction: Lojban contrasted with English in im= plications, 227 +quantified temporal tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified tempor= al tenses: "once" contrasted with "only once", 227; caveat on implication o= f, 227 +quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified tenses: as sumt= i tcita, 233 +quantifier -- has count 124, skipping -- quantifier, 502; effect of movi= ng naku, 405; explicit on sumti, 127; lerfu string as, 423; on previously q= uantified variable, 410; on sumti, effect on relative clause, 178; on sumti= , expressing inexact amount with, 127; on sumti, indicating exact number, 1= 27; with logical variables, 397; with sumti, 127 +questions -- has count 64, skipping -- questions, 469; answering with go= 'i, 154; connection, 351; digit, 449; fill-in-the-blank, 469; indirect, 264= ; marking in advance, 322; modal, 492; multiple, 470; number, 449, 470; ope= rator, 457; place structure position, 191; quick-tour version, 22; rhetoric= al, 322; selbri, 160, 470; sumti, 159, 469; truth, 469; with "xu, 321 +quotation -- has count 80, skipping -- quotation, 475; any text, 508; as= possessive sumti, 180; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422; c= ontrasted with sentence abstraction, 263; delimited, 508; four kinds, 141; = grammatical, 499; implicit quantifier for, 128, 141; of grammatical Lojban = text, 476; of Lojban words, 499; of non-Lojban, 477; of parseable Lojban te= xt, 476; of rafsi, 478; of single word, 477; of ungrammatical Lojban text, = 476; referent versus symbol, 478; single-word, 508; ungrammatical Lojban co= ntaining le'u, 477; ungrammatical Lojban containing lo'u, 477 +ra -- has count 44, skipping -- ra, 153; practical referent conventions,= 153 +radix -- has count 0, skipping -- radix: decimal (see also base), 444 +rafsi -- has count 201, skipping -- rafsi: as fu'ivla categorizer, 61; b= ased on pro-sumti, 163; considerations restricting construction of, 58; con= trasted with cmavo in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning= , 56; contrasted with words, 61; conventional meaning for cu'o, 460; conven= tional meaning for frinu, 460; definition, 56; definition, quick-tour versi= on, 27; forms of, 57; four-letter, requirement for y-hyphen, 60; lack of, e= ffect on forming lujvo, 60; level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, 57; l= ong, 57; multiple for each gismu, 69; multiplicity of for single gismu, 57;= possible forms for construction of, 58; quotation of, 478; rationale for a= ssignments of, 58; rules for combining to form lujvo, 56; selection conside= rations in making lujvo, 57; short, 57; uniqueness in gismu referent of, 57= ; use of, 57 +rafsi assignments -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi assignments: non-rea= ssignability of, 58 +rafsi for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi for numbers, 59 +rafsi fu'ivla proposal -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi fu'ivla proposa= l, 80 +RAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- RAhO selma'o, 503 +ra'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ra'o, 156; for reinterpreting go'i-ser= ies pro-bridi sumti references, 156 +rat eats cheese -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese: example, 22= 7, 232 +rat eats cheese in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese in p= ark: example, 247 +rats in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rats in park: example, 446 +real world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- real world point of= view, 320 +re-evaluation of referents -- has count 0, skipping -- re-evaluation of = referents: flag for, 503 +reference -- has count 47, skipping -- reference: ambiguity of ti/ta/tu,= 169; and discursive utterances, 481; quick-tour version, 20; to relativize= d sumti with ke'a, 169; use of relative clause for, 169 +reference frame for directions in tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- ref= erence frame for directions in tenses, 224 +referent -- has count 54, skipping -- referent: contrasted with symbol, = 478; of operand, 459; referring to with la'e, 134 +referent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-bridi:= definition, 145 +referent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-sumti:= definition, 145 +regularly -- has count 10, skipping -- regularly: example, 226 +relation of first places in logical connection of observatives -- has coun= t 0, skipping -- relation of first places in logical connection of observ= atives: rationale, 345 +relationship -- has count 111, skipping -- relationship: active/static/a= ttributive compared, 11; as basis of sentence, 187; objects of, 187 +relative clause -- has count 91, skipping -- relative clause: as part of= name, 179; compared with tanru, 172; connecting to relative phrase with zi= 'e, 176; connecting to whole sumti, 506; contrasted with tanru, 172; effect= of commas in English, 171; effect of elided ku of relativized sumti, 177; = effect of omission of ke'a on, 170; effect of relativized sumti quantifiers= on, 178; effect on elidability of be'o, 94; impact of indefinite sumti on = placement, 180; impact of la on placement, 179; impact of LAhE on placement= , 182; impact of le on placement, 179; impact of lo on placement, 179; impa= ct of NAhE on placement, 182; kinds of, 171; list of cmavo for, 185; on con= nected sumti, 182; on names, 179; on number, 181; on possessive sumti, 181;= on quotation, 182; on vocative phrases, 184; placement in sentence, 177; p= lacement with vocative phrases, 184; relative clauses within, 184; restrict= ed contrasted with incidental, 171; restricted contrasted with incidental i= n English expression, 171; restrictive (see also restrictive relative claus= e), 171; syntax with indefinite sumti, 180; use for reference, 169; use in = restricting existential claims, 394; use in restricting universal claims, 3= 95; use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, 160 +relative clause after descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- relative cl= ause after descriptor: effect on elidability of ku'o, 178 +relative clause after relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- r= elative clause after relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178 +relative clause after sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause = after sumti: as common placement in sentence, 177 +relative clause and indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relativ= e clause and indefinite sumti: placement considerations, 180 +relative clause and LAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and= LAhE: placement considerations, 182 +relative clause and le-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause= and le-sumti: placement considerations, 179 +relative clause and lo-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause= and lo-sumti: placement considerations, 179 +relative clause and NAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and= NAhE: placement considerations, 182 +relative clause and names -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause an= d names: placement considerations, 179 +relative clause and possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relativ= e clause and possessive sumti: development history, 180 +relative clause and quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relativ= e clause and quantified sumti: placement considerations, 178 +relative clause before inner quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- rela= tive clause before inner quantifier: meaning, 178 +relative clause before relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- = relative clause before relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178 +relative clause marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause marke= r, 502 +relative clause on complex sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative cl= ause on complex sumti: Lojban contrasted with English, 183 +relative clause on indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative= clause on indefinite sumti: syntax considerations, 180 +relative clause on lo -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on lo:= syntax suggestion, 179 +relative clause placement -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause pl= acement: considerations for lo-sumti contrasted with le-sumti, 179; conside= rations for simple descriptors contrasted with for quantified sumti, 179; e= ffect on scope, 178; English contrasted with Chinese and Finnish, 178; on s= umti with simple descriptor, 178 +relative clause with possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relati= ve clause with possessive sumti: effect of placement, 181 +relative phrase -- has count 23, skipping -- relative phrase: as an abbr= eviation of a common relative clause, 172; compared with possessive sumti, = 180; connecting to relative clause with zi'e, 176; contrasted with possessi= ve sumti in complexity allowed, 180; contrasted with relative clause in pre= ciseness, 203; improving preciseness with modals, 203; rationale for, 172; = syntax of, 172 +relative phrase marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrase marke= r, 495 +relative phrases with modals -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrase= s with modals: compared to relative clauses in preciseness, 203 +re-ordering logical variables with se -- has count 0, skipping -- re-ord= ering logical variables with se, 396 +repeating decimals -- has count 0, skipping -- repeating decimals: expre= ssing with numerical punctuation, 433; marking start of repeating portion, = 433 +replace -- has count 14, skipping -- replace: example, 289 +representing lerfu -- has count 0, skipping -- representing lerfu: lu co= ntrasted with me'o, 422 +respectively -- has count 84, skipping -- respectively: example, 356; sp= ecifying with fa'u, 356; with different relationships, 358 +restricted claims -- has count 0, skipping -- restricted claims: definit= ion, 394 +resumptive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- resumptive event co= ntour, 228 +reviewers of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- reviewers of this boo= k, 6 +ri -- has count 101, skipping -- ri, 152; contrasted with ke'a in relati= ve clauses, 161; non-self-reference of, 153; referent of, 152; subscripting= for referring further back, 153 +ri'a -- has count 10, skipping -- ri'a, 197 +rich and German -- has count 0, skipping -- rich and German: example, 35= 6 +right-grouping in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- right-grouping in ta= nru: with bo, 87 +ro -- has count 112, skipping -- ro, 128, 129, 139, 394, 396, 440; as im= plicit quantifier on personal pro-sumti, 128; compared with pa, 440; droppi= ng from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; effect of order whe= n multiple in sentence, 399 +ro da -- has count 15, skipping -- ro da, 394 +rock face -- has count 0, skipping -- rock face: example, 231 +ROI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ROI selma'o, 226, 230, 503; effe= ct of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; exception on use of boi before, 458; scalar n= egation of, 242 +RP -- has count 0, skipping -- RP (see reverse Polish notation), 452 +ru -- has count 31, skipping -- ru, 153; practical referent conventions,= 153 +sa -- has count 43, skipping -- sa, 312, 416, 477, 483; interaction with= bu, 416 +SA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SA selma'o, 483, 503 +scalar negation -- has count 38, skipping -- scalar negation: effect on = selbri, 101 +scalar negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- scalar negation of= modals: explanation of meaning, 207 +scalar negation of non-logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- sc= alar negation of non-logical connective, 358 +scale -- has count 101, skipping -- scale: granular contrasted with cont= inuous, 448 +score -- has count 19, skipping -- score: as 20-year span, 460; as alter= nate base for years, 461 +se -- has count 220, skipping -- se, 100, 192, 338, 340, 346, 350, 354, = 360, 361, 396, 459, 472; as grammatical in JOI compounds, 355; in logical c= onnective to exchange sentences, 338; order in logical connectives with na,= 338; quick-tour version, 16; use with operators, 459; using to re-order lo= gical variables, 396 +se du'u -- has count 10, skipping -- se du'u, 263 +se klama -- has count 21, skipping -- se klama: place structure of, 192 +SE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SE selma'o, 100, 192, 195, 205, 2= 47, 396, 459, 472, 504; after 5th place, 472; effect of multiple on a selbr= i, 194; effect on place structure numbering, 192; effect on selbri place st= ructure, 192; extending scope of, 193; for converting place structure, 192;= quick-tour version, 16; rationale for no 1st place conversion, 192; scope = of, 193; word formation of cmavo in, 192 +se writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- se writing convention:= in eks, 341 +section numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- section numbering, 458 +sections of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- sections of this book,= 4 +see with eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with eye: example, 202 +see with left eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with left eye: example= , 194 +SEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEhU selma'o, 159, 482, 504 +sei -- has count 45, skipping -- sei, 321, 481 +SEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEI selma'o, 458, 481, 504; term= inator for, 504 +selbri -- has count 564, skipping -- selbri: as part of description, 120= ; brivla as, 83; converting into an operand, 456; converting into an operat= or, 456; converting operator into, 457; definition, 83, 187; definition, qu= ick-tour version, 27; lerfu string as, 423; omitting with co'e, 158; place = structure of, 187; place structure of converted operator, 457; relation to = bridi, 83; scalar negation of, 101; with GOhA, 97 +selbri assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri assignment, 491 +selbri from sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri from sumti, 98 +selbri list for quick tour -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri list for q= uick tour, 13 +selbri logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri logical vari= ables, 409 +selbri place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri place structur= e: effect on operator formed by, 456; re-ordering, 504 +selbri placement among sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri placemen= t among sumti: effect of multiple quantification on, 407 +selbri to modal converter -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri to modal co= nverter, 493 +selbri-first bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri-first bridi: effec= t on sumti places, 188; effect on use of cu, 190; specifying first sumti pl= ace in with fa, 190 +selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o, 12, 396, 398 +selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o: cross-reference list of, = 489; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27 +seltau -- has count 93, skipping -- seltau: compared with English adject= ive, 55; compared with English adverb, 55; definition, 95, 274; definition = of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84; filling sumti places in, 93 +semau -- has count 10, skipping -- semau, 204 +seme'a -- has count 13, skipping -- seme'a, 204 +sentence -- has count 321, skipping -- sentence: basic Lojban, 187 +sentence 10.11 -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence 10.11: example, 445 +sentence grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence grouping, 505 +sentences -- has count 150, skipping -- sentences: close grouping, 466; = connecting non-logically, 358; connecting with tense, 238; forethought tens= e connection of, 239; joining, 465; separator for joining, 465; tenseless, = quick-tour version, 25 +se'o -- has count 10, skipping -- se'o, 316 +separately tensed sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- separately tense= d sentences: contrasted with tense connected sentences, 239 +sequence -- has count 34, skipping -- sequence: as an abstract list, 355= ; contrasted with list, 355; contrasted with set, 134 +sequence of events -- has count 0, skipping -- sequence of events: expre= ssing non-time-related sequences, 358 +set -- has count 147, skipping -- set: as specified by members, 355; by = listing members with ce, 355; compared with mass as abstract of multiple in= dividuals, 125; contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties= , 125; contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, 355; contrasted = with ordered sequence, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites= , 446; expressing relation with individuals forming set, 446; expressing re= lation with mass formed from set, 446 +set operations -- has count 0, skipping -- set operations, 356 +sets -- has count 44, skipping -- sets: properties of, 125; rule for imp= licit outer quantifier, 130; use in Lojban place structure, 125 +se'u -- has count 30, skipping -- se'u, 159, 482; as elidable terminator= for soi, 159; elidability considerations, 159 +shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- shared bridi-tail su= mti: avoiding, 200 +shift -- has count 49, skipping -- shift: single-letter, grammar of, 415 +shift word -- has count 19, skipping -- shift word: canceling effect, 41= 8; for face, 418; for font, 418; for single letter, 415; scope, 415 +ship sank -- has count 0, skipping -- ship sank: example, 314 +shook stick -- has count 0, skipping -- shook stick: example, 145, 162 +short rafsi -- has count 18, skipping -- short rafsi, 57 +short rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- short rafsi form: compared = with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56 +si -- has count 63, skipping -- si, 312, 416, 477, 482; interaction with= bu, 416 +SI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SI selma'o, 482, 504 +signed numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signed numbers: expressing, 4= 32 +signs on numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signs on numbers: grammar, = 433 +simultaneously -- has count 22, skipping -- simultaneously: example, 364 +single consonants -- has count 16, skipping -- single consonants: contra= sted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35 +singular me -- has count 0, skipping -- singular me: example, 446 +si'o -- has count 11, skipping -- si'o, 265 +sister pregnant -- has count 0, skipping -- sister pregnant: example, 32= 0 +size -- has count 40, skipping -- size: order with dimensionality in spa= tial tense intervals, 224 +soi -- has count 28, skipping -- soi, 159; use in expressing reciprocity= , 159; use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, 159 +SOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SOI selma'o, 159, 504; terminato= r for, 504 +soi with one following sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- soi with one fo= llowing sumti: convention, 159 +some do not go to school -- has count 0, skipping -- some do not go to s= chool: example, 405 +somebody -- has count 11, skipping -- somebody: contrasted with somebody= else, 393 +somebody loves self -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves self: exa= mple, 393 +somebody loves somebody -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves someb= ody: example, 393 +somebody's dog -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody's dog: example, 393 +something -- has count 171, skipping -- something: contrasted with someo= ne, 395; expressing using "su'o", 397; unspecified definite with "zo'e", 39= 2 +something is loved by everybody -- has count 0, skipping -- something is= loved by everybody: example, 402 +something sees everything -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees eve= rything: example, 394 +something sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees me: example= , 392, 397 +sounds -- has count 30, skipping -- sounds: clarity of, 31; complex, 31;= difficult, 31 +sounds for letters -- has count 0, skipping -- sounds for letters: Lojba= n contrasted with English, 31 +sow grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sow grain: example, 231 +sowed grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sowed grain: example, 250 +space -- has count 569, skipping -- space: as time-based metaphor, 231; = contrasted with time in number of directions, 219 +space indicator for interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- space= indicator for interval modifiers, 493 +space interval -- has count 19, skipping -- space interval: compared wit= h time intervals in continuity, 230 +space location -- has count 0, skipping -- space location: as part of te= nse system (see also tense, spatial tense), 215 +space movement indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- space movement indi= cator, 501 +Spanish ch -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ch: example, 419 +Spanish ll -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ll: example, 419 +spatial contours -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial contours: as sumti = tcita, 232; contrasted with temporal event contours, 231; expressing, 231 +spatial information -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial information: add= ing to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 +spatial interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial interval = modifiers: order in tense, 230 +spatial tense -- has count 15, skipping -- spatial tense: 4-dimensional = interaction with temporal tense, 224; as an imaginary journey, 217; as opti= onal in English, 217; as sumti tcita, 232; compared with temporal tense in = elidability, 217; contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, 223; definiti= on, 217; direction, 217; distance, 217; four-dimensional, 224; linear, 223;= one-dimensional, 223; order of direction and distance specification, 217; = order relative to temporal, 219; planar, 223; reference frame, 217; referen= t of, 217; three-dimensional, 223; two-dimensional, 223 +spatial tense interval -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial tense interva= l: order of size and dimensionality in, 224; order of VEhA and VIhA in, 224 +speaker-listener cooperation -- has count 0, skipping -- speaker-listene= r cooperation, 23 +specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- specific descriptions,= 121 +spiritual discomfort -- has count 0, skipping -- spiritual discomfort: e= xample, 307 +standard for subjective numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- standard for= subjective numbers: specifying, 448 +standard pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- standard pronunciatio= n, 29 +state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction: place s= tructure, 259 +state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction(s): defi= nition, 258; related tense contours, 268 +state event -- has count 0, skipping -- state event: described, 258 +stereotypical objects -- has count 0, skipping -- stereotypical objects,= 126 +sticky modals -- has count 0, skipping -- sticky modals: canceling, 208;= definition, 207; fi'o proscribed from, 208 +sticky tenses -- has count 10, skipping -- sticky tenses: and CAhA, 243;= canceling, 235; definition, 234; effect of nau on, 238; effect on future t= ense meaning, 234; from part of a multiple tense, 235 +stoke cat then rabbit -- has count 0, skipping -- stoke cat then rabbit:= example, 240 +stop -- has count 43, skipping -- stop: contrasted with finish, 229; con= trasted with pause, 229 +story tense -- has count 0, skipping -- story tense: Lojban convention c= ontrasted with English convention, 236 +stress -- has count 49, skipping -- stress: definition of, 40; effect of= buffer vowel on, 38; effect of syllabic consonants on, 34; example, 307; f= inal syllable, rules for pause after, 69; irregular marked with upper-case,= 415; levels of, 40; on cmavo, 52; primary, 40; quick-tour version, 12; rul= es for, 40; secondary, 40; showing non-standard, 29 +structure of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of examples,= 5 +structure of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of this boo= k, 4 +su -- has count 214, skipping -- su, 312, 416, 477, 484; interaction wit= h bu, 416 +SU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SU selma'o, 484, 504 +su'a -- has count 13, skipping -- su'a, 316, 319 +subjective amounts -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective amounts: expre= ssing, 442 +subjective numbers -- has count 15, skipping -- subjective numbers: effe= ct on place structure for cardinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure f= or ordinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for portion selbri, 448; = effect on place structure for probability selbri, 448; effect on place stru= cture for scale selbri, 448; rationale for effect on place structure, 448; = specifying standard for, 448 +subjective portions -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective portions: exp= ressing, 442 +subordinate clause tense -- has count 0, skipping -- subordinate clause = tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 238; Lojban compared with Esperanto, = 238; Lojban compared with Russian, 238; Lojban contrasted with English, 238 +subscripted topics -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripted topics, 467 +subscripts -- has count 12, skipping -- subscripts, 471; and fuzzy truth= s, 473; and names, 473; and paragraph separators, 474; and pro-sumti, 472; = and sumti re-ordering, 472; and tense, 473; before main expression, 450; ef= fects on elidability of terminators, 450; external grammar of, 449; for sti= cky tense, 236; internal grammar of, 449; lerfu string as, 423; marker, 471= , 507; mathematical, 473; multiple as sub-subscript, 450; multiple for same= base word, 455; on ke'a for nested relative clauses, 161; on ri, 153; term= inator for, 450; to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, 452; use with = ke'a for outer sumti reference, 184; use with logical variables, 410 +subscripts on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripts on lerf= u words: effect on elidability of boi, 450 +sub-subscripts -- has count 0, skipping -- sub-subscripts, 450 +subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- subtypes of words, 52 +su'i -- has count 78, skipping -- su'i, 97, 435, 436 +sum of 1 -- has count 0, skipping -- sum of 1: 2, 3, example, 438 +sumti -- has count 1124, skipping -- sumti: as having implicit quantifie= rs, 127; as objects in place structure slots, 187; beginning with "ke, 344;= between descriptor and description selbri, 180; classified by types of obj= ects referred to, 123; converting into an operand, 456; definition, 119, 18= 7; definition, quick-tour version, 27; descriptions as, 119; dropping trail= ing unspecified, 189; explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, 190;= for individual objects, 123; for mass objects, 123; for set objects, 123; = forethought tense connection of, 239; irrelevant to relationship, 157; kind= s of, 119; multiple in one place with FA, 191; names as, 119; numbers as, 1= 19; omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, 188; order in selbri, 188; o= rder in selbri-first bridi, 188; pro-sumti as, 119; quotations as, 119; rel= ation with bridi, 11; re-ordering with FA, 190; with explicit quantifiers, = 127 +sumti assignment -- has count 12, skipping -- sumti assignment: cancella= tion of, 492 +sumti logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti logical conne= ction, 340; compared with bridi logical connections, 340; contrasted with t= anru logical connection, 350; rationale for, 340 +sumti place -- has count 13, skipping -- sumti place: additional, 489 +sumti placement -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti placement: variant, qu= ick-tour version, 15 +sumti qualifiers -- has count 15, skipping -- sumti qualifiers: as short= forms for common special cases, 133; elidable terminator for qualified sum= ti, 133; external syntax of, 133; for negation, 135; internal syntax of, 13= 3; list of, 133 +sumti reordering -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti reordering: quick-tou= r version, 16 +sumti tcita -- has count 44, skipping -- sumti tcita: based on event con= tours, 232; based on spatial contours, 232; based on tense direction, 232; = based on tense distance, 232; based on tenses, 231; definition (see also mo= dal tag), 195; event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis f= or, 232 +sumti tcita and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and= linked sumti, 94 +sumti tcita and modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and m= odal tags, 94 +sumti tcita and tense tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and t= ense tags, 94 +sumti tcita based on dimension -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita b= ased on dimension, 233 +sumti tcita based on event contours -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tc= ita based on event contours: relation of main bridi to sumti process in, 23= 2 +sumti tcita based on interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- = sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, 233 +sumti tcita based on interval properties -- has count 0, skipping -- sum= ti tcita based on interval properties, 233 +sumti tcita based on interval size -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tci= ta based on interval size, 233 +sumti tcita based on quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti= tcita based on quantified tenses, 233 +sumti with explicit quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with ex= plicit quantifier: contrasted with sumti without explicit quantifier, 127 +sumti with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tense: effect of= main bridi tense on, 235 +sumti with tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tenses: quick-t= our version, 26 +sumti-based descriptions with le -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti-based= descriptions with le: as increasing restricting to in-mind, 133 +sun liquefies -- has count 0, skipping -- sun liquefies: example, 289 +su'o -- has count 50, skipping -- su'o, 128, 129, 397, 443; as implicit = quantifier for quotations, 128; with elided number, 443 +superfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- superfective even= t contour, 228 +su'u -- has count 13, skipping -- su'u, 265 +syllabic l -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic l: considered as a conso= nant for morphological discussions, 49 +syllabic m -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic m: as a consonant for mo= rphological discussions, 49 +syllabic n -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic n: as a consonant for mo= rphological discussions, 49 +syllabic pronunciations of consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- syllab= ic pronunciations of consonants: in fu'ivla, 62; in fu'ivla category attach= ment, 63 +syllabic r -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic r: as a consonant for mo= rphological discussions, 49 +symbol -- has count 23, skipping -- symbol: contrasted with referent, 47= 8; for operand, 459; referring to with lu'e, 134 +symmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- symmetrical tanru ty= pes: both separately true, 111; one or other true, 112; using crucial/typic= al parts, 112; using more inclusive class, 112 +ta -- has count 105, skipping -- ta, 147, 169; contrasted with di'u, 148 +tables -- has count 18, skipping -- tables: format of, 5 +tagged sumti termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- tagged sumti termsets:= connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, 358 +TAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TAhE selma'o, 225, 504; effect = of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; scalar negation of, 242 +tail-terms -- has count 19, skipping -- tail-terms: definition, 345 +Take care! -- has count 0, skipping -- Take care!: example, 22 +Talk! -- has count 0, skipping -- Talk!: example, 22 +talker -- has count 27, skipping -- talker: example, 19 +tanru -- has count 318, skipping -- tanru: ambiguity in, 55; ambiguity o= f, 55, 85; and abstractions, 255; and conversion, quick-tour version, 18; a= nd creativity, 55; as ambiguous, 85; asymmetrical, 104; combination of, 55;= containing mathematical expressions, 97; default left-grouping of, 86; def= inition, 83; definition, quick-tour version, 27; expanding, 318; explanatio= n of, 55; explicating, 318; explicitly defining, 318; expression of, 55; me= aning of, 85; place structure of, 274; place structure of, quick-tour versi= on, 18; place structures of, 92, 93; possible meanings of, 274; primary mea= ning of, 84; purpose, 274; quick-tour version, 17; reducing logically conne= cted sumti to, caveat, 350; simple, 83; to lujvo, 55; with GOhA, 97 +tanru and conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru and conversion, 1= 00 +tanru connection grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru connection g= rouping: guheks unmarked tanru, 350 +tanru conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru conversion: effect on= place structure, quick-tour version, 18 +tanru default grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru default groupin= g: quick-tour version, 17 +tanru grouping with JA+BO -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru grouping wit= h JA+BO: effect on tanru grouping, 91 +tanru inversion and place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru in= version and place structure, 95 +tanru unit -- has count 11, skipping -- tanru unit: filling in places of= , 489 +ta'onao -- has count 0, skipping -- ta'onao, 320 +tavla -- has count 70, skipping -- tavla, 14 +te -- has count 76, skipping -- te, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 +TEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEhU selma'o, 505 +tei -- has count 13, skipping -- tei, 419 +TEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEI selma'o, 419, 505; terminato= r for, 494 +temporal tense elision -- has count 0, skipping -- temporal tense elisio= n: compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, 217 +ten -- has count 13, skipping -- ten: expressing as number, 432 +tense -- has count 272, skipping -- tense: aorist, 223; as observer-base= d, 220; as subjective perception, 219; compared with modals in syntax, 248;= connected, with negation, 245; connecting sentences in with, 238; contradi= ctory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, 242; contradictory negat= ion of with nai, 241; contrasted with modals in semantics, 248; effect of d= ifferent position in sentence, 216; effect of sticky tense on, 234; emphasi= zing by position in sentence, 216; explanation of presentation method, 215;= expressing movement in, 224; extensional, 503; forethought connection in, = 363; forethought logical connections, 246; grouping of connectives in, 363;= handling multiple episodes, 236; importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti t= cita use, 248; in forethought bridi-tail connection, special rule, 365; int= erval contrasted with point, 221; logically connected with JA, 245; Lojban = contrasted with English in implications of completeness, 223; Lojban contra= sted with English in implying actuality, 243; Lojban contrasted with native= languages, 215; making sticky, 497; multiple in sentence, 234; multiple in= sentence compared with compound tense, 234; negating, 241; non-logical con= nection of, 246; non-logical connection of for sub-events, 246; numerical, = 458; on embedded bridi, 235; order of direction specification in, 217; orde= r of direction, distance and interval in, 221; order of distance specificat= ion in, 217; order of movement specification in, 225; order of spatial inte= rval modifiers in, 230; order of temporal and spatial in, 219; overriding t= o speaker's current, 238; point contrasted with interval, 221; position in = sentence alternative, 216; position of in sentence, 216; possible groupings= of, 246; quantified, 226; quick-tour version, 25; rationale for relative o= rder of temporal and spatial in, 219; relation of interval to point specifi= ed by direction and distance, 221; relation of point specified by direction= and distance to interval, 221; relative order with bridi negation, 103; sc= alar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, 242; scalar negati= on of with NAhE, 242; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; scope of, 234; se= lbri types applicable to, 215; space-time dimension for intervals, 224; spe= aker's current, 238; specifying relation of interval to point specified by = direction and distance, 221; static contrasted with moving, 224; subscripti= ng, 236; sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, 239; use as = sumti tcita, 231; viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, 228; w= ith both temporal and spatial, 220; with ku, 216 +tense afterthought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense af= terthought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240 +tense and na -- has count 0, skipping -- tense and na: multiple, 104 +tense as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense as sumti tcita: c= ontrasted with tense inside sumti, 233 +tense aspect -- has count 0, skipping -- tense aspect, 507 +tense cmavo -- has count 14, skipping -- tense cmavo: position relative = to selbri, 104 +tense connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connected se= ntences: contrasted with separately tensed sentences, 239; forethought mode= , 239; importance of "bo" in, 239 +tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connec= tion of bridi-tails: meaning of, 240 +tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connecti= on of sentences: contrasted with sumti tcita form, 239; order of, 239 +tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection o= f sumti: meaning of, 240 +tense contours -- has count 0, skipping -- tense contours: compared with= event abstraction contours, 268 +tense distance -- has count 0, skipping -- tense distance: as sumti tcit= a, 232 +tense forethought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense for= ethought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240 +tense inside sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense inside sumti: contr= asted with tense as sumti tcita, 233 +tense magnitude -- has count 0, skipping -- tense magnitude, 250 +tense on main bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- tense on main bridi: eff= ect on embedded bridi tenses, 235; effect on embedded sumti with tenses, 23= 5 +tense questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions: by using lo= gical connective question, 250; methods of asking, 249 +tense questions with ma -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions with= ma, 249 +tense sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tense sentence con= nection: table of equivalent schemata, 249 +tense specification -- has count 0, skipping -- tense specification: eff= ect on cu, 216; effect on elidability of terminators, 216 +tense tags and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense tags and su= mti tcita, 94 +tense with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with elided CAh= A: meaning, 244 +tense with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with no sumti: ind= icator for, 497 +tense with sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with sumti tcit= a: asymmetry of, 238 +tensed connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed connectives: in ma= thematical expressions, 364 +tensed logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logical con= nection, 363 +tensed logically connected bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tense= d logically connected bridi-tails, 240; with grouping, 241 +tensed logically connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed = logically connected sentences, 240; with grouping, 241 +tensed logically connected sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logi= cally connected sumti, 240; with grouping, 241 +tensed non-logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed non-lo= gical connectives, 364; forethought, 364 +tenseless sentences in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- tenseless = sentences in story time, 236 +tense-or-modal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense-or-modal ques= tions: with cu'e, 250 +term -- has count 948, skipping -- term: definition, 347 +terminators -- has count 35, skipping -- terminators: eliding ku in non-= logical connections, 354 +termset -- has count 30, skipping -- termset: effect on scope of multipl= e indefinite sumti, 399; formation, 347 +termset connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- termset connectives, 503 +termset logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset logical c= onnection: contrasted with bridi connection, 347; contrasted with bridi-tai= l connection, 347; contrasted with sumti connection, 347; unequal length, 3= 48; when used, 347 +termset marker -- has count 0, skipping -- termset marker, 502 +termset modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset modal conne= ction, 200 +termsets -- has count 24, skipping -- termsets, 491; compared to fa'u, 3= 56; non-logical connection of, 357 +tertau -- has count 91, skipping -- tertau: definition, 95, 274; definit= ion of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84 +te'u -- has count 18, skipping -- te'u, 451, 456, 460 +text -- has count 160, skipping -- text: division numbering with -mai, 4= 58; end-marker, 484; structure of, 465; sub-division numbering with -mai, 4= 58 +thank you -- has count 0, skipping -- thank you: example, 324 +the -- has count 6333, skipping -- the: contrasted with a/an, 322; examp= le, 322; for talking about numbers themselves, 435 +the two of you -- has count 0, skipping -- the two of you: example, 132 +this -- has count 713, skipping -- this: adjective expression with ti no= i, 148; adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, 148; as utterance re= ference in English, 148; English, adjective expression with vi, 148; Englis= h, pronoun expression with ti, 148; pronoun usage contrasted with adjective= usage, 148 +this book -- has count 35, skipping -- this book: author of, 5; contribu= tors to, 5; credits for, 6; examples of, 4; goal of, 3; reviewers of, 6; se= ctions of, 4; structure of, 4 +three cats white -- has count 0, skipping -- three cats white: and two b= ig, example, 410 +three dogs bite two men -- has count 0, skipping -- three dogs bite two = men: example, 398 +three of four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three of four people: e= xample, 361 +three or four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three or four people: e= xample, 454 +thus -- has count 68, skipping -- thus: example, 316 +ti -- has count 113, skipping -- ti, 119, 147, 169; as pronoun expressio= n for English this, 148 +time -- has count 251, skipping -- time: as part of tense system (see al= so tense, temporal tense), 215; as space-based metaphor, 231; contrasted wi= th space in number of directions, 219 +time of death -- has count 0, skipping -- time of death: example, 248 +times -- has count 49, skipping -- times: explicit expression of, 437; i= mplicit expression of, 437 +title -- has count 3218, skipping -- title: specifying with tu'e...tu'u,= 466 +title of book -- has count 0, skipping -- title of book: example, 134 +to -- has count 3503, skipping -- to, 480 +to movie -- has count 0, skipping -- to movie: house, office, example, 1= 91 +TO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TO selma'o, 480, 505; terminator = for, 505 +to-do list -- has count 0, skipping -- to-do list: example, 358 +to'i -- has count 14, skipping -- to'i, 321, 480 +toi -- has count 11, skipping -- toi, 480 +TOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TOI selma'o, 480, 505 +too -- has count 76, skipping -- too: example, 318 +toward right -- has count 0, skipping -- toward right: contrasted with o= n right, 224 +transformations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tra= nsformations with logical connectives: steps, 408 +traveling salesperson -- has count 0, skipping -- traveling salesperson:= example, 196 +truncation of number -- has count 0, skipping -- truncation of number: e= xpressing, 443 +truth -- has count 134, skipping -- truth: in imperative sentences, 353 +truth functions -- has count 19, skipping -- truth functions, 333; 16 po= ssible, 333; commutative, 335; creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, 335= ; fundamental 4 in Lojban, 334; relation to logical connectives, 334; table= of logical connectives, 366 +truth questions -- has count 13, skipping -- truth questions, 321; answe= ring "no", 351; answering "yes", 351; as yes-or-no questions, 351; contrast= ed with connection questions, 351; simple, 351 +truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstract= ion, 262 +truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstract= ion(s): place structure, 262, 263 +ts-sound in Russian -- has count 0, skipping -- ts-sound in Russian: rep= resentation in Lojban, 31 +tu -- has count 116, skipping -- tu, 147, 169; archaic English yon as eq= uivalent of, 147 +tu'a -- has count 27, skipping -- tu'a, 134, 266; as being deliberately = vague, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for forming abstractions, 134 +tu'e -- has count 50, skipping -- tu'e, 202, 205, 343, 358, 364, 466; co= ntrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; effect on di'e, 358; u= se in lists, 358 +TUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhE selma'o, 343, 358, 364, 46= 6, 505; terminator for, 505 +TUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhU selma'o, 343, 358, 466, 50= 5 +tu'u -- has count 47, skipping -- tu'u, 202, 205, 343, 358, 466 +two dogs are white -- has count 0, skipping -- two dogs are white: examp= le, 129 +types and subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- types and subtyp= es of words, 52 +typical -- has count 47, skipping -- typical: compared with stereotypica= l, 126 +typical Englishman -- has count 0, skipping -- typical Englishman: examp= le, 126 +typical sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- typical sumti, 157 +ugh -- has count 0, skipping -- ugh: example, 359 +ui -- has count 15, skipping -- ui, 297 +UI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- UI selma'o, 264, 297, 351, 353, 4= 69, 474, 481, 505; extending the scope of, 494; quick-tour version, 24 +unconnected tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unconnected tanru: contras= ted with logically connected version, 349 +under conditions -- has count 16, skipping -- under conditions: example,= 257 +underlines -- has count 0, skipping -- underlines: example, 12 +unequal termset connection -- has count 0, skipping -- unequal termset c= onnection: compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate br= idi-tails, 348 +unfilled places of inverted tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unfilled p= laces of inverted tanru, 95 +units of measurement -- has count 0, skipping -- units of measurement: e= xpressing, 435 +universal -- has count 28, skipping -- universal: mixed claim with exist= ential, 394 +unqualified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unqualified sumti: contras= ted with qualified sumti, 133 +unreduced fractions -- has count 0, skipping -- unreduced fractions: use= in granular scales, 448 +unspecified direction -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified direction:= temporal contrasted with in spatial, 220 +unspecified level of emotion -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified lev= el of emotion, 311 +unspecified trailing sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified trail= ing sumti: dropping, 189 +utterance -- has count 87, skipping -- utterance: expressing relation to= discourse, 317 +utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti: sta= bility of, 162 +utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti (se= e also di'u-series pro-sumti), 148 +utterances -- has count 16, skipping -- utterances: non-bridi, 471 +uu -- has count 19, skipping -- uu, 297, 299; contrasted with u'u, 299 +uy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- uy diphthong: in cmene, 66 +V -- has count 17, skipping -- V: as a symbol for a single vowel, 49 +va -- has count 55, skipping -- va, 217 +VA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VA selma'o, 217, 506; and distanc= e, 217; relation of words to ti, ta, tu, 217 +va'a -- has count 25, skipping -- va'a, 438; contrasted with vu'u and ni= 'u, 438 +vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction, 265 +vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction(s): plac= e structure, 266 +vague relationship -- has count 0, skipping -- vague relationship: modal= tag for, 197 +va'i -- has count 12, skipping -- va'i, 318, 320; contrasted with ke'u, = 320 +valid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- valid speech: marking as error = with jo'a, 321 +variables -- has count 64, skipping -- variables: logical, 392 +vau -- has count 30, skipping -- vau, 178, 200, 345, 394; effect on elid= ability ku'o, 181 +vau for shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- vau for shar= ed bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200 +VAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VAU selma'o, 345, 506 +ve -- has count 73, skipping -- ve, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 +vector -- has count 11, skipping -- vector: components of, 451; definiti= on, 451; forming, 496; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452 +VEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhA selma'o, 221, 506 +VEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhO selma'o, 506 +vei -- has count 26, skipping -- vei, 201, 423, 437 +vei ...ve'o -- has count 0, skipping -- vei ...ve'o: contrasted with ope= rator ...ku'e in Polish notation, 438 +VEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEI selma'o, 506; terminator for= , 506 +veljvo -- has count 31, skipping -- veljvo: definition, 274; symmetrical= , 278 +ve'o -- has count 30, skipping -- ve'o, 201, 362, 437 +vi -- has count 49, skipping -- vi, 217; as adjective expression for Eng= lish this, 148 +vice versa -- has count 18, skipping -- vice versa: English, expressing = with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; example, 159 +VIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VIhA selma'o, 223, 506 +vi'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vi'o, 325; contrasted with je'e, 325 +viska -- has count 94, skipping -- viska, 194 +vo'a -- has count 34, skipping -- vo'a, 158 +vocative -- has count 42, skipping -- vocative, 492 +vocative phrase terminator -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase t= erminator: elidability of, 137 +vocative phrase with name -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase wi= th name: placement of relative clause on, 184 +vocative phrase with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase = with selbri: placement of relative clause on, 184 +vocatives -- has count 19, skipping -- vocatives: and definition of "you= ", 323; contrasted with "la", 323; definition, 323; grammar overview, 323; = notation convention symbol "X", 323; quick-tour version, 21; rationale for = redundancy, 323 +vo'e -- has count 10, skipping -- vo'e, 158 +voi -- has count 12, skipping -- voi, 177; contrasted with poi in veridi= cality, 177 +voiced consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- voiced consonants: contras= ted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37 +vowel -- has count 199, skipping -- vowel: buffer, 38 +vowel buffer -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel buffer: contrasted with y= sound, 38 +vowel-initial words -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel-initial words: nec= essity for pause before, 68 +vowels -- has count 53, skipping -- vowels: contrasted with consonants, = 33; definition of, 33; length of, 39; pronunciation of, quick-tour version,= 12 +vu -- has count 41, skipping -- vu, 217 +VUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhO selma'o, 182, 506 +VUhU operands -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU operands, 436 +VUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU selma'o, 435, 436, 444, 50= 7 +vu'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vu'o, 182 +vu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- vu'u, 438; contrasted with va'a and ni= 'u, 438 +VV string -- has count 0, skipping -- VV string: as a symbol for a doubl= e vowel, 49 +walk to market -- has count 0, skipping -- walk to market: example, 100 +want to be a soldier -- has count 0, skipping -- want to be a soldier: e= xample, 255 +wash self -- has count 0, skipping -- wash self: example, 158 +weapon against self -- has count 0, skipping -- weapon against self: exa= mple, 397 +went and bought -- has count 0, skipping -- went and bought: example, 36= 3, 365 +what is your name -- has count 0, skipping -- what is your name: example= , 160 +when -- has count 247, skipping -- when: example, 249 +where -- has count 158, skipping -- where: example, 249 +whether criminal -- has count 0, skipping -- whether criminal: example, = 262 +who knows what -- has count 0, skipping -- who knows what: example, 160 +whole of -- has count 13, skipping -- whole of: example, 441 +word "abu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "abu": example, 422 +word "bu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "bu": example, 416 +words -- has count 386, skipping -- words: marking non-standard, 480 +words not in the dictionary -- has count 0, skipping -- words not in the= dictionary, 13 +x < 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- x < 5: example, 439 +x{b -- has count 0, skipping -- x{b: d}, example, 362, 455 +x{k} -- has count 0, skipping -- x{k}: x sub k, example, 423 +x1 -- has count 237, skipping -- x1: in place structure notation, 187; n= otation convention, quick-tour version, 13 +xe -- has count 12, skipping -- xe, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 +xi -- has count 14, skipping -- xi, 449, 452, 471 +XI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- XI selma'o, 449, 471, 507 +xu -- has count 27, skipping -- xu, 321, 351, 469; quick-tour version, 2= 3 +y -- has count 103, skipping -- y, 484; considered not to be a vowel for= morphological discussions, 49; letter; between letters of consonant pair, = 53; letter, prohibition from fu'ivla, 62; use in avoiding forbidden consona= nt pairs, 36 +Y selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- Y selma'o, 484, 507 +y sound -- has count 0, skipping -- y sound: contrasted with vowel buffe= r, 38 +Yay! -- has count 0, skipping -- Yay!: example, 299 +yielding the floor -- has count 0, skipping -- yielding the floor, 484 +you -- has count 460, skipping -- you: defining, 323 +you're welcome -- has count 0, skipping -- you're welcome: fi'i contrast= ed with je'e, 324; je'e contrasted with fi'i, 324 +z instead of ' -- has count 0, skipping -- z instead of ': in acronymic = names based on lerfu words, 424 +ZAhO compared with NU -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO compared with NU,= 268 +ZAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO selma'o, 228, 231, 232, 26= 8, 507; contradictory negation of, 241; effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and RO= I, 231 +ZEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEhA selma'o, 221, 507 +zei -- has count 18, skipping -- zei, 60, 416; interaction with bu, 416 +ZEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEI selma'o, 60, 507 +zero -- has count 24, skipping -- zero: relation to negation boundary, 4= 02 +ZI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZI selma'o, 219, 507; compared wi= th VA, 219 +zi'e -- has count 17, skipping -- zi'e, 175; compared with English and, = 176; contrasted with logical connectives, 176; use in connecting relative p= hrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, 176 +ZIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZIhE selma'o, 175, 508 +zi'o -- has count 15, skipping -- zi'o, 157, 163; as creating new selbri= , 157 +zi'o rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- zi'o rafsi: effect of on place st= ructure of lujvo, 163 +zo -- has count 186, skipping -- zo, 119, 312, 416, 477; contrasted with= la for names, 478; interaction with bu, 416 +ZO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZO selma'o, 477, 508 +zo'e -- has count 48, skipping -- zo'e, 157, 189, 392; as a translation = for "something", 392; as place-holder for sumti, 157; as place-holder for u= nspecified sumti, 189; compared with FA for omitting places, 190; contraste= d with da, 392; quick-tour version, 14 +zo'e-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- zo'e-series pro-sumti,= 157 +ZOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOhU selma'o, 392, 467, 508 +zo'u -- has count 75, skipping -- zo'u, 392, 467 +zoi -- has count 25, skipping -- zoi, 119, 416, 477; interaction with bu= , 416; interaction with lo'u/le'u, 478 +ZOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOI selma'o, 477, 479, 508 +zu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- zu'a, 217; derivation of word, 217 diff --git a/todocbook/cllindex.txt b/todocbook/cllindex.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c28d07d --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/cllindex.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2714 @@ +# ' symbol: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; definition = (see also apostrophe), 31 +# &: word for, 416 +# (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n^2 + 2n + 1: example, 437 +# (n+1)-th rat: example, 448 +# .: word for, 416 +# .1010_2 ( 2^{110_2}: example, 451 +# : , word for, 416 +# +1 + -1 =3D 0: example, 436 +# -1: example, 433 +# +# 1 + 1 =3D 2: example, 435 +# +# 10^20: example, 451 +# +# 123: example, 432 +# +# 12-point: example, 418 +# +# 2 + 2: example, 262 +# +# 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals: example, 456 +# +# 2/7: example, 433 +# +# 3 ( 10^8: example, 451 +# +# 3 grams: example, 435 +# +# 3.1415: example, 433 +# +# 4-letter rafsi: definition, 57 +# +# 5-letter rafsi: definition, 57 +# +# 8 out of ten: example, 448 +# a: example, 322 + A gives B to C: example, 421 + A gives BC: example, 421 +# a is letteral: example, 422 + A loves B: example, 421 +# A selma'o, 336, 340, 341, 352, 354, 361, 364, 453, 489 +# a/an: contrasted with the, 322 + a'a, 302 + abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, 284 + ABC base 16: example, 444 + abduction: example, 316 + Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 + absolute laws, 273 + abstract description, 266 + abstract lujvo, 286; contrasted with abstract bridi, 287 + abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in me= aning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 + abstraction contours: compared with contour tenses, 268 + abstraction conversion, 266 + abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 + abstraction(s): achievement, 258; activity, 258; amount, 261; amount con= trasted with property, 261; concept, 265; connection, 269; creating new typ= es, 266; event, 256; experience, 265; forethought connection in, 365; gramm= atical uses, 255; grouping of connectives in, 365; idea, 265; implicit in s= umti, 257; logical connection of, 365; making concrete, 267; mental activit= y, 262; place structure, 255; point-event, 258; predication/sentence, 262; = process, 258; property, 259; sentence, contrasted with quotation, 263; simp= lification to sumti, 266; simplification to sumti with jai, 267; simplifica= tion to sumti with tu'a, 266; speaking, writing, etc., 263; state, 258; sum= ti ellipsis in, 256; syntax, 255; table, 269; truth-value, 262; truth-value= contrasted with amount, 262; truth-value and fuzzy logic, 262; types, 265= ; vague, 265; with knowing, believing, etc., 262; with wonder, doubt, etc.,= 264 + abstractors, 502 + accent mark: a diacritical mark, 418; example, 419 + accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + accented letters: considered as distinct from unaccented, 419 + Acer: example, 63 + achievative event contour, 228 + achievement abstraction: place structure, 259 + achievement abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269 + achievement event: described, 258 + acronym: definition, 423 + acronym names from lerfu words: assigning final consonant, 424 + acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu w= ords, 423 + acronyms names based on lerfu words: omitting bu, 424; using "z" instead= of " ' "in, 424 + activity abstraction: place structure, 259 + activity abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268 + activity abstractor, 258 + activity event: described, 258 + actual events: explicitly expressing, 243 + actual stop: contrasted with natural end, 229 + actuality: expressing in past/future, 244; Lojban contrasted with Englis= h in implying, 243; marking, 491 + addition: a mathematical operator, 436 + addition operator: contrasted with positive sign, 436 + addition problems: example, 98 + adjective ordering, 89 + adjective-noun combination: with tanru, 84 + adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 + adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 + adverb-verb combination: with tanru, 84 + a'enai, 302 + affirmative answer: quick-tour version, 23 + afraid of horse: example, 179 + after sleep: example, 303 + afterthought bridi connectives: contrasted with forethought bridi connec= tives, 338 + afterthought connection: contrasted with forethought for grammatical utt= erances, 352; definition, 199; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 + afterthought connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; cont= rasted with forethought connective, 338 + afterthought sentence connection: modal contrasted with tense, 248 + afterthought tense connection: contrasted with forethought in likeness t= o modal connection, 249 + a'i, 302 + ai, 302 + ailment, 282 + Albania: example, 480 + aleph null: example, 434 + Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov: example, 421 + algebra of functions: operator and operand distinction in, 460 + alienable possession: definition, 173 + aliens: communication with, 329 + all persons: example, 398 + allowable diphthongs: in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu/lujvo, 63 + all-th: example, 447 + alpha: example, 416 + alphabet: Latin used for Lojban, 413; Lojban, 29; words for letters in, = rationale, 413; words for non-Lojban letters, rationale, 413 + alphabetic order, 29 + alternative guidelines, 273 + always and everywhere: example, 231 + ambiguity of tanru, 85 + American dollars: example, 425 + American Indian languages and evidentials, 315 + Amharic writing, 420 + amount abstraction, 261 + amount abstraction and mathematics, 261 + amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying dete= rmining place with ce'u, 261 + ampersand: example, 416 + ampersand character: word for, 416 + Amsterdam: example, 38 +# an: example, 322 + anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-s= eries as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 + anaphoric pro-bridi: stability of, 162 + anaphoric pro-sumti: stability of, 162 + and: as non-logical connective, 353; compared with but, 353; contrasted = with cross-product, 357 + and earlier: example, 364 + and simultaneously: example, 364 + and then: example, 240, 364 + animal doctor: example, 282 + animal patient, 282 + animals: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 + anomalous ordering of lujvo places, 283 + answers, 469; go'i for yes/no questions, 154; to operator questions, 457= ; to place structure questions, 191; to tense-or-modal questions, 250 + antecedent: for pro-bridi, 151; for pro-bridi as full bridi, 151 + antecedent of pro-bridi: definition, 145 + antecedent of pro-sumti: definition, 145 + anticipated: example, 316 + any: as a restricted universal claim, 399; as a translation problem, 399= ; as a universal claim, later restricted, 400; as an existential claim, 400= ; expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, 401 + any box, 400 + anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 + anyone who goes: walks, example, 399 + a'o, 297, 302 + aorist: definition, 223 + apostrophe: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; as not a c= onsonant for morphological discussions, 49; as preferable over comma in nam= es, 33; definition of, 31; example of, 33; purpose of, 31; quick-tour versi= on, 12; type of letter in word-formation, 31; use in vowel pairs, 34; varia= nt of, 31 + Appassionata: example, 202 + appropriate standard, 480 + approximate numbers: expressing, 442; expressing some exactness of, 443 + approximately 40: example, 443 + Arabian Nights: as multi-level narrative, 467 + Arabic alphabet: language shift word for, 417 + argument tags: based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), 231 + Armstrong: example, 40 + Arnold: example, 65 + arthropod, 280 + article, 498; number, 435 + articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 + Artur Rubenstein: example, 202 + ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 + aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 + assignable pro-sumti: explicit cancellation of by rebinding, 162; stabil= ity of, 162 + assumption: example, 317 + asymmetric lujvo, 287 + asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 + asymmetrical tanru types: activity + implement-used, 110; cause + effect= , 107; characteristic/detail + object, 106; characteristic-time + event, 11= 0; effect + causative agent, 107; elements-in-set + set, 105; energy-source= + powered, 110; general-class + sub-class, 106; inhabitant + habitat, 106;= locus-of-application + object, 110; miscellaneous, 111; object + component= /detail, 106; object + place-sold, 110; object + usual-container, 110; obje= ct-giving-characteristic + other-object, 109; object-measured + standard-ob= ject, 108; object-of-action + action, 105; object-of-purpose-of-instrument = + instrument, 107; overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, 1= 08; possessor + object, 106; product + producer, 109; product + source, 108= ; purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; set + element-of-set, 105; simil= ar-appearance-object + object, 109; source + product, 107; source-material = + object, 108; typical-place + object, 109; undesired-object + protection-o= bject, 110; whole + part, 109 + at least: contrasted with more than, less than, at most, 443; example, 4= 43 + at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 4= 43 + Athens, 258 + attend school: example, 226 + attitude, 297; avoidance of expression, 322; scalar, 305 + attitudes: beginning, 314; ceasing, 314; continuing, 314; empathy contra= sted with sympathy, 314; expressing changes in, 314 + attitudinal: example of scale effect, 305; scope, 474; signaling as non-= propositional, 304 + attitudinal answers: plausibility, 313 + attitudinal categories, 306; example of effect, 307; mnemonic for, 307; = rationale, 306 + attitudinal indicator: unspecified, 311 + attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placeme= nt of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 + attitudinal modifiers, 308 + attitudinal phrase, 299 + attitudinal questions, 313; asking about specific attitude, 313; asking = intensity, 313 + attitudinal scale: as axis in emotion-space, 306; neutral compared with = positive + negative, 306; seven-position, 305; stand-alone usage, 305; usag= e, 305 + attitudinal scales: rationale for assignment, 304 + attitudinals: a- series, 301; affecting whole grammatical structures, 31= 2; ambivalent emotion words, 300; and logic, 392; at beginning of text, 312= ; attributing emotion to others, 314; benefit in written expression, 312; c= ategories with nai, 307; categories with scale markers, 307; comparison of = meaning based on position, 301; complex emotion words, 300; complexity, 310= ; compound, 298; contours, 314; contrasted with bridi, 303, 306; contrasted= with discursives, 317; contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, 306; d= esign benefit, 306; difficult emotion words, 300; e- series, 301; effect of= cu'i, 299; effect of nai, 299; emotional contrasted with propositional, 30= 1; emotional/propositional caveat, 302; exceptions, 314; external grammar, = 312; grammar of internal compounding, 311; grammar of placement in bridi, 3= 12; i- series, 298, 301; internal grammar, complete, 311; logical language = and, 302; negative, 304; neutral, 304; non-speaker attitudes, 314; o- serie= s, 298; order of, 306; placement for prevailing attitude, 297; placement in= sentences with "nai", 311; positive, 304; prevailing attitude, 297; propos= itional contrasted with emotional, 301; propositional effect on claim, 301;= propositional indicators, 301; propositional/emotional caveat, 302; pure e= motion, 298; rationale for, 303; referent uncertainty, 312; scale of, 304; = stand-alone categories, 307; u- series, 298; word-form for primary, 297 + attitudinals and claims, 298 + attitudinals and irony, 299 + attitudinals and truth value, 298 + attitudinals for emotional reaction, 299 + a'ucu'i, 302 + au, 302 + audio-visual isomorphism, 29 + audio-visually isomorphic, 465 + auditoriums, 281 + author of this book, 5 + Avon: example, 196 + ba, 219, 363 + ba'a, 316 + ba'acu'i, 316 + ba'anai, 316 + back-counting pro-sumti, 139 + background noise, 278 + ba'e, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416 + BAhE selma'o, 479, 480, 489 + bai, 201 + bai ke, 202 + BAI modal tags: rationale for, 195 + BAI selma'o, 195, 205, 224, 489; as short forms for fi'o constructs, 195= ; effect of conversion on, 196; form of cmavo in, 197; rationale for select= ion, 196 + ba'o, 228; as futureward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explana= tion of derivation, 229 + base: assumed, 444; changing permanently, 444; non-constant, 444; specif= ying, 444; vague, 445 + base greater than 16: compound single-digits contrasted with two digits,= 445; expressing numbers in, 445; two digits contrasted with compound singl= e-digits, 445 + base point: in bases other than 10, 444 + base varying for each digit: separator for, 445 + base-20 arithmetic: remnants of, 461 + basis: example, 317 + ba'u, 318 + be, 93, 197, 262 + BE selma'o, 93, 489; terminator for, 490 + be'a, 231 + beach: example, 259 + beans: example, 176 + bear wrote story: example, 121 + Bears wrote book: example, 124 + beautiful dog: example, 20 + because: English word, four varieties of, 198 + beckon: example, 291 + be'e, 324 + beefsteak, 285; example, 285 + Beethoven: example, 202 + beetle: example, 280 + beetles, 280 + begin: contrasted with resume, 229 + beginning point: spatial, 231 + BEhO selma'o, 93, 490 + bei, 93 + BEI selma'o, 93, 489 + being alive: example, 258 + be'o, 93; effect of ku on elidability of, 94; effect of relative clauses= on elidability of, 94; elidability of, 94 + better: example, 293 + between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 + be'u, 310 + beverage: example, 163 + bibliography, 6 + bicycle race: example, 266 + bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 + big boat: example, 55 + big nose: example, 169 + big nose-pores: example, 170 + big person: example, 169 + big red dog: example, 89 + BIhE selma'o, 437, 490 + BIhI selma'o, 246, 359, 360, 361, 455, 490; grammar of, 360 + bi'i, 359, 362 + Bill Clinton: example, 275 + binary system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444 + bi'o, 359 + bi'u, 322 + bi'unai, 322 + black cat: example, 155 + blue: as sad, example, 322 + blue and red: example, 354 + blue house: example, 193, 349 + blue-eyed: example, 284 + blueness: example, 261 + blueness varying: example, 261 + bo, 86, 198, 238, 240, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 459, 466; contrasted wit= h ke for tensed logical connection, 364; contrasted with tu'e for tensed lo= gical connection, 364; for right-grouping in tanru, 87; in jeks for operato= rs, 361; in joiks for operators, 361; in logical connectives, 342; right-gr= ouping, 343 + bo and forethought connectives, 343 + BO selma'o, 86, 133, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 454, 466, 490 + boat class: example, 73 + boat sailed: example, 233 + boi, 362, 421, 438, 449, 450, 458; effect on elidability of me'u, 449; e= liding from lerfu strings, 421; exception before MAI, 458; exception before= MOI, 449; exception before ROI, 458; in Polish notation, 438; required bet= ween pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, 421 + BOI selma'o, 421, 490 + bold: example, 418 + bomb destroyed fifty miles: example, 360 + bone bread: example, 38 + books about Lojban, 6 + boring legalities, 8 + borrowing: four stages of, 61 + borrowing from other language: fu'ivla as, 53 + borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form witho= ut categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, = 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 6= 2; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 + Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 + both dogs: example, 442 + bound variable pro-sumti: stability of, 162 + bovine: example, 285 + bracketed remark, 481 + brackets: use in IPA notation, 29 + breathe: example, 363 + bridi: building from selbri and sumti, 187; compared with predication, 1= 1; concept of, 11; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 26;= effect of alternate form on sumti order, 188; effect of using non-standard= form, 188; exception to sumti place structure in, 188; leaving a sumti pla= ce unspecified in with zo'e, 189; leaving end sumti places unspecified in, = 189; logical connection with negation, 337; logical connective for, 336; no= n-standard form, 188; omitting the first sumti place, 188; quick-tour versi= on, 14; relation to selbri, 83; selbri-first as exceptional, 188; standard = form of, 188 + bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in,= 353 + bridi logical connection: compared with sumti logical connections, 340 + bridi negation: and DeMorgan's Law, 408; and negation boundary, 408; com= pared with negation between sentences, 404; multiple, 104; na before selbri= compared to naku in prenex, 401; naku in prenex compared to na before selb= ri, 401; relative order with tense, 103; two forms of, 401 + bridi negation and logical connectives, 403 + bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23 + bridi-based comparison: contrasted with comparison with relative phrase,= in claims about parts, 204 + bridi-tail: definition, 344, 495 + bridi-tail logical connection: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 + bridi-tail modal connection, 200 + bridi-tails: eliding vau in, 345; forethought tense connection of, 240 + brie: example, 63 + brivla: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; consonant pairs in, 53; = definition, 52; definition, quick-tour version, 27; from tanru, 55; propert= ies of, 53; recognition of, 53; relation to bridi, 11; stress on, 40; subty= pes of, 53; types, 83; types of, quick-tour version, 20 + brivla as selbri, 83 + brivla equivalents, 97 + brivla form: contrasted with cmavo form, 53; contrasted with cmene form,= 53 + broda, 151 + broda-series for pro-bridi: compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, 151 + broda-series pro-bridi, 151; assigning with cei, 151; use as abstract pa= ttern, 151; use as sample gismu, 151; with no assignment, 151; word-form ra= tionale, 151 + Brooklyn: example, 93 + brothers: example, 355 + Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 + bu, 414; and compound cmavo, 416; effect of multiple, 416; effect on pre= ceding word, 414; for extension of lerfu word set, 416; grammar of, 416; in= teractions, 416, 417; omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, 424 + BU selma'o, 414, 490 + bu'a, 164, 409 + bu'a-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161 + bubu, 416 + bu'e, 409 + buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 + bu'i, 409 + Bulgarian: example, 64 + bu'o, 314 + bu'onai, 314 + but: compared with and, 353; example, 318 +# but/and equivalence, 25 + butter is soft: example, 124 + butterfly: social, example, 18 + bu'u, 219; compared with ca, 219 + BY selma'o, 414, 418, 425, 491; terminator for, 490 + C string: as a symbol for a single consonant, 49 +# C/C string: as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, 50 +# C/CC string: as a symbol for a consonant triple, 50 + ca, 219, 232; compared with bu'u, 219; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; me= aning when following interval specification, 221; rational for, 219 + ca'a, 243 + ca'e, 316 + CAhA selma'o, 243, 491; making sticky, 243; order in tense construct, 24= 3 + CAI selma'o, 305, 491 + cancellation of indicators, 494 + cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: with da'o, 162 + cancellation of sumti assignment, 492 + ca'o, 228; derivation of word, 228 + cai, 305 + calculator mathematics: as default in Lojban, 436 + can see: example, 244 + canceling letter shifts, 418 + capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 + capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use o= f, 66 + captions to pictures, 7 + car goer: example, 279 + cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure = effect from subjective numbers, 448 + cardinality: definition, 125; property of sets, 125 + carried piano: example, 353 + carry sack: example, 205 + carry sack and dog: example, 241 + carry the piano: example, 361 + Cartesian product: with tenses, 246 + Carthage destroyed: example, 317 + case: upper/lower specification, 415 + cat of plastic: example, 160 + Catherine: example, 65 + Cathy: example, 65 + causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or eff= ect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 + cause death: example, 267, 287 + cave: example, 236 + CC string: as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, 50 + CCVVCV fu'ivla: and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80 + ce, 354, 355 + ce'a, 418 + cedilla: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 + ce'e, 208, 347, 399 + CEhE selma'o, 347, 399, 491 + ce'i, 433 + cei for broda-series assignment: compared with goi for ko'a-series assig= nment, 151 + CEI selma'o, 491 + ce'o, 354, 362 + ce'u, 161, 260, 261; use in specifying sumti place of property in abstra= ction, 161 + cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 + cessitive event contour, 228 + chapter numbering, 458 + chapter titles: intent of, 4 + character codes: definition, 425 + character encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425 + characters: definition, 425; special, 31 + Chelsea Clinton, 275 + chemical elements: use of single-letter shift for, 415 + Chief: example, 66 + child on ice: example, 221 + Chilean desert: example, 80 + Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; repr= esenting based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 + choose from: example, 355 + Chrysler: example, 99 + ch-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31 + ci'i, 434 + CIA: example, 424 + circumflex: a diacritical mark, 418 + ci'u, 204 + claims: contrasted with expression of feelings, 298 + clamshells, 286 + clarity of sounds, 31 + Classical Greek aorist tense: compared with Lojban tense, 223 + clause: subordinate using abstraction, 255 + close-binding, 490 + closed interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455 + closings: letter, 325 + cmavo: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; compound, 51; contrasted = with rafsi in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, 56; de= finition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 51; experi= mental, 51; for experimental use, 51; interaction list, 485; lack of relati= on of form to grammatical use, 51; rules for pause after Cy-form, 69; simpl= e, 51; stress on, 40, 52; structure of, 51 + cmavo and gismu: major, 53 + cmavo as brivla, 495 + cmavo as selbri: quick-tour version, 20 + cmavo as sumti, 497 + cmavo form: contrasted with brivla form, 53 + cmavo without rafsi: method of including in lujvo, 60 + cmene: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; = and analyzability of speech stream, 64; as one of the 3 basic word classes,= 50; authority for, 65; avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, 67; c= onsonant clusters permitted in, 66; definition, 64; examples of, 64; final = letter in, 66; from Lojban words, 66; method of including in lujvo, 60; pro= scribed syllables in, 67; purpose of, 64; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; re= quirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; = rules for formation, 65; rules for pause before, 68; stress in, 65, 66; unu= sual stress in, 65 + cmene form: contrasted with brivla form, 53 + co, 95 + CO selma'o, 491 + cobra: example, 63 + co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 15= 8 + co'e-series pro-bridi, 157 + coffee mixed with tea: example, 359 + coffee or tea: example, 352 + co'i, 230 + coi, 136, 324; quick-tour version, 21 + COI selma'o, 136, 146, 183, 323, 492; effect on pause before name, 323; = effect on referent of do, 146; effect on referent of mi, 146; ordering mult= iple with mi'e, 325; terminator for, 492 + coin heads: example, 447 + Coleoptera, 280 + color standards, 295 + colorimeter, 261 + combining words into one, 507 + comma: definition of, 32; effect on relative clause in English, 171; exa= mple of, 32; main use of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; variant= of, 32 + command: contrasted with observative form, 188 + commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 + commas in numbers: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of other notati= on conventions, 433; with elided digits, 433 + common abstractor, 256 + commutative truth functions, 335 + comparative lujvo: against former state, 293; and seltau presupposition,= 293; potential ambiguity in, 292; standardized meanings, 292 + comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58 + comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 + comparison with relative phrase: contrasted with bridi-based comparison,= in claims about parts, 204 + completitive event contour, 228 + complex logical connection: grouping strategies contrasted, 343 + complex logical connectives: grouping with bo, 343; grouping with parent= hesis, 343 + complex movements: expressing, 225 + complex negation: examples, 102 + complex numbers: expressing, 434 + components contrasted with mass: in properties of, 354 + compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for= , 445 + compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than o= ne sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 34= 6; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; sepa= rate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 + compound bridi with more than one sumti in common: with common sumti fir= st, 345; with vau, 345 + compound cmavo: compared with sequence of simple cmavo, 51; definition, = 51; recognition of, 51 + compound emotions, 306 + compound letter marker, 505 + compound letters: native language, representing as distinct letters, 419 + compound logical connectives: components, 336; naming convention, 336 + compound of gismu: lujvo as, 53 + compound spatial tense: as direction with-or-without distance, 218; begi= nning with distance only, 218; effect of different ordering, 218; explanati= on of, 218; with direction and distance, 218 + compound subscript, 362, 455 + compound temporal tense: beginning with distance only, 220 + compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared= with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrast= ed with English in order of specification, 218 + compound tense ordering: Lojban contrasted with English, 218 + compound words, 273 + computer interaction, 484 + concept abstraction, 265 + concept abstraction(s): place structure, 265 + concept abstractor, 265 + concrete terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61 + condescension: example, 308 + confusion: metalinguistic, 321 + confusion about what was said, 321 + conjunctions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 + connected tenses: negation of compared with negation in connective, 245 + connecting operands: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, = 361 + connecting operators: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective,= 361 + connection: forethought, 494; forethought separator, 495; non-distribute= d, 356; of bridi-tails, 495; of sumti, 489, 496; of tanru units, 495, 496; = simultaneously modal and logical, 204 + connection of operands: grouping, 454; precedence over operator, 455 + connection of operators: grouping, 454 + connective answers: non-logical, 359 + connective question answers: contrasted with other languages, 353 + connective question cmavo: departure from regularity of, 352 + connective questions: answering, 352; compared with other languages, 353= ; non-logical, 359 + connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; as ungrammatical = utterance, 352 + connectives: for abstractions, 269; table by constructs connected, 366 + connector: for relative clauses, 508 + consonant: definition, 35; effect on syllable count, 35 + consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants= , 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than t= hree consonants in, 37 + consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restri= ctions on, 36 + consonant triples, 37; restrictions on, 37 + consonant-final words: necessity for pause after, 68 + consonants: contrasted with vowels, 33; final, 36; position of, 36; pron= unciation of, quick-tour version, 12; restrictions on, 36; syllabic, 34; vo= iced/unvoiced equivalents, 35; voicing of, 35 + continents: gismu for, 79 + continues: example, 228 + continuitive event contour, 228 + continuous: of tense intervals, 225 + contradictory negation: using naku before selbri, 405 + contradictory negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207 + contradictory negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 + contributors to this book, 5 + conversion: accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; definition, 100, 247= ; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on BAI, 196; extending scope = of, 193; modal, 206, 496; of BAI, 195; of operator places, 459; of selbri, = 504; scope of, 193; swapping non-first places, 194; swapping with modal pla= ce, 205; using jai, 101 + conversion and tanru, 100 + conversion into sumti from mekso, 436 + conversion of mekso into sumti, 436 + conversion of operand into operator, 460 + conversion of operator into operand, 460 + conversion of operator into selbri, 457 + conversion of selbri into operand, 456 + conversion of selbri into operator, 456 + conversion of selbri to modal, 493 + conversion of sentence with quantified variables: technique, 407 + conversion of sumti into operand, 456 + conversion of sumti into selbri, 98 + conversion with `ke', 101 + conversion with se: effect of naku negation boundary on, 406 + converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resettin= g standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contra= sted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in stru= cture, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; pl= ace structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-fi= rst place in description, 193 + converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifie= r to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to= operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 + converting sumti to related meaning, 498 + co'o, 324; quick-tour version, 21 + creative understanding, 273 + credits for pictures, 6 + credits for this book, 6 + cross product: with tenses, 246 + cross-dependency, 280 + cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356 + cu, 188, 190, 216; as selbri separator, 188; effect of selbri-first brid= i on, 190; effect of tense specification, 216; effect on elidability of ku,= 122; effect on elidable terminators, 188; necessity of, 188; need for, qui= ck-tour version, 19; omission of, quick-tour version, 14; quick-tour versio= n, 14; use of, quick-tour version, 14; usefulness of, 188 + CU selma'o, 188, 492 + cu'e: combining with other tense cmavo, 250 + CUhE selma'o, 238, 492 + cu'i, 299, 305 + cultural knowledge: example, 316 + cultural words: rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, 80 + culturally dependent lujvo, 322 + cumbersome text, 479 + cu'o, 447 + cup's friend: example, 174 + curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263 + cu'u, 203 + cycles, 230 + Cy-form cmavo: rules for pause after, 69 + Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words fo= r, 427 + da, 162, 392, 473; as a translation for "something", 392; contrasted wit= h zo'e, 392 + da poi, 394 + da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393 + da prami de: contrasted with da prami da, 393 + DA selma'o, 473 + da'a, 441; default number for, 441 + da'e, 149 + DAhO selma'o, 162, 466, 492 + da'i, 319 + da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162;= syntax of, 162 + da-series: after third, 472 + da-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161 + da'u, 148 + dai, 314 + De Gaulle: example, 68 + de'a, 229 + decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notati= ons, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 + deduction: example, 316 + de'e, 149 + default operator precedence: contrasted with mekso goal, 436 + deference: example, 308 + definable pro-sumti, 139; sequences of lerfu words as, 140 + definite numbers: combined with indefinite, 442 + de'i, 204 + dei, 149 + demonstrated potential: expressing, 244 + demonstrative pro-sumti, 140, 147; stability of, 162 + DeMorgan's Law: and bridi-tail logical connection, 408; and distributing= a negation, 407; and internal naku negations, 409; and logically connected= sentences, 408; and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", 407; s= ample applications, 408 + dereferencing a pointer: with la'e, 134 + derivational morphology: definition, 49 + derogatory terms, 275 + descriptions: and abstractions, 255; as based on first place of followin= g selbri, 193; as possessive sumti, 180; based on go'i-series pro-bridi, 15= 5; components of, 120; importance of selbri first place in, 120; non-specif= ic, 121; quick-tour version, 19; specific, 121; types of, 120; use of SE in= , 193 + descriptions with lo: teddy bear contrasted with real bear, 122 + descriptor, 498; as part of description, 120 + descriptor for numbers, 499 + descriptors: different implicit outer quantifiers among, 131; implicit q= uantifiers for, 129; omission of, 132; purpose of, 120 + de'u, 148 + Devanagari: example, 418 + di'a, 229 + diacritic marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + diacritical marks: as lerfu, 418; considered as forming distinct letters= , 419; order of specification within tei...foi, 419; problem of position, 4= 18; problem with multiple on one lerfu, 419; specifying with tei...foi, 419 + dictionary: superior authority of, 5 + di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 + die after living: example, 232 + digit questions, 449 + digit string: definition of, 458 + digits, 502; cmavo for, 432; list of decimal, 462; list of hexadecimal, = 462; names from, 459; rafsi for, 459; rationale for having 16, 444 + digits beyond 9: word pattern, 444 + di'i, 226 + dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 + dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense interv= als, 224; spatial, 506 + dimensionality of interval: as subjective, 224 + dimensioned numbers: expressing, 456 + diphthongs: classification of, 34; contrasted with vowel pairs, 34; defi= nition of, 33; English analogues of, 45; in fu'ivla, 63; IPA for, 33; list = of, 33; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; specific to cmene, 66; sp= ecific to names, 66 + direct address, 323 + direction: following interval in tense construct, 221; interaction with = movement specification in tenses, 224; order of relative to distance in spa= tial tenses, 217; reference frame for, 224; spatial, 493; specification wit= h FAhA, 217; time, 503 + directions: multiple with movement, 225 + disambiguated instance, 276 + disclaimers, 5 + discourse: commentary on, 319; expressing utterance relation to, 317; ge= sture markers, 319; tone of voice markers, 319 + discrete: of tense intervals, 225 + discursive indicator, 466 + discursives: as metalinguistic claims, 317; contrasted with attitudinals= , 317; definition, 317; discourse commentary, 319; discourse management, 32= 0; embedded, 481; expressing how things are said, 318; knowledge, 319; plac= ement in sentence, 317; quick-tour version, 25; su'a, 316; word-level, 318 + discursives for consecutive discourse, 317; contrasted, 318 + discursives for managing discourse flow, 320 + discuss in language: example, 357 + distance: order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, 217; spatial= , 506; specification with VA, 217; time, 507 + distributing a negation, 407 + distribution of quantified sumti, 398 + ditto: example, 318 + di'u, 148; contrasted with la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with ta, 148; quick= -tour version, 21 +# di'u-series pro-sumti /r dihuseries, 148 + diversified species, 295 + DNA: example, 424 + do, 146 + do'a, 318 + doctor and then rich: example, 364 + do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 + dog breathes, 395 + dog house: example, 274 + dog or cat: example, 351 + doghouse: example, 72, 277 + DOhU selma'o, 137, 323, 492 + do'i, 149; compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 + Don Quixote: example, 68 + Dong: example, 281 + do'o, 146 + do'u, 137, 323 + doi, 136, 138, 323; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138;= effect on pause before name, 323; quick-tour version, 21 + DOI selma'o, 136, 183, 323, 492; quick-tour version, 21; terminator for,= 492 + double negation: and naku, 407 + double negatives: effect of interactions between quantifiers and negatio= n on, 403 + doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted w= ith single consonants, 35 + Doyle: example, 138 + dream: example, 316 + du, 162, 164; as an exception within GOhA selma'o, 97; compared with me = in effect, 99; contrasted with dunli, 163, 439; contrasted with mintu, 163;= derivation of, 163; grammar of, 435; meaning of, 163; rationale for select= ion of selma'o for, 162; with complex mekso on both sides, 436 + ducks swim: example, 243 + du'e, 442, 448 + du'i, 204 + dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 + Dutch ij: proposed lerfu word for, 429 + du'u, 263, 264 + e, 340; contrasted with fa'u, 356; contrasted with pi'u, 357 + e'a, 303 + Earl: example, 34 + eat bread: example, 441 + eat in airplane: example, 225 + eat themselves: example, 442 + EBNF grammar, 552 + editorial commentary, 480 + editorial insertion, 481; of text already containing sa'a, 321; with sa'= a, 321 + e'e, 303 + Eek!: example, 301 + ei, 303, 305 + eicai, 305 + eicu'i, 305 + einai, 305 + Einstein: example, 294 + Einsteinian: space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, 224 + eiro'u, 307 + eiru'e, 305 + eisai, 305 + -ek: in name for logical connectives, 336 + ek: definition, 336 + eks: connecting operands, 361; in sumti forethought logical connection, = 340 + elementary schools, 281 + Elgin: Suzette Haden and evidentials, 315 + elidability of be'o, 94 + elidability of me'u, 99 + elidable terminators: list, 486 + elided tense: meaning of, 215 + elimination process, 282 + ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 + elliptical pro-bridi, 157 + elliptical pro-sumti, 157 + elliptical sumti, 157 + elliptical value: contrasted with typical value for sumti, 157 + embarrassment: example, 307 + embedded bridi tenses: effect of main bridi tense on, 235 + embedded discursive, 481 + embedded quotation, 476 + emotion, 297 + emotional categories, 306 + emotional indicators: noticeable effects of, 330 + emotional scale, 305 + emotions: compound, 306; cultural bias of expression, 329; insights, 306= ; marking, 505; marking intensity of, 491; recording using indicators, 329;= research using indicators, 329; when expressed, 306 + empathy: example, 314 + emphasis, 479; changing by using non-standard form of bridi, 188; markin= g, 489 + emphasis marking, 479 + end of file, 484 + end of text indicator, 493 + endpoints: inclusion in interval, 360 + engineering: example, 14 + English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, 196 + English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146 + Englishman in Africa: example, 124 + enough currency: example, 442 + enough-th: example, 447 + e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 + equivalents to brivla, 97 + erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 50= 3; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 + error marking: metalinguistic, 321 + e'u, 303, 317; compared with ru'a, 317 + -er: use of zmadu in forming, 58 + 'et'e: example, 419 + Eureka!: example, 299 + event abstraction(s): types, 257 + event abstractions, 256 + event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, = 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; = completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in im= plication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229;= implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; int= erruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; pe= rfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 22= 9; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted = with spatial, 231 + event contours as sumti tcita: contrasted with direction and distance, 2= 32 + event types: described, 258 + event-relative viewpoint: contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, 22= 8 + events: considered as a process, 228; duration, 256; place structure, 25= 7 + everybody loves something: example, 401 + everyone: contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, 399 + everyone bitten by dog, 396 + everything: expressing with "ro da", 394 + everything breathes: example, 395 + everything loves everything: example, 394 + everything sees me: example, 394 + everything sees something: example, 394 + evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English,= 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with s= u'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-to= ur version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with k= a'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 + exact number: expressing, 443 + exactly two: example, 443 + example of examples, 5 + examples: structure of, 5 + examples in this book, 4 + except from 10 to 12: example, 360 + existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 + existential claims: definition, 392; restricting, 394 + existential variable: in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, 400;= in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, 400 + expanding "no" quantifier, 403 + experience abstraction, 265 + experience abstraction(s): place structure, 265 + experience abstractor, 265 + experienced: example, 316 + experimental cmavo: definition, 51; forms for, 51 + explicit magnitude, 250 + exponential notation: with base other than 10, 451; with gei, 450 + exporting negation to prenex: "naku" contrasted with internal bridi nega= tion, 406; internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", 406 + expressive power, 290 + external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; defin= ition, 401 + extrinsic possession: definition, 173 + F.8 base 16: example, 444 + fa, 189 + FA in selbri: compared with converted selbri in meaning, 193; contrasted= converted selbri with in structure, 193 + FA selma'o, 93, 189, 206, 247, 493; after 5th place, 472; as a reminder = of place in place structure, 190; avoidance of complex usage of, 191; compa= red with zo'e for omitting places, 190; effect on place structure, 190; eff= ect on place structure order, 190; effect on subsequent non-tagged places, = 191; for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, 190; for p= utting more than one sumti in a single place, 191; syntax of, 189 + FA tags and linked sumti, 93 + fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253 + face: specifying for letters, 418 + FAhA selma'o, 217, 242, 493; and direction, 217; contradictory negation = of, 241; use in specifying space/time mapping direction, 231 + FAhO selma'o, 484, 493 + false statement: implications of, 337 + fancy E: notation convention, 335 + fancy O: notation convention, 335 + fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 + fai, 206, 247, 287; as allowing access to original first place in modal = conversion, 206; effect on numbering of place structure places, 206 + falsity of mathematical relation: expressing, 440 + fancy A: notation convention, 335 + fancy U: notation convention, 335 + fast talker: example, 17 + fast-talker shoe: example, 17 + father: example, 11 + father mother: example, 55 + fa'u, 354, 356, 470; compared to termsets, 356; contrasted with .e, 356 + fe, 189 + fe'omi'e, 325 + fe'e, 230, 231, 232; effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, 231 + feed: example, 288 + feeling, 297 + feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 + FEhE selma'o, 230, 493 + FEhU selma'o, 194, 493 + fe'o, 325; contrasted with fa'o, 325 + fe'u, 194 + fewsome: example, 446 + fi, 189 + fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 + Fido: example, 396 + fi'e, 203 + field rations: example, 56 + figurative lujvo, 322; place structure, 322 + figurative speech, 322 + FIhO selma'o, 194, 493; terminator for, 493 + fi'i, 324 + final syllable stress: rules for pause after, 69 + finish: contrasted with stop, 229 + finished: example, 229 + fi'o, 194; and modal conversion, 206; as modal tag, 194; effect on follo= wing selbri, 194; mixed modal connection with, 205; proscribed for sticky m= odals, 208; restriction on use, 201; use in adding places to place structur= e, 194 + fi'o constructs: short forms as BAI, 195 + fi'o modal followed by selbri: effect on eliding fe'u, 202 + fi'o modals: negation of by negating selbri, 207; usage in relative phra= ses, 204 + fi'o tag: relation of modal sumti following to selbri, 195 + fi'o with selbri: meaning of, 194 + first rat: example, 447 + firstly: example, 458 + fish eat: example, 468 + fish on right: example, 222 + fi'u, 433 + five people: example, 178 + five women: example, 178 + flashbacks in story time: example, 237 + fleas, 274 + flexible vocabulary, 53 + floating point numbers: expressing, 451 + flow of discourse: managing with discursives, 320 + fo, 189 + fo'a, 163 + foi, 419 + FOI selma'o, 419, 494 + folk quantifiers: expressing, 456 + font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 + food: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 + foreman of a jury: example, 146 + forethought bridi connection: as grammatically one sentence, 339 + forethought bridi connectives: contrasted with afterthought bridi connec= tives, 338 + forethought bridi-tail connection: special rule for tense, 365 + forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utt= erances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observ= atives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 + forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249 + forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted w= ith afterthought connective, 338 + forethought connectives: with tense, 364 + forethought connectives and bo, 343 + forethought interval: GAhO position, 361 + forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 + forethought logical connectives in tanru: effect on tanru grouping, 92 + forethought mathematical notation (see also Polish), 438 + forethought modal sentence connection, 199; relation to modal of first b= ridi in, 199; relation to modal of second bridi in, 199 + forethought modal sentence connection for causals: order of cause and ef= fect, 199 + forethought tanru connection, 350 + forethought tense connection: contrasted with afterthought in likeness t= o modal connection, 249 + forethought tense connection of bridi-tails: order of, 240 + forethought tense connection of sentences: order of, 239 + forethought tense connection of sumti: order of, 239 + forethought termsets: logical connection of, 348 + formal grammar, 511 + formal requirement: example, 305 + former market: example, 235 + former state, 293 + formulae: expressing based on pure dimensions, 456 + four "e"s: example, 422 + Four score and seven: example, 460 + fourteen "e"s: example, 413 + fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default= , 433 + fragmentary text, 321 + Frank is a fool: example, 263 + free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 + frequency within interval: specifying, 504 + friend's cup: example, 174 + from one to two o'clock: example, 359 + fu, 189 + fu'a, 452 + fu'e, 475 + FUhA selma'o, 494 + FUhE selma'o, 475, 494 + FUhO selma'o, 475, 494 + fu'i, 309 + fu'ivla: algorithm for constructing, 62; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as = Stage 3 borrowings, 61; as Stage 4 borrowings, 62; categorized contrasted w= ith uncategorized in ease of construction, 62; considerations for choosing = basis word, 64; consonant clusters in, 62; construction of, 62; definition,= quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 63; disambiguation of, 64; form for= rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80; form of, 62; initial consonant cluster in, 62;= method of including in lujvo, 60; quick-tour version, 20; rules for format= ion of, 62; stress in, 62; uniqueness of meaning in, 61; use of, 61; with i= nvalid diphthongs, 64 + fu'ivla categorizer, 61; for distinguishing fu'ivla form, 64; for distin= guishing specialized meanings, 64; selection consideration for, 62 + Fujiko: example, 68 + fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59 + function f of x: example, 423 + function name: lerfu string as, 423 + functional notation: standard, 438 + fu'o, 475 + future event: possible extension into present, 223 + futureward: as a spatial tense, 224 + fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, 262 + ga, 408 + GA selma'o, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 352, 361, 453, 494 + gadri: definition, 119 + ga'e, 415 + GAhO position in forethought intervals, 361 + GAhO selma'o, 246, 360, 361, 494; grammar of, 360 + ga'i, 308 + ga'icai, 309 + ga'inai, 308 + ganai, 339, 340 + ga'o, 360, 362; etymology of, 360 + ge, 408 + ge'a, 450, 452, 453; for infix operations with too many operands, 451 + ge'a gei, 453 + ge'e, 311, 322 + GEhU selma'o, 175, 495 + ge'i, 352 + gei, 450; as a binary operator, 450; as a ternary operator, 451; rationa= le for order of places, 451 + gek: definition, 338 + gek bridi connectives: contrasted with ijeks, 338 + geks: connecting operands, 361; in forethought sumti connection, 341; sy= ntax of, 340 + General American, 42 + general sumti: contrasted with operands, 436 + general terms, 295 + German rich man: example, 344 + gerund: using abstraction, 255 + Gettysburg Address: example, 460 + ge'u, 151, 175, 318; effect of following logical connective on elidabili= ty, 175; elidability of from relative phrases, 175 + gi, 92, 199, 239, 240, 340, 361, 408 + GI selma'o, 336, 339, 340, 361, 495 + gi'e, 344 + GIhA selma'o, 336, 344, 346, 352, 364, 495; terminator for, 506 + gihek: definition, 344 + giheks: syntax of, 346 + gi'i, 352 + gik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 340 + giks: syntax of, 340 + ginai, 340 + girls' school: little, example, 85 + gismu: algorithm for, 75; and cmavo, major, 53; as a subtype of brivla, = 53; as partitioning semantic space, 53; basic rafsi for, 57; coined, 77; co= nflicts between, 54; creation, and transcription blunders, 76; creation, co= nsiderations for selection after scoring, 75; creation, proscribed gismu pa= irs, 76; creation, scoring rules, 75; cultural, 78; definition, 53; definit= ion, quick-tour version, 27; ethnic, 79; examples of, 54; exceptions to gis= mu creation by algorithm, 77; for countries, 79; for languages, 78; for Loj= ban source languages, 78; geographical, 79; length of, 54; level of uniquen= ess of rafsi relating to, 57; Lojban-specific, 77; place order, rationale, = 295; place structures, 294; place structures, rationale, 294; quick-tour ve= rsion, 20; rationale for, 273; rationale for choice of, 53; religious, 80; = rules for, 54; scientific-mathematical, 77; selection of, 53; source of, 54= ; source-language weights for, 76; special, 54; too-similar, 76 + give: example, 11 + give or receive?: example, 191 + giving the horse: example, 260 + global attitudinals, 475 + glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 + glue in lujvo: n-hyphen as, 56; r-hyphen as, 56; y-hyphen as, 56 + go: example, 187 + go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 + go to market: example, 215 + go to Paris or Rome: example, 408 + go to the store: example, 4 + go'i-series pro-bridi: assigning for permanent reference, 154; in narrat= ive about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156 + go'a, 154 + goal of this book, 3 + go'e, 154 + goer table: example, 85 + goer-house: example, 274 + Goethe, 479 + GOhA selma'o, 97, 145, 409, 470, 495; as component in tanru, 97; as selb= ri, 97 + go'i, 97, 154, 318; as affirmative answer to yes/no question, 154; compa= red with mo in overriding of arguments, 160; contrasted with go'i ra'o, 156= ; contrasted with mi'u, 318 + goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti: use in speech contrasted with w= riting, 151 + goi for ko'a-series assignment: compared with cei for broda-series assig= nment, 151 + go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156 + GOI selma'o, 172, 495; terminator for, 495 + go'i with xu: quick-tour version, 23 + go'i-series pro-bridi, 152; as basis for description, 155; as main-bridi= anaphora only, 154; as main-bridi anaphora only, exception, 155; as repeat= ing referent concept, 155; compared with ri-series in word formation, 152; = compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, 154; effect of sub= -clauses on, 154; effect of sumti of referent bridi on, 154; no'a as except= ion to only main-bridi anaphora, 155; referent of, 154; reinterpreting sumt= i references with ra'o, 156 + go'ixire, 154 + go'o, 155 + go'u, 154 + goi, 150, 154, 162, 421; rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause = chapter, 175; use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, 152; use in assigning na= me, 152 + good house: example, 92 + grammatical categories: use of upper case for, 5 + grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26 + grasp water: example, 199 + great soldier: example, 278, 282 + Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, = 426 + Greek-Americans own restaurants, 126 + grouping: indicator for, 496; of connection in abstractions, 365; of con= nection in tenses, 363 + grouping parentheses, 88 + gu, 339 + GU selma'o, 339 + gu'e, 92 + GUhA selma'o, 350, 352, 361, 495 + guhek: definition, 350 + guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 + guheks for tanru connection: rationale, 350 + gu'i, 352 + had earlier: example, 234 + han4zi4: example, 420 + hands in pockets: example, 175 + handwriting: example, 418 + happiness: example, 161 + happy face: example, 416 + has a heart: example, 259 + have never: example, 227 + having: of properties, 259 + healthy: example, 24 + hearsay: example, 316 + heartburn: example, 322 + Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for,= 428 + Helvetica font: example, 418 + hepatitis: example, 60 + hereafter known as: example, 151 + hesitation, 484, 507 + hesitation sound, 484 + hexadecimal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444 + hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, 72 + hiragana: contrasted with kanji, 420; example, 418 + hit cousin: example, 318 + hit nose: example, 318 + hits: example, 11 + Hollywood: example, 127 + Hooray!: example, 299 + hospitality: example, 324 + hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445 + huh?: example, 321 + hundred: expressing as number, 432 + husband and wife: example, 316 + hyphen letter: definition, 59 + hyphens: use of, 59 + hyphens in lujvo: proscribed where not required, 70 + hypothetical world, 301; contrasted with real world, example, 320 + hypothetical world point of view, 320 + i, 198, 238, 465; quick-tour version, 16; regarding forethought bridi co= nnection, 339 + I selma'o, 336, 337, 338, 339, 358, 364, 465, 495 + i'anai, 304 + ianai, 297, 303, 319 + IBM: example, 424 + ICAO Phonetic Alphabet: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358 + idea abstraction, 265 + idea abstraction(s): place structure, 265 + identity: expressing with po'u, 174 + identity predicate, 162 + i'e, 304 + i'enai, 304 + ie, 304 + if: English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, 337; expres= sing real world, 320; meaning in logical connections, 337 + if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted = with other translations, 339 + if coffee: bring tea, example, 353 + if, expressing hypothetical world, 320 + ii, 301 + ijebabo, 363 + ijek: definition, 336 + ijek bridi connectives: contrasted with geks, 338 + ijek logical connective(s): connecting bridi, 336 + ijeks: syntax of, 338 + ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 + imaginary journey: and spatial tense, 217; ending point, 217; origin in = tense forethought bridi-tail connection, 240; origin in tense forethought s= entence connection, 239; origin in tense forethought sumti connection, 239;= origin of in tense-connected sentences, 239; stages of in compound tenses,= 218; starting at a different point, 232; starting point, 217, 232; with in= terval direction, 222 + imaginary journey origin: with sticky tenses, 234 + imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojb= an in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko,= 146 + implausible, 284 + implicit quantifier: definition, 128; for quotations, 128; on personal p= ro-sumti, 128; on quotations, discussion of, 128 + implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 + importance of point: scale with ra'u, 320 + in the aftermath: example, 232 + inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173 + inalienable possession: definition, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 + inchoative event contour, 228 + incidental association: expressing with ne, 174 + incidental identification: expressing with no'u, 174 + incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, = 171 + inclusion: property of sets, 125 + indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as pr= ohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable= , 398; definition, 132, 398 + indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 4= 41 + indefinite portions: subjective, 442 + indefinite pro-bridi, 157; stability of, 162 + indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability = of, 162 + indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti wit= h lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 39= 8 + indefinite values: subjective, 442 + index numbering, 500 + indicator scope, 466 + indicator tables: format convention, 298 + indicators, 298; cancellation of, 494; derived from gismu, 298; evolutio= nary development of, 329; grammar for compounding, 310; meaning when compou= nded, 310; placement of, 298; quick-tour version, 24; ramifications, 329; r= ationale for selection, 329; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; types of, = 298 + indicators derived from gismu: notation convention, 298 + indirect question, 323 + indirect question involving sumti, 265 + indirect questions, 264; "ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", 264 + indirect questions without "kau", 265 + indisputable bridi, 315 + individual: example, 446 + individual objects: multiple, 123 + individuals: expressing relation with mass formed, 446; expressing relat= ion with set formed, 446 + individuals into mass: by non-logical connection, 355 + individuals into set: by non-logical connection, 355 + individuals of set: expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446 + indivisible, 258 + induction: example, 316 + inexact numbers with bounds, 443 + inexact portions with bounds, 444 + infant ducks: example, 244 + inferior: example, 308 + infinity: example, 434 + infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 + infix mathematical notation: shortcomings of, 438 + infix notation mixed with Polish, 455; example, 455 + inflammable: example, 245 + initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 + initiative event contour, 228 + innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 24= 3 + innate property: extension of from mass to individuals, 243; extension t= o individuals not actually capable, 244 + inner product, 452 + inner quantifier: contrasted with outer quantifier, 129; definition, 129= ; effect of on meaning, 129; explicit, 129; implicit on descriptors, 129; i= n indefinite description, 132 + inner quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178 + inner sumti: referring to from within relative clause within relative cl= ause, 184 + integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, exam= ple, 64 + interaction list: cmavo, 485 + interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 + interjections: quick-tour version, 24 + intermediate abstraction, 267 + intermittently: example, 226 + internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; defin= ition, 401 + internal naku negations: and DeMorgan's Law, 409 + internal world, 301 + International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), 29 + intersect, 266 + intersection: of sets, 356 + intersection of sets: compared with and, 357 + interval: closed, 360; effect of nai on, 360; expressed as center and di= stance, 359; expressed as endpoints, 359; expressing by endpoints with bi'o= , 246; followed by direction in tense construct, 221; forethought, 361; for= ming, 490; inclusion of endpoints, 360; open, 360; open/closed specificatio= n, 494; relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relativ= e order with direction and distance in tense, 221; specifying relation to p= oint specified by direction and distance, 221; spread of actions over, 225 + interval continuousness: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 + interval direction: specifying, 221 + interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 + interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; s= patial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 + interval spread: expressing English intermittently, 226; mutually contra= sted, 226; negation with nai, 226; with unspecified interval, 226 + intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some= selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 + introduce oneself, 325 + invalid diphthongs: in fu'ivla, 64 + invalid speech: marking as error with na'i, 321 + inversion of quantifiers: definition, 402; in moving negation boundary, = 402 + inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary: rationale for, 40= 2 + invertebrate, 285 + inverted tanru: effect on sumti after the selbri, 95; effect on sumti be= fore the selbri, 95 + inverting a tanru, 491 + inverting quantifiers: with movement relative to fixed negation, 406; wi= th movement relative to naku, 405 + ionai, 301 + IPA, 29 + IPA pronunciation: description, 42 + iri'abo, 198 + irony: example, 319; expressing, 319 + irrational number: example, 181 + irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 + isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 + IT: as notation convention in relative clause chapter, 170 + italic: example, 418 + -ity, 259 + iu, 301 + iy diphthong: in cmene, 66 + JA selma'o, 90, 245, 336, 337, 338, 350, 352, 354, 361, 364, 365, 496 + jabo, 91 + jai, 206, 247, 267, 287; conversion using, 101 + JAI selma'o, 206, 267, 496 + jai with tense: as equivalent of SE in grammar, 247 + jai without modal: meaning, 206 + James: example, 36 + Jane: example, 65 + ja'o, 316 + Japanese hiragana: example, 418 + Japanese katakana: example, 418 + jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 + je, 89, 208 + je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 + je'i, 352 + jei, 262; place structure, 262 + jek: definition, 336 + jeks: connecting abstractors, 365; connecting operators, 361; syntax of,= 350 + Jesus, 266; example, 266 + ji, 352 + ji'a, 317 + ji'i, 442; effect of placement, 442; with elided number, 443 + Jim: example, 65 + jo'a, 321 + jo'e, 354, 356 + JOhI selma'o, 451, 496; terminator for, 505 + John and Sam: example, 11 + John is coming: example, 297 + John Jones: example, 65 + John Paul Jones: example, 138 + John says that George goes to market: example, 238 + Johnson: example, 68 + jo'i, 451; precedence of, 451 + joi, 353, 354, 355 + joi grammar: contrasted with eks, 354; contrasted with jeks, 354 + JOI selma'o, 246, 336, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361, 364, 455, 470,= 496 + joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 + joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 + joik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 354 + joiks: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; syntax of, 360; use of "se"= in, 355 + jokes, 4 + Jones: John, example, 65 + jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; cont= rasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 + j-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31 + ju'a, 317 + ju'apei, 317 + Judy: example, 294 + ju'i, 324 + ju'o, 319 + Jupiter life: example, 365 + juror 5: example, 181 + ju'u: grammar of, 444 + ka, 259 + ka'a, 196 + ka'e, 243 + kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing base= d on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 + ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 + katakana: example, 418 + Kate: example, 65 + Katrina: example, 65 + ka'u, 316 + kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 + ke, 88, 193, 205, 343, 344, 346, 350, 361, 364; contrasted with bo for t= ensed logical connection, 364; for conversion of tanru, 101; for expanding = scope of scalar negation, 101 + ke in sumti grouping: where allowed, 344 + KE selma'o, 88, 343, 344, 350, 361, 364, 454, 496; terminator for, 497 + ke'a, 160, 169; ambiguity when omitted, 161; and abstract descriptions, = 161; as referent for relativized sumti, 169; contrasted with ri in relative= clauses, 161; effect of omission of, 170; for relativized sumti in relativ= e clauses, 160; meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, 184; non= -initial place use in relative clause, 170; stability of, 162; subscripting= for nested relative clauses, 161 + ke'a with subscript: use for outer sumti reference, 184 + ke'axipa, 184 + ke'e, 88, 193, 205, 343, 361 + KEhE selma'o, 88, 343, 346, 497 + ke'i, 360, 362; etymology of, 360 + KEI selma'o, 98, 255, 497; eliding, 255 + ke'o, 325; compared to ki'a, 325 + kei, 255, 262 + kept on too long: example, 230 + ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 + ke'unai, 320 + Khrushchev: example, 68 + ki, 207, 234, 243; with no tense, 235 + KI selma'o, 234, 497 + ki'a, 321; compared to ke'o, 325 + ki'e, 324 + killing Jim, 258; example, 258 + ki'o, 433 + kissing Jane, example, 256 + ki'u, 197 + klama, 187; place structure of, 187 + know: example, 263 + know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 + knowledge discursives, 319; compared with propositional attitudes, 319 + ko, 119, 146; in later selbri place in imperative, 147; in sub-clause of= main bridi, 147; quick-tour version, 22; use for commands, 146; use for im= peratives, 146 + ko'a, 150 + ko'a-series: after tenth, 472 + ko'a-series for pro-sumti: compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, 151 + ko'a-series pro-sumti, 150; as assignable, 150; assigning with goi, 150;= assignment with goi as symmetrical, 150; contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumt= i in explicit assignment of, 152; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153 + KOhA selma'o, 145, 260, 469, 497 + Korean: example, 64 + Krishna: example, 68 + ku, 122, 177, 201, 216, 354; as elidable terminator for descriptions, 12= 2; effect of following selbri on elidability of, 122; effect of possessive = sumti on elidability of, 181; effect on of omitting descriptor, 132; quick-= tour version, 19; uses of, 122; with tense, 216 + KU selma'o, 354, 497; quick-tour version, 19 + ku'a, 354, 356 + ku'e, 438 + KUhE selma'o, 497 + KUhO selma'o, 169, 498 + ku'i, 317, 353 + ku'o, 169, 178, 394; effect of relative clause after descriptor on elida= bility, 178; effect of vau on elidability, 181; elidability for relative cl= auses, 170 + Kzinti: communication with, 329 + la, 119, 121, 129, 137, 138; compared with le in specificity, 121; contr= asted with lai in implications, 124; contrasted with le in implications, 12= 2; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with vocatives, 323;= contrasted with zo, 478; implications of, 121; use with descriptions contr= asted with use before Lojbanized names, 121 + LA selma'o, 120, 138, 193, 498; contrasted with LE in use of name-words,= 138; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; terminator for, = 497 + la'a, 319 + Lady: example, 66 + la'e, 134, 149, 182, 422, 459, 478; as short for "le selsinxa be", 134; = effect of on meaning, 134 + la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 + la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 + LAhE selma'o, 133, 149, 182, 266, 478, 498; effect of relative clause pl= acement with, 182; terminator for, 499 + la'i, 125, 130, 138; as set counterpart of lai, 125 + lai, 123, 130, 137, 138; as mass counterpart of lai, 123; contrasted wit= h la in implications, 124 + lambda calculus: operator and operand distinction in, 460 + language shift: based on name + bu, 418; choice of Lojban-lerfu-word cou= nterpart, 417; compound, 418; effect on following words, 417; formation of = shift alphabet name, 418; interaction with bu, 417; rationale for, 417; sta= ndardization of, 418 + languages: abbreviations for, 104 + la'o, 61, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416 + Laplace: example, 65 + large meal: example, 310 + large-base decimal fraction: expressing, 445 + la-series descriptors: compared with le-series in implicit quantificatio= n, 130 + latent component, 291 + Latin: alphabet of Lojban, 413 + Latin alphabet, 29; language shift word for, 417 + lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 + LAU selma'o, 415, 418, 419, 498; grammar of following BY, 426 + le, 119, 129, 177, 354; and specificity, 120; and truth of selbri, 120; = compared with English "the", 120; compared with la in specificity, 121; con= trasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implicit quanti= fication, 131; contrasted with lo in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo i= n truth requirement, 121; implications of, 120; implicit outer quantifier f= or, 131; in false-to-fact descriptions, 120; meaning of in the plural, 123 + le contrasted with lo: for relative clause placement considerations, 179 + le nu: definition, 256 + LE selma'o, 120, 193, 247, 354, 498; contrasted with LA in use of name-w= ords, 138; terminator for, 497 + learning Lojban: magnitude of task, 53 + Lech Walesa: example, 68 + le'e, 126, 130; relationship to le'i, 126 + left-grouping rule: definition of, 86 + legal jargon: example, 151 + legal system, 262 + legalities: boring, 8 + LEhU selma'o, 476, 498 + le'i, 125, 130; as set counterpart of lei, 125; relationship to le'e, 12= 6 + lei, 123, 130; contrasted with loi in specificity, 124 + lemon tree: example, 84 + Length ( Width ( Depth =3D Volume: example, 456 + le'o, 309 + Lepidoptera: example, 18 + lerfu: as assignable pro-sumti, 152; contrasted with lerfu word, 413; de= finition, 413; reference to, 422; referring to with me'o, 422 + lerfu as pro-sumti: contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment o= f, 152; explicit assignment of antecedent, 152; implicit assignment of ante= cedent, 152 + lerfu juxtaposition interpretation: contrasted with mathematical interpr= etation, 423 + lerfu pro-sumti: effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153 + lerfu shift scope: exception for mathematical texts, 423 + lerfu string: as acronym using "me", 424; as function name, 423; as func= tion, in mathematics, 438; as mathematical variable, 422; as pro-sumti, 421= ; as pro-sumti assigned by goi, 421; as pro-sumti, assumption of reference,= 421; as pro-sumti, for multiple sumti separated by boi, 421; as quantifier= , 423; as quantifier, avoiding interaction with sumti quantifier, 423; as s= elbri, 423; as subscript, 423; as utterance ordinal, 423; as variable, in m= athematics, 438; definition, 420; in mathematical expressions, 437; interpr= etation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, 437; interpr= etation, contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423; use in mathemati= cs, 422; with numerical selbri, 448 + lerfu word: contrasted with lerfu, 413; for " ' ", 414 + lerfu word cmavo: list of auxiliary, 425 + lerfu word set extension: with bu, 416 + lerfu words: as a basis for acronym names, 423; composed of compound cma= vo, 414; composed of single cmavo, 414; consonant words contrasted with vow= el words, 414; effect of systematic formulation, 414; for consonants, 414; = for vowels, 414; formation rules, 414; forming new for non-Lojban letters u= sing bu, 419; list of proposed, notation convention, 426; Lojban coverage r= equirement, 413; proposed for accent marks, 429; proposed for Cyrillic alph= abet, 427; proposed for diacritic marks, 429; proposed for Greek alphabet, = 426; proposed for Hebrew alphabet, 428; proposed for multiple letters, 429;= proposed for noisy environments, 429; proposed for radio communication, 42= 9; table of Lojban, 414; using computer encoding schemes with se'e, 425; vo= wel words contrasted with consonant words, 414 + lerfu words ending with "y": pause after, rationale, 414 + lerfu words for vowels: pause requirement before, 414 + lerfu words with numeric digits: grammar considerations, 420 + le-series cmavo: as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for= quantification discussion, 130; definition, 130; rationale for implicit in= ner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130 + le-series descriptors: compared with la-series in implicit quantificatio= n, 130 + less: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word,= importance of relative phrase to, 204 + less than: contrasted with more than, at least, at most, 443; example, 4= 43 + letter: alphabet, 413; contrasted with word for the letter, 413; making = a word into, 490 + letter encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425 + letter shift, 498 + letteral: definition, 413 + letters, 491; non-Lojban, representation of diacritical marks on, 418; n= on-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, 417; non-Lojban, repres= entation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, 417; non-Lojban, representatio= n with language-shift, 417; non-Lojban, representation with names, 416; sou= nd contrasted with symbol for spelling, 417; symbol contrasted with sound f= or spelling, 417 + le'u, 119, 141, 476; interaction with zoi, 478 + l-hyphen: use of, 62 + li, 119, 141, 435; as converter of mekso into sumti, 436; contrasted wit= h me'o, 457; relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, 457; terminator= for, 454 + LI selma'o, 142, 422, 499; terminator for, 499 + li'a, 318 + ligatured fi: proposed lerfu word for, 429 + LIhU selma'o, 476, 499 + li'i, 265 + likes more than: example, 203 + lined up, 283 + linguistic behavior, 263 + linguistic drift, 4 + linguistic drift in Lojban: possible source of, 69 + linked arguments, 471 + linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 + linked sumti and FA tags, 93 + linked sumti and sumti tcita, 94 + Linnaean, 479 + Linnaean binomials, 479 + Linnaean names: rules for, 67 + li'o, 321 + lion in Africa: example, 126 + lions in Africa: example, 124 + liquefy: example, 289 + list: as a physical object, 355; contrasted with sequence, 355; example,= 355 + list of things to do: example, 358 + listen attentively: example, 278 + lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 + literally, 322 + li'u, 119, 141, 476 + living things: example, 157 + Livingston: example, 317 + LLG, 5 + lo, 121, 129; and truth of selbri, 121; contrasted with le in implicatio= ns, 122; contrasted with le in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted wit= h le in specificity, 121; contrasted with le in truth requirement, 121; con= trasted with loi and lo'i, 125; implications of, 121; implicit outer quanti= fier for, 131; omission of, 132 + lo contrasted with le: for relative clause placement considerations, 179 + lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418 + lo'e, 126, 130; relationship to lo'i, 126 + logic: and attitudinals, 392; limits of, 392; resolving ambiguities of "= nobody", 391 + logic and Lojban: more aspects, 411 + logical connection: effect on elidability of lo'o, 454; grouping strateg= ies for complex cases contrasted, 343; in abstraction(s), inner bridi contr= asted with outer bridi, 365; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, co= ntrasted with unconnected version, 349; in tanru, expandability of, 349; in= tanru, grouping with bo, 349; in tanru, grouping with ke, 350; inside an a= bstraction(s), contrasted with outside, 365; interaction with tenses, 363; = negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, 342; of bridi-tail as opposed= to tanru, 350; of bridi-tails, forethought, 347; of bridi-tails, restricti= on on ke, 346; of forethought termsets, 348; of modals, 208; of more than 2= sentences, all or none, 342; of more than 2 sentences, forethought, 342; o= f more than 2 sentences, mixed "and" and "or", 342; of more than 2 sentence= s, things to avoid, 342; of observatives, relation of first places, 345; of= selbri, 344; of sumti, grouping with parenthesis, 344; of sumti, restricti= on on ke, 344; of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, 350; of tanru, caveat, 35= 0; termsets, 347; transformation between forms, 340; with bo, precedence, 3= 42 + logical connectives, 333; associative, 341; bridi-tail connection, 345; = cmavo, format for each selma'o, 336; effect on elidability of ge'u from pre= ceding relative phrase, 175; grouping with bo, 342; in tanru, 89; more than= 2 sentences, 341; negated first sentence as a potential problem for unders= tanding, 339; observative sentence connection, 345; pairing from left, 342;= rationale for multiple sets in grammar, 335; recipes, simplified for logic= chapter discussion, 403; relation to truth functions, 334; relative preced= ence with me'u, 99; right-grouping with bo, 343; selma'o, enumerated, 336; = syntax rules summary, 366; table by truth function value, 366; tensed, 240 + logical connectives and bridi negation, 403 + logical connectives and negation: caveat for logic chapter discussions, = 403 + logical connectives in tanru, 349; ambiguity of, 90; effect on formal lo= gical manipulations, 90; effect on tanru grouping, 89; usefulness of, 90 + logical connectives within negation: effects of expansion on, 407 + logical language: truth functions, 333 + Logical Language Group: example, 74; relation to Lojban, 3 + logical variables: creating more by subscripting, 410; effect of global = substitution, 393; effect of order in prenex, 394; effect of using multiple= different, 393; explicitly placing in outer prenex, 400; for selbri, 409; = implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, 400; notation conven= tion, 392; when not in main bridi, 393; with multiple appearances in bridi,= 393; with poi, in multiple appearances, 396; with ro, in multiple appearan= ces, 396 + logically connected sentences: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 + logically connected tenses: definition, 363; expansion to sentences, 245= ; with JA, 245 + Loglan, 6 + logograms: words for, 416 + LOhO selma'o, 499 + LOhU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 498 + lo'i, 125, 130, 447; as set counterpart of loi, 125; contrasted with lo = and loi, 125; relationship to lo'e, 126; with elided quantifiers, 447 + loi, 123, 130; as mass counterpart of lo, 123; contrasted with lei in sp= ecificity, 124; contrasted with lo and lo'i, 125 + Lojban: features of, 3; history of, 3; stability of, 4 + Lojban alphabet, 29 + Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 + Lojbanistan, 4 + long ago and far away: example, 220 + long rafsi: definition, 57 + long rafsi form: compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56 + long-sword: example, 283 + lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 + loose association: expressing with pe, 172 + Lord: example, 66 + lo-series cmavo: rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for = implicit inner quantifier, 130 + lo-series description: caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on,= 131 + Lottie: example, 138 + lo'u, 141, 416, 476; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with zoi, 478 + love more: example, 260 + lower case letters: use in Lojban, 415 + lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 + lower-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban us= age contrasted with English, 415 + lower-case word: effect on following lerfu words, 415 + lu, 119, 141, 422, 476; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422 + LU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 499 + lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 + lu'e, 134, 264, 459, 478; as short for "le sinxa be", 134; effect of on = meaning, 134 + LUhU selma'o, 267, 499 + lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 + lujvo: abbreviated, 284; abstract, 286; algorithm for, 70; and consonant= pairs, 59; and plausibility, 70; and seltau/tertau relationship, 276; and = the listener, 70; anomalous, 290; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as suppliers = of agent place, 295; asymmetric abstraction, 288; asymmetrical, 278; based = on multiple tanru, 70; cmavo incorporation, 274; comparatives, 292; compare= d with tanru, 273; consideration in choosing meaning for, 69; consideration= s for retaining elements of, 70; construction of, 56; definition, quick-tou= r version, 27; design consideration for relationship, 276; dropping element= s of, 69; dropping NU in implicit abstractions, 288; dropping NU rafsi, 288= ; dropping SE rafsi, 283; examples of making, 72; from cmavo with no rafsi,= 60; from tanru, 55; fully reduced, 59; grammar of, 273; guidelines for pla= ce structure, 273; implicit-abstraction, 288; interpreting, 276; invention = of, 57; meaning drift of, 69; meaning of, 56; multiple forms of, 56; NU-dro= pping contrasted with SE-dropping, 288; place structure of, 273; place stru= cture of figurative lujvo, 322; pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure o= f, 163; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; recognizing, 59; rules = for formation of, 56; scope abstraction in underlying veljvo, 287; scored e= xamples of, 72; scoring of, 71; selection of best form of, 71; shorter for = more general concepts, 70; summary of form characteristics, 59; superlative= s, 292; symmetrical, 278; ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-st= ructure, 69; unambiguity of, 69; unambiguous decomposition of, 56; unreduce= d, 57; unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, 61; with "j= ai", 287; with zei, 60; zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, 163 + lujvo creation: interaction of KE with NAhE, 286; interaction of KE with= SE, 286; use of multiple SE in, 286 + lujvo form: consonant cluster requirement in, 59; final letter of, 59; h= ierarchy of priorities for selection of, 72; number of letters in, 59; requ= irements for hyphen insertion in, 59; requirements for n-hyphen insertion i= n, 60; requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for y-hyphe= n insertion in, 59 + lujvo meaning, 274 + lujvo place order, 281; asymmetrical lujvo, 282; based on 3-or-more part= veljvo, 282; comparatives, 292; complex relation, 290; elliptical lujvo, 2= 91; multi-part with NU, 287; non-overlapping place structures, 290; rationa= le for standardization, 281; redundant non-first places, 290; superlatives,= 294; superlatives as exceptions, 294; symmetrical lujvo, 282 + lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; = comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279;= dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 2= 81; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places= , 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 28= 5; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping= in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place= abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardi= zation, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place red= undant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first pl= aces redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 + lukewarm food: example, 135 + lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 + lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 + Lyra: example, 138 + ma, 159, 249, 469; as sumti question, 159; for tense questions, 249; qui= ck-tour version, 22 + ma'a, 146 + machine grammar, 511 + macron: proposed lerfu word for, 429 + magic square: example, 452 + magnitude: tense, 250 + MAhO selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505 + ma'i, 224 + MAI selma'o, 458, 474, 500; exception on use of boi before, 458 + male sexual teacher: example, 74 + man biting dog, 217 + man or woman: example, 333 + manhole: example, 218 + manysome: example, 447 + ma'o, 438, 460; potential ambiguity caveat, 460 + mai, 458, 474; contrasted with mo'o, 458 + man is woman: example, 177 + man-woman: example, 350 + Mao Zedong: example, 68 + maple sugar: example, 63 + maple trees: example, 63 + marathon, 258 + Mars road: example, 193 + Marsha: example, 470 + mass: compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contra= sted with ordered sequence, 355; contrasted with set in attribution of comp= onent properties, 125; contrasted with set in distribution of properties, 3= 55; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing portio= ns of, 441; expressing relation with individuals forming, 446; expressing r= elation with set forming, 446; joining elements into a, 353; rule for impli= cit outer quantifier, 130 + mass contrasted with components: in properties of, 354 + mass name: use of, 124 + mass object: and logical reasoning, 123; as dependent on intention, 124;= contrasted with multiple individual objects, 123; properties of, 123 + mass objects: peculiarities of English translation of, 124 + mathematical equality: expressing, 435 + mathematical expression: abbreviation notation, 431; definition (see als= o "mekso"), 431; referring to, 457 + mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, = 142; tensed connection in, 364 + mathematical expressions in tanru, 97 + mathematical inequalities: expressing, 439 + mathematical intervals, 362 + mathematical notation: and omitted operators, 431; and operator preceden= ce, 436; forethought (see also Polish), 438; infix, 435; infix shortcomings= , 438; international uniqueness of, 431 + mathematical operators, 436 + mathematical parenthesis: left, 506 + mathematical texts: effect on lerfu shift scope, 423 + mathematical variables: lerfu strings as, 422 + mathematics: use of lerfu strings in, 422 + matne, 124 + matrix: as combination of vectors, 452; definition, 451; use as operand,= 452; use of parentheses with, 452; with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns,= 452; with more than 2 dimensions, 452 + matrix column operator, 452 + matrix row operator, 452 + ma'u, 442; with elided number, 442 + mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 + Mayan mathematics: as a system with base larger than 16, 445 + me, 98, 424, 448; compared with du in effect, 99; effect of MOI on, 448;= explicitly specifying, 325; place structure of, 98; used with names, 99 + ME selma'o, 98, 448, 500; terminator for, 500 +# me/du equivalence, 99 + me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 + measurement scale, 261 + measurements: expressing, 435 + meat slice: example, 285 + medieval weapon, 283 + MEhU selma'o, 98, 500 + me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 + mei, 446; place structure formed for objective indefinites, 446 + mekso: and literary translation, 460; complex used as quantifier, 454; d= efinition, 431; design goals, 431; list of selma'o for, 461 + mekso chapter: completeness, 431; table notation convention, 431 + mekso goal: coverage, 431; expandable, 431; for common use, 431; for mat= hematical writing, 431; precision, 431; unambiguous, 431 + mekso goals: and ambiguity, 431; and non-mathematical expression, 431; m= athematical notation form, 431 + melting, 295 + membership: property of sets, 125 + mental activity, 263 + mental discomfort: example, 307 + me'o, 142, 422, 457; compared with la'e lu, 422; contrasted with li, 457= ; contrasted with lu...li'u for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with qu= otation for representing lerfu, 422; relation to li compared with la/zo rel= ation, 457 + metalinguistic comment: with embedded discursive, 481 + metalinguistic commentary, 480 + metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 + metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 + metalinguistic levels, 481 + metalinguistic levels or reference, 481 + metalinguistic pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 + metalinguistic words: quick-tour version, 25 + me'u, 98, 448, 449; relative precedence with logical connectives, 99 + mi, 119, 146 + mi'a, 146 + mice: example, 265 + mi'e, 146, 325; contrasted with other members of COI, 325; effect of ord= ering multiple COI, 325 + mi'enai, 326 + mi'i, 359, 455 + minimal list, 273 + mintu: contrasted with du, 163 + mi'o, 146 + mi-series: of pro-sumti, 146 + mi-series pro-sumti: lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 147 + misinterpretation, 286 + Mitsubishi: example, 420 + mi'u, 317; contrasted with go'i, 318 + mixed claim: definition, 394 + mixed modal connection: afterthought, 205; as proscribed in forethought,= 205; definition, 204; of bridi-tails, 205; of sentences, 204; of sumti, 20= 5 + mixed with: example, 354 + mo, 160, 470; as selbri question, 160; compared with go'i in overriding = of arguments, 160; quick-tour version, 23 + mo'a, 442, 448 + modal bridi-tail connection, 200 + modal causals: implication differences, 197 + modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular deri= vation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation,= 208; table with English equivalents, 210 + modal cmavo table: format of, 210 + modal connection: simultaneous with logical, 204 + modal connection of selbri: using bridi-tail modal connection, 200 + modal connectives: fi'o prohibited in, 201 + modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar = of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 + modal conversion with fi'o, 206 + modal conversion without modal: as vague, 206 + modal conversions: in descriptions, 206 + modal followed by selbri: compared with tanru modification in meaning, 2= 02; contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, 202; effect on eliding c= u, 201 + modal operand connection, 201 + modal place: definition, 195; on description selbri, 197; rationale for = term name, 195; relation of to selbri, 195 + modal place relation: importance of first place in, 195 + modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; f= orethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to m= odal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with ot= her than causals, 199 + modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 19= 5; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 19= 5; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 + modal sumti connection, 200 + modal tag: and sumti tcita, 94; contrasted with English preposition in p= reciseness, 196; definition (see also sumti tcita), 195; fi'o with selbri a= s, 194; for vague relationship, 197; short form as BAI, 195 + modal with no sumti: indicator for, 497 + modal-or-tense question: with cu'e, 250 + modals: compared with tenses in syntax, 248; contradictory negation of, = 206; contrasted with tenses in semantics, 248; expanding scope over inner m= odal connection, 202; expanding scope over logical connection with ke...ke'= e, 202; expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e...tu'u, 202; expa= nding scope over non-logical connection, 202; for causal gismu, 197; import= ance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; improving relative phrase= preciseness with, 203; making long-scope, 207; making sticky, 207; negatio= n of, 206; scalar negation of, 207; termset connection, 200 + modals often attached with relative phrases: list, 204 + modified: of a tanru, 274 + modifier: of a tanru, 274; seltau as, 84 + modifying brivla (see also seltau), 55 + mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 + MOhE selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505 + MOhI selma'o, 224, 501 + mo'i, 224 + Mon Repos: example, 280 + mo'o, 458, 474; contrasted with mai, 458 + moi, 447 + MOI selma'o, 98, 446, 449, 463, 500; list of cmavo in, 463; use of boi b= efore, 449 + more: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word,= importance of relative phrase to, 204 + more than: contrasted with less than, at least, at most, 443; example, 4= 43 + morphological glue, 507 + morphology: conventions for, 49; definition, 49; derivational, 49; simpl= icity of, 49; symbolic conventions for discussing, 49 + mother father: example, 55 + movement: order in tense constructs, 225; time, 225; with multiple direc= tions, 225 + movement specification: interaction with direction in tenses, 224 + mu'a, 319 + mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 + mu'i, 197 + multiple compound bridi: restriction on ke, 346 + multiple conversion: avoiding, 194; effect of ordering, 194 + multiple indefinite sumti: effect of re-ordering in sentence, 399; expre= ssing with equal scope, 399; meaning, 398 + multiple indefinite sumti scope: in termset, 399 + multiple indicators, 312 + multiple individual objects: contrasted with mass object, 123; meaning o= f, 123 + multiple letters: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + multiple logical connectives: within tanru, 91 + multiple ma: as multiple questions, 160 + multiple mo: as multiple questions, 160 + multiple quantification: effect on selbri placement among sumti, 407 + multiple questions in one bridi: expressing, 160 + multiple relative clauses: attaching with zi'e, 175; connecting differen= t kinds with zi'e, 176 + multiple SE: effect of ordering, 194 + multiple speakers, 484 + multiple sumti in one place: avoiding, 191; meaning, 191 + multiple tanru inversion: effect on grouping, 96 + multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 + multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 + mu'o, 325 + my: example, 180 + my chair: example, 176 + myth: example, 316 + n people: example, 423 + na, 104, 338, 346, 350, 401, 408; and negation boundary, 408; order in l= ogical connectives with se, 338 + na and tense: multiple, 104 + NA selma'o, 501 + na writing convention: in eks, 341 + na.a, 341 + na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 + na'e, 207; before gu'e, 103; contrasted with na'e ke, 102 + na'ebo, 135 + nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 + NAhE selma'o, 101, 133, 182, 242, 459, 501; effect of relative clause pl= acement with, 182 + NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499 + NAhU selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505 + na'i, 321 + NAI selma'o, 501 + naicai, 305 + nairu'e, 305 + naisai, 305 + naku, 401; as creating a negation boundary, 405; compared with sumti in = grammar, 405; effect on moving quantifiers, 405; in linked sumti places, 40= 7; multiple in sentence, 407; outside of prenex, 405 + naku negation: rationale for considering an advanced technique, 406 + naku negation boundary: effect on conversion with se, 406 + naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403 + naku zo'u, 408; and negation boundary, 408 + name equivalent for "typical": rationale for lack of, 127 + name words: recognition of, 137 + names: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; = as possessive sumti, 180; assigning with goi, 152; authority for, 65; borro= wing from other languages, 138; examples of, 64; from Lojban words, 66; in = vocative phrase, 137; multiple, 138; non-Lojban, 479; pause requirement in = lerfu words, 416; purpose of, 64; quick-tour version, 13; rationale for loj= banizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65;= rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; stress in, 65, 66; stress on, 40; = two kinds of, 137; unusual stress in, 65; uses of, 137; using rafsi, 138; w= ith LA descriptor, 137; with zo versus la, 478 + names from vowel-final base: commonly used consonant endings, 138 + names in Lojban (see also cmene), 64 + names with la: implicit quantifier for, 139 + name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permiss= ible consonant combinations, 138 + naming predicate, 121 + na'o, 226 + natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 + na'u, 456; terminator for, 456; use in asking operator questions, 457 + nai, 206, 226, 241, 299, 338, 340, 346, 350, 358, 360, 361, 408; effect = on intervals, 360; effect on joiks, 358; placement in afterthought bridi co= nnection contrasted with forethought, 339; placement in forethought bridi c= onnection contrasted with afterthought, 339 + name descriptor, 498 + NATO: example, 424 + nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 + Navajo: example, 64 + ne, 174, 203; compared with pe, 174 + near the park: example, 232 + nearby in time: example, 220 + necessary detour, 274 + Nederlands: example, 65 + need any box, 400 + negated interval: meaning of, 360 + negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, 347 + negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, 347 + negating a sentence: and truth value, 333 + negation: complex examples, 102; form for emulating natural language neg= ation, 405; of operand, 459; of operator, 459; of tenses, 241 + negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, = 403 + negation between sentences: compared with bridi negation, 404; meaning o= f, 404 + negation boundary: and zero, 402; effect of moving, 402; forming, 497 + negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 + negation in prenex: effects of position, 401 + negation manipulation: "na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, 407= ; "naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, 407 + negation of fi'o modals: by negating selbri, 207 + negation of modals, 206; contradictory, 206; scalar, 207 + negation of tenses: meaning of, 241 + negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with s= ubtraction operator, 438 + negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135 + negations with logical connectives: effects on expansion of sentence, 40= 7 + negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 + negative numbers: expressing, 432 + negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with s= ubtraction operator, 434 + negator: contradictory, 501; movement from bridi to sumti, 408; scalar, = 501; single-word, 501 + nei, 155 + -ness, 259 + new notation, 276 + New York city: example, 174 + New York state: example, 174 + Newport News: example, 138 + news: example, 467 + -ng: Lojban contrasted with English, 41 + n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, = 56, 60 + ni, 261, 262 + ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 + ni'enu'a, 460 + NIhE selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505 + NIhO selma'o, 466, 467, 502; quick-tour version, 16 + ni'i, 197 + ni'o, 466; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162; quick-tour ve= rsion, 16 + ni'u, 432, 438, 442; contrasted with va'a and vu'u, 438; with elided num= ber, 442 + no quantifier: expanding, 403 + no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible refe= rents, 155 + nobody: ambiguous interpretations of, 391; interpretation of, 391; Lojba= n contrasted with English, 391 + noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 + no'i, 467; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162 + noi, 171, 203 + NOI selma'o, 169, 502; terminator for, 498 + noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + nonagenarian, 293 + nonce word: marking, 489 + non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathemat= ical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 3= 54; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals,= 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from co= nnection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 + non-logical connectives: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; including= tense, 364; intervals, 359; ordered intervals, 359; sentence, 358; syntax = rules summary, 366; un-ordered intervals, 359; within tanru, 91 + non-logical forethought termsets: connecting tagged sumti, 358 + non-logically connected tenses, 363 + non-Lojban quotation, 141 + non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 + non-restrictive relative clause: definition (see also incidental relativ= e clause), 171 + non-specific descriptions, 121 + non-standard orthographies: caveat, 46; Cyrillic, 46; Tengwar, 46 + non-standard words: marking, 480 + no'o, 441 + normal circumstances, 256 + notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 + nothing sits: example, 401 + no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 + nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 + Nth rat: example, 423, 448 + Nthly: example, 423 + nu, 256, 259, 261; definition, 256; place structure, 257 + NU compared with ZAhO, 268 + NU selma'o, 98, 255, 256, 257, 262, 263, 268, 365, 502; syntax, 255; ter= minator for, 497 + nu'a, 97, 457; use in answering operator questions, 457 + nu'e, 324 + NUhA selma'o, 502 + NUhI selma'o, 348, 399, 502 + NUhU selma'o, 348, 399, 502; terminator for, 502 + nu'i, 200, 348, 399 + null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 + null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 + number article: explanation of use, 435 + number questions, 449; answers to, 449 + number sumti: syntax of, 141; with li, 141; with li contrasted with me'o= , 142; with me'o, 142; with me'o contrasted with li, 142 + number words: pattern in, 432 + numbers: as compound cmavo, 432; as grammatically complete utterances, 4= 49; as possessive sumti, 180; cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50; descriptor f= or, 499; English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, 397; expressing simpl= e, 432; greater than 9, 432; implicit quantifier for, 142; indefinite, 440;= list of indefinite, 463; list of special, 462; Lojban contrasted with Engl= ish on exactness, 397; meaning when used as quantifiers, 127; on logical va= riables, 397; rafsi for, 59; special, 434; talking about contrasted with us= ing for quantification, 435; using for quantification contrasted with talki= ng about, 435 + numeric digits in lerfu words: grammar considerations, 420 + numerical punctuation, 433; undefined, 434 + numerical selbri: alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, = 448; based on non-numerical sumti, 448; complex, 448; grammar, 448; restric= tion on numbers used for, 448; special, 446; special, with lerfu strings, 4= 48; use of "me" with, 448 + numerical tenses: effect on use of boi, 458 + nu'o, 244 + nu'u, 200, 348, 399 + ny, 437 + NYC: example, 424 + observation: example, 316 + observation evidential: contrasted with observative, 316 + observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 18= 8 + observative form: contrasted with command, 188 + observative with elided CAhA: convention, 245 + observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 + ocean shell: example, 286 + octal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444 + octogenarian, 293 + o'ecu'i: example, 300 + office or ice-dance: example, 347 + o'i: example, 300 + Old McDonald: example, 32 + old topic, 466 + omitting terminators: perils of, 102 + on right: contrasted with toward right, 224 + on two occasions: example, 246 + on verge: example, 228 + once: example, 226, 458 + one-third of food, 447 + only if: compared with if ... then, 338 + o'onai: example, 300 + of: in English, compared with do'e, 197 + oi: example, 300 + omission of descriptor: effect on ku, 132 + once and future king: example, 363 + One: the, example, 66 + only: example, 318 + only once: example, 227 + open interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455 + opening quotation, 476 + operand: converting from operator, 460; converting into operator, 460; c= onverting selbri into, 456; converting sumti into, 456 + operand connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453 + operand modal connection, 201 + operands: connecting, 361; contrasted with general sumti, 436; too few f= or infix operation, 450; too many for infix operation, 451 + operator: converting from operand, 460; converting into operand, 460; co= nverting into selbri, 457; converting selbri into, 456; forethought marker,= 503 + operator ...ku'e in Polish notation: contrasted with vei ...ve'o, 438 + operator connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453 + operator derived from selbri: effect of selbri place structure on, 456 + operator left-right grouping: as Lojban default, 436 + operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic= convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban defaul= t, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; sc= ope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 + operator precedence in other languages, 436 + operator priority, 490 + operators: analogue of tanru in, 361; connecting, 361; list of simple, 4= 61; mathematical, 507 + operators of VUhU: grammar of operands, 436 + opinion: example, 317 + opposite-of-minus: example, 459 +# or": "and/or" contrasted with "either ... or ... but not both, 334 + order of variables: in moving to prenex, 398 + ordered sequence: by listing members, 355; contrasted with mass, 355; co= ntrasted with set, 355 + ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure e= ffect from subjective numbers, 448 + ordinal tense, 230 + ordinals: utterance, 474 + orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 + o'u: example, 300 + outer product, 452 + outer quantifier: contrasted with inner quantifier, 129; definition, 129= ; effect of on meaning, 129; for expressing subset, 131; implicit on descri= ptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132; rationale for differences in im= plicit quantifier on descriptors, 131 + outer quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178 + outer sumti: prenex for referring to from within relative clause within = relative clause, 185; referring to from within relative clause within relat= ive clause, 184 + over-dot: proposed lerfu word for, 429 + over-ring: proposed lerfu word for, 429 + owe money: example, 346 + p =3D x =3D z: example, 439 + pa, 433 + PA selma'o, 397, 432, 440, 449, 502; exception on use of boi with MOI, 4= 49; members with rafsi, 460; terminator for, 490 + pa'e, 318, 319 + pa'enai, 319 + paragraph marker, 502 + paragraph separation: spoken text, 467; written text, 466 + paragraphs: effects on scope, 466; separating, 466; separator, 466 + parasitic worms: example, 286 + parentheses: for complex mekso used as quantifier, 454 + parenthesis: discourse, 505; mathematical, 437; textual, 480 + partial quotation, 321 + parts of speech, 50 + passive voice, 16 + past event: possible extension into present, 223 + pastward: as a spatial tense, 224 + paternal grandmother: example, 55 + pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 + paunai, 322 + pausative event contour, 228 + pause: and cmene, 68; and consonant-final words, 68; and Cy-form cmavo, = 69; and final-syllable stress, 69; and non-Lojban text, 69; and vowel-initi= al words, 68; between words, 68; contrasted with stop, 229; contrasted with= syllable break, 32; proscribed within words, 68; representation of in Lojb= an, 31; requirement between stressed syllables, 52; symbol for, 416; word f= or, 416 + pause before name: effect of doi, 323; effect of vocatives of COI, 323 + pauses: before vowels, 52; rules for, 68 + pe, 172, 180, 203; as loose association, 172; compared with ne, 174; com= pared with poi ke'a srana, 172; contrasted with po, 173 + pe'a, 322 + peace symbol, 425 + pe'anai, 322 + pe'e, 347 + PEhE selma'o, 347, 503 + PEhO selma'o, 503; terminator for, 497 + pe'i, 317 + pe'ipei, 317 + pe'o, 439 + pei, 313 + percent: as numerical punctuation, 433 + perfective event contour, 228 + perils of omitting terminators, 102 + period: definition of, 31; example of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour vers= ion, 12; within a word, 32 + permissions notice, 8 + Persian rug: example, 60 + personal pronouns: with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, 150; with mi-ser= ies for I/you, 146 + personal pronouns for he/she/it/they: English contrasted with Lojban in = organization, 150 + personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/l= istener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 + person's arm: example, 173 + Pete: example, 65 + pe'u, 324; contrasted with e'o, 324 + Pheidippides, 258 + phoneme stream, 477 + phonetic alphabet, 29; proposed lerfu words for, 429 + physical distress: example, 307 + pi, 130, 433, 441, 442, 444; effect on indefinite numbers, 441 + pi'a, 452 + piano-moving: example, 123 + pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6 + pi'e, 445 + pi'i, 436 + pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 + pi'o, 195 + piro, 130; explanation of meaning, 130 + pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 + pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, = 246 + place number: specifying, 493 + place of eating: example, 247 + place structure: adding new places to with modal sumti, 194; definition,= 12, 187; effect of FA on, 190; effect of modal conversion on, 206; empty s= lots in, 187; explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, 190; gismu, 294; i= nstability of, 187; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; no= tation conventions, 187; omitting places with FA, 190; omitting places with= zo'e, 189; re-ordering by conversion, 100 + place structure and tanru inversion, 95 + place structure of selbri: determining, 187 + place structure order: effect of FA on, 190 + place structure questions, 191 + plant grows: example, 197, 207 + plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 + plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284 + playgrounds, 281 + pleases, 20 + plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Loj= ban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 + plural masses: possible use for, 130 + plus negative of: example, 438 + pluta, 193; contrasted with ve klama, 193 + po, 173; as restrictive possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a se steci= srana, 173; contrasted with English possession, 173; contrasted with pe, 1= 73; contrasted with po'e, 173 + po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke= se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 + point: event considered as, 230 + point-event abstraction: place structure, 259 + point-event abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269 + point-event abstractor, 258 + pointing cmavo: quick-tour version, 13 + police lineup, 449 + Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; and use of boi, 438; definition, = 438; end-of-operands indicator, 438; explicitly marking as, 439; operands w= ith infix expressions, 439; operator ...ku'e compared with parenthesization= , 438; separating operands in, 438; vei ...ve'o contrasted with operator ..= .ku'e, 438 + Polish notation mixed with infix, 455; example, 455 + politeness: thank you and you're welcome, 324; you're welcome, 324, 325 + po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 + poi, 169, 203, 394, 396; contrasted with voi in veridicality, 177; discu= ssion of translation, 170; dropping from multiple appearances on logical va= riables, 396; syntax of, 169 + pointing: reference by, 147 + portion: on set contrasted with on individual, 131 + portion of whole: expressing, 441 + portion selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure e= ffect from subjective numbers, 448 + positive numbers: explicit expression, 432 + positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436 + possessed in relative phrases: compared with possessor, 174 + possession: expressing with po, 173; intrinsic, expressing with po'e, 17= 3; Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, 175;= Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, 175; quick-tou= r version, 21 + possession not ownership: quick-tour version, 21 + possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with re= lative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elida= bility of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with rela= tive clauses on possessive sumti, 181 + possessive sumti and relative clauses: development history, 180 + possessive sumti with relative clauses: effect of placement, 181 + possessor in relative phrases: compared with possessed, 174 + potential: expressing in past/future, 244 + potential events: expressing implicitly, 243 + po'u, 174; as identity, 174; compared with no'u, 174; compared with poi = ke'a du, 174; contrasted with no'u, 175; relative phrase of contrasted with= relativized sumti of, 174 + prayer: example, 281, 290 + precedence: mathematical default, 436 + precise erasures, 483 + predicate answers, 470 + predication: as a relationship, 11; compared with bridi, 11 + predication abstraction, 262 + Preem Palver: example, 98 + pregnant sister: example, 320 + prenex: considerations for dropping, 395; dropping for terseness, 397; e= ffect of order of variables in, 396; explanation, 392; internal to a bridi,= 400; purpose of, 396; removing when numeric quantifiers present, 397; synt= ax of, 392; use for outer sumti reference, 185 + prenex manipulation: exporting na from left of prenex, 405; importing na= from selbri, 405; moving naku past bound variable, 405; rules, 405 + prenex marker, 508 + prenex scope: for sentences joined by .i, 410; for sentences joined by i= jeks, 410; in abstractions, 410; in embedded bridi, 410; in relative clause= s, 410; informal, 410 + prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 + pretty: English ambiguity of, 87 + pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 + previous topic, 467 + pride of lions: example, 456 + primitive roots: gismu as, 53 + principle of consistency: of logical-if statements, 337 + probability .5: example, 447 + probability selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structu= re effect from subjective numbers, 448; values, 447 + pro-bridi: as abbreviation for bridi, 151; broda-series, 151; broda-seri= es list, 165; bu'a-series list, 165; compared to pro-sumti as means of abbr= eviation, 145; definition, 145; go'i-series list, 165; list by series, 165;= list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; overr= iding sumti of antecedent bridi for, 151; quotation of, 476; scope effect o= f new paragraph, 466 + pro-bridi assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effe= ct on, 162; stability of, 162 + pro-bridi rafsi: as producing context-dependent meanings, 164 + pro-bridi update: flag for, 503 + process abstraction: place structure, 259 + process abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268 + process abstractor, 258 + process event: described, 258 + pronouncement: example, 316 + pronouns: as anaphora, 152; compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviati= ons, 145 + pronouns in English: as independent of abbreviations, 145; as noun abbre= viations, 145 + pronunciation: IPA for Lojban, 30; quick-tour version, 12; relation to o= rthography, 29; standard, 29 + properties: place structure, 261 + property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstrac= tion, 260 + property abstraction(s): contrasted with amount abstraction, 261; specif= ying determining place by sumti ellipsis, 259; specifying determining place= with ce'u, 260; specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, 161; sumti e= llipsis in, 259 + property abstractor, 259 + property description, 259 + property of loving: example, 260 + proposed law, 283 + proposed lerfu words: as working basis, 426 + propositional: of attitudinals, 301 + propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319 + pro-sumti: and discursive utterances, 481; as possessive sumti, 180; cla= sses of, 139; compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, 145; compared= to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, 145; contrasted with description, 1= 19; da-series list, 165; definition, 145; di'u-series, 148; di'u-series lis= t, 164; for listener(s), 146; for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, = 146; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; for speaker(s), 146; i= mplicit quantifier for, 139; ko'a-series, 150; ko'a-series list, 164; lerfu= as, 152; lerfu string, effect on reference to lerfu itself, 422; lerfu str= ing, interaction with quantifier and boi, 421; list by series, 164; list of= miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; mi-series, 14= 6; mi-series list, 164; quick-tour version, 13; quotation of, 476; rafsi fo= r, 163; referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, 159; referr= ing to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, 158; ri-series list, 164; scop= e effect of new paragraph, 466; series, 145; ti-series, 147; ti-series list= , 164; typical, 157; unspecified, 157; vo'a-series, 158; vo'a-series list, = 165; zo'e-series list, 164 + pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effe= ct on, 162; stability of, 162 +# pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others: as masses, 146; relation to joi,= 146 + pro-sumti for utterances, 148 + pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146 + pro-sumti rafsi: anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms,= 163; effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163 + protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using CO= I, 326; using vocatives, 326 + pu, 219, 232; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following inte= rval specification, 222 + pu ge, 365 + PU selma'o, 219, 227, 242, 362, 503; compared with FAhA, 219; contradict= ory negation of, 241 + PU tenses: contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, 228 + pu'i, 244 + punctuation, 297; in numbers, 433; list of numerical, 462 + punctuation lerfu words: interaction with different alphabet systems, 42= 0; mechanism for creating, 419; rationale for lau, 419 + punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 + pu'o, 228; as pastward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanati= on of derivation, 229 + pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 + quack: example, 417 + quadratic formula: example, 455 + qualified sumti: contrasted with unqualified sumti, 133 + quality and quantity: example, 365 + quantification: before description sumti compared with before non-descri= ption sumti, 129 + quantificational pro-sumti, 139; implicit quantification rules, 139 + quantified space, 228 + quantified sumti: different types contrasted for scope for distribution,= 399; relative clause scope with, 178 + quantified temporal tense: definition, 226; negating with nai, 227 + quantified temporal tense with direction: Lojban contrasted with English= in implications, 227 + quantified temporal tenses: "once" contrasted with "only once", 227; cav= eat on implication of, 227 + quantified tenses: as sumti tcita, 233 + quantifier, 502; effect of moving naku, 405; explicit on sumti, 127; ler= fu string as, 423; on previously quantified variable, 410; on sumti, effect= on relative clause, 178; on sumti, expressing inexact amount with, 127; on= sumti, indicating exact number, 127; with logical variables, 397; with sum= ti, 127 + quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404 + quark: example, 63 + question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 + questions, 469; answering with go'i, 154; connection, 351; digit, 449; f= ill-in-the-blank, 469; indirect, 264; marking in advance, 322; modal, 492; = multiple, 470; number, 449, 470; operator, 457; place structure position, 1= 91; quick-tour version, 22; rhetorical, 322; selbri, 160, 470; sumti, 159, = 469; truth, 469; with "xu, 321 + quick runner: example, 84 + quotation, 475; any text, 508; as possessive sumti, 180; contrasted with= me'o for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with sentence abstraction, 26= 3; delimited, 508; four kinds, 141; grammatical, 499; implicit quantifier f= or, 128, 141; of grammatical Lojban text, 476; of Lojban words, 499; of non= -Lojban, 477; of parseable Lojban text, 476; of rafsi, 478; of single word,= 477; of ungrammatical Lojban text, 476; referent versus symbol, 478; singl= e-word, 508; ungrammatical Lojban containing le'u, 477; ungrammatical Lojba= n containing lo'u, 477 + ra, 153; practical referent conventions, 153 + radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429 + radix: decimal (see also base), 444 + ra'e, 433 + rafsi: as fu'ivla categorizer, 61; based on pro-sumti, 163; consideratio= ns restricting construction of, 58; contrasted with cmavo in usage, 61; con= trasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, 56; contrasted with words, 61; con= ventional meaning for cu'o, 460; conventional meaning for frinu, 460; defin= ition, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; forms of, 57; four-letter, r= equirement for y-hyphen, 60; lack of, effect on forming lujvo, 60; level of= uniqueness of relation to gismu, 57; long, 57; multiple for each gismu, 69= ; multiplicity of for single gismu, 57; possible forms for construction of,= 58; quotation of, 478; rationale for assignments of, 58; rules for combini= ng to form lujvo, 56; selection considerations in making lujvo, 57; short, = 57; uniqueness in gismu referent of, 57; use of, 57 + rafsi assignments: non-reassignability of, 58 + rafsi for numbers, 59 + rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 + rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80 + rafsi space, 58 + RAhO selma'o, 503 + Ralph: example, 393 + ra'o, 156; for reinterpreting go'i-series pro-bridi sumti references, 15= 6 + rat eats cheese: example, 227, 232 + rat eats cheese in park: example, 247 + rats are brown: example, 125 + rats in park: example, 446 + ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320 + rau, 442, 448 + real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 + real world point of view, 320 + Received Pronunciation, 42 + reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 + reciprocal pro-sumti, 158 + reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-s= umti and soi, 159; marking, 504 + recital rooms, 281 + Red Pony: example, 133, 182 + redundancy: effect on vocative design, 323 + re'e, 307 + re-evaluation of referents: flag for, 503 + reference: ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, 169; and discursive utterances, 481; q= uick-tour version, 20; to relativized sumti with ke'a, 169; use of relative= clause for, 169 + reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 + reference frame for directions in tenses, 224 + reference grammar, 3 + referent: contrasted with symbol, 478; of operand, 459; referring to wit= h la'e, 134 + referent of pro-bridi: definition, 145 + referent of pro-sumti: definition, 145 + reflexive pro-sumti, 139, 158; stability of, 162 + regularly: example, 226 + re'i, 325 + re'imi'e, 325 + relation of first places in logical connection of observatives: rational= e, 345 + relationship: active/static/attributive compared, 11; as basis of senten= ce, 187; objects of, 187 + relationship abstraction, 260 + relative clause: as part of name, 179; compared with tanru, 172; connect= ing to relative phrase with zi'e, 176; connecting to whole sumti, 506; cont= rasted with tanru, 172; effect of commas in English, 171; effect of elided = ku of relativized sumti, 177; effect of omission of ke'a on, 170; effect of= relativized sumti quantifiers on, 178; effect on elidability of be'o, 94; = impact of indefinite sumti on placement, 180; impact of la on placement, 17= 9; impact of LAhE on placement, 182; impact of le on placement, 179; impact= of lo on placement, 179; impact of NAhE on placement, 182; kinds of, 171; = list of cmavo for, 185; on connected sumti, 182; on names, 179; on number, = 181; on possessive sumti, 181; on quotation, 182; on vocative phrases, 184;= placement in sentence, 177; placement with vocative phrases, 184; relative= clauses within, 184; restricted contrasted with incidental, 171; restricte= d contrasted with incidental in English expression, 171; restrictive (see a= lso restrictive relative clause), 171; syntax with indefinite sumti, 180; u= se for reference, 169; use in restricting existential claims, 394; use in r= estricting universal claims, 395; use of ke'a for referral to relativized s= umti in, 160 + relative clause after descriptor: effect on elidability of ku'o, 178 + relative clause after relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178 + relative clause after sumti: as common placement in sentence, 177 + relative clause and indefinite sumti: placement considerations, 180 + relative clause and LAhE: placement considerations, 182 + relative clause and le-sumti: placement considerations, 179 + relative clause and lo-sumti: placement considerations, 179 + relative clause and NAhE: placement considerations, 182 + relative clause and names: placement considerations, 179 + relative clause and possessive sumti: development history, 180 + relative clause and quantified sumti: placement considerations, 178 + relative clause before inner quantifier: meaning, 178 + relative clause before relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178 + relative clause marker, 502 + relative clause on complex sumti: Lojban contrasted with English, 183 + relative clause on indefinite sumti: syntax considerations, 180 + relative clause on lo: syntax suggestion, 179 + relative clause placement: considerations for lo-sumti contrasted with l= e-sumti, 179; considerations for simple descriptors contrasted with for qua= ntified sumti, 179; effect on scope, 178; English contrasted with Chinese a= nd Finnish, 178; on sumti with simple descriptor, 178 + relative clause scope: extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, 182; with= quantified relativized sumti, 178 + relative clause with possessive sumti: effect of placement, 181 + relative phrase: as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, 172; co= mpared with possessive sumti, 180; connecting to relative clause with zi'e,= 176; contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, 180; contrast= ed with relative clause in preciseness, 203; improving preciseness with mod= als, 203; rationale for, 172; syntax of, 172 + relative phrase marker, 495 + relative phrases with modals: compared to relative clauses in precisenes= s, 203 + relative pro-sumti, 140 + relativity theory: relation to Lojban tense system, 220 + relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative = clauses, 184 + remembered: example, 316 + re-ordering logical variables with se, 396 + repeating decimals: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; marking = start of repeating portion, 433 + replace: example, 289 + representing lerfu: lu contrasted with me'o, 422 + respectively: example, 356; specifying with fa'u, 356; with different re= lationships, 358 + restricted claims: definition, 394 + restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 + restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 + restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical us= ing poi, 177 + resume: contrasted with begin, 229 + resumptive event contour, 228 + re'u, 230 + revelation: example, 316 + reverse Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; definition, 452; indicato= r, 494; marker, 452; number of operands, 453; operands of, 453; parentheses= in operands of, 453; terminator, 452; use of parentheses in, 452; with too= few operands, 453; with too many operands, 453 + reviewers of this book, 6 + rhetorical question, 322 + r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, = 56, 60 + ri, 152; contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, 161; non-self-referen= ce of, 153; referent of, 152; subscripting for referring further back, 153 + ri'a, 197 + rich and German: example, 356 + ri'e, 309 + righteous indignation: example, 309 + right-grouping in tanru: with bo, 87 + right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 + ri-series pro-sumti, 152; and order of possible referents, 153; assignin= g for permanent reference, 154; compared with ti-series in word formation, = 152; effect of ko'a-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of lerfu pro-sumti on,= 153; effect of other ri-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of ti-series pro-= sumti on, 153; effect of use on meaning, 153; effect on other ri-series pro= -sumti, 153; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; i= n quotations, 156; non-allowable referents of, 153; possible referents of, = 153 + ro, 128, 129, 139, 394, 396, 440; as implicit quantifier on personal pro= -sumti, 128; compared with pa, 440; dropping from multiple appearances on l= ogical variables, 396; effect of order when multiple in sentence, 399 + ro da, 394 + ro prenu, 398 + ro'a, 307 + ro'anai: example, 307 + rock face: example, 231 + ro'e, 307 + roger: example, 325 + ro'i, 307 + ROI selma'o, 226, 230, 503; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; exception = on use of boi before, 458; scalar negation of, 242 + romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 + Roman Empire, 258; example, 258 + ro'o, 307 + roi, 226, 458 + room which he built: example, 184 + ro'u, 307 + rounded down: example, 443 + rounded numbers: expressing, 443 + rounded up: example, 443 +# rounded/unrounded vowels, 31 + RP (see reverse Polish notation), 452 + ru, 153; practical referent conventions, 153 + ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 + ru'e, 305 + ru'i, 226 + rug: Persian, example, 60 + runner shoe: example, 17 + sa, 312, 416, 477, 483; interaction with bu, 416 + SA selma'o, 483, 503 + sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321= ; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with t= o'i, 321 + sa'e, 318 + sa'enai, 319 + sa'i, 452 + said John: example, 481 + salad ingredients: example, 231 + sarcasm: example, 319; expressing, 319 + sa'u, 318 + sai, 305 + Sapir-Whorf effects: and emotional indicators, 329 + scalar attitude, 305 + scalar negation: effect on selbri, 101 + scalar negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207 + scalar negation of non-logical connective, 358 + scalar negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 + scale: granular contrasted with continuous, 448 + scale of redness: example, 448 + scale selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure eff= ect from subjective numbers, 448 + school building: example, 281 + schooner: example, 83 + scientific names: rules for, 67 + scientific notation: rationale for order of places, 451; with gei, 450 + score: as 20-year span, 460; as alternate base for years, 461 + se, 100, 192, 338, 340, 346, 350, 354, 360, 361, 396, 459, 472; as gramm= atical in JOI compounds, 355; in logical connective to exchange sentences, = 338; order in logical connectives with na, 338; quick-tour version, 16; use= with operators, 459; using to re-order logical variables, 396 + se du'u, 263 + se klama: place structure of, 192 + SE selma'o, 100, 192, 195, 205, 247, 396, 459, 472, 504; after 5th place= , 472; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on place structure numbe= ring, 192; effect on selbri place structure, 192; extending scope of, 193; = for converting place structure, 192; quick-tour version, 16; rationale for = no 1st place conversion, 192; scope of, 193; word formation of cmavo in, 19= 2 + se te, 194 + se writing convention: in eks, 341 + se'a, 310 + seba'i, 204 + sebi'o, 359 + sece'o, 354 + section numbering, 458 + sections of this book, 4 + se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 + see with eye: example, 202 + see with left eye: example, 194 + sefa'u, 354 + SEhU selma'o, 159, 482, 504 + se'i, 309 + sei, 321, 481 + SEI selma'o, 458, 481, 504; terminator for, 504 + selbri: as part of description, 120; brivla as, 83; converting into an o= perand, 456; converting into an operator, 456; converting operator into, 45= 7; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; lerfu string as= , 423; omitting with co'e, 158; place structure of, 187; place structure of= converted operator, 457; relation to bridi, 83; scalar negation of, 101; w= ith GOhA, 97 + selbri assignment, 491 + selbri from sumti, 98 + selbri list for quick tour, 13 + selbri logical variables, 409 + selbri place structure: effect on operator formed by, 456; re-ordering, = 504 + selbri placement among sumti: effect of multiple quantification on, 407 + selbri questions: quick-tour version, 23 + selbri separator, 492 + selbri to modal converter, 493 + selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinit= e description, 409; quantified, 410 + selbri-first bridi: effect on sumti places, 188; effect on use of cu, 19= 0; specifying first sumti place in with fa, 190 + self-orientation: example, 308 + selma'o, 12, 396, 398 + selma'o: cross-reference list of, 489; definition, 50; definition, quick= -tour version, 27 + seltau: compared with English adjective, 55; compared with English adver= b, 55; definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, = 84; filling sumti places in, 93 + seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 + semantic primitives, 273 + semau, 204 + seme'a, 204 + sentence: basic Lojban, 187 + sentence 10.11: example, 445 + sentence abstraction, 262 + sentence grouping, 505 + sentence separator, 495 + sentences: close grouping, 466; connecting non-logically, 358; connectin= g with tense, 238; forethought tense connection of, 239; joining, 465; sepa= rator for joining, 465; tenseless, quick-tour version, 25 + se'o, 316 + separate questions: quick-tour version, 23 + separately tensed sentences: contrasted with tense connected sentences, = 239 + sepi'o, 195 + sepi'u, 354 + sequence: as an abstract list, 355; contrasted with list, 355; contraste= d with set, 134 + sequence of events: expressing non-time-related sequences, 358 + sequence of tense rules: Lojban contrasted with English, 238 + set: as specified by members, 355; by listing members with ce, 355; comp= ared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with ma= ss in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with mass in dis= tribution of properties, 355; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; expres= sing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing relation with in= dividuals forming set, 446; expressing relation with mass formed from set, = 446 + set of all rats: example, 447 + set of rats: example, 135 + set operations, 356 + setese, 194 + sets: properties of, 125; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130; use i= n Lojban place structure, 125 + se'u, 159, 482; as elidable terminator for soi, 159; elidability conside= rations, 159 + sexual discomfort: example, 307 + sexual teacher: male, example, 74 + shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200 + sheep breed, 290 + sheep flock: example, 291 + sheepdog, 290; example, 290 + shell worm: example, 285 + shellfish, 285; example, 285 + Sherman tank: example, 60 + shift: single-letter, grammar of, 415 + shift word: canceling effect, 418; for face, 418; for font, 418; for sin= gle letter, 415; scope, 415 + ship sank: example, 314 + shoehorn, 281 + shook stick: example, 145, 162 + short rafsi, 57 + short rafsi form: compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56 + si, 312, 416, 477, 482; interaction with bu, 416 + SI selma'o, 482, 504 + si'a, 317 + si'e, 447 + signed numbers: expressing, 432 + signs on numbers: grammar, 433 + Simon says: example, 149 + simple bridi: terminator for, 506 + simple sumti, 119 + simultaneously: example, 364 + sinful: example, 309 + single consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted wi= th doubled consonants, 35 + single-letter shift: as toggle, 415 + single-word quotation, 141 + singular me: example, 446 + si'o, 265 + sister pregnant: example, 320 + six-shooter: example, 246 + size: order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, 224 + slinku'i test: definition, 62 + slowdown, 258 + smiley face: example, 416; word for, 416 + sneak in: example, 285 + snow falls: example, 233 + snowball's chance: example, 448 + so'a, 440 + social butterfly: example, 18 + Socrates: example, 198 + so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 + so'i, 440 + soi, 159; use in expressing reciprocity, 159; use in expressing reciproc= ity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, 159 + SOI selma'o, 159, 504; terminator for, 504 + soi with one following sumti: convention, 159 + some do not go to school: example, 405 + some relationship: example, 409 + somebody: contrasted with somebody else, 393 + somebody loves self: example, 393 + somebody loves somebody: example, 393 + somebody's dog: example, 393 + something: contrasted with someone, 395; expressing using "su'o", 397; u= nspecified definite with "zo'e", 392 + something is loved by everybody: example, 402 + something sees everything: example, 394 + something sees me: example, 392, 397 + so'o, 440 + so'u, 440 + sounds: clarity of, 31; complex, 31; difficult, 31 + sounds for letters: Lojban contrasted with English, 31 + source languages: use in creating gismu, 75 + south face: example, 231 + sow grain: example, 231 + sowed grain: example, 250 + space: as time-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with time in number of di= rections, 219 + space indicator for interval modifiers, 493 + space interval: compared with time intervals in continuity, 230 + space location: as part of tense system (see also tense, spatial tense),= 215 + space movement indicator, 501 + space tenses: quick-tour version, 26 +# space/time metaphor: expressing direction mapping for, 231 + spaghetti, 61; example, 63 + Spanish ch: example, 419 + Spanish ll: example, 419 + spatial contours: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with temporal event co= ntours, 231; expressing, 231 + spatial directions: list of, 253 + spatial information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 + spatial interval: expressing degree of continuity over, 230 + spatial interval modifiers: order in tense, 230 + spatial tense: 4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, 224; as an= imaginary journey, 217; as optional in English, 217; as sumti tcita, 232; = compared with temporal tense in elidability, 217; contrasted with temporal = in dimensionality, 223; definition, 217; direction, 217; distance, 217; fou= r-dimensional, 224; linear, 223; one-dimensional, 223; order of direction a= nd distance specification, 217; order relative to temporal, 219; planar, 22= 3; reference frame, 217; referent of, 217; three-dimensional, 223; two-dime= nsional, 223 + spatial tense interval: order of size and dimensionality in, 224; order = of VEhA and VIhA in, 224 + speaker-listener cooperation, 23 + speaker-relative viewpoint: contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, 22= 8 + speaker's state of knowledge, 319 + specific descriptions, 121 + specific terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61 + specificity: expressing with po, 173 + speech rhythm: for grouping in English, 85 + spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 + spiritual discomfort: example, 307 + SQL: example, 424 + square brackets: use of in notation, 5 + standard bridi form: definition, 188 + standard for subjective numbers: specifying, 448 + standard pronunciation, 29 + starting marker, 483 + state abstraction: place structure, 259 + state abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268 + state abstractor, 258 + state event: described, 258 + steady speed, 258 + stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, = 126 + stereotypical objects, 126 + Steven Mark Jones: example, 421 + sticky modals: canceling, 208; definition, 207; fi'o proscribed from, 20= 8 + sticky tenses: and CAhA, 243; canceling, 235; definition, 234; effect of= nau on, 238; effect on future tense meaning, 234; from part of a multiple = tense, 235 + stoke cat then rabbit: example, 240 + stop: contrasted with finish, 229; contrasted with pause, 229 + stories: flow of time in, 236 + story tense: Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, 236 + story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; r= ationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time= , 237 + stress: definition of, 40; effect of buffer vowel on, 38; effect of syll= abic consonants on, 34; example, 307; final syllable, rules for pause after= , 69; irregular marked with upper-case, 415; levels of, 40; on cmavo, 52; p= rimary, 40; quick-tour version, 12; rules for, 40; secondary, 40; showing n= on-standard, 29 + stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 + stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 + strong quotation, 477 + structure of examples, 5 + structure of this book, 4 + structure words, 50 + su, 312, 416, 477, 484; interaction with bu, 416 + SU selma'o, 484, 504 + su'a, 316, 319 + su'anai, 316 + subjective amounts: expressing, 442 + subjective numbers: effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, 448; = effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, 448; effect on place structur= e for portion selbri, 448; effect on place structure for probability selbri= , 448; effect on place structure for scale selbri, 448; rationale for effec= t on place structure, 448; specifying standard for, 448 + subjective portions: expressing, 442 + subordinate clause tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 238; Lojban com= pared with Esperanto, 238; Lojban compared with Russian, 238; Lojban contra= sted with English, 238 + subordinate clauses: tense usage rules in English, 237 + subscripted topics, 467 + subscripts, 471; and fuzzy truths, 473; and names, 473; and paragraph se= parators, 474; and pro-sumti, 472; and sumti re-ordering, 472; and tense, 4= 73; before main expression, 450; effects on elidability of terminators, 450= ; external grammar of, 449; for sticky tense, 236; internal grammar of, 449= ; lerfu string as, 423; marker, 471, 507; mathematical, 473; multiple as su= b-subscript, 450; multiple for same base word, 455; on ke'a for nested rela= tive clauses, 161; on ri, 153; terminator for, 450; to form matrices of mor= e than 2 dimensions, 452; use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, 184; use= with logical variables, 410 + subscripts on lerfu words: effect on elidability of boi, 450 + subsets: expressing with outer quantifiers, 131 + sub-subscripts, 450 + subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted= with negative sign, 434 + subtypes of words, 52 + su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 + su'i, 97, 435, 436 + sum of 1: 2, 3, example, 438 + sumti: as having implicit quantifiers, 127; as objects in place structur= e slots, 187; beginning with "ke, 344; between descriptor and description s= elbri, 180; classified by types of objects referred to, 123; converting int= o an operand, 456; definition, 119, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27= ; descriptions as, 119; dropping trailing unspecified, 189; explicitly mapp= ing into place structure with FA, 190; for individual objects, 123; for mas= s objects, 123; for set objects, 123; forethought tense connection of, 239;= irrelevant to relationship, 157; kinds of, 119; multiple in one place with= FA, 191; names as, 119; numbers as, 119; omitted first place in selbri-fir= st bridi, 188; order in selbri, 188; order in selbri-first bridi, 188; pro-= sumti as, 119; quotations as, 119; relation with bridi, 11; re-ordering wit= h FA, 190; with explicit quantifiers, 127 + sumti assignment: cancellation of, 492 + sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 + sumti into selbri, 98 + sumti logical connection, 340; compared with bridi logical connections, = 340; contrasted with tanru logical connection, 350; rationale for, 340 + sumti modal connection, 200 + sumti place: additional, 489 + sumti placement: variant, quick-tour version, 15 + sumti qualifiers: as short forms for common special cases, 133; elidable= terminator for qualified sumti, 133; external syntax of, 133; for negation= , 135; internal syntax of, 133; list of, 133 + sumti questions: quick-tour version, 22 + sumti raising, 266 + sumti reordering: quick-tour version, 16 + sumti tcita: based on event contours, 232; based on spatial contours, 23= 2; based on tense direction, 232; based on tense distance, 232; based on te= nses, 231; definition (see also modal tag), 195; event contours contrasted = with direction/distance as basis for, 232 + sumti tcita and linked sumti, 94 + sumti tcita and modal tags, 94 + sumti tcita and tense tags, 94 + sumti tcita based on dimension, 233 + sumti tcita based on event contours: relation of main bridi to sumti pro= cess in, 232 + sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, 233 + sumti tcita based on interval properties, 233 + sumti tcita based on interval size, 233 + sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, 233 + sumti with explicit quantifier: contrasted with sumti without explicit q= uantifier, 127 + sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 + sumti with tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 235 + sumti with tenses: quick-tour version, 26 + sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; oute= r quantifier on, 132 + sumti-based descriptions with le: as increasing restricting to in-mind, = 133 + sun liquefies: example, 289 + sunburn: example, 259 + su'o, 128, 129, 397, 443; as implicit quantifier for quotations, 128; wi= th elided number, 443 + superfective event contour, 228 + superscripts, 450 + supervising: as a contribution to mass action, 354 + supper: example, 57 + supplementary information, 280 + Susan: example, 481 + su'u, 265 + Sun: the, example, 66 + Svetlana: example, 68 + sword blade, 283 + syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 + syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 + syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 + syllabic l: considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49 + syllabic m: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49 + syllabic n: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49 + syllabic pronunciations of consonants: in fu'ivla, 62; in fu'ivla catego= ry attachment, 63 + syllabic r: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49 + syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules = for, 39; variants of, 41 + syllable break: contrasted with pause, 32; representation in Lojban, 32;= symbol for, 416; word for, 416 + symbol: contrasted with referent, 478; for operand, 459; referring to wi= th lu'e, 134 + symmetrical tanru, 111 + symmetrical tanru types: both separately true, 111; one or other true, 1= 12; using crucial/typical parts, 112; using more inclusive class, 112 + symmetrical veljvo, 278 + sympathy: example, 299, 314 + ta, 147, 169; contrasted with di'u, 148 + ta'apei, 326 + tables: format of, 5 + ta'e, 226, 324 + tagged sumti termsets: connecting with non-logical forethought connectiv= es, 358 + TAhE selma'o, 225, 504; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; scalar negatio= n of, 242 + tail-terms: definition, 345 + Take care!: example, 22 + Talk!: example, 22 + talker: example, 19 + taller: example, 11 +# tan(pi/2) =3D infinity: example, 456 + tank: Sherman, example, 60 + tanru: ambiguity in, 55; ambiguity of, 55, 85; and abstractions, 255; an= d conversion, quick-tour version, 18; and creativity, 55; as ambiguous, 85;= asymmetrical, 104; combination of, 55; containing mathematical expressions= , 97; default left-grouping of, 86; definition, 83; definition, quick-tour = version, 27; expanding, 318; explanation of, 55; explicating, 318; explicit= ly defining, 318; expression of, 55; meaning of, 85; place structure of, 27= 4; place structure of, quick-tour version, 18; place structures of, 92, 93;= possible meanings of, 274; primary meaning of, 84; purpose, 274; quick-tou= r version, 17; reducing logically connected sumti to, caveat, 350; simple, = 83; to lujvo, 55; with GOhA, 97 + tanru and conversion, 100 + tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 + tanru connection grouping: guheks unmarked tanru, 350 + tanru conversion: effect on place structure, quick-tour version, 18 + tanru default grouping: quick-tour version, 17 + tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks co= mpared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke an= d bo, 88 + tanru grouping with JA+BO: effect on tanru grouping, 91 + tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in co= mplex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 + tanru inversion and place structure, 95 + tanru logical connection: contrasted with sumti logical connection, 350 + tanru nested within tanru, 86 + tanru unit: filling in places of, 489 + ta'o, 319 + ta'onao, 320 + ta'u, 318 + ta'unai, 318 + tavla, 14 + te, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 + te'a, 437 + technical terms, 5 + TEhU selma'o, 505 + tei, 419 + TEI selma'o, 419, 505; terminator for, 494 + telephone conversation: hello, 324 + television, 42 + template, 266 + temporal direction: exception in meaning when following ze'e, 227 + temporal information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 + temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tens= e in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimen= sional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215= ; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real rela= tionship to time in English, 215 + temporal tense elision: compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, = 217 + temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 + ten: expressing as number, 432 + tense: aorist, 223; as observer-based, 220; as subjective perception, 21= 9; compared with modals in syntax, 248; connected, with negation, 245; conn= ecting sentences in with, 238; contradictory negation contrasted with scala= r negation of, 242; contradictory negation of with nai, 241; contrasted wit= h modals in semantics, 248; effect of different position in sentence, 216; = effect of sticky tense on, 234; emphasizing by position in sentence, 216; e= xplanation of presentation method, 215; expressing movement in, 224; extens= ional, 503; forethought connection in, 363; forethought logical connections= , 246; grouping of connectives in, 363; handling multiple episodes, 236; im= portance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; in forethought bridi-= tail connection, special rule, 365; interval contrasted with point, 221; lo= gically connected with JA, 245; Lojban contrasted with English in implicati= ons of completeness, 223; Lojban contrasted with English in implying actual= ity, 243; Lojban contrasted with native languages, 215; making sticky, 497;= multiple in sentence, 234; multiple in sentence compared with compound ten= se, 234; negating, 241; non-logical connection of, 246; non-logical connect= ion of for sub-events, 246; numerical, 458; on embedded bridi, 235; order o= f direction specification in, 217; order of direction, distance and interva= l in, 221; order of distance specification in, 217; order of movement speci= fication in, 225; order of spatial interval modifiers in, 230; order of tem= poral and spatial in, 219; overriding to speaker's current, 238; point cont= rasted with interval, 221; position in sentence alternative, 216; position = of in sentence, 216; possible groupings of, 246; quantified, 226; quick-tou= r version, 25; rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, 219= ; relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; r= elation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, 221; rela= tive order with bridi negation, 103; scalar negation contrasted with contra= dictory negation of, 242; scalar negation of with NAhE, 242; scope effect o= f new paragraph, 466; scope of, 234; selbri types applicable to, 215; space= -time dimension for intervals, 224; speaker's current, 238; specifying rela= tion of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; static = contrasted with moving, 224; subscripting, 236; sumti tcita form contrasted= with connected sentences, 239; use as sumti tcita, 231; viewpoint of PU co= ntrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, 228; with both temporal and spatial, 220; = with ku, 216 + tense afterthought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240 + tense and na: multiple, 104 + tense as sumti tcita: contrasted with tense inside sumti, 233 + tense aspect, 507 + tense cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 + tense connected sentences: contrasted with separately tensed sentences, = 239; forethought mode, 239; importance of "bo" in, 239 + tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 + tense connection of bridi-tails: meaning of, 240 + tense connection of sentences: contrasted with sumti tcita form, 239; or= der of, 239 + tense connection of sumti: meaning of, 240 + tense contours: compared with event abstraction contours, 268 + tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessin= g tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descr= iptions, 247 + tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in = implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 +# tense direction/distance as sumti tcita: contrasted with event contours= , 232 + tense distance: as sumti tcita, 232 + tense forethought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240 + tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 + tense inside sumti: contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, 233 + tense magnitude, 250 + tense on main bridi: effect on embedded bridi tenses, 235; effect on emb= edded sumti with tenses, 235 + tense questions: by using logical connective question, 250; methods of a= sking, 249 + tense questions with ma, 249 + tense selma'o: summary of, 252 + tense sentence connection: table of equivalent schemata, 249 + tense specification: effect on cu, 216; effect on elidability of termina= tors, 216 + tense system: and space location, 215 + tense tags and sumti tcita, 94 + tense with elided CAhA: meaning, 244 + tense with no sumti: indicator for, 497 + tense with sumti tcita: asymmetry of, 238 + tensed connectives: in mathematical expressions, 364 + tensed logical connection, 363 + tensed logical connective, 240; forethought, 364; with ke...ke'e, 241; w= ith tu'e...tu'u, 241 + tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek= ...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in = ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364;= in joik...ke, 364 + tensed logically connected bridi-tails, 240; with grouping, 241 + tensed logically connected sentences, 240; with grouping, 241 + tensed logically connected sumti, 240; with grouping, 241 + tensed non-logical connectives, 364; forethought, 364 + tenseless sentences in story time, 236 + tense-or-modal questions: with cu'e, 250 + term: definition, 347 + terminators: eliding ku in non-logical connections, 354 + termset: effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, 399; formation, 3= 47 + termset connectives, 503 + termset logical connection: contrasted with bridi connection, 347; contr= asted with bridi-tail connection, 347; contrasted with sumti connection, 34= 7; unequal length, 348; when used, 347 + termset marker, 502 + termset modal connection, 200 + termsets, 491; compared to fa'u, 356; non-logical connection of, 357 + tertau: definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tan= ru, 84 + te'u, 451, 456, 460 + text: division numbering with -mai, 458; end-marker, 484; structure of, = 465; sub-division numbering with -mai, 458 + text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141 + thank you: example, 324 + the: contrasted with a/an, 322; example, 322; for talking about numbers = themselves, 435 + the destination: example, 193 + the go-er: example, 193 + The men are women: example, 120 + the two of you: example, 132 + there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 + thingy: example, 151 + this: adjective expression with ti noi, 148; adjective usage contrasted = with pronoun usage, 148; as utterance reference in English, 148; English, a= djective expression with vi, 148; English, pronoun expression with ti, 148;= pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, 148 + this boat: example, 148 + this book: author of, 5; contributors to, 5; credits for, 6; examples of= , 4; goal of, 3; reviewers of, 6; sections of, 4; structure of, 4 +# this/that in English: compared with ti-series pro-sumti, 147 + three bears: example, 133 + three cats white: and two big, example, 410 + three dogs bite two men: example, 398 + Three Kings: example, 99 + three of four people: example, 361 + three or four people: example, 454 + three rats: example, 446 + thus: example, 316 + ti, 119, 147, 169; as pronoun expression for English this, 148 + ti noi: as adjective expression for this, 148 + ti'e, 316 + tilde: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 + time: as part of tense system (see also tense, temporal tense), 215; as = space-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with space in number of directions, 2= 19 + time of death: example, 248 + time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 + time travel, 225 + times: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 + ti'o, 458 + ti-series pro-sumti: 3 degrees of distance with, 147; as pointing refere= nts only, 147; compared with English this/that, 147; contrasted with di'u-s= eries pro-sumti, 148; conversational convention for, 147; effect on ri-seri= es pro-sumti, 153; lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 148; problems in written t= ext, 147 + title: specifying with tu'e...tu'u, 466 + title of book: example, 134 + to, 480 + to movie: house, office, example, 191 + TO selma'o, 480, 505; terminator for, 505 + to the market from the office, 348 + to'a, 415 + to-do list: example, 358 + to'i, 321, 480 + toi, 480 + TOI selma'o, 480, 505 + Tolkien: and non-standard Lojban orthography, 46 + tomorrow: example, 282 + tone of voice, 297 + to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 + too: example, 318 + too long: example, 233; Example, 230 + too many rats: example, 448 +# topic/comment: multiple sentence, 468 + topic-comment: description, 467 + topic-comment sentences, 467 + tosmabru test, 71 + to'u, 318 + toward her right: example, 225 + toward my right: example, 224 + toward right: contrasted with on right, 224 + transfinite cardinal: example, 434 + transformations with logical connectives: steps, 408 + traveling salesperson: example, 196 + triumph, 258 + truncation of number: expressing, 443 + truth: in imperative sentences, 353 + truth functions, 333; 16 possible, 333; commutative, 335; creating all 1= 6 with Lojban's basic set, 335; fundamental 4 in Lojban, 334; relation to l= ogical connectives, 334; table of logical connectives, 366 + truth questions, 321; answering "no", 351; answering "yes", 351; as yes-= or-no questions, 351; contrasted with connection questions, 351; simple, 35= 1 + truth table: explanation, 333 + truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth fu= nctions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 + truth-value abstraction, 262 + truth-value abstraction(s): place structure, 262, 263 + try the door: example, 266 + try to go: example, 95 + ts-sound in Russian: representation in Lojban, 31 + tu, 147, 169; archaic English yon as equivalent of, 147 + tu'a, 134, 266; as being deliberately vague, 134; effect of on meaning, = 134; use for forming abstractions, 134 + tu'e, 202, 205, 343, 358, 364, 466; contrasted with bo for tensed logica= l connection, 364; effect on di'e, 358; use in lists, 358 + TUhE selma'o, 343, 358, 364, 466, 505; terminator for, 505 + TUhU selma'o, 343, 358, 466, 505 + tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 + tu'o va'a, 453 + tu'u, 202, 205, 343, 358, 466 + twice today: example, 233 + two brothers: example, 98 + two dogs are white: example, 129 + types and subtypes of words, 52 + typical: compared with stereotypical, 126 + typical Englishman: example, 126 + typical Lojban user: example, 125 + typical objects: and instantiation, 126; determining characteristics of,= 126 + typical Smith: example, 127 + typical sumti, 157 + typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrast= ed with mathematical average, 441 + typographical conventions, 4 + ue, 297 + ugh: example, 359 + ui, 297 + UI selma'o, 264, 297, 351, 353, 469, 474, 481, 505; extending the scope = of, 494; quick-tour version, 24 + umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 + unabridged dictionary, 480 + unconditional signal, 484 + unconnected tanru: contrasted with logically connected version, 349 + undemonstrated potential: expressing, 244 + under compulsion: example, 201 + under conditions: example, 257 + underlines: example, 12 + unequal termset connection: compared with compound bridi connection with= unequal separate bridi-tails, 348 + unfilled places of inverted tanru, 95 + Unicode, 425 + uninterpreted sequence, 477 + union: of sets, 356 + union of sets: compared with or, 357 + units of measurement: expressing, 435 + universal: mixed claim with existential, 394 + universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, = 394, 395 + unqualified sumti: contrasted with qualified sumti, 133 + unreduced fractions: use in granular scales, 448 + unreduced lujvo: definition, 57 + unspecified breed: example, 280 + unspecified direction: temporal contrasted with in spatial, 220 + unspecified emotion, 311 + unspecified level of emotion, 311 + unspecified route: example, 189 + unspecified sumti: non-trailing, 189; using zo'e as place-holder for, 18= 9 + unspecified trailing sumti: dropping, 189 + unstated emotion, 311 + unusual characters: words for, 416 + unusual position, 290 + unvoiced consonants: contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs= , 37 + unvoiced vowel glide: apostrophe as, 31 + upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 + upper-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban us= age contrasted with English, 415 + utterance: expressing relation to discourse, 317 + utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 + utterance pro-sumti: stability of, 162 + utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), 148 + utterances: non-bridi, 471 + u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 + uu, 297, 299; contrasted with u'u, 299 + uuse'inai, 314 + uy diphthong: in cmene, 66 + V: as a symbol for a single vowel, 49 + va, 217 + VA selma'o, 217, 506; and distance, 217; relation of words to ti, ta, tu= , 217 + va'a, 438; contrasted with vu'u and ni'u, 438 + va'e, 447 + vague abstraction, 265 + vague abstraction(s): place structure, 266 + vague abstractor, 265 + vague numbers, 128 + vague relationship: modal tag for, 197 + va'i, 318, 320; contrasted with ke'u, 320 + va'inai, 320 + valid speech: marking as error with jo'a, 321 + value abstraction, 262 + variables: logical, 392 + vau, 178, 200, 345, 394; effect on elidability ku'o, 181 + vau for shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200 + VAU selma'o, 345, 506 + ve, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 + ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 + vector: components of, 451; definition, 451; forming, 496; use as operan= d, 452; use of parentheses with, 452 + vector indicator, 451; terminator for, 451 + ve'e, 228 + VEhA selma'o, 221, 506 + VEhO selma'o, 506 + vei, 201, 423, 437 + vei ...ve'o: contrasted with operator ...ku'e in Polish notation, 438 + VEI selma'o, 506; terminator for, 506 + veljvo: definition, 274; symmetrical, 278 + ve'o, 201, 362, 437 + verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 + veterinarian: example, 282 + vi, 217; as adjective expression for English this, 148 + vi'a, 224 + vice versa: English, expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159;= example, 159 + vi'e, 224 + VIhA selma'o, 223, 506 + vi'o, 325; contrasted with je'e, 325 + virtue: example, 309 + viska, 194 + vo'a, 158 + vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 + vocative, 492 + vocative indicator, 492 + vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning,= 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136= ; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136;= purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with = sumti without descriptor, 136 + vocative phrase terminator: elidability of, 137 + vocative phrase with name: placement of relative clause on, 184 + vocative phrase with selbri: placement of relative clause on, 184 + vocatives: and definition of "you", 323; contrasted with "la", 323; defi= nition, 323; grammar overview, 323; notation convention symbol "X", 323; qu= ick-tour version, 21; rationale for redundancy, 323 + vo'e, 158 + voi, 177; contrasted with poi in veridicality, 177 + voiced consonants: contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs= , 37 +# voiced/unvoiced consonants: restrictions on, 36 + vowel: buffer, 38 + vowel buffer: contrasted with y sound, 38 + vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping= of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 + vowel-initial words: necessity for pause before, 68 + vowels: contrasted with consonants, 33; definition of, 33; length of, 39= ; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12 + vu, 217 + vu'e, 309 + VUhO selma'o, 182, 506 + VUhU operands, 436 + VUhU selma'o, 435, 436, 444, 507 + vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134 + vu'o, 182 + vu'u, 438; contrasted with va'a and ni'u, 438 + VV string: as a symbol for a double vowel, 49 + walk to market: example, 100 + want to be a soldier: example, 255 + wash self: example, 158 + weapon against self: example, 397 + went and bought: example, 363, 365 + what is your name: example, 160 + when: example, 249 + when else: example, 250 +# when/where/how: example, 250 + where: example, 249 + whether criminal: example, 262 + who knows what: example, 160 + whole of: example, 441 + whole time interval: expressing, 227 + William: example, 68 + window: example, 336 + wine-dark sea, 274 + word "abu": example, 422 + word "bu": example, 416 + word classes, 50 + word forms: as related to grammatical uses, 49; in Lojban (see also morp= hology), 49 + word lists, 273 + word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 + words: marking non-standard, 480 + words not in the dictionary, 13 + world's languages, 273 + wrong concept, 281 + x < 5: example, 439 + x{b: d}, example, 362, 455 + x{k}: x sub k, example, 423 + x1: in place structure notation, 187; notation convention, quick-tour ve= rsion, 13 + xe, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16 + xi, 449, 452, 471 + XI selma'o, 449, 471, 507 + xo, 449 + X-ray: example, 60 + x-sub-3, 449 + xu, 321, 351, 469; quick-tour version, 23 + y, 484; considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, 49; = letter; between letters of consonant pair, 53; letter, prohibition from fu'= ivla, 62; use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, 36 + Y selma'o, 484, 507 + y sound: contrasted with vowel buffer, 38 + YACC grammar, 511 + Yay!: example, 299 +# yes/no questions, 321; quick-tour version, 23 + y-hyphen: and consonant cluster determination, 56; and stress determinat= ion, 56; use of, 56 + yielding the floor, 484 + yon: as archaic English equivalent of tu, 147 + you: defining, 323 + you-cmavo: example, 163 + younger: example, 292 + you're welcome: fi'i contrasted with je'e, 324; je'e contrasted with fi'= i, 324 + you-talk: example, 163 +# z =3D f(x): example, 438 + z instead of ': in acronymic names based on lerfu words, 424 + za'a, 316 + za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunde= rstandings, 69 + ZAhO compared with NU, 268 + ZAhO selma'o, 228, 231, 232, 268, 507; contradictory negation of, 241; e= ffect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, 231 + za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 + za'o, 230 + za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 + zai, 418 + ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 + ze'eba, 227; meaning of, 227 + ze'eca, 227; meaning of, 227 + ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227 + ZEhA selma'o, 221, 507 + ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 + zei, 60, 416; interaction with bu, 416 + ZEI selma'o, 60, 507 + zero: relation to negation boundary, 402 + zero to one: example, 362 + ZI selma'o, 219, 507; compared with VA, 219 + zi'e, 175; compared with English and, 176; contrasted with logical conne= ctives, 176; use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/cl= ause, 176 + ZIhE selma'o, 175, 508 + zi'o, 157, 163; as creating new selbri, 157 + zi'o rafsi: effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163 + Zipf's Law, 69 + zo, 119, 312, 416, 477; contrasted with la for names, 478; interaction w= ith bu, 416 + ZO selma'o, 477, 508 + zo'e, 157, 189, 392; as a translation for "something", 392; as place-hol= der for sumti, 157; as place-holder for unspecified sumti, 189; compared wi= th FA for omitting places, 190; contrasted with da, 392; quick-tour version= , 14 + zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 + zo'e-series pro-sumti, 157 + ZOhU selma'o, 392, 467, 508 + zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253 + zo'o, 318, 319 + zo'u, 392, 467 + zoi, 119, 416, 477; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with lo'u/le'u= , 478 + ZOI selma'o, 477, 479, 508 + zu'a, 217; derivation of word, 217 + zu'i, 157 + zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 + zu'u, 319 diff --git a/todocbook/make_index.sh b/todocbook/make_index.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000..7da2b93 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/make_index.sh @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +#!/bin/bash + +IFS=3D' +' + +for line in $(cat cllindex.txt | grep -v '^\s*#') +do + item=3D$(echo $line | sed 's/[(,:].*//' | sed 's/^\s*//' | sed 's/\\/\\\= \/g') +# echo $item + count=3D$(grep "\<$item\>" [0-9]*.xml | wc -l) + if [ "$count" -le 0 ] + then + echo "$item -- has count $count, skipping -- $line" + continue + fi + if [ "$count" -ge 10 ] + then + echo "$item -- has count $count, skipping -- $line" + continue + fi + + for file in $(grep -l "\<$item\>" [0-9]*.xml) + do +# echo $file + sed -i "/\<$item\>/s|$|\n\n$item<= /primary>|" $file + done +done diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh index b3100b1..e165c75 100755 --- a/todocbook/merge.sh +++ b/todocbook/merge.sh @@ -7,11 +7,13 @@ echo ' ' >cll.xml =20 for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e = 's;.*/;;') do cat $dir.xml >>cll.xml done =20 echo ' =20 + + ' >>cll.xml --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.