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+
What is Lojban? Lojban (pronounced LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article Brown @@ -54,293 +54,292 @@ Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication. Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical. Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.
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What is this book? This book is what is called a reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word [...] Content analysis details: (2.5 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- 0.7 TVD_RCVD_IP TVD_RCVD_IP 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.5000] 1.0 RDNS_DYNAMIC Delivered to internal network by host with dynamic-looking rDNS X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable X-Spam_score: 0.1 X-Spam_score_int: 1 X-Spam_bar: / X-Spam_report: Spam detection software, running on the system "chain.digitalkingdom.org", has identified this incoming email as possible spam. The original message has been attached to this so you can view it (if it isn't spam) or label similar future email. If you have any questions, see the administrator of that system for details. Content preview: commit 582d5ba163ff5fc9fc992fa2684233e5efbd766d Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Mon Dec 27 15:03:26 2010 -0800 chapter and section names, by zort- diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index c46ea11..2490450 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ - + Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book Lojbanistan -
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What is Lojban? Lojban (pronounced LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article Brown @@ -54,293 +54,292 @@ Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication. Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical. Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.
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What is this book? This book is what is called a reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word [...] Content analysis details: (0.1 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -0.7 RCVD_IN_DNSWL_LOW RBL: Sender listed at http://www.dnswl.org/, low trust [209.85.210.61 listed in list.dnswl.org] -0.0 SPF_PASS SPF: sender matches SPF record 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.5000] 0.1 DKIM_SIGNED Message has a DKIM or DK signature, not necessarily valid -0.1 DKIM_VALID Message has at least one valid DKIM or DK signature 0.0 RFC_ABUSE_POST Both abuse and postmaster missing on sender domain commit 582d5ba163ff5fc9fc992fa2684233e5efbd766d Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Mon Dec 27 15:03:26 2010 -0800 chapter and section names, by zort- diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index c46ea11..2490450 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ - + Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book<= /title> <!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>Lojbanistan</primary> </indexterm> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter1-section1"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-what-is-lojban"> <title>What is Lojban? Lojban (pronounced=20 LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions= of the language were called=20 Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan= Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for= the language were first described in the open literature in the article=20 Brown @@ -54,293 +54,292 @@ Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear= thought and communication. Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to t= he scientific, from the theoretical to the practical. Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original = works of prose and poetry.
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What is this book? This book is what is called a=20 reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Loj= ban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban= is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to dis= cover the functions of those features. The word=20 reference grammar discover is used advisedly; Lojban was not=20 invented by any one person or committee. Often, grammat= ical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was= fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to p= rove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time. By intention, this book is complete in description but not in ex= planation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in=20 - ), there is a bit of explanation and= an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. = In essence,=20 - gives a brief overview of the langua= ge,=20 - gives the formal structure of the l= anguage, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bon= es. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even co= rrecting) the explanations in this book will become available. + ), there is a bit of explanation = and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bi= t. In essence,=20 + gives a brief overview of the langua= ge,=20 + gives the formal structure of th= e language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal = bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even= correcting) the explanations in this book will become available. Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the= completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a= possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until f= ive years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to c= orrect outright errors, the language described in this book will not be cha= nging by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change = will take place in the form of new vocabulary - Lojban does not yet have ne= arly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern wo= rld, as=20 - explains - and through the irregula= r natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Te= ach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with a= ssurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as mo= st other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling b= y language-meisters. + explains - and through the irregula= r natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Te= ach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with a= ssurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as mo= st other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling b= y language-meisters. It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somew= hat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojb= an topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger struct= ure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-refe= rences as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as c= omprehensive as possible. Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play = on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title= of=20 - (which you are now reading), for exa= mple, is an allusion to the book=20 + (which you are now reading), for ex= ample, is an allusion to the book=20 English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce= , which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.=20 reference grammar Lojbanistan is both an imaginary country where Lojban i= s the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speake= rs, scattered over the world. Why=20 Lojbanistan mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. Lojbanistan
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What are the typographical conventions of this book? typographical conventions Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used= throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the se= lf-same sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. I go to the store. will become wearisomely familiar before=20 - is reached. This method is delibera= te; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever = possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of= course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textb= ook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rat= her, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be = Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the u= sual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. + is reached. This method is delib= erate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherev= er possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary.= Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a te= xtbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). = Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-= be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in th= e usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. It is useful to talk further about=20 for what it illustrates ab= out examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first o= f these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of t= he Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and= third lines are sometimes called the=20 examples in this book literal translation and the=20 colloquial translation respectively. Sometimes, when cl= arity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more = than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meanin= g. Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban tex= ts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context o= f the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal transla= tions, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of spe= cific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the En= glish word would suggest. In=20 square brackets - , square brackets surround phonetic r= epresentations in the International Phonetic Alphabet. + , square brackets surround phone= tic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet. square brackets Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of vario= us sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words d= iscussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical catego= ry (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, an= d the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typic= ally a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context. A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All= of these are explained in=20 technical terms - , except for a few used only in singl= e chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapt= ers. + , except for a few used only in singl= e chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapt= ers.
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Disclaimers It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this boo= k do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any = such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intend= ed to give offense. When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially o= f lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the En= glish-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). = If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given= here.
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Acknowledgements and Credits Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Langu= age Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authori= al=20 LLG I, certain chapters were first written by others and th= en heavily edited by me to fit into this book. In particular:=20 - is a fusion of originally separate d= ocuments, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeCh= evalier;=20 - and=20 - were originally written by Bob LeChe= valier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 - was originally written (in much lon= ger form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 - was contributed by Nora Tansky LeCh= evalier;=20 - and parts of=20 - were originally by Bob LeChevalier;= and the YACC grammar in=20 + is a fusion of originally separate d= ocuments, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeCh= evalier;=20 + and=20 + were originally written by Bob= LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 + was originally written (in much lon= ger form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 + was contributed by Nora Tans= ky LeChevalier;=20 + and parts of=20 + were originally by Bob LeChev= alier; and the YACC grammar in=20 YACC grammar - is the work of several hands, but i= s primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is a= lso in=20 - , was originally written by me, then= rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. + is the work of several hands, bu= t is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which i= s also in=20 + , was originally written by me, t= hen rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. The research into natural languages from which parts of=20 draw their material was performed = by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits = of his research. LLG The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier,= except for the picture appearing in=20 pictures - , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.= + , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Ri= ssell. The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. I would like to thank the following people for their detailed re= views, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors= in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoul= son, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Pa= ulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Der= zhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (als= o known as=20 pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even = more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was incl= ined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his enco= uragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened = with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting= old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors= ; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmic= ally, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three luj= vo classes. converting Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to= James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier co= ntributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Do= ug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Fina= l responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.<= /para> Brown
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Informal Bibliography The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book= is one of the products, is=20 Loglan 1: A Logical Language by James Cooke Brown= (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.) The lan= guage described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be c= onsidered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that n= othing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very exist= ence of Lojban is disapproved of by him. Brown The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Amer= ican philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially=20 Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Qui= ne's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads lik= e a literal translation from Lojban. observation The theory of negation expounded in=20 - is derived from a reading of Larry = Horn's work=20 + is derived from a reading of Lar= ry Horn's work=20 The Natural History of Negation. Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way respon= sible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works. Brown Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be t= hree other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dicti= onary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can prob= ably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place wher= e you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exi= st. books about Lojban
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Captions to Pictures The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translati= on, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has= no caption,=20 (none) is specified instead. The picture for chapter 1 - + has the following text: coi lojban. coi rodo which has the following translation: Greetings, O Lojban! Greetings, all-of you The picture for chapter 2 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 3 - + has the following text: .i .ai .i .ai .o which has the following translation: [untranslatable] The picture for chapter 4 - + has the following text: jbobliku which has the following translation: Lojbanic-blocks The picture for chapter 5 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 6 - + has the following text: lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu which has the following translation: The-mass-of two men carry the two men Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them). The picture for chapter 7 - + has the following text: ma drani danfu .i di'e - =20 -di'e + di'e .i di'u .i dei .i ri .i do'i which has the following translation: [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer? The-next-sentence. @@ -349,21 +348,21 @@ This-sentence. The-previous-sentence. An-unspecified-utterance. The picture for chapter 8 - + has the following text: ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. which has the following translation: [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa. @@ -371,31 +370,31 @@ ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. brothers The picture for chapter 9 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 10 - + has the following text: za'o klama =20 za'o @@ -409,48 +408,48 @@ Something goes (or comes) for too long. too long The picture for chapter 11 - + has the following text: le si'o kunti which has the following translation: The concept-of emptiness The picture for chapter 12 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 13 - + has the following text: .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o =20 ro'o @@ -468,67 +467,67 @@ The concept-of emptiness [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical] The picture for chapter 14 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 15 - + has the following text: mi na'e lumci le karce which has the following translation: I other-than wash the car I didn't wash the car. The picture for chapter 16 - + has the following text: drata mupli pe'u .djan. which has the following translation: another example [please] John Another example, John, please! The picture for chapter 17 - + has the following text: zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny. =20 zai @@ -537,66 +536,66 @@ zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny. [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n "Lojban" in a manual alphabet The picture for chapter 18 - + has the following text: no no which has the following translation: 0 0 The picture for chapter 19 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 20 - + has no text. The picture for chapter 21 - + has no text.
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Boring Legalities Copyright =C2=A9 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Ri= ghts Reserved. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of = this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright = notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions o= f this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, an= d provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the = terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of thi= s book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versi= ons, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that= has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English. The contents of=20 - are in the public domain. + are in the public domain. For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau = Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:= =20 llg-board@lojban.org<= /link>World Wide Web:=20 http://www.lojban.org
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index a9fcdb2..37fadbe 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 10 Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System=
Introductory This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time ten= se system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the for= m=20 tense system How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban? Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting = to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is= understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the rea= der should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being c= orrectly understood. @@ -999,21 +999,21 @@ is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 ma'i - ), and allows specifying a reference = frame. + ), and allows specifying a ref= erence frame. reference frame Both a regular and a=20 mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 mo'i construct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4" /> @@ -2849,21 +2849,21 @@ <para>Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a ten= se-like relationship between nouns,=20 <!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>nouns</primary> </indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-o3Yg" /> cannot be expressed in Eng= lish without paraphrasing it either into=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-9cXU" /> or else into=20 <quote>I go to the house before the market</quote>, which is ambiguous= - is the market going?</para> <para>Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense rela= tionship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known = as a=20 <quote>bridi-tail</quote> is explained fully in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14" />; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, = possibly with following sumti.)=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives" />; roughly speaking, it is a se= lbri, possibly with following sumti.)=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-vSCv" /> is equivalent in meaning t= o=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-9cXU" /> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-o3Yg" />:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-vSCv"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d8" /> mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house. @@ -2882,21 +2882,21 @@ forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
Tensed logical connectives The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connec= tive system. That system is a separate topic, explained in=20 tense system - and touched on only in summary here= . By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 + and touched on only in summar= y here. By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 through 17.3 are equivalen= t in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d1" /> la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. satre le ractu Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit. @@ -3523,21 +3523,21 @@ jelca It burns! the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning=20 Fire!
Logical and non-logical connections between tenses Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; l= ogical connection is explained in more detail in=20 - . Some of the terminology in this se= ction will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives. + . Some of the terminology in t= his section will be clear only if you already understand logical connective= s. The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logi= cal connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentenc= es: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d1" /> mi pu je ba klama le zarci I [past] and [future] go-to the market. I went and will go to the market. @@ -3839,21 +3839,21 @@ I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. I know the time of John's death. I know when John died.
Tenses versus modals Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly parall= eled by some use of modals as explained in=20 - . Modals and tenses alike can be foll= owed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed = connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect= . However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs = and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two fo= rms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier= versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically intercha= ngeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.<= /para> + . Modals and tenses alike can = be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and= mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is = perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense cons= tructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the= two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in = earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically i= nterchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maint= ained. The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d1" /> mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi mu'i @@ -4071,21 +4071,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d7" /> pu'o [inchoative] He hasn't yet done so. or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8" /> seka'a le briju With-destination the office. The only way to combine=20 @@ -4125,42 +4125,42 @@ both,=20 naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former.
Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 - and=20 - .) It is grammatical for a termset t= o be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows bo= th the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. He= re is an example: + and=20 + .) It is grammatical for a ter= mset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which all= ows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specifi= ed. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1" /> la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end te= rmset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George. Here the termset extends from the=20 nu'i to the implicit=20 nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms= =20 la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point, and the= tagged sumti=20 lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 - ) marks as a quantity. Both terms are= governed by the tag=20 + ) marks as a quantity. Both te= rms are governed by the tag=20 zu'a It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 magnitude magnitude diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 148d594..90c13b2 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: = On Lojban Abstraction
The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole brid= i and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abs= tractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and comp= lex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and ano= ther. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a = result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with = this difficulty until=20 . An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and prece= ding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are k= nown as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi @@ -881,21 +881,21 @@ mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue) 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 - . + . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d4" /> le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue). The picture varies in being blue. @@ -1166,21 +1166,21 @@ because=20 claims that John actually = said the quoted words, whereas=20 claims only that he said s= ome words or other which were to the same purpose. le se du'u is much the same as=20 lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but=20 se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas=20 lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 - for a discussion of=20 + for a discussion of=20 lu'e.)
Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: kau @@ -1704,22 +1704,22 @@ This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 tu'a,=20 would mean that John consi= dered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some so= rt of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in= English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem = to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe= it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not the name of some= event.) Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to=20 tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete= one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one func= tion, discussed in=20 - and=20 - ; for the purposes of this chapter, = it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE= . This conversion changes + and=20 + ; for the purposes of this chapter,= it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o S= E. This conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7" /> tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death. @@ -1753,21 +1753,21 @@ (the event-of your death) the one who caused your death because=20 jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description - not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10" /> le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death) @@ -1776,21 +1776,21 @@
Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses This section is a logical continuation of=20 . There exists a relationship between the four types of events exp= lained in=20 and the event contour tens= e cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually = interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU eve= nt types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 event types - , and only summarized here. + , and only summarized here. The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o represent spans of time: before an event begin= s, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. The cmavo=20 @@ -1922,21 +1922,21 @@ Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be = treated as such. The points in time may be seen as=20 mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute pro= cesses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes wit= hin processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstrac= t things. mu'e
Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 - . The connection can be expanded to = one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 + . The connection can be expand= ed to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent in meaning:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d1" /> le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 2190b01..29db448 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Str= uctures
Why have lujvo? The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu,= made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not = intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal = list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for = the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in = certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, fo= ods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mi= llion or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken togethe= r. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures = and function as selbri. world's languages @@ -80,21 +80,21 @@ absolute laws If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as=20 bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as=20 se or=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo= as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo= may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru cou= ld produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tan= ru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 - . + .
The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour necessary detour The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as= - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru= corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise English= equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left = (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 @@ -847,21 +847,21 @@ b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3 b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-stan= dard-b3 where=20 gi'e is the Lojban word for=20 and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained= in=20 - . + . Asymmetrical lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The= seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rath= er immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first plac= e of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 veterinarian danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : @@ -1380,21 +1380,21 @@ se te se ke te, since there is no need to re-order places in = the way that=20 se te provides. (See=20 se te - .) + .)
Abstract lujvo The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of = a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard e= xample,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1" /> @@ -1413,21 +1413,21 @@ nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route= k4 by means k5. Here the first place of=20 nunklama is the first and only place of=20 nu, and the other five places have been pushed down by = one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on=20 nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this = section, is given in=20 - . + . For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the sta= ndard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the plac= es of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of=20 nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 ni klama, is the imposing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d3" /> ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rout= e k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2. @@ -1500,21 +1500,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7" /> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. explained in=20 - , to be rendered with lujvo: + , to be rendered with lujvo:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8" /> mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying. In making a lujvo that contains=20 @@ -1524,21 +1524,21 @@ fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the = regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 notation conventions lujvo place structure fai is also explained in=20 - .) + .)
Implicit-abstraction lujvo abstraction lujvo Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producing a clas= s of lujvo called=20 @@ -2179,21 +2179,21 @@ klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via k4= by means of k5 selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 from = k3 via k4 by means of k5 terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin point fro= m destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 (See=20 - for the way in which this problem i= s resolved when lujvo aren't used.) + for the way in which this pr= oblem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.) The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and th= e other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresse= s by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place= whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while=20 nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place,=20 klamau has it as its sixth place. In any sentence where= a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with=20 vemau (for=20 zmadu) or=20 veme'a (for=20 mleca) to help make the speaker's intention clear. It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not pr= esuppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than s= omeone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogen= arian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year= -old has a greater=20 @@ -2389,33 +2389,33 @@ color standards ci'u (=20 ci'u in system; see=20 - ) or by making a lujvo. + ) or by making a lujvo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2" /> jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4<= /jbo> The gismu=20 jbena contains places for time and location, which few = other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done i= s supplied by a tense tag (see=20 - ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 + ). However, providing these places = makes=20 le te jbena a simple term for=20 birthday and=20 le ve jbena for=20 birthplace, so these places were provided despite their= lack of metaphysical necessity. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d3" /> diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 5efbe53..3d6da86 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Ind= icators
What are attitudinal indicators? attitudinal indicators This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words @@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@ rau, and=20 rau du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in= =20 du'e - ). For example, + ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8" /> .uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!] might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.= @@ -1768,21 +1768,21 @@ mi .e nai .ui do I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal=20 nai expresses a=20 scalar negation, a concept explained in=20 - ; since every attitudinal word impli= es exactly one scale, the effect of=20 + ; since every attitudinal word im= plies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 nai on each should be obvious. Thus, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with ea= ch listed part optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticalit= y, though it obviously would affect meaning. attitudinal=20 nai intensity-word=20 nai modifier=20 nai intensity-word=20 nai (possibly repeated) @@ -1802,29 +1802,29 @@ The uses of indicators The behavior of indicators in the=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 metalinguistic erasers si,=20 sa, and=20 su and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The d= etails of such interactions are discussed in=20 - . + . A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicato= r may, except in those few situations (as in=20 zo quotation, explained in=20 - ) where compound cmavo may not be us= ed. + ) where compound cmavo may not b= e used. At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything followi= ng them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, = and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentence= s. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches = to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is bei= ng expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers. If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a= cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct = pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism= , discussed in=20 - , for explicitly marking the range o= f words to which an indicator applies. + , for explicitly marking the ran= ge of words to which an indicator applies. More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they inte= ract with other specialized cmavo, are given in=20 - . It is worth mentioning that real-w= orld interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rul= es. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a mini= mum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional= expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a s= ystematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive leve= l. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator h= as some uncertainty. + . It is worth mentioning that re= al-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope= rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a = minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emoti= onal expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide= a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive = level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicat= or has some uncertainty. For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together,= the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to = interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, o= r to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For = example, in multiple indicators <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e9d1" /> @@ -2632,21 +2632,21 @@ si'a mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, an= d can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being re= peated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 mi'u go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 - ), which is a non-discursive version = of=20 + ), which is a non-discursi= ve version of=20 ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous= bridi. ditto Lastly,=20 po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, an= d thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 po'o @@ -3210,21 +3210,21 @@ negation cmavo na'i and its opposite=20 jo'a are explained in full in=20 jo'a - . In general,=20 + . In general,=20 na'i indicates that there is something wrong with a pie= ce of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or some= thing else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to th= e marked word or construct. Similarly,=20 jo'a marks something which looks wrong but is in fact c= orrect. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reas= ons:=20 jo'a na'inai means the same as=20 jo'a, but would be too confusing as an affirmation;=20 @@ -3278,21 +3278,21 @@ to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where co= nfusion might result. In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one o= r more instances of=20 sa'a, they can be changed to=20 sa'a sa'asa'a. The cmavo=20 xu marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail= in=20 - . In general,=20 + . In general,=20 xu may be translated=20 Is it true that ... ? and questions whether the attache= d bridi is true. When=20 xu is attached to a specific word or construct, it dire= cts the focus of the question to that word or construct. Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do no= t stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo=20 pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener real= ize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of writt= en Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The list= ener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. pau Although=20 @@ -3450,21 +3450,21 @@ =20 kau =20 indirect question This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 - . It marks the word it is attached t= o as the focus of an indirect question: + . It marks the word it is att= ached to as the focus of an indirect question: indirect question <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3" /> mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci @@ -3496,21 +3496,21 @@ noisy environments nai too often vital to interpretation of a protocol sig= nal, as explained later in this section. protocol The grammar of vocatives is explained in=20 - ; but in brief, a vocative may be fol= lowed by a name (without=20 + ; but in brief, a vocative may be fo= llowed by a name (without=20 la), a description (without=20 le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at a= ll (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable ter= minator,=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required u= nless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.<= /para> do'u Using any vocative except=20 mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the meaning o= f the pro-sumti=20 do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the l= istener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired listener= isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 @@ -4189,21 +4189,21 @@ Kzinti anticipated We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinct= ions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. B= ut it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to = choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances = in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using= the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 - , to create metalinguistic comments = that act like indicators. + , to create metalinguistic comme= nts that act like indicators. We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the syst= em is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try pla= ying around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out w= hat emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may= even find an expression for which there currently is no good English word = and start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? pictures diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 642c36d..19ab1f3 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section1"> <title>Logical connection and truth tables truth tables Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself me= ans=20 @@ -636,21 +636,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7" /> le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (i= t will grow). Causality is discussed in far more detail in=20 - . + . and=20 illustrates a truth functi= on, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We al= ready understand how to negate the first bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8" /> gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman, @@ -1613,22 +1613,22 @@ mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset]. Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 nu'i is used. The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 - and=20 - . + and=20 + .
Logical connection within tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical conne= ctive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is po= ssible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru= that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ba= ll, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue= and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within the tanru= . (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were= always prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: @@ -1899,21 +1899,21 @@ yes or=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of= the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 go'i and of saying=20 no is=20 nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explained in=20 nago'i - .) In answer to=20 + .) In answer to=20 , the possible answers are:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3" /> go'i Fido is a dog. @@ -2199,21 +2199,21 @@ In logical terms, however,=20 but is the same as=20 and; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 but is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sente= nce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive = cmavo=20 ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 ku'i - , to the logical=20 + , to the logical=20 .ije.)
Non-logical connectives Way back in=20 , the point was made that n= ot every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 @@ -2252,21 +2252,21 @@ carry the piano covers the case mentioned,= where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did al= l the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises becaus= e the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can = lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then = John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in=20 supervising - . + . Grammatically,=20 joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or betwee= n two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in t= he form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4" /> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. @@ -3175,35 +3175,35 @@ In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separ= ated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers t= o the first endpoint.
Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar f= or representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 mathematical expressions 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 - . The basic components of mekso are = operands, like=20 + . The basic components of mekso are = operands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethoug= ht with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected = in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru c= omponents. (However, jeks and joiks with=20 guheks bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is = no accident. In addition, eks with=20 bo and with=20 ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically connecte= d operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 - , and contain many mekso features no= t explained in this chapter. + , and contain many mekso features no= t explained in this chapter. exhibits afterthought logi= cal connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1" /> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. @@ -3313,21 +3313,21 @@ is not elidable, because t= he=20 xi subscript needs something to attach to.
Tenses, modals, and logical connection The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical = connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, = so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with e= mphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapte= r, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI = are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, = and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time= when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses)= ; preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before,= simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is general= ly a=20 le nu abstraction; see=20 - ). + ). The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connecti= ves are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The form= er are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two c= onnected bridi that differ only in tense: logically connected tenses connected tenses @@ -3400,21 +3400,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5" /> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food. fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 - .) However, the tense information - t= hat the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying foo= d - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 + .) However, the tense informat= ion - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buy= ing food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 bo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6" /> diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 61b2549..aad3788 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 15=20 <quote>No</quote> Problems: On Lojban Negation
Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. @@ -226,21 +226,21 @@ internal bridi negation existential da,=20 de, and=20 di of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 - ) in the bridi, you can indeed trans= late Lojban=20 + ) in the bridi, you can indeed= translate Lojban=20 na as=20 not (or=20 isn't or=20 doesn't, as appropriate). The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 na. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d8" /> @@ -951,21 +951,21 @@ <jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo> <gloss>An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [f= alse] is-hair-without.</gloss> <en>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note:=20 <quote>lo</quote> is used in these sentences because negation relates = to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentenc= es carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually a= pplies to the referent. A sentence using=20 <quote>le</quote> instead of=20 <quote>lo</quote> can be true even if there is no current king of Fran= ce, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as = the current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 <quote>le</quote> in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6" />.)</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti" />.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5"> <title>Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 , the default is the set of= plausible alternatives. Thus if we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1" /> @@ -1221,21 +1221,21 @@
Negation of minor grammatical constructs We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them = based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-co= mbining negator, which is=20 nai.=20 nai, by the way, is almost always written as a compound= into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separ= ate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI. Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be = discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular = construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here. The following are places where=20 nai is used: When attached to tenses and modals (see=20 - ), the=20 + ), the=20 nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation o= f the tagged bridi. Thus=20 punai as a tense inflection means=20 not-in-the-past, or=20 not-previously, without making any implication about an= y other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result, <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d1" /> mi na pu klama le zarci @@ -1253,37 +1253,37 @@ I [past-not] go-to the store. I didn't go to the store. mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference = of emphasis. Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical c= onnectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses a= nd modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus=20 punai je ca means the same thing as=20 pu naje ca. As a special case, a=20 -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE= , ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 - ) signals a scalar negation: + ) signals a scalar negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d3" /> mi paroinai dansu le bisli I [once] [not] dance-on the ice means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 is very different from the= English use of=20 not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 never- that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in=20 - , most indicators have an implicit s= cale, and=20 + , most indicators have an imp= licit scale, and=20 nai changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end = of the scale. Thus=20 .uinai expresses unhappiness, and=20 .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which i= s expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 pause before name @@ -1303,30 +1303,30 @@ Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 protocol attitudinal indicators nai, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledge= ment and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 - provides more detail on this topic.= + provides more detail on this= topic. The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai ni just as=20 punai je ca corresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically conn= ected abstractors will be: see=20 - . + . A=20 nai attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JO= I or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the= specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical = connectives are discussed in=20 - . + .
Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sente= nce, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1" /> @@ -1706,29 +1706,29 @@ <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>inclusion</primary> </indexterm> <quote>na'i</quote> anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, a= nd suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.</para> <para>Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic e= rrors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked b= y devising analogies to these examples:</para> <para>Existential failure can be marked by attaching=20 <quote>na'i</quote> to the descriptor=20 <quote>lo</quote> or the=20 <quote>poi</quote> in a=20 <quote>da poi</quote>-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16" /> for details on these constructions.= ) Remember that if a=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers" /> for details on these construc= tions.) Remember that if a=20 <quote>le</quote> sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you= may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate response= is then=20 <quote>ki'a</quote>, asking for clarification.</para> <para>Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposit= ion is overt; if not, one can insert a=20 <quote>mock presupposition</quote> to question with the sumti tcita (s= elma'o BAI) word=20 <quote>ji'u</quote>;=20 <quote>ji'uku</quote> thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumpt= ion, and=20 <quote>ji'una'iku</quote> metalinguistically says that something is wr= ong with that assumption. (See=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10" />.)</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses" />.)</para> <para>Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 <quote>le'a</quote> has meaning=20 <quote>of category/class/type X</quote>,=20 <quote>ci'u</quote> has meaning=20 <!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>ci'u</primary> </indexterm> <quote>on scale X</quote>, and=20 <quote>ci'e</quote>, based on=20 @@ -1754,21 +1754,21 @@ </indexterm> <para>Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by mar= king the offending word or phrase with=20 <quote>na'i</quote> (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this s= ense,=20 <quote>na'i</quote> becomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic m= arker=20 <quote>[sic]</quote>. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quote= s or=20 <quote>sa'a</quote>-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unpa= rsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See= =20 <!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containi= ng sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; intera= ction with to'i, 321 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>sa'a</primary> </indexterm> - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19" /> for explanations of these usages.</= para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure" /> for explanations of these usage= s.</para> <para>In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 <quote>na'i</quote> to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been m= ade, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previ= ous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA.= =20 <quote>na'i</quote> at the beginning of a statement merely says that s= omething is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.</para> <!-- ^^ specificity: expressing with po, 173 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>specificity</primary> </indexterm> <para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression.</para> <!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index ddeccb3..6295682 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ -<chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16"> +<chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-quantifiers"> <title>Chapter 16=20 <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? The following brief dialogue is from=20 - of=20 + of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1" /> Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, hol= ding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. @@ -92,21 +92,21 @@ mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. I see the man/men. that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 - ) often reduces or removes the abili= ty to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are appli= ed. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclud= e nothing about George's actual victory or defeat. + ) often reduces or removes th= e ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals ar= e applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can = conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.
Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1" /> Something sees me. @@ -119,21 +119,21 @@ [zo'e] viska mi Something-unspecified sees me. The cmavo=20 zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, e= ven=20 zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as explained i= n=20 - ) and the listener must fill in the c= orrect value from context. In other words,=20 + ) and the listener must fi= ll in the correct value from context. In other words,=20 means=20 =E2=80=98You-know-what' sees me. However,=20 is just as likely to asser= t simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct transla= tion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3" /> da zo'u da viska mi @@ -226,21 +226,21 @@ da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me Somebody's dog sees me is perfectly correct even though the=20 da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessi= ves are explained in=20 - .) + .) It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, f= or the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8" /> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. @@ -363,21 +363,21 @@ are not only false but abs= urd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivi= al about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over t= he distinction between=20 everything and=20 everybody and the other pairs ending in=20 -thing and=20 -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. In Lojban, a variable=20 da,=20 de, or=20 di may be followed by a=20 poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of t= hings that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail= in=20 - , but the kind we will need at presen= t consist of=20 + , but the kind we will ne= ed at present consist of=20 poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminate= d with=20 ku'o or=20 vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the differe= nce between <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d1" /> da zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X : X sees Jim. @@ -439,21 +439,21 @@ All dogs breathe. breathe is a silly falsehood, but= =20 is an important truth (at = least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see=20 - ). Note the various colloquial trans= lations=20 + ). Note the various colloquial tran= slations=20 every dog,=20 each dog, and=20 all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, si= nce what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.=20 All dogs is treated as an English plural and the others= as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction. plural If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a univers= al one, we get: @@ -683,21 +683,21 @@ For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me. which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the spea= ker, but not otherwise. We note the=20 su'o here meaning=20 at least;=20 su'o by itself is short for=20 su'opa where=20 pa means=20 one, as is explained in=20 - . + . The prenex may be removed from=20 and=20 as from the others, leadin= g to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d4" /> re da viska mi Two Xes see me. @@ -864,21 +864,21 @@ which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be= freely elided. What about descriptors, like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in termsets, bu= t usually need not be, except for the=20 lo case which functions like the case without a descrip= tor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 le nanmu means=20 ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 - . Two sumti with=20 + . Two sumti with=20 ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6" /> [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men. @@ -1051,29 +1051,29 @@ says, whereas=20 turns out to be an effecti= ve translation of our original=20 . So uses of=20 any that aren't universal end up being reflected by var= iables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.
Negation boundaries This section, as well as=20 through=20 , are in effect a continua= tion of=20 - , introducing features of Lojban neg= ation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examp= les below,=20 + , introducing features of Lojban = negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the ex= amples below,=20 there is a Y and the like must be understood as=20 there is a Y there is at least one Y, possibly more. As explained in=20 - , the negation of a bridi is usually= accomplished by inserting=20 + , the negation of a bridi is usua= lly accomplished by inserting=20 na at the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1" /> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. I don't go to the store. @@ -1365,21 +1365,21 @@ negation and logical connectives bridi negation and logical connectives negation and logical connectives A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in=20 - . What is said here is intentionally= quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications. + . What is said here is intenti= onally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications. A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapt= er, we will make use of the logical connectives=20 and and=20 or (where=20 or really means=20 and/or,=20 either or both). The following simplified recipes expla= in how to make some logical connectives: To logically connect two Lojban sumti with=20 and, put them both in the bridi and separate them w= ith the cmavo=20 @@ -1758,21 +1758,21 @@ q stand for terms or sentences)=20 not (p or q) is identical to=20 not p and not q, and=20 not (p and q) is identical to=20 not p or not q. The corresponding changes for the other= two basic Lojban connectives are:=20 not (p equivalent to q) is identical to=20 not p exclusive-or not q, and=20 not (p whether-or-not q) is identical to both=20 not p whether-or-not q and=20 not p whether-or-not not q. In any Lojban sentence havi= ng one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction fro= m these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in=20 - .) + .) The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by= modifying the basic connectives with=20 nai,=20 na and=20 se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the= basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identit= ies, and then, apply each=20 nai,=20 na and=20 se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any dou= ble negatives that result. forethought logical connectives - . It suffices to know that=20 + . It suffices to know that=20 ga and=20 gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean= =20 either and=20 or respectively, and that=20 ge and=20 gi used similarly mean=20 both and=20 and. Furthermore,=20 ga,=20 ge, and=20 @@ -1860,21 +1860,21 @@ gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 ge and=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving b= ridi-tail logical connection (explained in=20 bridi-tail logical connection - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4" /> la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs. @@ -2091,21 +2091,21 @@ What does=20 mean? The appearance of=20 ci da quantifies=20 da as referring to three things, which are restricted b= y the relative clause to be cats. When=20 re da appears later, it refers to two of those three th= ings - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of=20 da alone, if there were any, would refer once more to t= he three cats, so the requantification of=20 da is purely local. In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence exten= ds to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 - ) such as the=20 + ) such as the=20 .ije in=20 . Theoretically, a bare=20 .i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, howe= ver, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 .i, as if it were an=20 .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as rela= tive clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as expl= ained in=20 . A prenex preceding=20 tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persists until the=20 tu'u, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs la= ter. If the variables=20 da,=20 @@ -2119,21 +2119,21 @@ bu'e, and=20 bu'e bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particu= lar problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each= possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts = as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in=20 bu'i - , but in general consist of the cmav= o=20 + , but in general consist of the = cmavo=20 xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more le= rfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enc= losed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2" /> ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them. diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 807881c..3005c3b 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its U= ses
What's a letteral, anyway? James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the= word=20 Brown letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 @@ -1311,21 +1311,21 @@ la'e lu The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. which is correct.
Mathematical uses of lerfu strings This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained= in=20 - , so the mathematical uses of lerfu = strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. + , so the mathematical uses of lerfu = strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. A lerfu string as mathematical variable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d1" /> diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 950b2fd..07c2134 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 18 lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban</titl= e> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"> <title>Introductory lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: representing all the different forms of expression used by m= athematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambi= guously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expec= t a listener to understand it; @@ -1905,21 +1905,21 @@ at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 su'o,=20 piro, and=20 pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as they ar= e implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA= and LE, as explained in=20 pisu'o - . Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter. + . Descriptions in general are outsid= e the scope of this chapter.
Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ju'u VUhU to the base @@ -2311,21 +2311,21 @@ In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 i= s the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats a= re=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. comparison More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 - . + . The cmavo=20 moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is: ordinal selbri x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: @@ -2590,21 +2590,21 @@ PA number question The cmavo=20 xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions wh= ose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blan= k where the answer should go. (See=20 xo - for more on Lojban questions.) + for more on Lojban questions.)<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1" /> li re su'i re du li xo xo @@ -2718,21 +2718,21 @@ xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo x See=20 for the standard method of= specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 - . + .
Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section: tu'o tu'o @@ -3193,21 +3193,21 @@ =20 lo'o As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for= logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on lo= gical and non-logical connectives are provided in=20 logical language - . Operands are connected in aftertho= ught with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Op= erators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought wi= th selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no acciden= t. + . Operands are connected in af= terthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sum= ti. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethou= ght with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no a= ccident. In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping l= ogically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterthought logi= cal connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1" /> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci @@ -3804,34 +3804,34 @@ nineteenthly (higher order) The difference between=20 mai and=20 mo'o is that=20 mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and in= ternally numbered with=20 mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 mo'o. (See=20 - for more on these words.) + for more on these words.) A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string wit= h=20 digit string roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 roi once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 - . + . Note: the elidable terminator=20 boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or= ROI.
Explicit operator precedence operator precedence As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. @@ -4142,21 +4142,21 @@ and=20 are too simple, and=20 is too tricky. Nevertheles= s, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustr= ate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can pro= bably be said in more than one way.
mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo. BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings BY lerfu for variables and functions (see=20 -) +) FUhA reverse-Polish flag GOhA includes=20 du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo =20 mathematical equality JOhI array flag KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 4536962..24cbd73 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 19 Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Loj= ban Texts
Introductory This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo = that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragra= phs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are foun= d in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described= are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents. This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).
Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -43,42 +43,42 @@ stories Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is ca= pitalized, the cmavo=20 .i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate = to place extra space before=20 .i to make it stand out better for the reader. In some = styles of Lojban writing, every=20 .i is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leavi= ng space at the end of the previous line. An=20 .i cmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the= following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence= , depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not. An=20 .i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logica= l connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these c= onstructs are explained in=20 - ,=20 - , and=20 - . In all cases, the=20 + ,=20 + , and=20 + . In all cases, the=20 .i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals can also b= e attached to an=20 .i if they are meant to apply to the whole sentence: se= e=20 - . + . There exist a pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sente= nces closely together. If the=20 .i (with or without connectives) is followed by=20 bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences being separa= ted are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connected by= =20 .i alone. Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by=20 tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit.= A common use of=20 tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which compose a= poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from it by=20 .i. Another use might be a set of directions, where eac= h numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences separat= ed by=20 .i. Grouping with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 ke and=20 ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-logical c= onnectives (see=20 - ). + ).
Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ni'o NIhO new topic @@ -278,35 +278,35 @@ zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sent= ences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 topic-comment sentences topic-comment zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi co= ntaining quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quanti= fier logic in Lojban (see=20 - ), but an example would be: + ), but an example would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7" /> roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. Every person has a father. The string of sumti before=20 zo'u (called the=20 prenex: see=20 - ) may contain both a topic and bound= variables: + ) may contain both a topic and= bound variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d8" /> loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. As for fathers, every person has one. @@ -481,21 +481,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1" /> xu do klama le zarci [True or false?] You go to the store Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store? (Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation mi= ght be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in=20 - . + . Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojba= n word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answer= er is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'= o which provide different kinds of blanks. Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with=20 ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d2" /> ma klama le zarci [What sumti?] goes-to the store @@ -581,21 +581,21 @@ Marsha (Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungrammatical = result, because=20 * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: t= he first=20 le zarci has to be closed with its proper terminator=20 ku, for reasons explained in=20 - . This effect is not important: Lojb= an behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question= and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is gr= ammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) + . This effect is not important= : Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both qu= estion and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange= is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with=20 mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d9" /> la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] What is Lojban? @@ -656,67 +656,67 @@ je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik = as an answer) - see=20 je'i ijoik - ; attitudes (using=20 + ; attitudes (using=20 pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) -= see=20 - ; place structures (using=20 + ; place structures (using=20 fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) -= see=20 fi'a - ; tenses and modals (using=20 + ; tenses and modals (using=20 cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as a= n answer) - see=20 - and=20 - . + and=20 + . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See=20 pau - for details. + for details. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: any number of sumti (with elidable terminator=20 vau, see=20 - ) + ) an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see=20 - ) + ) a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parenthes= es (see=20 - ) + ) a bare=20 na negator (to negate some previously expressed bri= di), or corresponding=20 ja'a affirmer (see=20 - ) + ) a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti= , see=20 - ) + ) a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, s= ee=20 - ) + ) linked arguments (beginning with=20 linked arguments be or=20 bei and attached to some previously expressed selbr= i, often in a description,see=20 ) @@ -724,30 +724,30 @@ At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also per= mitted: one or more names (to indicate direct address without=20 direct address doi, see=20 - ) + ) indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see=20 - ) + ) nai (to vaguely negate something or other, see=20 - ) + ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.
Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xi @@ -815,21 +815,21 @@ mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.= shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the event itsel= f. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 - requires an additional con= version cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use a= ny cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (): + requires an additional con= version cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use a= ny cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (= ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5" /> le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u la'edi'u @@ -856,21 +856,21 @@ to=20 also all mean the same thi= ng, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite t= he tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of= SE or FA could be substituted into=20 sexixa and=20 faxixa without change of meaning:=20 vexixa means the same thing as=20 sexixa. Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma= 'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified su= mti to which they have been bound using=20 goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentiall= y or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more f= ully in=20 - .) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo a= nd 3 da-series cmavo available. + .) There are ten ko'a-series c= mavo and 3 da-series cmavo available. If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-ser= ies can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7" /> daxivo X sub 4 @@ -1075,21 +1075,21 @@ attitudinals, words which indicate the speaker's attitu= de to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, i= ntensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and = evidentials (which indicate=20 indisputable bridi evidentials how the speaker knows). Most of these words belong to s= elma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reaso= ns, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo o= f UI and CAI are discussed in=20 - ; only the rules for applying them i= n discourse are presented here. + ; only the rules for applying= them in discourse are presented here. Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. How= ever, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a wh= ole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudin= al: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d1" /> mi viska le blanu .ia zdani [ku] I see the blue [belief] house. I see the house, which I believe to be blue. @@ -1234,21 +1234,21 @@ opening quotation li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. T= he text between=20 lu and=20 li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quo= tation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo=20 li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's al= most never possible to elide it except at the end of text. The cmavo=20 lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and=20 le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation= that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist= of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 - ), so that the=20 + ), so that the=20 le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be = meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quota= tion with=20 lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for t= eaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to= mark such errors: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2" /> lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-st= ructure in Lojban. @@ -2050,21 +2050,21 @@ mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton. I talk in-language that-named=20 and speranto, er, er, Esperanto. The Lojbanized spelling=20 .esperanto breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban mo= rphology rules (see=20 - ) into two Lojban words, the cmavo=20 + ) into two Lojban words, the cm= avo=20 .e and the undefined fu'ivla=20 speranto. Therefore, two=20 si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,=20 .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 la, but recognition of=20 si is done before grammatical analysis. Even more messy is the result of an incorrect=20 zoi: diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 007f387..d27ddd3 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ -<chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2"> +<chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-tour"> <title>Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams
The concept of the bridi This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence = structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successi= ve variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are man= y more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in l= ater chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: John and Sam @@ -120,21 +120,21 @@ gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places. This book uses the Lojban terms=20 bridi,=20 sumti, and=20 selbri, because it is best to come to understand them i= ndependently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which = are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the = book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline= (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.
Pronunciation Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in=20 - , but what follows will keep the read= er from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. + , but what follows will keep the= reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u and=20 y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 a as in=20 father,=20 e as in=20 @@ -208,21 +208,21 @@ glottal stop h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unle= ss that vowel is=20 y, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-= last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that sylla= ble is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.
Words that can act as sumti Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table = provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be foun= d in=20 - . + . mi I/me, we/us do you ti this, these ta that, those tu that far away, those far away zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious) Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. @@ -234,21 +234,21 @@ ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and sh= ould not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.= Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with= the word=20 la: la meris. the one/ones named Mary la djan. the one/ones named John Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 - for more information. + for more information.
Some words used to indicate selbri relations Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in thi= s chapter: vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in languag= e x4 sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3 @@ -270,22 +270,22 @@ =20 healthy stali x1 stays/remains with x2 zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3= (storekeeper) Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role= of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, tha= t order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, an= d x5. Like the table in=20 , this table is far from com= plete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new word= s to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the = existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference betw= een Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and Englis= h; in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 - explains how to make new words, and= =20 - explains how to give them appropria= te meanings. + explains how to make new words= , and=20 + explains how to give them appropria= te meanings.
Some simple Lojban bridi Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the = gismu=20 tavla is <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1" /> @@ -1205,21 +1205,21 @@ la'edi'u di'u by itself.
Possession Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 - . A simple means of expressing posses= sion, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object = within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, betwe= en the=20 + . A simple means of expre= ssing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor o= f an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifi= cally, between the=20 le and the selbri of the description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1" /> =20 13.1) =20 le mi gerku cu=20 sutra @@ -1379,21 +1379,21 @@ both mean=20 You take care of you and=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.
Questions There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations a= ppear in=20 - and in various other chapters throu= ghout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti quest= ions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. + and in various other chapters t= hroughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti q= uestions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. sumti questions selbri questions The cmavo=20 ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates tha= t the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locati= on of the=20 @@ -1660,21 +1660,21 @@ A general negative answer may be given by=20 negative answer na go'i.=20 na may be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 - . + .
Indicators Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety= of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written langu= age. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. A= ha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to cul= ture. interjections Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: @@ -2014,37 +2014,37 @@ grammatical terms Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this ch= apter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are them= selves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like= =20 grammatical terms indicator in=20 - that are not explained here. See th= e Index for further help with these. + that are not explained here. = See the Index for further help with these. bridi: predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main= kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relations= hip, or that some single object has some property. some relationship sumti: argument; words identifying something which stands in a sp= ecified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. = See=20 - . + . selbri: logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words = specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. S= ee=20 . @@ -2058,63 +2058,63 @@ brivla: one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predi= cate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See= =20 parts of speech - . + . gismu: a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See= =20 - . + . lujvo: a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear i= n a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See=20 - and=20 - . + and=20 + . fu'ivla: a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear i= n a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; us= ually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have = associated rafsi. See=20 aspect - . + . rafsi: a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu= ; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid w= ord by itself. See=20 - . + . tanru: a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cm= avo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first pa= rt modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). S= ee=20 . selma'o: a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can a= ppear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but= differ in meaning or other usage. See=20 - . + .
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 67e75bd..e0bb2c8 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 20 A Catalogue of selma'o
<!-- <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br /> mkhtml: 1.1</h6> --> <para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a = brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter n= umber where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are g= iven in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the capital of= =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often th= e most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given o= f each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is= shown.</para> <!-- ^^ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> @@ -1461,21 +1461,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO" /> selma'o ZAhO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section10" />)</bridgehead> <para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI" /> selma'o ZEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section6" />)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-morphology-section6" />)</bridgehead> <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para> <!-- ^^ morphological glue, 507 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>morphological glue</primary> </indexterm> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta xy. zei kantu kacma That is-an-(X - ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. <!-- ^^ X-ray: example, 60 --> diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index 9a5be8c..b1aac7c 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ -<chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter21"> +<chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-grammars"> <title>Chapter 21 Formal Grammars
YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. formal grammar /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 2fe5135..ce5d757 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban
Orthography Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance = can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can= be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a conseque= nce, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or= phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sou= nd or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronun= ciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) a= nd pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition,= everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when wri= tten) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. = These two properties together are known technically as=20 tone of voice @@ -346,40 +346,40 @@ [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojb= an consider it to be a consonant cluster.
The Special Lojban Characters The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They a= re all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a d= ifferent pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons: The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy = English=20 h, (IPA=20 [h]). The letter=20 h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 - . In addition, the apostrophe visuall= y parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different way= s) to separate syllables. + . In addition, the apostrophe v= isually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differe= nt ways) to separate syllables. The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth tra= nsition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In f= act, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowe= l glide. unvoiced vowel glide As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those = already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA=20 [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The conveni= ence of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a s= ubstitute for=20 [h]. The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified lengt= h; a glottal stop (IPA=20 glottal stop [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases - explained in detail in=20 glottal stop - - must occur. In particular, a word b= eginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a= consonant is always followed by a pause. + - must occur. In particular, a = word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word endin= g in a consonant is always followed by a pause. Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of= a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because t= hese rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise= correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader. A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When t= his occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together= to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It= is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.<= /para> The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, ge= nerally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to s= eparate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, = in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some = type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two sy= llables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA= =20 syllable break [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. @@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in= cmavo (structure words), but only=20 structure words .y'y. is so used - it is the Lojban name of the apostro= phe letter (see=20 - ). + ). When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal p= ronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanize= d name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1" /> meiin. mei,in. @@ -1303,21 +1303,21 @@ bisydja BI,sy,dja BI,syd,ja This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 bis and=20 dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant p= air results:=20 sd. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, = explained in=20 - , a=20 + , a=20 y is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant p= air; the=20 y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress d= etermination. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12" /> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 59c21f1..5069c2e 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ - + Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology -
+
Introductory Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of wo= rds. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many language= s, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. E= nglish has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like R= ussian, but it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 plural boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. @@ -170,21 +170,21 @@ 5) C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute on= e of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial= consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in=20 consonant pairs - . In brief, any consonant pair = is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a v= oiced (excluding=20 + . In brief, any consonant = pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains bot= h a voiced (excluding=20 r,=20 l,=20 m,=20 n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certai= n specified forbidden pairs. 6) C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonan= ts must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants mu= st constitute a permissible initial consonant pair. @@ -210,21 +210,21 @@ the and=20 to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 doctor, and=20 freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 James,=20 Afghanistan, and=20 Pope John Paul II.
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cmavo The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are th= e cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language togethe= r. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affec= t the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the= equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and p= unctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as= =20 structure words punctuation marks @@ -239,22 +239,22 @@ conjunctions articles selma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical= usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 to=20 - and summarized in=20 - . + and summarized in=20 + . Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structu= re. Here are some examples of the various forms: V-form .a .e .i .o .u CV-form ba ce di fo @@ -295,21 +295,21 @@ sau'e, and=20 bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter=20 x are also reserved for experimental use. In general, t= hough, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatica= l use. Experimental use means that the language designers will= not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usa= ges coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for = the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for a= dding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for= which was not foreseen. The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel p= airs listed in=20 vowel pairs - , but also the following ten= additional diphthongs: + , but also the followi= ng ten additional diphthongs: .ia .ie .ii .io .iu .ua .ue .ui @@ -319,21 +319,21 @@ .uu In addition, cmavo can have the form=20 Cy, a consonant followed by the letter=20 y. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet= , and are discussed in detail in=20 Lojban alphabet - . + . Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form = a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and = in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it = is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual= space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component c= mavo are acting together. Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, = can be readily identified by two characteristics: 1) They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and consonant pairs @@ -406,21 +406,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d5" /> cy.ibu.abu cy. .ibu .abu Again the pauses are required (see=20 - ); the pause after=20 + ); the pause after=20 cy. merges with the pause before=20 .ibu. There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compoun= ds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmav= o, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example i= s <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d6" /> .e'o ko ko kurji @@ -484,21 +484,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d10" /> le re NANmu This would probably be the most common usage.
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brivla Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of t= he semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of En= glish nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech= . verbs nouns @@ -523,21 +523,21 @@ flexible vocabulary All brivla have the following properties: always end in a vowel; always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, w= here=20 y and apostrophe are not counted as letters for thi= s purpose. (See=20 - .) + .) always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) sy= llable; this implies that they have two or more syllables. The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo= and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, whic= h always end in a consonant. Thus=20 da'amei must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a con= sonant pair;=20 lojban. must be a name because it lacks a final vowel.<= /para> Thus,=20 bisycla has the consonant pair=20 @@ -558,39 +558,39 @@ lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and fu'ivla (literally=20 copy-word), the specialized words that are not Lojb= an primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other l= anguages.
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gismu The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing c= oncepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reaso= ns: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represen= t concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added bec= ause they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because= they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like=20 cmavo and=20 gismu themselves). The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning o= f semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical r= easons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only= weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic= space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human conce= rns. There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to= learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as=20 magnitude learning Lojban rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will= be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a = lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar= communications in other languages. All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventi= ons defined in=20 - , all gismu are of the forms= CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in=20 - ; furthermore, they: + , all gismu are of the= forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in=20 + ; furthermore, they: always have five letters; always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel; always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permis= sible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwis= e only has to be a permissible pair (C/C); @@ -610,21 +610,21 @@ kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 gizmu, and=20 gisnu cannot be. Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words dra= wn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Rus= sian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given= concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were writt= en in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recogniza= bility of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting th= e inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speaker= s of that language. See=20 inclusion - for a full explanation of = the algorithm. + for a full explanati= on of the algorithm. Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents= (not definitions): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d1" /> creka shirt @@ -685,23 +685,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d8" /> ninmu woman A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 - for a list. + for a list.
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lujvo When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or,= more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), = a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban ta= nru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the = broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or sp= ecific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English ad= verbs or adjectives. For example, adverbs adjectives @@ -819,21 +819,21 @@ mampa'u which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 mampa'u by the rafsi=20 mam- and=20 -pa'u, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatena= ted together to form=20 mampa'u. Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formall= y entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be = assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See= =20 - for how this has been done.) Unlike= gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diff= erence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used = to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environment= s, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even= though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 + for how this has been done.) Unlike= gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diff= erence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used = to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environment= s, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even= though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 noisy environments long rafsi brivla, built from the tanru=20 bridi valsi, is the same lujvo as=20 @@ -846,21 +846,21 @@ A=20 y (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant = clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the wo= rd together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the wor= d is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditio= ns, detailed in=20 doubled consonants consonant clusters - . + . An=20 r (in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the be= ginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For ex= ample, in the lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8" /> soirsai sonci sanmi @@ -883,24 +883,24 @@ rs consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Wit= hout the=20 r, the word would break up into=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation = to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this ca= se), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. sai Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you spe= ak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for whic= h you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules= for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be unde= rstood without explanation.
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rafsi Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form= , but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of = the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will m= ost easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules= of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determi= ne which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard diction= ary form (see=20 - ). + ). Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu= itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its= final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms= are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 rafsi form long rafsi, they are called=20 @@ -1115,33 +1115,33 @@ -bla- (In fact,=20 blaci has none of these short rafsi; they are all assig= ned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the raf= si; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen = in the first place.) There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostr= ophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, or=20 au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two co= nsonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see=20 - ). Thus=20 + ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 mam,=20 mat, and=20 ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact, only=20 ma'a mam is assigned to it. Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For exa= mple, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each ha= ve a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo t= hat have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see= =20 - ). + ). The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is=20 fully reduced lujvo. Here are some examples of fully re= duced lujvo: fully reduced lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d6" /> @@ -1384,21 +1384,21 @@ hepatitis the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because= its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a= brivla must be constructed ad hoc. Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look= like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the = two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words o= r in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate = but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts = of lujvo.
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fu'ivla The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very con= crete or specific terms (e.g.=20 specific terms brie or=20 brie @@ -1427,41 +1427,41 @@ plants copied) into Lojban from the original language. There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become mo= re and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of= a foreign name quoted with the cmavo=20 borrowing la'o (explained in full in=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1" /> me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. spaghetti is a predicate with the place structure=20 x1 is a quantity of spaghetti. spaghetti Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name,= as explained in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d2" /> me la spagetis. One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need = a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you= do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are ta= lking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.) @@ -1472,21 +1472,21 @@ The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; othe= rwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages wo= uld require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to= the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have m= ore than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind o= f fu'ivla. jargon borrowing Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 - for a proposal concerning = Stage 4 fu'ivla.) + for a proposal conce= rning Stage 4 fu'ivla.) The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gi= smu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a wo= rd from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojbanized - t= he phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modificati= ons are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form= word. All fu'ivla: must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters o= f the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either b= e a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each = pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consona= nt pair:=20 spraile is acceptable, but not=20 ktraile or=20 trkaile; @@ -1811,21 +1811,21 @@ borrowings Navajo is far more widely known than=20 Navajo Dine'e.
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cmene Lojbanized names, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. direct address Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban a= ttempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modific= ation. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analy= zable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they a= re Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban= equivalents: @@ -2142,21 +2142,21 @@ <quote>Linnaean binomials</quote> after their inventor) which are inte= rnationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is = essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted= into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 <!-- ^^ Linnaean binomials, 479 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>Linnaean binomials</primary> </indexterm> <!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>Linnaean</primary> </indexterm> <quote>la'o</quote>, explained in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19" />. Using this cmavo makes the already= lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leave= s the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete,= will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They ca= n also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of= the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure" />. Using this cmavo makes the alr= eady lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and l= eaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incompl= ete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. The= y can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other word= s of the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 <!-- ^^ Linnaean binomials, 479 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>Linnaean binomials</primary> </indexterm> <!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>Linnaean</primary> </indexterm> <!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 50= 2; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 5= 01; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> @@ -2347,21 +2347,21 @@ Japanese=20 <quote>Fujiko</quote> fudjikos. <!-- ^^ Fujiko: example, 68 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> =20 <primary>Fujiko</primary> </indexterm> or fujikos. </programlisting> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section9"> + <section xml:id=3D"chapter-morphology-section9"> <title>Rules for inserting pauses Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses= between Lojban words: Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always il= legal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word int= o two words. Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause= . Necessarily, all such words are cmene. @@ -2381,52 +2381,52 @@ A cmavo of the form=20 Cy must be followed by a pause unless another=20 Cy-form cmavo follows. When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be prece= ded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in= =20 non-Lojban text - .) + .)
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+
Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 - . + . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can = be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds o= r looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combina= tions of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean e= xactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in=20 - is used to choose the stan= dard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictiona= ry.) + is used to choose th= e standard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a di= ctionary.) The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanr= u is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one= that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a g= ismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic uni= verse, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most use= ful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift = in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the m= ost useful one may change. linguistic drift in Lojban linguistic drift You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning = of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is = invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, an= d is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure= ), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural lang= uage does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from t= he dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore= misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 linguistic drift za'e (explained in=20 za'e - ) before a newly coined lujvo to ind= icate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. + ) before a newly coined lujvo to= indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. The essential nature of human communication is that if the liste= ner understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for c= hoosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lo= jbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that = the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest = words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conver= sely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we= have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex= ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened the= m to convey more information more rapidly. Zipf's Law jargon @@ -2445,23 +2445,23 @@ This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given luj= vo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more = than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning f= or the tanru was already competing for the=20 right to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has t= o use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the other= s. If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is li= kely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more= of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter= form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorte= r lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a= more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be sh= orter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more compl= ex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term. anticipated And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an u= nknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no s= ense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the = grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate g= roupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible.= (The grouping of tanru is explained in=20 ; abstraction is explained in=20 - .) Plausibility is the key to learni= ng new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo. + .) Plausibility is the key to= learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.
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The lujvo-making algorithm The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban luj= vo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafs= i. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown = for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assis= tance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original=20 Brown tosmabru test. tosmabru test @@ -2549,21 +2549,21 @@ tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more e= fficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to l= eft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be= completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. tosmabru test hyphens
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+
The lujvo scoring algorithm This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. = It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that p= eople find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowe= st-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In pr= evious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.) 1) Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 hyphens @@ -2722,35 +2722,35 @@ zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976
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lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 gerku zdani (=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 lujvo meaning dog house doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 - , using every possible rafs= i. + , using every possibl= e rafsi. The rafsi for=20 gerku are: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 zdani are: -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. @@ -2912,21 +2912,21 @@ Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred by the s= coring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a = lujvo for=20 cinse ctuca (which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely importan= t. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 ke required for grouping need not be expressed.
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+
The gismu creation algorithm The gismu were created through the following process: 1) At least one word was found in each of the six source lang= uages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to = the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather lib= erally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding frica= tive were simplified to just the fricative (=20 source languages @@ -2996,21 +2996,21 @@ stressed vowel bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.
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+
Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the letter=20 o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu. The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently uni= que to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gi= smu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually = similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unli= ke lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex= lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo= reasonably short. broda 1st assignable predicate brode 2nd assignable predicate brodi 3rd assignable predicate brodo 4th assignable predicate @@ -3181,29 +3181,29 @@ xriso Christian A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above: jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) semto Semitic slovo Slavic xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)
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rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 - , is unavoidably controvers= ial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 + , is unavoidably cont= roversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture= =20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 - . For example, + . For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1" /> tci'ile Chilean is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a S= tage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if = they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but = does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index ebe977f..66691ec 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -21,21 +21,21 @@ do patfu mi You are-a-father-of me. You are my father. lies in the different selbri. The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a b= rivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built= into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations o= f the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified f= orm) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo= that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in=20 , and discussed in full in= =20 - . + . For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike.= For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d3" /> ta bloti That is-a-boat. That is a boat. @@ -830,21 +830,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12" /> That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the = formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives= that exist outside tanru; see=20 - for further details. + for further details. The logical connective=20 je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13" /> le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). @@ -1069,21 +1069,21 @@ be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator linked sumti The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 - . One grammatical structure related t= o places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 + . One grammatical structure re= lated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 , the place structure of the s= elbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu=20 mamta. What about more complex selbri? For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structu= re of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place = structure of=20 blanu zdani is that of=20 zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 blanu with=20 @@ -1197,21 +1197,21 @@ .) It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure or= dering tags=20 linked sumti fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 - ), which serve to explicitly specify = the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following t= he=20 + ), which serve to explicitly s= pecify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place foll= owing the=20 be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7" /> ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. @@ -1260,22 +1260,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10" /> ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. That is a blue house, as I see it. See discussions in=20 - of modals and in=20 - of tenses for more explanations. + of modals and in=20 + of tenses for more explanations. The terminator=20 be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 linked sumti be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11" /> @@ -1288,21 +1288,21 @@ <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjTj" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12" /> le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house (Relative clauses are explained in=20 - .) + .) In other cases, however,=20 be'o cannot be elided if=20 ku has also been elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13" /> le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani the good (for the teacher) house @@ -1417,21 +1417,21 @@ inverted tanru ,=20 mi fills the x1 place of=20 troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 le zarci and=20 le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite appearanc= es. As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 - ) for referring to individual sumti o= f a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 + ) for referring to individ= ual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 , because they are not real= ly=20 sumti of the bridi at all. When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it= only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversi= on of=20 , for instance, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5" /> ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu @@ -1597,23 +1597,23 @@ event abstraction kei KEI terminator for NU So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from bri= vla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Loj= ban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either d= irectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple= selbri are discussed at length in=20 - ,=20 - , and=20 - ; but for completeness these types a= re mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in s= elbri. + ,=20 + , and=20 + ; but for completeness these types a= re mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in s= elbri. The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-brid= i, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a = fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1" /> la djan. klama le zarci John goes-to the market. @@ -1643,21 +1643,21 @@ because the whole bridi of=20 has been packaged up into = the single word=20 go'i and inserted into=20 . The exceptional member of GOhA is=20 du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 - . + . Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into= selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 mathematical expressions su'i, meaning=20 plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure i= s: x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, = x3, etc. @@ -1685,21 +1685,21 @@ addition problems More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expressi= on with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. D= etails are available in=20 numerical selbri - . Here are a few tanru: + . Here are a few tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6" /> la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. Preem Palver @@ -1724,21 +1724,21 @@ two brothers brothers Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivl= a is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of se= lma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator=20 kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 - . A few examples: + . A few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8" /> ti nu zdile kei kumfa This is-an-event-of amusement room. This is an amusement room. @@ -1871,31 +1871,31 @@ me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 restricted variable indefinite description - ), and if the indefinite description = is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 + ), and if the indefinite description= is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 restricted variable indefinite description - ) or a sumti logical connective (expl= ained in=20 - ). Without a=20 + ) or a sumti logical conn= ective (explained in=20 + ). Without a=20 me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8" /> re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi Two of the group=20 the three kings and John are white. @@ -1977,21 +1977,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2" /> do se prami mi You [swap x1 and x2] love me. You are loved by me. Conversion is fully explained in=20 - . For the purposes of this chapter, t= he important point about conversion is that it applies only to the followin= g simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary= to be careful! Consider=20 + . For the purposes of this cha= pter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the f= ollowing simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is ne= cessary to be careful! Consider=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3" /> la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. Alice walks to the market. @@ -2044,26 +2044,26 @@ la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo=20 jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 - . + .
Scalar negation of selbri Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in th= is chapter; see=20 - . In brief, there are two main types= of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 + . In brief, there are two main ty= pes of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1" /> la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. @@ -2246,40 +2246,40 @@ mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market. the cmavo=20 pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 - . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 + . Tense is semantically a property = of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at = the front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are alternative way= s of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in= =20 - , behave in the same way as tenses. + , behave in the same way as te= nses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 . For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2" /> la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 doesn't say. There are oth= er ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully = in=20 - . + . Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permi= tted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in = meaning: negation cmavo <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3" /> @@ -2309,21 +2309,21 @@ tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense - . + . <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5" /> mi na pu na ca klama le zarci I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index bf95b61..6db5a21 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti
The five kinds of simple sumti simple sumti If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti i= s by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of = simple Lojban sentences like: @@ -111,23 +111,23 @@ <jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo> <gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss> <en>This is three meters long.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-0YaH" /> exhibits=20 <quote>ti</quote>, a pro-sumti; and=20 <quote>li ci</quote>, a number.</para> <para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter7" />,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18" />, and=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19" /> respectively, so this chapter only = gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo" />,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso" />, and=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure" /> respectively, so this chapter o= nly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section13" /> through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6-section15" /> for these summaries.</para= > </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2"> <title>The three basic description types The following cmavo are discussed in this section: le LE @@ -143,21 +143,21 @@ LA the one(s) named ku KU elidable terminator for LE, LA The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it = can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in = particular, are discussed in=20 - . However, most descriptions have jus= t two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri.= (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until= =20 + . However, most descripti= ons have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, a= nd a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not impor= tant until=20 .) Furthermore, the selbri = is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1" /> le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market the market @@ -372,28 +372,28 @@ Some human beings wrote the story. says who the author of the= story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind= . If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 identifies the author as s= omeone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas= if the topic is a person, then=20 le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to that per= son.=20 merely says that the autho= r is human. The elidable terminator for all descriptions is=20 ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 - , and in the case of a description im= mediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit=20 + , and in the case of a de= scription immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an e= xplicit=20 cu before the selbri makes the=20 ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 ku: in the compound negator=20 naku (discussed in=20 - ) and to terminate place-structure, = tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 - and=20 - ). + ) and to terminate place-structur= e, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 + and=20 + ).
Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section: lei LE the mass I describe as @@ -810,21 +810,21 @@ su'o PA at least (one of) Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 mathematical expressions - . For the purposes of this chapter, = a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the si= mple Lojban numbers=20 + . For the purposes of this chapter, = a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the si= mple Lojban numbers=20 pa,=20 re,=20 ci,=20 vo, and=20 mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the partic= ular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later= in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 @@ -875,21 +875,21 @@ is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger nu= mber. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematica= l expressions in=20 vague numbers mathematical expressions - .) + .) Now consider=20 again. How many of the lis= teners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of t= hem, however many that is. So=20 and=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4" /> ro do cadzu le bisli @@ -1578,21 +1578,21 @@ mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. which is equivalent to=20 , but longer. The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained = more fully in=20 - . The triplet=20 + . The triplet=20 lu'a,=20 lu'a lu'i, and=20 lu'i @@ -1614,21 +1614,21 @@ mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. I try (to open) the door. might mean that I try to d= o something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 - . + . <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7" /> lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu lu'a @@ -1678,21 +1678,21 @@ The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE a= nd=20 bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 - . Here are a few examples of negatio= n sumti qualifiers: + . Here are a few examples of nega= tion sumti qualifiers: negation sumti qualifiers <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10" /> mi viska na'ebo le gerku @@ -1731,41 +1731,41 @@ (In=20 , the sumti=20 ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than= that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 ri here, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sumti available t= o=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 - .) + .)
The syntax of vocative phrases Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapte= r because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a v= ocative phrase is one of the so-called=20 vocative phrase free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 vocative phrase - . Sometimes that is all there is to = the phrase: + . Sometimes that is all there= is to the phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1" /> coi [greetings] Hello. @@ -1873,23 +1873,23 @@ free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls - see=20 ordinals vocative phrase and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10" /> @@ -1902,40 +1902,40 @@ <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qLGC" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d11" /> ko klama mi doi djan. Come to me, John! As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 - , make for more possibilities. + , make for more possibili= ties.
Lojban names Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually ca= lled=20 names when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates = of=20 are just ordinary predicate= s which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a = class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be reco= gnized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some e= xamples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1" /> djan. meris. djein. .alis. John. Mary. Jane. Alice. (Note that=20 .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, because all= Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See=20 - for more information.) + for more information.) Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a= vocative phrase (see=20 vocative phrase ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. @@ -2033,21 +2033,21 @@ A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal= in Lojban words generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 doubled consonants consonant clusters - ). Thus=20 + ). Thus=20 djeimz. is not a valid version of=20 James (because=20 mz is invalid):=20 djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 la may be replaced by=20 ly,=20 lai by=20 ly'i,=20 doi by=20 do'i or=20 @@ -2115,21 +2115,21 @@ borrowing The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 la followed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 la followed by a selbri.
Pro-sumti summary The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall in= to several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-= counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. Mo= re details are given in=20 - ; this section mostly duplicates info= rmation found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each p= ro-sumti. + ; this section mostly dupl= icates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifie= r of each pro-sumti. The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless ot= herwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other= sumti, the=20 ro signifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. Personal pro-sumti (=20 mi,=20 do,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 @@ -2222,21 +2222,21 @@ All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. All persons love a fish (each his/her own). (This is not the same as=20 All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 quantificational pro-sumti - . Roughly speaking, the quantifier i= s=20 + . Roughly speaking, the quanti= fier is=20 su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, a= nd=20 ro (all) thereafter. Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 vo'a,=20 vo'e,=20 vo'i,=20 vo'o,=20 vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: @@ -2350,21 +2350,21 @@ <primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary> </indexterm> <quote>su'o</quote> (at least one), because they are considered analog= ous to=20 <quote>lo</quote> descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances.</para> <para>The relative pro-sumti (=20 <!-- ^^ relative pro-sumti, 140 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>relative pro-sumti</primary> </indexterm> <quote>ke'a</quote>) is used within relative clauses (see=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8" /> for a discussion of relative clauses= ) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses" /> for a discussion of rela= tive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to= .</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-sf2T"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9" /> mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. I see the cat(s) made of plastic. @@ -2418,21 +2418,21 @@ single-word quotation word quotation non-Lojban quotation - . + . Text quotations are preceded by=20 lu and followed by=20 li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1" /> mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. @@ -2482,21 +2482,21 @@ The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous t= o=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words.
Number summary The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 - . Here are a few examples of increas= ing complexity: + . Here are a few examples of increas= ing complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1" /> li vo the-number four 4 diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 2d3b808..e96e95d 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-brid= i
What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require me= chanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to= express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what = we have to say. In English, we have words called=20 pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: nouns @@ -111,21 +111,21 @@ mi nor=20 do is specific about the number of persons referred to;= for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 foreman of a jury mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. The referents of=20 mi and=20 do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 - . The vocative=20 + . The vocative=20 mi'e assigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 do. <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1" /> mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u @@ -332,35 +332,35 @@ does not mean=20 this boat but rather=20 this boat this one's boat,=20 the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 - . A correct Lojban translation of=20 + . A correct Lojban transl= ation of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2" /> le vi bloti the here boat the nearby boat using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 - .) Another correct translation would= be: + .) Another correct translatio= n would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3" /> ti noi bloti ti noi @@ -515,21 +515,21 @@ The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 utterance is used rather than=20 sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. Note one very common construction with=20 di'u and the cmavo=20 la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 - ) which precedes a sumti and means=20 + ) which precedes a sumti and means= =20 the thing referred to by (the sumti): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6" /> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= I love Jane, and I like that. @@ -648,38 +648,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue. Syntactically,=20 goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative phrases ar= e explained in=20 - ). Semantically, it says that=20 + ). Semantically, it says = that=20 ko'a and=20 la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furthermore that= this is true because=20 ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 la .alis.. It is equally correct to say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d3" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue. in other words,=20 goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable= . The details are in=20 - . + . The afterthought form of=20 goi shown in=20 and=20 is probably most common in= speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we = will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first = mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 goi is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4" /> @@ -772,21 +772,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7" /> broda ke brode brodi a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3) represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) As is explained in=20 - , the words for Lojban letters, belo= nging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assigna= ble pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series= pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are t= aken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with t= he same letter: + , the words for Lojban letters, = belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as ass= ignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-se= ries pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters a= re taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning wi= th the same letter: Lojban letters ti-series pro-sumti @@ -975,21 +975,21 @@ John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. Here the second=20 ri has as antecedent the first=20 ri, which has as antecedent=20 le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a tree. To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5" /> lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pilno riximu A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last]. @@ -1622,21 +1622,21 @@ co'e zo'e; the cmavo=20 do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 do'e - ) also belongs to the same group of c= mavo. + ) also belongs to the same gro= up of cmavo. Note that=20 do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. indefinite pro-sumti
Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series @@ -1808,21 +1808,21 @@ KOhA sumti question mo GOhA bridi question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 - , but=20 + , but=20 ma and=20 mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1" /> do klama ma You go to-what-destination? @@ -1909,21 +1909,21 @@ ke'a KOhA relativized sumti relativized sumti This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 - ) to indicate how the sumti being rel= ativized fits within the clause. For example: + ) to indicate how the sum= ti being relativized fits within the clause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1" /> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of pla= stic. I see a cat made of plastic. @@ -1954,42 +1954,42 @@ and=20 , because the relativized s= umti is not yet complete when the=20 relativized sumti ke'a appears. Note that=20 ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with o= ther embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative = clauses within relative clauses,=20 ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (s= ee=20 - ). + ).
Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ce'u</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ce'u KOhA abstraction focus The cmavo=20 ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly pro= perty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 abstraction bridi ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 - . + . In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one= of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 relationship abstraction property abstraction ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: @@ -2037,21 +2037,21 @@ bu'e bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3 =20 bu'i Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, an= d are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in=20 - . It is worth mentioning that the Lo= jban translation of=20 + . It is worth mentioning that = the Lojban translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1" /> la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. John picked up a stick and shook it. @@ -2072,21 +2072,21 @@ How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other w= ords, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can w= e be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The an= swer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to. Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker= or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro= -bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 goi or=20 cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 cei - . + . Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in whic= h they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the br= idi in which they appear; and=20 reflexive pro-sumti ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphor= ic pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending o= n the rules for the particular cmavo. Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and= sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are= used. indefinite pro-sumti @@ -2103,21 +2103,21 @@ da'o da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that = one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already= made by other participants in the conversation. da'o In addition, the cmavo=20 ni'o and=20 no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indic= ate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pr= o-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explan= ations of NIhO can be found in=20 - . + .
The identity predicate: du identity predicate The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -2127,21 +2127,21 @@ The cmavo=20 du has the place structure: du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is no= t a pro-bridi.=20 du serves as mathematical=20 =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 - . + . The main difference between <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1" /> ko'a du le nanmu It-1 is-identical-to the man @@ -2249,21 +2249,21 @@ fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga fo'a x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. Finally, lujvo involving=20 zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 - . In brief, the convention is to use= the rafsi for=20 + . In brief, the convention is to use= the rafsi for=20 zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for = the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (som= ething drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 beverage anyone se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to this is=20 diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 40642cc..d836861 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ - + Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicate= d
What are you pointing at? The following cmavo are discussed in this section: poi NOI restrictive relative clause introducer @@ -25,21 +25,21 @@ ku'o KUhO relative clause terminator Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 ti if it is nearby, or=20 ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full i= n=20 - .) + .) However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or point= ing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often = hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is p= ointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), a= nd says: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1" /> ti cu barda This-one is-big. @@ -124,21 +124,21 @@ ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. That thing that I want to own is a boat. In=20 ,=20 ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 - ) within a relative clause. + ) within a relative clause. Like any sumti,=20 ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d7" /> ti poi nazbi cu barda This-thing which is-a-nose is-big. @@ -748,21 +748,21 @@ is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his ha= nds into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact c= an be specified. Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is=20 ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howe= ver, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a rela= tive phrase, then an explicit=20 ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the re= lativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about t= he cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 relativized sumti - , as it is not semantically akin to t= he other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.) + , as it is not semanticall= y akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the s= ame.)
Multiple relative clauses:=20 <quote>zi'e</quote> zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner @@ -775,21 +775,21 @@ le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. The most usual translation of=20 zi'e in English is=20 and, but=20 zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of= the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 - ), it cannot be converted into a log= ical connection between sentences. + ), it cannot be converted into= a logical connection between sentences. It is perfectly correct to use=20 zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d2" /> le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klam= a The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my frie= nd owns IT) goes. The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going. @@ -984,21 +984,21 @@ will seem most natural to = speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses afte= r the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 , on the other hand, may se= em more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause= first. Note that in=20 , the elidable terminator= =20 ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause = (=20 blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description (= =20 gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The pur= pose of the form appearing in=20 will be apparent shortly.<= /para> As is explained in detail in=20 - , two different numbers (known as the= =20 + , two different numbers (known as th= e=20 inner quantifier and the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4" /> re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. @@ -1057,21 +1057,21 @@ ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to = everything which the underlying selbri applies to. What about=20 ? By convention, it means t= he same as=20 , and it requires no=20 ku, but it does typically require a=20 ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes befor= e the inner quantifier. When=20 le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no e= xplicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be=20 ro (meaning=20 all), as is explained in=20 - . Thus=20 + . Thus=20 le gerku is taken to mean=20 all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 lo, the difference is quite important: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8" /> lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci @@ -1247,21 +1247,21 @@ possessive sumti Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledge= d relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without= a=20 simple sumti pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. Al= l these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 - . + . Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> possessive sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4" /> @@ -1376,21 +1376,21 @@ which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. simple sumti In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAh= E or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in=20 NAhE+BO - ) can have a relative clause appearin= g after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: + ) can have a relative clause appeari= ng after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3" /> la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 @@ -1445,21 +1445,21 @@ lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause fro= m attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quot= ation! lu'u Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause ap= ply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non= -logical connection (explained in=20 non-logical connection - ). For example, + ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5" /> la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. @@ -1533,21 +1533,21 @@ In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. tone of voice
Relative clauses in vocative phrases Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in=20 - . Briefly, they are a method of indic= ating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inten= ded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from = selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 + . Briefly, they are a method of indi= cating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inte= nded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from= selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1" /> coi. frank. Hello, Frank. @@ -1671,40 +1671,40 @@ Here, the meaning of=20 IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 ke'axipa ke'a. Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in=20 - ), which is syntactically a series o= f sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 + ), which is syntactically a se= ries of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3" /> le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. is more verbose than=20 , but may be clearer, since= it explicitly spells out the two=20 ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to = the assignable cmavo=20 ko'a and=20 ko'e (explained in Chapter=20 - ). + ).
Index of relative clause cmavo Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI): noi incidental clauses poi restrictive clauses voi restrictive clauses (non-veridical) Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI): diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 4cf3dba..67c0236 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -1,21 +1,21 @@ - + Chapter 9 To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The= Land Of Modals
Introductory The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the s= peaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are e= xpressed by Lojban grammatical forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 selbri. The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but accor= ding to a systematic pattern known as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well= -known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can = be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dicti= onary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in= =20 - ); if the selbri is a tanru, the pla= ce structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. + ); if the selbri is a tanru, the pla= ce structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 klama: klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5. The=20 x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects= of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic p= lace structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of act= ual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevi= tably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures. @@ -391,21 +391,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9" /> [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to x2=3D the movie x2=3D the hous= e x2=3D the office may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the= house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, = it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logic= al connectives (explained in=20 - ), to say such things in Lojban. In = fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can on= ly be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso abo= ve, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be = forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tag= ging it. + ), to say such things in Lojba= n. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it = can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the provi= so above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti c= an be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cma= vo tagging it. The cmavo=20 fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 fi'a fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: fi'a @@ -1207,21 +1207,21 @@ through=20 , the same English word=20 because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 , and explore some variatio= ns on it. As written,=20 claims that the plant grow= s, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abs= tractions are explained in=20 abstraction bridi - ) without actually making a claim. I= f I express=20 + ) without actually making a c= laim. If I express=20 , I have said that the plan= t in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely tha= t there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is sema= ntically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being w= atered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could= reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: abstraction bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5" /> @@ -1243,21 +1243,21 @@ The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event-of (the plant grows). Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows. does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relatio= nship between them. So in=20 , I am not saying that the = plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial tra= nslation shows a form of=20 if-then in English quite distinct from the logical conn= ective=20 if-then explained in=20 - . + . Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7" /> le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati iri'abo @@ -1317,21 +1317,21 @@ rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective = of the type exemplified by=20 and=20 . However, it makes little = sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to= fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective=20 .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to ima= gine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes= an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.
Other modal connections Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 - for a more detailed discussion of L= ojban connectives.)=20 + for a more detailed discussio= n of Lojban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthoug= ht modal connection, illustrated here by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1" /> mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri iri'abo @@ -1406,21 +1406,21 @@ mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. means exactly the same as= =20 through=20 , but there is no idiomatic= English translation that will distinguish it from them. If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti,= then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 - , but are essentially a mechanism fo= r creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. + , but are essentially a mechan= ism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5" /> mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me. @@ -1433,21 +1433,21 @@ nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'= u dunda [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me= [end] gives. Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which= differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal = connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in=20 bridi-tail modal connection - , but essentially it consists of a s= elbri with optional sumti following it.=20 + , but essentially it consists = of a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 is suitable for bridi-tail= connection, and could be shortened to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7" /> mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta I, because saw the book, took the book. @@ -1458,21 +1458,21 @@ mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book. where=20 le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails - see=20 - for more explanations. + for more explanations. Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointi= ng out that=20 can be further rearranged = to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9" /> mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. @@ -1623,21 +1623,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7" /> mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do I with-eye see you. I see you with my eye(s). There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a= pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-log= ical, or modal connection (see=20 - for more on logical and non-logical= connections): + for more on logical and non-l= ogical connections): <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8" /> mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] bai ke @@ -1647,21 +1647,21 @@ Here the=20 bai is spread over both=20 klama le zarci and=20 cadzu le bisli, and the=20 ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 both-and between the two. Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that ha= ve been combined with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9" /> bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice= [end]. means the same thing as=20 @@ -1696,21 +1696,21 @@ me'a me'a BAI mleca modal Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 - . However, there is a construction wh= ich combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapt= er. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: + . However, there is a con= struction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant t= o this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1" /> la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-li= ked-by me. Appassionata @@ -2002,21 +2002,21 @@ du'i as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 - ) with modal connection, in a way th= at simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship= . Consider the sentences: + ) with modal connection, in a = way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relati= onship. Consider the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1" /> mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein. I like you. And I like Jane. which is a logical connection, and @@ -2125,21 +2125,21 @@ , the=20 tu'e ... tu'u brackets are the equivalent of the=20 ke ... ke'e brackets in=20 and=20 , because=20 ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more than one sentence= . It would also be possible to change the=20 .ijeseri'abo to=20 .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 tu'e ... tu'u portion was an effect, but would not pin = down the=20 mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is legal for= a modal (or a tense; see=20 - ) to modify the whole of a=20 + ) to modify the whole of a=20 tu'e ... tu'u construct. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: jai @@ -2206,21 +2206,21 @@ fi'a Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient i= n descriptions. We may refer to=20 the language of an expression as=20 le jai bau cusku, for example. In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 jai without a following modal. This usage is not relate= d to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 - . The following two examples mean th= e same thing: + . The following two examples = mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3" /> le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. @@ -2238,21 +2238,21 @@ , with the bracketed part o= mitted, allows us to say that=20 I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is = justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-l= anguage methods of expression. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Modal negation Negation is explained in detail in=20 - . There are two forms of negation in= Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresse= s what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what= has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 + . There are two forms of negation= in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expre= sses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to w= hat has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 John didn't go to Paris (contradictory negation) and=20 John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negat= ion). Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appen= ding=20 -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modal= s with=20 -nai is to deny a causal relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1" /> @@ -2345,21 +2345,21 @@ Note: Modals made with=20 fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.
Logical and non-logical connection of modals non-logical connection Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in= =20 - . For the purposes of this chapter, = it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between= two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi wi= th a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 + . For the purposes of this cha= pter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection b= etween two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single br= idi with a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1" /> la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a l= e zdani Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-= origin the house. Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house. @@ -2380,22 +2380,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3" /> la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin = the-house. The cmavo=20 ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets a= re explained in=20 - and=20 - ). When a termset contains more than= one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two ta= gs are derived from a common event. + and=20 + ). When a termset contains mor= e than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the = two tags are derived from a common event.
CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 do'e, discussed in=20 do'e ), are derived directly from= selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the fo= rm CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the= Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irr= egular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is d= ivided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo= appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted. --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.