From bpfk-list+bncCMbnveiNHRDZx47qBBoE0zyv2A@googlegroups.com Fri Jan 28 21:22:08 2011 Received: from mail-pv0-f189.google.com ([74.125.83.189]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pj3Fl-00017W-TF; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:22:08 -0800 Received: by pvh1 with SMTP id 1sf1048693pvh.16 for ; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:36 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date :message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=PkRuo8Ub9gJprewJVQWp7GyUVaAwfNLEXkF8egM87GI=; b=p0qmiJNnYUa/YKoZkzLfjrLhkIi6IUmduscBR3YJFggu2RJzBn3QvQHNlpzsj6f7gy d1vvRkACwDO+NT+3QUgMiWUBRryxFWpej8FRXcpQsMqC+L8Ilm4JOiSGTLKFZeX5sQbc +DpVaSi5MdAvicgnM5PV9+u/nMOZl+RJ6uOAk= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=eEqBwfgk16eQT3TOda6O8o50fin4oyE5kQTGN2Ssupv/1GTtlREU2uQ7ztIKlyB8Zr 70eRzz3vWWiA1TGL2CBIo6nOj15FT8ecWoWUa5lD2EL3qdt/qvWn608qBNehe6C5NDyV MtWZOXdzZrp2pMWJX+ALzfwnLoEfySQmWz9Ts= Received: by 10.142.215.16 with SMTP id n16mr250793wfg.20.1296278489851; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:29 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.142.97.18 with SMTP id u18ls4903114wfb.2.p; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.213.18 with SMTP id l18mr784205wfg.35.1296278489126; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.213.18 with SMTP id l18mr784204wfg.35.1296278489065; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTPS id f13si20503335wfo.0.2011.01.28.21.21.28 (version=TLSv1/SSLv3 cipher=RC4-MD5); Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:28 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pj3FY-00017Q-1T for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:28 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pj3FJ-000178-S2 for bpfk@lojban.org; Fri, 28 Jan 2011 21:21:27 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pj3FF-0006mm-7A for bpfk@lojban.org; Sat, 29 Jan 2011 00:21:12 -0500 Date: Sat, 29 Jan 2011 00:21:09 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Sat Jan 29 00:21:09 EST 2011 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 3a4feb76bf428a9628b73edb1566e5d319863de2 Merge: c48de71 3663b8a Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Fri Jan 28 20:33:43 2011 -0800 Merge commit '3663b8ae64c5f047e2f579ed895c9fe34aef1541' into gh-pages commit c48de71d4a72201a54dadc88d18450bd7e47c06c Merge: dd83d67 ab3a84b Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Fri Jan 28 13:58:28 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'ab3a84b5994b565d40fed0b9ccc4167fd1b793a1' into gh-pages commit 3663b8ae64c5f047e2f579ed895c9fe34aef1541 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Tue Jan 4 18:02:00 2011 -0500 Some chapter 4 tables/simplelists and minor TODO change. diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 9b8deba..bfb6bff 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology =20
Introductory - word formsin Lojban (see also morphology) morphologyde= finition morphologysimplicity of M= orphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban'= s morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because L= ojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has o= nly a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but = it does have changes like=20 + , word formsin Lojban (see also= morphology) = morphologydefinition = morphologysimplicity of Morphology is the part of grammar = that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple com= pared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form dep= ending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such change= s compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 =20 boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. =20 morphologyconventions for A stream of Lojban so= unds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specif= ic rules. These so-called=20 morphology rules are summarized in this chapter. (Howev= er, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fu= lly debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some c= onventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels an= d consonants. @@ -209,33 +209,33 @@ ku'a'e,=20 =20 sau'e, and=20 bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter= =20 x are also reserved for exper= imental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or no= thing about its grammatical use. experimental cmav= odefinition cmavoexperimental=20 Experimental use means that the language designers will= not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usa= ges coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for = the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for a= dding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for= which was not foreseen. cmavodiphthongs in The cmavo of VV-form include= not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in=20 =20 , but also the following ten a= dditional diphthongs: - - - .ia .ie .ii - .io - .iu - - - .ua .ue .ui - =20 - .uo - .uu - - + + .ia + .ie + .ii + .io + .iu + =20 + .ua + .ue + .ui + .uo + .uu + In addition, cmavo can have the form=20 Cy, a consonant followed by= the letter=20 y. These cmavo represent lett= ers of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in=20 =20 . compound cmavocompared with sequence of simple cmavo compound cmavodefinition cmavocompound Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a singl= e written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in gram= matical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is comp= osed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space,= and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo ar= e acting together. compound cmavorecognition of Compound cmavo, wh= ile not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by = two characteristics: 1) @@ -441,21 +441,21 @@ always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel; always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permis= sible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwis= e only has to be a permissible pair (C/C); are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is pen= ultimate). gismulength of The five letter length distingui= shes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains=20 - '. + '. gismuconflicts between gismuspecial With the exception of five special brivla variables,=20 broda,=20 brode,=20 brodi,=20 brodo, and=20 brodu, no two gismu differ only in the final vo= wel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the = likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, = because=20 gismu is in the set of gismu,=20 kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 @@ -643,59 +643,59 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d7"/> mampa'u which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 mampa'u by the rafsi=20 - mam- and=20 - -pa'u, respectively; these two r= afsi are then concatenated together to form=20 + mam- and=20 + -pa'u, respectively; these two r= afsi are then concatenated together to form=20 mampa'u. long rafsi formcompared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning short ra= fsi formcompared with long form in effect on lujvo mea= ning rafsi formeffect of choice on meaning of lujvo lujvomultiple forms of lujvomeaning of Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is f= ormally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition wi= ll be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms.= (See=20 for how this has been done.) Unlike = gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diffe= rence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used t= o build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments= , in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even = though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 =20 =20 brivla, built from the tanru=20 bridi valsi, is the same lujvo as=20 brivalsi,=20 bridyvla, and=20 bridyvalsi, each of which uses a different comb= ination of rafsi. apostropheand consonant cluster determination in lujvo ' symboland consonant cluster determination in lujvo y-hyphenand consonant cluster determination rafsirules for com= bining to form lujvo lujvorules for formation of When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for val= id brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first fiv= e letters (excluding=20 y and=20 - '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel. + '), and the lujvo must end in= a vowel. glue in lujvoy-hyphen as y-hyphenand stress determinat= ion = y-hyphenuse of A=20 y (which is ignored in determ= ining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the conson= ant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either = not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules= describing these conditions, detailed in=20 =20 =20 . glue in lujvon-hyphen as n-hyphenuse of glue in lujvor-hyphen as r-hyphenuse of An=20 r (in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-for= m rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no= consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8"/> soirsai - sonci sanmi + sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations =20 cmavo= contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning the raf= si=20 - soi- and=20 - -sai are joined, with the additi= onal=20 + soi- and=20 + -sai are joined, with the additi= onal=20 =20 r making up the=20 rs consonant pair needed to= make the word a brivla. Without the=20 r, the word would break up in= to=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no r= elation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in= this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. =20 Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . lujvoinvention of Most important, it is possibl= e to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new = or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban wo= rd. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is = a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.
@@ -835,21 +835,21 @@ -kli- CCV 132 -ska- (The only actual short rafsi for=20 sakli is=20 - -sal-.) + -sal-.) For gismu of the form CCVCV, like=20 blaci, the only short rafsi forms that can exis= t are: CVC 134 -bac- CVC @@ -1237,21 +1237,21 @@ spaghetti (from English or Italian) =20 spageti (Lojbanize) cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi) =20 dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi) where=20 - cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for= =20 + cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for= =20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with t= he short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: = in any event, it means the same thing. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/> @@ -1259,22 +1259,22 @@ Acer (the scientific name of maple trees) =20 =20 acer (Lojbanize) xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel) tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi) ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi) where=20 - tric- and=20 - ric- are rafsi for=20 + tric- and=20 + ric- are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tan= ru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they woul= d surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. @@ -1282,73 +1282,73 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/> brie (from French) =20 bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi) where=20 - cirl- represents=20 + cirl- represents=20 cirla (=20 cheese). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/> cobra =20 kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi) where=20 - sinc- represents=20 + sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/> quark =20 kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi) allowable diphtho= ngsin gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla allowable= diphthongsin fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and luj= vo d= iphthongsin fu'ivla fu'ivladiphthongs= in where=20 - sask- represents=20 + sask- represents=20 saske (=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 a added to the end of the wor= d, and the diphthong=20 ua, which never appears in g= ismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8"/> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) =20 djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi) where=20 - ler- represents=20 + ler- represents=20 lerfu (=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 spageti and=20 kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xaceru looks like a compound cm= avo, and=20 kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 @@ -1358,21 +1358,21 @@ =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 integrale almost certainly would eventually com= e to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English asso= ciates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 i of=20 integrale is removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to= the beginning;=20 - cmac- is the rafsi for=20 + cmac- is the rafsi for=20 cmaci (=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integral might be conveyed with=20 =20 djinrnintegrale or=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinju and=20 tarmi mean=20 building and=20 form respectively. @@ -1742,115 +1742,204 @@ pn to=20 n initially. Change final=20 ie and=20 ii to=20 i. - Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:=20 - - aa a - ae e - ch k - ee i - eigh ei - ew u - igh ai - oo u - ou u - ow au - ph f - q k - sc sk - w u - y i - However, the diphthong substitutions should not = be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables. + Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions: + + + + + + + aaa + + + aee + + + chk + + + eei + + + eighei + + + ewu + + + ighai + + + oou + + + ouu + + + owau + + + phf + + + qk + + + scsk + + + wu + + + yi + + + + + However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if t= he two vowels are in two different syllables. Change=20 h between two vowels to=20 - ', but otherwise remove it completely. If p= reservation of the=20 + ', but otherwise remove i= t completely. If preservation of the=20 h seems essential, change it to=20 x instead. - Place=20 - ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do= not form Lojban diphthongs. - =20 + Place ' between any= remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs. Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: - - English=20 - Mary meris. - or meiris. - English=20 - Smith smit. - English=20 - Jones djonz. - English=20 - John djan. or jan. (American) - or djon. or jon. (British) - English=20 - Alice .alis. - English=20 - Elise .eLIS. - English=20 - Johnson djansn. - - English=20 - William .uiliam. - - or .uil,iam. - English=20 - Brown braun. - - English=20 - Charles tcarlz. - French=20 - Charles carl. - French=20 - De Gaulle dyGOL. - - German=20 - Heinrich xainrix. - Spanish=20 - Joaquin xuaKIN. - Russian=20 - Svetlana sfietlanys. - - Russian=20 - Khrushchev xrucTCOF. - - Hindi=20 - Krishna kricnas. - - Polish=20 - Lech Walesa lex. va,uensas. - - Spanish=20 - Don Quixote don. kicotes. - - or modern Spanish: don. kixotes. - or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes. - Chinese=20 - Mao Zedong maudzydyn. - - Japanese=20 - Fujiko fudjikos. - - or fujikos. - + + + + + + + + English + Mary + meris. or meiris. + + + English + Smith + smit. + + + English + Jones + djonz. + + + English + John + djan. or jan. (American) or djon. or jon. (British) + + + English + Alice + .alis. + + + English + Elise + .eLIS. + + + English + Johnson + djansn. + + + English + William + .uiliam. or .uil,iam.= + + + English + Brown + braun. + + + English + Charles + tcarlz. + + + French + Charles + carl. + + + French + De Gaulle + dyGOL. + + + German + Heinrich + xainrix. + + + Spanish + Joaquin + xuaKIN. + + + Russian + Svetlana + sfietlanys. + + + Russian + Khrushchev + xrucTCOF. + + + Hindi + Krishna + kricnas. + + + Polish + Lech Walesa + lex. va,uensas. + + + Spanish + Don Quixote + don. kicotes. or modern Spanish:= don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect: don. k= i'otes. + + + Chinese + Mao Zedong + maudzydyn. + + + Japanese + Fujiko + fudjikos. or fujikos.= + + + +
+
Rules for inserting pauses pauses<= secondary>rules for Summarized in one place, here a= re the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words: pausebetween words pauseproscribed within words Any two words may have a pause between them; it is al= ways illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the w= ord into two words. pauseand consonant-final words consonant-final wordsnecessity for pause after Every word ending in a = consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmen= e. @@ -2041,80 +2130,84 @@ n-hyphens; call it=20 =20 H. 4) For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 R:=20 - - - CVC/CV (final) - (-sarji) - 1 - - - CVC/C - (-sarj-) - 2 - - - CCVCV (final) - (-zbasu) - 3 - - - CCVC - (-zbas-) - 4 - - - CVC - (-nun-) - 5 - - - CVV with an apostrophe - (-ta'u-) - =20 - 6 - - - CCV - (-zba-) - 7 - - - CVV with no apostrophe - (-sai-) - =20 - 8 - - + + + + + + + + CVC/CV (final) + (-sarji-) + 1 + + + CVC/C + (-sarj-) + 2 + + + CCVCV (final) + (-zbasu-) + 3 + + + CCVC + (-zbas-) + 4 + + + CVC + (-nun-) + 5 + + + CVV with an apostrophe + (-ta'u-) + 6 + + + CCV + (-zba-) + 7 + + + CVV with no apostrophe + (-sai-) + 8 + + + + + 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. - lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: - - (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V - - lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there = is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially = encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apos= trophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more p= leasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vo= wels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones bef= ore it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle = might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alter= native. + lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: + (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V + lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there is no p= reference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes= a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes= as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing= rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels ar= e chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it = have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might d= ominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.= =20 doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/> zbasai zba + sai =20 @@ -2153,182 +2246,255 @@ zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976
- lujvo-making examples - This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 - gerku zdani (=20 - dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 - =20 - =20 - doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 - , using every possible rafsi.= - The rafsi for=20 - gerku are: - - -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku - - The rafsi for=20 - zdani are: - - -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. - - Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 - -ger-,=20 - -ge'u- and=20 - -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 - gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 - -zda- and=20 - -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 - zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then: - - ger-zda - ger-zdani - ge'u-zda - ge'u-zdani - gerk-zda - gerk-zdani - - We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 - =20 - ge cannot fall off the front, because the follo= wing word would begin with=20 - rz, which i= s not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 - gerzda and=20 - gerzdani. - The third form,=20 - ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though = the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant clus= ter in the first five letters. So=20 - ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. - The fourth form,=20 - ge'u-zdani, however, requires a= n=20 - r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 - ge'u- part would fall off as a c= mavo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 - ge'urzdani. - The last two forms require=20 - y-hyphens, as all 4-letter ra= fsi do, and so are=20 - =20 - gerkyzda and=20 - gerkyzdani respectively. - boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 - gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score= is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a fin= al score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, an= d 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the= dictionary in the form=20 - gerzda. - For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 - bloti klesi (=20 - boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. - =20 - =20 - The rafsi for=20 - bloti are=20 - -lot-,=20 - -blo-, and=20 - -lo'i-; for=20 - klesi they are=20 - -kle- and=20 - -lei-. Both these gismu are amon= g the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an u= nusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru: - - lotkle blokle lo'ikle=20 - - lotlei blolei lo'irlei - - Only=20 - lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusi= on with the cmavo sequence=20 - lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of = the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scor= ing algorithm produces the following results: - =20 - - lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 - - lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 - - Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 - blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 - blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 - lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 - lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen. - Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 - logji bangu girzu, or=20 - logical-language group in English. (=20 - The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) - The available rafsi are=20 - -loj- and=20 - -logj-;=20 - -ban-,=20 - -bau-, and=20 - -bang-; and=20 - -gri- and=20 - -girzu, and (for name purposes o= nly)=20 - -gir- and=20 - -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo p= ossibilities are: - - loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri=20 - - logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri - loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu - logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu - - and the 12 name possibilities are: - - loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.=20 - - logj-ban-gir. logj-bau-gir. logj-bang-gir. - loj-ban-girz. loj-bau-girz. loj-bang-girz. - logj-ban-girz. logj-bau-girz. logj-bang-girz. - - After hyphenation, we have: - - lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri=20 - - logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri - lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu - logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu - - lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. - logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. - lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. - logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. - - <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 - =20 - lojbangri and=20 - lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 - girzu, producing=20 - lojbangirz. - Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 - nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 - male (sexual teacher). The=20 - =20 - ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 - teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 - teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: - - nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu - nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca - nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu - nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca - nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu - nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca - nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu - nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca - - gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 - nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 - cinse ctuca (which would be=20 - cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 - male, then the simpler tanru=20 - nakni cinctu (=20 - male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 - ke required for grouping need not be expressed.= -
+ lujvo-making examples + This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First,= we will start with the tanru=20 + gerku zdani (=20 + dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 + =20 + =20 + doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use= a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 + , using every possible rafsi. + The rafsi for=20 + gerku are: + + -ger-, + -ge'u-, + -gerk-, + -gerku + + The rafsi for=20 + zdani are: + + -zda-, + -zdan-, + -zdani. + + Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 + -ger-,=20 + -ge'u- and=20 + -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 + gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 + -zda- and=20 + -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 + zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are th= en: + + ger-zda + ger-zdani + ge'u-zda + ge'u-zdani + gerk-zda + gerk-zdani + + We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first tw= o forms need no hyphenation:=20 + =20 + ge cannot fall off the front, because the followi= ng word would begin with=20 + rz, which is not a permissibl= e initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 + gerzda and=20 + gerzdani. + The third form,=20 + ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though th= e first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluste= r in the first five letters. So=20 + ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. + The fourth form,=20 + ge'u-zdani, however, requires an= =20 + r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 + ge'u- part would fall off as a cma= vo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 + ge'urzdani. + The last two forms require=20 + y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafs= i do, and so are=20 + =20 + gerkyzda and=20 + gerkyzdani respectively. + boat classexample= The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor= of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 + gerzda would win. Its L score = is 6, its A score is 0, its H score i= s 0, its R score is 12, and its V sco= re is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 63= 67, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would prob= ably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 + gerzda. + For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 + bloti klesi (=20 + boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowboat= , motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long r= afsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never p= referred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. + The rafsi for=20 + bloti are=20 + -lot-,=20 + -blo-, and=20 + -lo'i-; for=20 + klesi they are=20 + -kle- and=20 + -lei-. Both these gismu are among = the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unu= sual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru: + + lotkle + blokle + lo'ikle + =20 + lotlei + blolei + lo'irlei + + Only=20 + lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion= with the cmavo sequence=20 + lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of th= e lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scorin= g algorithm produces the following results: + =20 + + lotkle + 5878 + blokle + 5858 + lo'ikle + 6367 + =20 + lotlei + 5867 + blolei + 5847 + lo'irlei + 7456 + + Logical Language Gr= oupexample So the form=20 + blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin ov= er=20 + blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly w= orse;=20 + lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and=20 + lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and hy= phen. + Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name f= rom the tanru=20 + logji bangu girzu, or=20 + logical-language group in English. (=20 + The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher o= f this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) + The available rafsi are=20 + -loj- and=20 + -logj-;=20 + -ban-,=20 + -bau-, and=20 + -bang-; and=20 + -gri- and=20 + -girzu, and (for name purposes onl= y)=20 + -gir- and=20 + -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo pos= sibilities are: + + loj-ban-gri + loj-bau-gri + loj-bang-gri + =20 + logj-ban-gri + logj-bau-gri + logj-bang-gri + =20 + loj-ban-girzu + loj-bau-girzu + loj-bang-girzu + =20 + logj-ban-girzu + logj-bau-girzu + logj-bang-girzu + + and the 12 name possibilities are: + + loj-ban-gir + loj-bau-gir + loj-bang-gir + =20 + logj-ban-gir + logj-bau-gir + logj-bang-gir + =20 + loj-ban-girz + loj-bau-girz + loj-bang-girz + =20 + logj-ban-girz + logj-bau-girz + logj-bang-girz + + After hyphenation, we have: + + lojbangri + lojbaugri + lojbangygri + =20 + logjybangri + logjybaugri + logjybangygri + =20 + lojbangirzu + lojbaugirzu + lojbangygirzu + =20 + logjybangirzu + logjybaugirzu + logjybangygirzu + =20 + lojbangir + lojbaugir + lojbangygir + =20 + logjybangir + logjybaugir + logjybangygir + =20 + lojbangirz + lojbaugirz + lojbangygirz + =20 + logjybangirz + logjybaugirz + logjybangygirz + + sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teacherexa= mple The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 + =20 + lojbangri and=20 + lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly low= er score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the orga= nization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it= , and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 + girzu, producing=20 + lojbangirz. + Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on th= e tanru=20 + nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 + male (sexual teacher). The=20 + =20 + ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 + teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 + teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms of= the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: + + nak-kem-cin-ctu =20 + nakykemcinctu + =20 + nak-kem-cin-ctuca + nakykemcinctuca + =20 + nak-kem-cins-ctu + nakykemcinsyctu + =20 + nak-kem-cins-ctuca + nakykemcinsyctuca + =20 + nakn-kem-cin-ctu + naknykemcinctu + =20 + nakn-kem-cin-ctuca + naknykemcinctuca + =20 + nakn-kem-cins-ctu + naknykemcinsyctu + =20 + nakn-kem-cins-ctuca + naknykemcinsyctuca + + gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 + nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred by= the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just m= ake a lujvo for=20 + cinse ctuca (which would be=20 + cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely im= portant. If there was a reason to specify=20 + male, then the simpler tanru=20 + nakni cinctu (=20 + male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru is = actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 + ke required for grouping need not be expressed. +
The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: 1) gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chi= nese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the propos= ed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: co= nsonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were = simplified to just the fricative (=20 =20 =20 @@ -2369,40 +2535,102 @@ 3) gismucreationproscribed gismu pairs gismutoo-similar The scores were divided b= y the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then m= ultiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the pr= oportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the lan= guage. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers= .) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores w= as the total score for the proposed gismu form. 4) Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were r= emoved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a con= flict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gism= u except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gism= u would have identical 4-letter rafsi. gismucreationand transcription blunders More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an = existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too si= milar=E2=80=9D based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was re= jected. - - proposed gismu existing gismu - b p, v - c j, s - d t - f p, v - g k, x - j c, z - k g, x - l r - m n - n m - p b, f - r l - s c, z - t d - v b, f - x g, k - z j, s - + + + + + + + proposed gismu + existing gismu + + + + + b + p, v + + + c + j, s + + + d + t + + + f + p, v + + + g + k, x + + + j + c, z + + + k + g, x + + + l + r + + + m + n + + + n + m + + + p + b, f + + + r + l + + + s + c, z + + + t + d + + + v + b, f + + + x + g, k + + + z + j, s + + + + gismusource-language weights for See for an example. 5) The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 gismu should have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).<= /para> The language weights used to make most of the gismu were a= s follows: @@ -2431,21 +2659,21 @@ =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.
Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 - brod-, they all end in the letter=20 + brod-, they all end in the lette= r=20 o, which is otherwise a rare = letter in Lojban gismu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. broda 1st assignable predicate brode 2nd assignable predicate brodi 3rd assignable predicate brodo 4th assignable predicate brodu 5th assignable predicate cmavo structure word (from=20 cmalu valsi) diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 9dd7079..9325489 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -114,20 +114,21 @@ role=3D"diphthong", and role=3D"rafsi". change it, or think it's actually correct in some particular place, post to the BPFK list. =20 ------ =20 If an example/interlinear-gloss consists solely of English, replace the ... with ... =20 ------ =20 + Make sure all the components of s are appropriate wrapped in , , , or (if it doesn't fit one of those, make up a tag and report it). Many of the non-three-part examples are messed up like this. =20 ------ =20 Entries like (NOTE the type) probably need to be destroyed; there should be a bit of Lojban near them that can be wrapped in , to exactly the same effect @@ -173,21 +174,21 @@ All such indexterm entries should end up in the examp= le itself, like so: - It seems that there is a problem with the cmavo lists at the beginning of sections having missing entries; in particular, ones wwith + in the selma'o, maybe?; they need to be manually checked - lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"), others?... should each have their own index - cll_chapter5-section1 should be content-words-brivla or so ; those IDs should not change when things are moved around - list the members of each selma'o in chapter 20 - make sure the examples that aren't interlinear glosses don't have that as their role - - so far there's also role=3D"pronunciation-example", probably need mor= e + - so far there's also pronunciation-example, compound-cmavo-example - =E2=88=9E is *not* IPA - <@xalbo> I do think having distinct structures for quoted correct lojban and for intentionally incorrect lojban (if there's any, but I would expect there is) would probably be a good thing. <@xalbo> (found one: search for djeimz) <@xalbo> I see three cases, though I don't know if they're all represented in the text: valid, good lojban, invalid lojban, and something in between ({lo nanmu bajra}, for instance; maybe worth flagging with a "this isn't what you think it is" type of thing - use ... for purposely na commit ab3a84b5994b565d40fed0b9ccc4167fd1b793a1 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Mon Jan 3 12:18:50 2011 -0500 Replaced comma-lists in chapter 3 with s. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index bf4093f..f8662df 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,22 +1,15 @@ The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban
Orthography - orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as=20 - =20 - =20 - audio-visual isomorphism. - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 + orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as audio-visual isomorphism. alphabetLojban Lojban alphabet Latin alphabet Lojban uses a= variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters= and symbols: ' , . a b c d e @@ -98,131 +91,227 @@ the syllable separator . [=CA=94] [?] a glottal stop or a pause a - [a], [=C9=91] + + + [a] + [=C9=91] + - [a], [A] + + + [a] + [A] + an open vowel b [b] [b] a voiced bilabial stop c - [=CA=83], [=CA=82] + + + [=CA=83] + [=CA=82] + - [S], [s`] + + + [S] + [s`] + an unvoiced coronal sibilant d [d] [d] a voiced dental/alveolar stop e - [=C9=9B], [e] + + + [=C9=9B] + [e] + - [E], [e] + + + [E] + [e] + a front mid vowel f - [f], [=C9=B8] + + + [f] + [=C9=B8] + - [f], [p\] + + + [f] + [p\] + an unvoiced labial fricative g [=C9=A1] [g] a voiced velar stop i [i] [i] a front close vowel j - [=CA=92], [=CA=90] + + + [=CA=92] + [=CA=90] + - [Z], [z`] + + + [Z] + [z`] + a voiced coronal sibilant k [k] [k] an unvoiced velar stop l - [l], [l=CC=A9] + + + [l] + [l=CC=A9] + - [l], [l=3D] + + + [l] + [l=3D] + a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic) m - [m], [m=CC=A9] + + + [m] + [m=CC=A9] + - [m], [m=3D] + + + [m] + [m=3D] + a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic) n - [n], [n=CC=A9], [=C5=8B=CC=8D], [=C5=8B=CC=A9] + + + [n] + [n=CC=A9] + [=C5=8B=CC=8D] + [=C5=8B=CC=A9] + - [n], [n=3D], [N], [N=3D] + + + [n] + [n=3D] + [N] + [N=3D] + a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic) o - [o], [=C9=94] + + + [o] + [=C9=94] + - [o], [O] + + + [o] + [O] + a back mid vowel p [p] [p] an unvoiced bilabial stop r - [r], [=C9=B9], [=C9=BE], [=CA=80], [r=CC=A9], [=C9=B9=CC=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9] + + + [r] + [=C9=B9] + [=C9=BE] + [=CA=80] + [r=CC=A9] + [=C9=B9=CC=A9] + [=C9=BE=CC=A9] + [=CA=80=CC=A9] + - [r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=3D], [r\=3D], [4=3D], [R\=3D] + + + [r] + [r\] + [4] + [R\] + [r=3D] + [r\=3D] + [4=3D] + [R\=3D] + a rhotic sound s [s] [s] an unvoiced alveolar sibilant @@ -232,23 +321,31 @@ an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop u [u] [u] a back close vowel v - [v], [=CE=B2] + + + [v] + [=CE=B2] + - [v], [B] + + + [v] + [B] + a voiced labial fricative x [x] [x] an unvoiced velar fricative @@ -338,24 +435,27 @@ [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases - explained in detail in=20 =20 - must occur. In particular, a w= ord beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending= in a consonant is always followed by a pause. period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 =20 [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. =20 commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r (discussed later). Commas a= re never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presenc= e or placement of a comma. + + l=20 + m=20 + n or=20 + r + + (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words diff= er solely because of the presence or placement of a comma. periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> .i.ai.i.ai.o [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA= =94o] @@ -426,21 +526,21 @@ Letters IPA Description - + ai = =20 [aj] an open vowel with palatal off-glide ei = =20 [=C9=9Bj] a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide @@ -512,48 +612,57 @@ uy = =20 [w=C9=99] a central mid vowel with labial on-glide (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 for examples.) - diphthongsclassification of The first four diph= thongs above (=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au, the ones with off-glides= ) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are= used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and= the last two (=20 - =20 - iy and=20 - uy) are used only in Lojbani= zed names. - syllabic consonan= ts con= sonantssyllabic The syllabic c= onsonants of Lojban,=20 - =20 - [l=CC=A9],=20 - [m=CC=A9],=20 - [n=CC=A9], and=20 - [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 - [l],=20 - [m],=20 - [n], and=20 - [r] respectively. They normally have onl= y a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, althoug= h in principle any=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r may be pronounced syllabica= lly. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r that is not syllabic, it ma= y not be clear which is which: + diphthongsclassification of The first four diph= thongs above ( + + ai=20 + ei=20 + oi and=20 + au + + , the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban wo= rds; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojba= nized names and borrowings; and the last two (iy and uy) are used = only in Lojbanized names. + syllabic consonan= ts con= sonantssyllabic The syllabic c= onsonants of Lojban, + + [l=CC=A9]=20 + [m=CC=A9]=20 + [n=CC=A9] and=20 + [r=CC=A9] + + , are variants of the non-syllabic=20 + + [l]=20 + [m]=20 + [n] and=20 + [r] + + respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearin= g in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any=20 + + l=20 + m=20 + n or=20 + r + + may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next t= o a=20 + + l=20 + m=20 + n or=20 + r + + that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e4d1"/> brlgan. [br=CC=A9l gan] or [brl=CC=A9 gan] @@ -702,72 +811,80 @@ z x - The consonant=20 - x has no voiced counterpart i= n Lojban. The remaining consonants,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r, are typically pronounced w= ith voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced. + x has no voiced counterpart i= n Lojban. The remaining consonants, + + l=20 + m=20 + n and=20 + r + , are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronoun= ced unvoiced. consonant cluster= scontrasted with single consonants consonant clusterscontrasted with doubled consonants = doubled consonants= contrasted with consonant clusters doubled consonantscontrasted with single consonants single consonantsc= ontrasted with consonant clusters single consonantscontra= sted with doubled consonants consonant clustersdefinition = of Consonant sounds occur in languages as single co= nsonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sou= nds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from oth= er consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like=20 [s] in English=20 hiss, or repeated like=20 [k] in English=20 backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more si= ngle or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different fro= m its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altoge= ther, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanize= d names. =20 consonantsposition of Consonants can occur in t= hree positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle)= , and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varie= s depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, = the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the c= ommon American English trait of changing a=20 t between vowels into a=20 d or even an alveolar tap (IPA=20 [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable in Lojban. consonantsfinal consonantsrestrictions on<= /indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single cons= onants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including sy= llabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names. =20 consonant pairsrestrictions on Pairs of consona= nts can also appear freely, with the following restrictions: It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this = would violate the rule against double consonants. voiced/unvoic= ed consonantsrestrictions on I= t is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The c= onsonants - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r are exempt from this re= striction. As a result,=20 - bf is f= orbidden, and so is=20 - sd, but= both=20 - fl and=20 - vl, and both=20 - ls and=20 - lz, are permitted. + + l=20 + m=20 + n and= =20 + r + are exempt from this restriction. As a result,=20 + bf is= forbidden, and so is=20 + sd, b= ut both=20 + fl and=20 + vl, and both=20 + ls and=20 + lz, are permitted. - It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set= =20 - c,=20 - j,=20 - s,=20 - z. + It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set + + c=20 + j=20 + s and= =20 + z + - The specific pairs=20 - cx,=20 - kx,=20 - xc,=20 - xk, and= =20 - mz are = forbidden. + The specific pairs + + cx=20 + kx=20 + xc=20 + xk and=20 + mz + are forbidden. yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 y can be inserted to break up= the pair: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> @@ -1007,27 +1124,27 @@ </orderedlist> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>consonant cluster= s</primary><secondary>more than three consonants in</secondary></indexterm>= Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not= just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant t= riples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are pe= rmissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than= three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is val= id.</para> =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-buffer-vowels"> <title>Buffering Of Consonant Clusters - vowelbuffer buffer vowel consonant clustersbuffering of Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, a= nd even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the = full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer = sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable.= This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the= listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 - =20 - =20 - [=C9=AA],=20 - [=C9=A8],=20 - [=CA=8A], or even=20 - [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 + vowelbuffer buffer vowel consonant clustersbuffering of Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, a= nd even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the = full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer = sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable.= This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the= listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA + + [=C9=AA]=20 + [=C9=A8]=20 + [=CA=8A] or even=20 + [=CA=8F] + but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer= sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as= possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use=20 [=C9=AA] in this chapter) are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d1"/> vrusi [=CB=88vru si] or [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] @@ -1076,22 +1193,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> ponyni'u [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 - cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 - y, which is pronounced=20 + cannot contain any bufferin= g vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 + y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> bongynanba [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba]= @@ -1211,29 +1328,28 @@ z and=20 b or before=20 zb. stressed vowelcompared with stressed syllable = stressed syllablecompared with stressed vowel stressdefinition of<= /secondary> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one = syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel soun= d (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on= the vowel sound itself, the terms=20 =20 stressed syllable and=20 =20 =20 stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. =20 - stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 - y or which contain a syllabic= consonant (=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r) are never counted. (The Lo= jban term for penultimate stress is=20 - da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 - =20 + stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is y= or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 + + l=20 + m=20 + n or + r + ) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate s= tress is=20 + da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables creat= ed solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress - primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level,= so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables= containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a= buffer vowel. =20 =20 namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on an= y syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the s= yllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban stru= ctural words (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none = at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just precedin= g a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run t= ogether. stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: @@ -1737,21 +1853,21 @@ d in the words=20 metal and=20 medal respectively. A tongue-tip flap. [=CA=80] One version of Lojban=20 r. Not an English sound= . The French or German=20 - r in + r in reine or=20 rot respectively. A uvular trill.= [r=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=B9=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=BE=CC=A9],=20 [=CA=80=CC=A9] @@ -1998,26 +2114,23 @@ ia through=20 iu and=20 ua through=20 uu remain unchanged. a'i,=20 - =20 e'i,=20 o'i and=20 - =20 a'o become=20 - =20 a,i,= =20 e,i,= =20 o,i an= d=20 a,o. i'a through=20 i'u and=20 @@ -2032,64 +2145,61 @@ i,u an= d=20 u,a th= rough=20 u,u in= names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo. All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. =20 - The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 - .i are capitalized, and irregular stress is mar= ked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stres= sed syllable. - =20 - =20 + The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo .i are capitalized, = and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a= sound) following the stressed syllable. Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthograp= hy: - =20 - non-standard = orthographiescaveat It is not = standard, and has not been used. + non-standard o= rthographiescaveatIt is not st= andard, and has not been used. It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban pho= nology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a differe= nt written form. It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between th= e Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James = Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place. - =20 non-standard orth= ographiesCyrillic There also e= xists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introdu= ctory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the=20 - =20 - =D0=B0,=20 - =D0=B1,=20 - =D0=B2,=20 - =D0=B3,=20 - =D0=B4,=20 - =D0=B5,=20 - =D0=B6,=20 - =D0=B7,=20 - =D0=B8,=20 - =D0=BA,=20 - =D0=BB,=20 - =D0=BC,=20 - =D0=BD,=20 - =D0=BE,=20 - =D0=BF,=20 - =D1=80,=20 - =D1=81,=20 - =D1=82,=20 - =D1=83,=20 - =D1=84,=20 - =D1=85, and=20 - =D1=88 in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 - y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 - =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and per= iod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman r= epresentation. + + =D0=B0=20 + =D0=B1=20 + =D0=B2=20 + =D0=B3=20 + =D0=B4=20 + =D0=B5=20 + =D0=B6=20 + =D0=B7=20 + =D0=B8=20 + =D0=BA=20 + =D0=BB=20 + =D0=BC=20 + =D0=BD=20 + =D0=BE=20 + =D0=BF=20 + =D1=80=20 + =D1=81=20 + =D1=82=20 + =D1=83=20 + =D1=84=20 + =D1=85 and=20 + =D1=88 + in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 + y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 + =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and p= eriod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman= representation. + =20 =20 Tolkien= and non-standard Lojban orthography non-standard orthographiesTengwar Finally, an orthography usin= g the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. = Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to=20 =20 =20 The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojba= n. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, wi= ll be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, th= e tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conventional ways; the = calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the quesset=C3=A9ma repre= sents velar consonants. =20 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.