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Content preview: commit 5c1037023bdd7966f127874dbfa57852e74fde3a Merge: 5e0c241 7b63287 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 11:59:48 2011 -0800 Merge commit '7b63287a42909f6e3990ce150cd76a89dfd2c314' into gh-pages [...] Content analysis details: (2.5 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- 0.7 TVD_RCVD_IP TVD_RCVD_IP 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.4338] 1.0 RDNS_DYNAMIC Delivered to internal network by host with dynamic-looking rDNS X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=windows-1252 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 5c1037023bdd7966f127874dbfa57852e74fde3a Merge: 5e0c241 7b63287 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 11:59:48 2011 -0800 Merge commit '7b63287a42909f6e3990ce150cd76a89dfd2c314' into gh-pages commit 5e0c241fa4db50453eb681217c55db6ec887c5cd Merge: 9cd20ec 71f32a1 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 11:23:13 2011 -0800 Merge commit '71f32a122ff534978eee6622a702e5e56fed8f9d' into gh-pages commit 9cd20ecfbb06d897acb3160058f9a017f7917ea4 Merge: 79c554f 52d1388 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 10:14:08 2011 -0800 Merge commit '52d1388d91264b9156a3273bc30d4b0b7b631e75' into gh-pages commit 7b63287a42909f6e3990ce150cd76a89dfd2c314 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Tue Jan 11 16:17:39 2011 -0500 Chapter 13 jbophrases and chapter 3 language codes. diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index f53eaca..cff6a71 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,24 +1,22 @@ Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</ti= tle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1"> <title>What are attitudinal indicators? =20 This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1"/> - - John is coming. - + John is coming. can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's fee= ling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of= tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with var= ious sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the=20 =20 =20 Oooh!,=20 Arrgh!,=20 Ugh!, and=20 Yecch! in the title. These are part of the English lang= uage; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't fin= d any of these words in a dictionary. attitudinal indic= ators In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can al= so be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by expli= cit words known as=20 attitudinal indicators, or just=20 @@ -70,94 +68,94 @@ .ianai la djan klama =20 [Nonsense!] John is coming. UI selma'o .ian= ai .ue .a'o .uu <= primary>.ui John is comingexample <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">attitudinalsword-form for primary The primary Lojban attitud= inals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where c= mavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo= : all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs= (=20 =20 - .ai,=20 - .au,=20 - .ei, and=20 - .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are perm= itted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (=20 + .ai,=20 + .au,=20 + .ei, and=20 + .oi), and the ten more dipht= hongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names = and borrowings (=20 =20 =20 - .ia,=20 - .ie,=20 - .ii,=20 - .io,=20 - .iu,=20 - .ua,=20 - .ue,=20 + .ia,=20 + .ie,=20 + .ii,=20 + .io,=20 + .iu,=20 + .ua,=20 + .ue,=20 =20 - .ui,=20 - .uo, and=20 - .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a perio= d before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginnin= g with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators de= scribed in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI. + .ui,=20 + .uo, and=20 + .uu). Note that each of thes= e cmavo has a period before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before = every word beginning with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kin= ds of indicators described in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI. attitudinalscompound Attitudinals can also be c= ompound cmavo, of the types explained in Sections 4-8;=20 illustrates one such possib= ility, the compound attitudinal=20 .ianai. In attitudinals,=20 =20 - -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of the simp= le attitudinal without the=20 - -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 - .ia expresses belief, since=20 + -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of = the simple attitudinal without the=20 + -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 + .ia expresses belief, since= =20 .ianai expresses disbelief. =20 indicatorstypes of indicators In addition to the atti= tudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion= categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of= them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together = in this chapter. =20 Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respec= t to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indic= ators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. I= ndicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they ap= ply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in=20 . Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in= four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a= corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fou= rth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the appr= oximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with=20 - -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omitted, ind= icates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and shows the= approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with=20 - -cu'i. The cmavo=20 + -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omit= ted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and s= hows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with=20 + -cu'i. The cmavo=20 =20 cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained m= ore fully in=20 =20 . One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is= that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing yo= ur feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource = of the written word. So the gloss for=20 =20 - .ui should not really be=20 + .ui should not really be=20 happiness but some sound or tone that expresses happine= ss. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or o= bvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different em= otions Lojban speakers can readily express. =20 Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific g= ismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of= the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, t= hus: [gismu]. =20
Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. =20 Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicators express the way the speaker is = feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators co= mprise the attitudinals which begin with=20 - u or=20 - o and many of those beginning with=20 - i. + u or=20 + o and many of those beginning= with=20 + i. The cmavo beginning with=20 - u are simple emotions, which represent the speaker's re= action to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be. + u are simple emotions, which = represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceiv= ed to be. .ua discovery confusion=20 .u'a gain loss .ue surprise no surprise expectation =20 .u'e wonder commonplace .ui happiness unhappiness =20 .u'i amusement weariness .uo completion incompleteness .u'o courage timidity cowardice .uu pity cruelty .u'u repentance lack of regret innocence =20 Here are some typical uses of the=20 - u attitudinals: + u attitudinals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d1"/> .ua mi facki fi le mi mapku [Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the = hat] @@ -203,31 +201,31 @@ .u'u do cortu =20 [Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels = guilty] In=20 , note that the attitudinal= =20 - .uo is translated by an English non-attitudinal= phrase:=20 + .uo is translated by an Engl= ish non-attitudinal phrase:=20 =20 At last! It is common for the English equivalents of Lo= jban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less norma= l grammar, but actually expressions of emotion. In particular, both=20 - .uu and=20 - .u'u can be translated into English as=20 + .uu and=20 + .u'u can be translated into = English as=20 =20 I'm sorry; the difference between these two attitudes f= requently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, lead= ing to responses like=20 Why are you sorry? It's not your fault! It is important to realize that=20 - .uu, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to = be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation=20 + .uu, and indeed all attitudi= nals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the excla= mation=20 Pity! is just as likely to be ironically intended, but = this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally)= as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps w= orse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than m= isunderstood statements. The following examples display the effects of=20 nai and=20 cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d7"/> @@ -255,23 +253,23 @@ In=20 , John's coming has been ant= icipated by the speaker. In=20 =20 and=20 , no such anticipation has b= een made, but in=20 the lack-of-anticipation go= es no further - in=20 , it amounts to actual surpr= ise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 - o or=20 - i from those beginning with=20 - u, but in general they represent more complex, more amb= ivalent, or more difficult emotions. + o or=20 + i from those beginning with= =20 + u, but in general they repres= ent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions. .o'a pride modesty shame=20 .o'e closeness detachment distance .oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure .o'i caution boldness rashness =20 .o'o patience mere tolerance anger .o'u relaxation composure stress =20 @@ -280,21 +278,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10"/> .oi la djan. klama [Complaint!] John is coming. Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming= . The word=20 - .oi is derived from the Yiddish word=20 + .oi is derived from the Yidd= ish word=20 oy of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yidd= ish origin. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d11"/> .o'onai la djan. klama =20 [Anger!] John is coming! @@ -328,26 +326,26 @@ .o'u la djan. klama =20 [Phew!] John is coming. In=20 and=20 , John's arrival is no probl= em: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the si= tuation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some = kind. The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 - i are those which could not be fitted into the= =20 - u or=20 - o groups because there was a lack of room, so they are = a mixed lot.=20 - .ia,=20 + i are those which could not b= e fitted into the=20 + u or=20 + o groups because there was a = lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.=20 + .ia,=20 .i'a,=20 - .ie, and=20 + .ie, and=20 .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 =20 instead. .ii fear nervousness security=20 .i'i togetherness privacy .io respect disrespect .i'o appreciation envy .iu love no love lost hatred @@ -410,41 +408,41 @@ hypothetical worl= d inte= rnal world propositionalof attitudinals indicatorsplacement of As mentioned at the beginning o= f=20 , attitudinals may be divide= d into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, a= nd a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 =20 =20 what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. attitudinalspropositional effect on claim attitudinals= propositional contrasted with emotional attitudinalsemotio= nal contrasted with propositional In general, the b= ridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like=20 I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The em= otion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically in= dependent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like=20 I intend to go to the market, where the main claim is l= ogically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually= going to the market, but merely that I intend to. attitudinalsi- series attitudinalse- series attitudinalsa- series There is no sharp dist= inction between attitudinals beginning with=20 - a and those beginning with=20 - e; however, the original intent (not entirely r= ealized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) w= as to make the members of the=20 - a-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a pot= ential world, while the members of the=20 - e-series were more ambivalent or complex about = the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship be= tween the=20 - a-series and the=20 - e-series is similar to that between the=20 - u-series and the=20 - o-series, respectively. A few propositional attitude in= dicators overflowed into the=20 - i-series as well. + a and those beginning with=20 + e; however, the original inte= nt (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into t= oo little space) was to make the members of the=20 + a-series the purer, more atti= tudinal realizers of a potential world, while the members of the=20 + e-series were more ambivalent= or complex about the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. T= he relationship between the=20 + a-series and the=20 + e-series is similar to that b= etween the=20 + u-series and the=20 + o-series, respectively. A few= propositional attitude indicators overflowed into the=20 + i-series as well. attitudinalslogical language and attitudinalspropositi= onal/emotional caveat attitudinalsemotional/propositional = caveat In fact, the entire distinction between pure= emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:=20 =20 .u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude in= dicator meaning=20 =20 I regret that ..., and=20 .a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure em= otion meaning=20 I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 logical language aspect. =20 =20 Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 - a: + a: .a'a attentive inattentive avoiding=20 =20 .a'e alertness exhaustion .ai intent indecision refusal .a'i effort no real effort repose =20 .a'o hope despair =20 @@ -528,24 +526,24 @@ =20 [no interest] you complain I have no interest in your complaints. .a'ucu'i .au .a'o= .= a'i .ai .a'enai .a'a (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.= 1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly= including=20 .oicai, but probably also=20 .iucai.) attitudinalsrationale for attitudinalscontrasted with = bridi Splitting off the attitude into an indicator = allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relat= ionships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whateve= r. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri wou= ld make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 - e, which stand roughly in the relation to those= beginning with=20 - a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with=20 - o do to those beginning with=20 - u- they are more complex or difficult: + e, which stand roughly in the= relation to those beginning with=20 + a as the pure-emotion indicat= ors beginning with=20 + o do to those beginning with= =20 + u- they are more complex or d= ifficult: .e'a permission prohibition=20 =20 .e'e competence incompetence =20 .ei obligation freedom .e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint .e'o request negative request =20 @@ -600,21 +598,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d12"/> .e'u do klama le panka [suggestion] You go to-the park. I suggest going to the park. .e'u .e'o .ei .e'e<= /primary> .e= 'a Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beg= inning with=20 - i, which are the overflow from the other sets:<= /para> + i, which are the overflow fro= m the other sets: .ia belief skepticism disbelief=20 .i'a acceptance blame .ie agreement disagreement .i'e approval non-approval disapproval =20 Still more examples (much, much later): @@ -685,22 +683,22 @@
Attitudes as scales attitudinalsneutral attitudinalsnegative attitudinalspositive attitudinalsscale of<= /indexterm> In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales = run from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 positive and=20 negative are put into quotation marks because they are = loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects = this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positive words, namely=20 - .ii (fear) and=20 - .oi (pain/complaint), represent emotions common= ly thought of as less=20 + .ii (fear) and=20 + .oi (pain/complaint), repres= ent emotions commonly thought of as less=20 virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts= . But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful em= otions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, whil= e their counterparts are less commonly expressed. attitudinal scale= srationale for assignment (Why= the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be d= ifficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we = give the monosyllable=20 nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a n= ovice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indica= tor, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 random orientation, which would have unknown biases and= be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sc= ale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be bias= ed in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) CAI selma'o nai= cai naisai nairu'e cu'i ru'e sai cai attitudinal scaleseven-position emotion= al scale In fact, though, each emotional scale has se= ven positions defined, three=20 =20 positive ones (shown below on the left), three=20 negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral= one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The foll= owing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated c= mavo. All of these cmavo, except=20 nai, are in selma'o CAI. @@ -928,21 +926,21 @@ self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emotional pic= tures you can build: =20 ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate conde= scension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 - .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as be= ing below (for=20 + .io. Whatever it is attached= to is marked as being below (for=20 ga'i) or above (for=20 =20 ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position.= Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is s= o marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the se= ntence, as with=20 =20 doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a stateme= nt addressed to a social superior. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1"/> @@ -1019,21 +1017,21 @@ =20 sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings - what we call righteous = indignation might be=20 =20 =20 =20 o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lac= k of guilt:=20 .u'unai. se'i The cmavo=20 se'i expresses the difference between selfishne= ss and generosity, for example (in combination with=20 =20 - .au): + .au): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5"/> .ause'i [desire] [self] I want it! @@ -1175,21 +1173,21 @@ =20 unspecified level= of emotion unstated emotion For example,=20 .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the = scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or wit= h something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intens= ity. But=20 .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspeci= fied level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a wea= k level. A rough English equivalent of=20 =20 .ie ge'eru'e might be=20 I agree, but ... where the=20 but is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always ex= pressed in English by English attitudinals.) attitudinal indic= atorsplacement of scale in A s= cale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the sca= le word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can hav= e its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expre= ssible. For example,=20 .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling midway b= etween pain (=20 - .oi) and pleasure (=20 + .oi) and pleasure (=20 .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. =20 attitudinalsplacement in sentences with "nai" attitudinal indicat= orsplacement of "nai" in The cmavo=20 nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the l= anguage: it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the= words used in indicator constructs,=20 nai is the only one with any meaning outside th= e indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator = cmavo and its=20 nai negator, the=20 nai will end up negating the last word of the i= ndicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example= , @@ -1231,25 +1229,25 @@ =20 <jbophrase>ge'e</jbophrase> or a VV word must be used to prevent any m= odifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal.</para> =20 </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section9"> <title>The uses of indicators su<= /indexterm> sa= si attitudinalsexternal grammar attitudinalsgrammar of= placement in bridi The behavior of indicators in t= he=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 =20 si,=20 - sa, and=20 + sa, and=20 su and some, though not all, kinds of quotation= s. The details of such interactions are discussed in=20 . zo<= /indexterm> A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicat= or may, except in those few situations (as in=20 - zo quotation, explained in=20 + zo quotation, explained in=20 ) where compound cmavo may not be= used. attitudinalsat beginning of text At the beginni= ng of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: suc= h a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't tur= n off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place i= n an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately t= o its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning t= he object or concept to which the word refers. attitudinalsaffecting whole grammatical structures If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo = which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertain= s to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discu= ssed in=20 , for explicitly marking the rang= e of words to which an indicator applies. attitudinalsreferent uncertainty More details a= bout the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specializ= ed cmavo, are given in=20 . It is worth mentioning that rea= l-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope = rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a m= inimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotio= nal expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide = a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive l= evel. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicato= r has some uncertainty. multiple indicato= rs For example, in cases of multiple indicators expre= ssed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It i= s possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude abou= t the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common = referent. For example, in =20 @@ -2066,31 +2064,31 @@ =20 <jbophrase>jo'anai</jbophrase> means the same as=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase>, but is too long to serve as a convenient = metalinguistic negator.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'o</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>partial quotat= ion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>fr= agmentary text</primary></indexterm> The next two cmavo are used to assist = in quoting texts written or spoken by others. It is often the case that we = wish to quote only part of a text, or to supply additional material either = by way of commentary or to make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo= =20 =20 <jbophrase>li'o</jbophrase> serves the former function. It indicates t= hat words were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation mu= st be grammatical, however, as=20 =20 <jbophrase>li'o</jbophrase> does not serve any grammatical function. I= t cannot, for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or su= pply the missing tail of a description sumti:=20 =20 - <quote>le li'o</quote> in isolation is not grammatical.</para> + <jbophrase>le li'o</jbophrase> in isolation is not grammatical.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>to'i</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>sei</prima= ry></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>sa'a</pr= imary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>sa'a</pri= mary><secondary>interaction with to'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm t= ype=3D"general-imported"><primary>sa'a</primary><secondary>interaction with= sei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary= >sa'a</primary><secondary>interaction with li'o</secondary></indexterm> <i= ndexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>editorial insertion</primary><s= econdary>with "sa'a</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo=20 <jbophrase>sa'a</jbophrase> indicates in a quotation that the marked w= ord or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial,= narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a=20 =20 <jbophrase>li'o</jbophrase> should appear in the form=20 =20 <jbophrase>li'osa'a</jbophrase>, since the=20 <jbophrase>li'o</jbophrase> was not part of the original quotation. In= practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalingu= istic expressions, such as=20 =20 - <quote>sei</quote> (of selma'o SEI) or=20 + <jbophrase>sei</jbophrase> (of selma'o SEI) or=20 <jbophrase>to'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except = where confusion might result.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>sa'a</primary><se= condary>editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a</secondary></in= dexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>editorial insertion= </primary><secondary>of text already containing sa'a</secondary></indexterm= > In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more in= stances of=20 <jbophrase>sa'a</jbophrase>, they can be changed to=20 =20 <jbophrase>sa'asa'a</jbophrase>.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>xu</primary><= /indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>questions</prima= ry><secondary>with "xu"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary></indexterm> <inde= xterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>yes/no questions</primary></indext= erm> The cmavo=20 <jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> marks truth questions, which are discussed i= n detail in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation"/>. In general,=20 <jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> may be translated=20 <quote>Is it true that ... ?</quote> and questions whether the attache= d bridi is true. When=20 @@ -2126,21 +2124,21 @@ =20 <jbophrase>blanu</jbophrase> in=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-rXiR"/> could mean=20 <quote>sad</quote> (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'anai</prim= ary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>literally</= primary></indexterm> The negated form,=20 <jbophrase>pe'anai</jbophrase>, indicates that what has been said is t= o be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language i= ntuition is to be ignored.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>heartburn</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-im= ported"><primary>culturally dependent lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexte= rm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary><secondary>= place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-importe= d"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gene= ral-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>place structure of figurat= ive lujvo</secondary></indexterm> Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 <jbophrase>pe'a</jbophrase> has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 - <quote>pev</quote>. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (cultural= ly dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the= place structure of the components. Thus=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">pev</jbophrase>. This rafsi is used in formi= ng figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have= nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus=20 <jbophrase>risnyjelca</jbophrase> (heart burn) might have a place stru= cture like:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 </programlisting> <para>whereas=20 <jbophrase>pevrisnyjelca</jbophrase>, explicitly marked as figurative,= might have the place structure:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 </programlisting> @@ -2201,46 +2199,46 @@ <en>I know who goes to the store.</en> =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section14"> <title>Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 - la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name us= ed to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in fact, di= scursives - but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of lis= teners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of= UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 + la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a= name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in = fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other description= s of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the = cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 nai too often vital to interpretation of a prot= ocol signal, as explained later in this section. =20 do'u DOhU selma= 'o voc= ativesgrammar overview The gra= mmar of vocatives is explained in=20 ; but in brief, a vocative may be fol= lowed by a name (without=20 - la), a description (without=20 - le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at a= ll (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable ter= minator,=20 - do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required u= nless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.<= /para> + la), a description (without=20 + le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or noth= ing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elid= able terminator,=20 + do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never re= quired unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vo= cative. =20 vocativesand definition of "you" youdefining= Using any vocative except=20 mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the m= eaning of the pro-sumti=20 do, as the whole point of vocatives is to speci= fy the listener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired = listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speaker and=20 listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the ap= propriate terms would be=20 writer and=20 reader. vocativesnotation convention symbol "X" In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol = X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of th= e listener. DOI selma'o doi= doieffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of doi The cmavo=20 doi is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the= cmavo of selma'o COI, explained below,=20 doi can precede a name directly without an inte= rvening pause. It is not considered a scale, and=20 - doinai is not grammatical. In general,=20 + doinai is not grammatical. In general,=20 doi needs no translation in English (we just us= e names by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles= we sometimes say=20 Oh X, which is equivalent to=20 doi). One may attach an attitudinal to=20 doi to express various English vocatives. For e= xample,=20 doi .io means=20 Sir/Madam!, whereas=20 doi .ionai means=20 =20 You there!. COI selma'oeffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of vocatives of COI All members of selma'o= COI require a pause when used immediately before a name, in order to preve= nt the name from absorbing the COI word. This is unlike selma'o DOI and LA,= which do not require pauses because the syllables of these cmavo are not p= ermitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. When calling out to someone, this= is fairly natural, anyway.=20 @@ -2382,24 +2380,24 @@ Thank you. vi'o will comply will not comply=20 vi'o vi'o= contrasted with je'e je'econtrasted with vi'o=20 Wilco, X,=20 I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 je'e but signals an intention (similar to=20 =20 - .ai) to comply with the other speaker's request= . This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 + .ai) to comply with the othe= r speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 Agreed!, although=20 - .ie carries some of the same meaning. The negat= ive form indicates that the message was received but that you will not comp= ly: a very colloquial version is=20 + .ie carries some of the same= meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received but tha= t you will not comply: a very colloquial version is=20 No way!. ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed=20 =20 ke'o ki'a= compared to ke'o ke'ocompared to ki'a=20 What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or clari= fication due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative= equivalent of=20 ki'a, and is related to=20 je'enai. The negative form may be rendered=20 @@ -2444,21 +2442,21 @@ over and out. This form of translation does not mean th= at Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural = languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in speci= fic domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Loj= ban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener ma= y not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protoc= ol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compu= ter communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the = protocol question=20 =20 ta'apei would mean=20 =20 Will the speaker yield?
A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 =20 - sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sentence. + sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sente= nce. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1"/> la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar. Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar. @@ -2722,21 +2720,21 @@
Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 - sei, explained in=20 + sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic commen= ts that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly =96 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers. Th= ese are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious level. = But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of new w= ords. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with tho= se pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences. =20 =20 Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions - words that cannot be defined wi= th the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickl= y take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into = a true system of emotions. emotionsresearch using indicators emotionsrecording us= ing indicators There are several theories as to the= nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more abou= t ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an = accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for= expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of = human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They = also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recor= ding emotions. emotionscultural bias of expression The full li= st of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks t= he language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are = important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias - if a culture is = prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than others, i= ts members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If a cult= ure hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them. Sapir-Whorf effec= tsand emotional indicators Per= haps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emo= tions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than = others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference= from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have = devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may b= e the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the= type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools i= n existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having = such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf e= ffect will occur and will be recognized. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 30a227d..6e20e63 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -2072,130 +2072,130 @@ =20 The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojba= n. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, wi= ll be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, th= e tincot=E9ma and parmat=E9ma are used in the conventional ways; the calmat= =E9ma represents palatal consonants, and the quesset=E9ma represents velar = consonants. =20 t - tinco + tinco - - calma = =20 + calma = =20 d - ando + ando - - anga = =20 + anga = =20 - - thule = =20 + thule = =20 c - harma + harma - - anto = =20 + anto = =20 j - anca + anca n - numen + numen - - noldo = =20 + noldo = =20 r - ore + ore i - anna + anna p - parma + parma k - quesse + quesse b - umbar + umbar g - ungwe + ungwe f - formen + formen x - hwesta + hwesta v - ampa + ampa - - unque + unque m - malta + malta - - nwalme + nwalme u - vala + vala - - vilya + vilya The letters=20 - vala and=20 - anna are used for=20 + vala and=20 + anna are used for=20 u and=20 i only when those letters are= used to represent glides. Of the additional letters,=20 r,=20 l,=20 s, and=20 z are written with=20 - r=F3men,=20 - lambe,=20 - silme, and=20 - =E1re/=20 - esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. - Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban com= ma or period. + r=F3men,=20 + lambe,=20 + silme, and=20 + =E1re/=20 + esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. + Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban com= ma or period.
commit 71f32a122ff534978eee6622a702e5e56fed8f9d Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Mon Jan 10 16:45:58 2011 -0500 Chapter 12: section titles. diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index c306197..b29ae59 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures</ti= tle> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section1"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-why-lujvo"> <title>Why have lujvo? The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu,= made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not = intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal = list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for = the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in = certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, fo= ods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mi= llion or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken togethe= r. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures = and function as selbri. =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -49,21 +49,21 @@ lujvocmavo incorporation If the tanru includes = connective cmavo such as=20 bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as= =20 se or=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into t= he lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, t= he cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one t= anru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the poss= ible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 .
-
+
The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour =20 The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as= - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru= corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise= English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, t= he left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the = seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the = veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifier for=20 seltau and=20 modified for=20 @@ -148,21 +148,21 @@ derogatory terms<= /primary> Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either = Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the= White House,=20 is arguably true. If we con= centrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru=20 gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 gerku zdani changes. So if we understand=20 gerku zdani as having the same meaning as the E= nglish word=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because as fa= r as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White = House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).<= /para> =20
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The meaning of lujvo This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say= =20 doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru - the one left deliberately vague - is the precise relation between the = tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving= an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. lujvoand seltau/tertau relationship lujvointerpreting<= /secondary> disa= mbiguated instance A lujvo is defined by a single dis= ambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the p= lace structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation be= tween the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we'r= e looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it d= etermines the place structure of the lujvo itself. =20 Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujv= o and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more s= pecific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one wil= l be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r. lujvodesign consideration for relationship The = insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expres= sed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the re= lationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close.= This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, pi= cks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau= place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship=20 dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as = a single short word; the relationship=20 dog lives in house is not. From all the various interpr= etations of=20 gerku zdani, the person creating=20 @@ -173,21 +173,21 @@ le gerku, the most obvious relation to pick is = the very relation named by the tertau,=20 zdani: the relation between a home and its dwel= ler. As a result, the object which fills the first place of=20 gerku (the dog) also fills the second place of= =20 zdani (the house-dweller). lujvo place struc= turedropping redundant places = The seltau-tertau relationship in the veljvo is expressed by the seltau or = tertau predicate itself. Therefore, at least one of the seltau places is go= ing to be equivalent to a tertau place. This place is thus redundant, and c= an be dropped from the place structure of the lujvo. As a corollary, the pr= ecise relationship between the veljvo components can be implicitly determin= ed by finding one or more places to overlap in this way. So what is the place structure of=20 gerzda? We're left with three places, since the= dweller, the=20 se zdani, turned out to be identical to the dog= , the=20 gerku. We can proceed as follows: lujvo place struc= turenotation conventions (The = notation introduced casually in=20 - will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 + will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) lujvo place struc= tureexplicated walk-through <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">new notation The place structure of=20 zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated here using= the new notation: =20 doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -221,32 +221,32 @@ <para>or more comprehensively</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-Wx42"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d5"/> z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not yet done: = we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be = eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concern= s will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equippe= d with the terminology needed for those discussions.
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Selecting places lujvo place struc= turebasis of The set of places= of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. = More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of plac= es of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just eno= ugh places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, = including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excl= uding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place r= equires assuming a standard value or range of values for it. lujvo place struc= turerationale for standardization It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 se jbopli or a=20 te klagau is. But this would mean that, rather = than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist = would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or n= o apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines doc= umented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional = wherever possible. The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case - that is to say, if the lujvo places are = not a subset of the veljvo gismu places - then it will be very difficult fo= r the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place means, and wha= t it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that will be furthe= r discussed in=20 - . + . However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.
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Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo great soldierexample lujvo place structurewhen first p= laces redundant veljvosymmetrical = lujvosy= mmetrical A common pattern, perhaps the most common= pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 =20 banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structu= res are: @@ -297,21 +297,21 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lujvo place struc= ture</primary><secondary>when first place redundant with non-first</seconda= ry></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lujvo</prima= ry><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> A substantial minority o= f lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (=20 <jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> in this case) is equivalent to a place ot= her than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 <quote>asymmetrical</quote>. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 <quote>asymmetrical tanru</quote> and=20 =20 <quote>symmetrical tanru</quote> used in=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-selbri"/>.)</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lujvo place struc= ture</primary><secondary>effect of "SE"</secondary></indexterm> I= n principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujv= o. Consider=20 <jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>, discussed in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter12-section3"/>, where we learned that the = g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned= , we could convert=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-lujvo-meanings"/>, where we learned that the = g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned= , we could convert=20 <jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> to=20 <jbophrase>se zdani</jbophrase> (or=20 <jbophrase>selzda</jbophrase> when expressed as a lujvo). The place st= ructure of=20 <jbophrase>selzda</jbophrase> is</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-IXoj"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d5"/> s1 is housed by nest s2 @@ -357,21 +357,21 @@ But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, s= o a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to t= he kl5 place, leading to <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d9"/> kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
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Dependent places lujvo place struc= turedependent places In order = to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a luj= vo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. = One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can b= e predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example= , the g2 place of=20 =20 =20 gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Becaus= e when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known do= g), then we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependenc= y between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have= not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one hou= se. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know= the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller= . lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent seltau places The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent place= s provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from t= he tentative place structure given in=20 @@ -482,21 +482,21 @@ lujvo place struc= tureselecting tertau shoehorn wrong concept In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is a sign = that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures imply = different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn the wrong= concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is obvious w= hen someone tries to shoehorn a=20 =20 =20 klama tertau into a=20 litru or=20 cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ = in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of=20 klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the = resulting modified place structure is that of=20 litru or=20 cliva. Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau= and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed furt= her in=20 - . + . school buildingexample lujvo place structuredropping d= ependent placescaveat auditoriums <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">elementary schools playgrounds recital roo= ms Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the sel= tau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the l= ujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed = of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the constr= uction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools nee= d auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and s= o on: therefore, the place structure of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 kuldi'u (from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be =20 @@ -504,21 +504,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9"/> d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to au= dience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), do= n't seem to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. =20
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Ordering lujvo places. lujvo place order= So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places= to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the = story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right ord= er of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becom= es critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way tha= t a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is = which. prayer<= secondary>example lujvo place orderrationale for standardi= zation If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then= , we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some con= ventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take f= or example the lujvo=20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1"/> @@ -540,27 +540,27 @@ or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3"/> This is a prayer to Dong =20 We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 =20 - discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 - ), and are even more necess= ary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessar= y; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take adv= antage of any available regularities. + discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 + ), and are even more= necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still n= ecessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to t= ake advantage of any available regularities. =20 =20 great soldierexample lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujv= o el= imination process We use two different ordering rules= : one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lu= jvo like=20 balsoi (from=20 - ) has the places of its tert= au followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination proces= s. For=20 + ) has the places o= f its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the eliminat= ion process. For=20 =20 balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place struc= ture: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4"/> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stan= dard b3 =20 @@ -613,21 +613,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8"/> m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment = m3 using treatment m4 animal patient Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, = the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared plac= e; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.<= /para> =20
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lujvo with more than two parts. tomorrowexample lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more pa= rt veljvo The theory we have outlined so far is an = account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more t= han two parts. An example is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 =20 future,=20 adjacent, and=20 day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 bavlamdei as having two components:=20 @@ -686,21 +686,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5"/> xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wi= elder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled,= but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it = is best that it be last.
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Eliding SE rafsi from seltau lujvodropping SE rafsi It is common to form luj= vo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo= rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful construction= s shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the = lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh eas= e in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual con= cept. proposed law Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1"/> @@ -744,21 +744,21 @@ <jbophrase>selti'ifla</jbophrase> (as well as shorter). They don't req= uire the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the s= eltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But shoul= d the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out= , then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, su= ch abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscur= e the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give = our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to enco= urage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 <jbophrase>ti'ifla</jbophrase> are given the place structure they woul= d have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>plausibility</pri= mary><secondary>in abbreviated lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm ty= pe=3D"general-imported"><primary>abbreviated lujvo and plausibility</primar= y></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>implausible</= primary></indexterm> Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiri= ng SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or = unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojb= anists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity.</para> =20 </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-tertau-SE"> <title>Eliding SE rafsi from tertau lujvo place struc= tureeffect of "SE"-dropping in tertau Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more troub= le. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe = some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,=20 posydji describes a type of=20 djica,=20 gerzda describes a type of=20 zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 gerzda does not describe a=20 se zdani- it is not a word that could be used t= o describe an inhabitant such as a dog. blue-eyedexample Now consider how we would tran= slate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 @@ -798,21 +798,21 @@ We end up being most interested in talking about the second plac= e, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so=20 se would almost always be required. What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wro= ngly, under the influence of English. The English suffix=20 -eyed does not mean=20 eye, but someone with an eye, which is=20 selkanla. Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a=20 se that really should be there), any attempt to= accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is= fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, luj= vo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their= more explicit counterparts: in this case,=20 blaselkanla.
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Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo lujvo place struc= turedropping "KEhE" = lujvo place structuredropping "KE" People constr= ucting lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, the= y will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to g= et thrown out are usually=20 ke and=20 ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tan= ru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the te= rtau with=20 ke and=20 ke'e missing is less plausible than that with t= he cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. beefsteakexample beefsteak For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is =20 @@ -964,21 +964,21 @@ xelxel- work in the same way. Other SE combinations like=20 selter-, although they might conceivably mean= =20 se te, more than likely should be interpreted i= n the same way, namely as=20 =20 se ke te, since there is no need to re-order pl= aces in the way that=20 se te provides. (See=20 =20 .)
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Abstract lujvo lujvo place struc= ture"nu" lujvo abstract lujvo lujvoabstract The cmavo of NU can participate in the c= onstruction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Cons= ider that old standard example,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/> k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. The selbri=20 @@ -1050,21 +1050,21 @@ -hood are represented with=20 nun- lujvo, and other words endi= ng in=20 -ness or=20 -dom are often representable with=20 kam- lujvo (=20 kam- is the rafsi for=20 ka);=20 kambla is=20 blueness. Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing = the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-s= cope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in=20 - . + . There is also a rafsi for the cmavo=20 jai, namely=20 jax, which allows sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7"/> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. @@ -1085,21 +1085,21 @@ In making a lujvo that contains=20 jax- for a selbri that contains= =20 jai, the rule is to leave the=20 fai place as a=20 fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate= in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 =20 =20 fai is also explained in=20 .)
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Implicit-abstraction lujvo =20 Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producin= g a class of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. =20 =20 Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 nunctikezgau, meaning=20 @@ -1112,24 +1112,24 @@ nu: n1 is an event citka: c1 eats c2 gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event= g2 In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo = given in=20 - , we will first create an in= termediate lujvo,=20 + , we will first create an inte= rmediate lujvo,=20 nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 nuncti has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d2"/> n1 is the event of c1 eating c2 Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 @@ -1146,21 +1146,21 @@ =20 nunctikezgau is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4"/> g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoi in=20 - , the interpretation of lujv= o is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, = any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 + , the interpretati= on of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti pla= ces. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstr= action either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of= =20 =20 gasnu is defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nu is the type of abstraction one would expect = to be a=20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 nun and=20 kez in=20 nunctikezgau are only telling us what we would = already have guessed - that the seltau of a=20 gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi= out, and use instead the shorter lujvo=20 @@ -1268,66 +1268,66 @@ event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition= l2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. =20 =20
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Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 - . The gismu places are: + . The gismu places are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1"/> lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 a= nd beliefs l3 cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 = in medium c4 and=20 selsku, the tertau of=20 jdaselsku, has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d2"/> s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: = the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2).= This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been give= n in=20 - or=20 - ; therefore, for lack of a = better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places= after them, leading to the place structure: + or=20 + ; therefore, for lack = of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau p= laces after them, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d3"/> s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium= s4 pertaining to religion l1 The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l= 1 place (the religion) and so is omitted. We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with=20 se seljdasku, where=20 seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with pl= ace structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d4"/> c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in me= dium s4 pertaining to religion l1 which, according to the rule expressed in=20 - , can be further expressed a= s=20 + , can be further expressed as=20 selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the= ugly=20 selsel- prefix just to get the rules right:=20 jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.= However, there is a further problem with=20 jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gis= mu=20 lijda and=20 cusku can fully express the relationship implic= it in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a reli= gion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that reli= gion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or = using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the = religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical. As a result, both=20 seljdasku and=20 @@ -1433,21 +1433,21 @@ minkemxanpli respectively. latent component<= /primary> Does this make=20 xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does mean th= at there is a latent component to the meaning of=20 =20 xanmi'e, the gismu=20 pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And= it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes s= ense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a = derivation for=20 xancypliminde or one of the other possibilities= that is analogous to the analysis of=20 terlantroge'u above, even if he or she decides = to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the possibilit= ies of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously - an = unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.
-
+
Comparatives and superlatives lujvosuperlatives lujvocomparatives English has the concepts of=20 comparative adjectives and=20 =20 superlative adjectives which can be formed from other a= djectives, either by adding the suffixes=20 =20 -er and=20 -est or by using the words=20 more and=20 most, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can= be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau=20 @@ -1667,28 +1667,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d14"/> la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka Einstein was the greatest of all scientists. =20
-
+
Notes on gismu place structures place structuregismu gismuplace structures= Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of = gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by= -case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu lis= t is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, = certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the o= rdering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, = and which are therefore discussed here. gismuplace structuresrationale The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four di= fferent pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regula= rity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo pl= ace structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications = of each are roughly as follows: Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has= , the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in= =20 - , a brivla with fewer pl= ace structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, becau= se they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space. + , a brivla with fewer = place structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, bec= ause they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space. =20 Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a con= cept can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need t= o make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it. Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease place= s: it is a pressure tending to provide the=20 right number of places. If something is part of the= essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the ot= her hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then thi= s pressure will tend to remove the place. @@ -1731,21 +1731,21 @@ rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 melting= The place structure of=20 rinka does not have a place for the agent, the = one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. = A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (su= ch as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the f= looding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. =20 lujvoas suppliers of agent place Indeed, there = is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few= such as=20 gasnu and=20 zukte which are then used as tertau in order to= restore the agent place when needed: see=20 - . + . <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4"/> cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 diversified speci= es gen= eral terms The c2 place of=20 cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure t= oward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; althoug= h there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though the= y exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/bree= d place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general te= rms like=20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index dd8656e..ed56316 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,21 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 -Zort: Chapters 3 to 11 (they contain FIXMEs, though, mostly about +Zort: Chapters 3 to 12 (they contain FIXMEs, though, mostly about index stuff) Matthew Walton: 3 =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so: commit 52d1388d91264b9156a3273bc30d4b0b7b631e75 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Mon Jan 10 16:40:22 2011 -0500 Chapter 12: examples (roles and tags). diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 07c8f01..c306197 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -75,38 +75,34 @@ =20 wine is a seltau relative to=20 dark, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to=20 sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or col= or. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in w= hich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of t= he time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or colo= r will be rejected as irrelevant. =20 goer-houseexample As a simple example, consider= the rather non-obvious tanru=20 klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 =20 zdani has two places: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1"/> - - x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 - + x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 (but in this chapter we will use simply=20 house, for brevity), and the gismu=20 klama has five: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2"/> - - x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 u= sing means x5 - + x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 = using means x5 The tanru=20 klama zdani will also have two places, namely t= hose of=20 zdani. Since a=20 klama zdani is a type of=20 zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses - wha= tever they may be - are also houses. dog houseexample tanrupossible meanings of= fleas= But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is nee= ded to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to = a less unlikely tanru:=20 gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 =20 @@ -138,24 +134,22 @@ =20 =20 gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller, the = dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), = and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explici= tly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a ta= nru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, h= owever, can be expressed - thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d3"/> - la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o - zdani la bil. klinton. - The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) - type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. + la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o zdani la bil. klinton. + The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. =20 derogatory terms<= /primary> Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either = Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the= White House,=20 is arguably true. If we con= centrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru=20 gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 gerku zdani changes. So if we understand=20 gerku zdani as having the same meaning as the E= nglish word=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because as fa= r as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White = House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).<= /para> @@ -188,65 +182,55 @@ lujvo place struc= turenotation conventions (The = notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) lujvo place struc= tureexplicated walk-through <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">new notation The place structure of=20 zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated here using= the new notation: =20 doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1"/> - - z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 - + z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 gerku is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d2"/> - - g1 is a dog of breed g2 - + g1 is a dog of breed g2 But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structu= re for=20 gerzda now becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d3"/> - - z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 - + z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 which can also be written - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d4"/> - - z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2 - + z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2 or more comprehensively - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d5"/> - - z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 - + z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not yet done: = we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be = eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concern= s will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equippe= d with the terminology needed for those discussions.
Selecting places lujvo place struc= turebasis of The set of places= of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. = More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of plac= es of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just eno= ugh places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, = including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excl= uding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place r= equires assuming a standard value or range of values for it. lujvo place struc= turerationale for standardization It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 se jbopli or a=20 @@ -257,108 +241,94 @@
Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo great soldierexample lujvo place structurewhen first p= laces redundant veljvosymmetrical = lujvosy= mmetrical A common pattern, perhaps the most common= pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 =20 banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structu= res are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1"/> - - - banli: b1 is great in property b2 by standa= rd b3 - - sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 - + banli: b1 is great in property b2 by= standard b3 + sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 In this case the s1 place of=20 sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to t= he b1 place of=20 banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 balsoi need not include places for both s1 and = b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 balsoi is at most =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2"/> - - b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 + b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stan= dard b3 =20 - listen attentivel= yexample lujvo place structurewhen fi= rst places redundant plus others symmetrical veljvo Som= e symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the resp= ective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 =20 tinju'i,=20 to listen (=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirna and=20 jundi are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3"/> - - - tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background= noise t3 + + tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background= noise t3 =20 - - jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 - + + jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 background noise<= /primary> and the place structure of the lujvo is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4"/> - - j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 + j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 =20 - Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays atten= tion) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing = paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard). lujvo place struc= turewhen first place redundant with non-first lujvoasymmetrical A substantial minority o= f lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (=20 gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place ot= her than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 asymmetrical tanru and=20 =20 symmetrical tanru used in=20 =20 .) lujvo place struc= tureeffect of "SE" I= n principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujv= o. Consider=20 gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the = g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned= , we could convert=20 zdani to=20 se zdani (or=20 selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place st= ructure of=20 selzda is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d5"/> - - s1 is housed by nest s2 - + s1 is housed by nest s2 and so the three-part lujvo=20 gerselzda would have the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d6"/> - - s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2 - + s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2 However, although=20 gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translat= e=20 doghouse; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse.= Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;=20 gerzda is simpler than=20 gerselzda. From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru. =20 car goerexample The lujvo=20 karcykla, for example, is based on=20 @@ -370,60 +340,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d7"/> karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 A asymmetrical interpretation of=20 karcykla that is strictly analogous to the plac= e structure of=20 gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 = (car) places, would lead to the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d8"/> - - kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 = from origin kl3 - via route kl4 by means of kl5 - + kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3= from origin kl3 + via route kl4 by means of kl5 But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, s= o a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to t= he kl5 place, leading to - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d9"/> - - kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 - by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. - + kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 + by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
Dependent places lujvo place struc= turedependent places In order = to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a luj= vo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. = One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can b= e predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example= , the g2 place of=20 =20 =20 gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Becaus= e when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known do= g), then we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependenc= y between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have= not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one hou= se. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know= the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller= . lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent seltau places The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent place= s provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from t= he tentative place structure given in=20 , leaving the place structur= e: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1"/> - - z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 - + z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a = lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the dog= house, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2"/> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. =20 @@ -464,58 +428,51 @@ Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernar= d. =20 and in that case, it makes little sense to say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d6"/> - la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o - la sankt. berNARD. - Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. = Bernard, - =20 - of breed St. Bernard. + la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. + Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Ber= nard, of breed St. Bernard. supplementary inf= ormation employing the over-ample place structure of= =20 . The dog breed is redundant= ly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitive= ly speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplem= entary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. =20 beetle<= secondary>example As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 =20 calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7"/> - - - calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made = of ca3 - - cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of specie= s ci2 + + calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made = of ca3 + + cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of specie= s ci2 =20 - lujvo place struc= turedropping cross-dependent places lujvo place structure<= /primary>cross-dependent places cross-dependency arthropod This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one g= ismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because a= ll insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into= ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect ha= s only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivale= nt to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d8"/> - - ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 + ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 =20 - with not a single place of=20 calku surviving independently! beetles= Coleoptera (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tell= s us just why=20 cakcinki means=20 beetle (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in the= ir adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no = way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable featur= e of beetles in particular.) =20 =20 =20 lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent tertau places What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belong= s to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of=20 @@ -536,27 +493,25 @@ school buildingexample lujvo place structuredropping d= ependent placescaveat auditoriums <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">elementary schools playgrounds recital roo= ms Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the sel= tau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the l= ujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed = of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the constr= uction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools nee= d auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and s= o on: therefore, the place structure of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 kuldi'u (from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9"/> - - d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to aud= ience c4 - + d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to au= dience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), do= n't seem to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. =20
Ordering lujvo places. lujvo place order= So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places= to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the = story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right ord= er of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becom= es critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way tha= t a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is = which. prayer<= secondary>example lujvo place orderrationale for standardi= zation If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then= , we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some con= ventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take f= or example the lujvo=20 @@ -568,59 +523,53 @@ di'e jdaselsku la dong. =20 This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. =20 Dongexample we must be able to know if Dong is = the person making the prayer, giving the meaning =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d2"/> - - This is a prayer by Dong + This is a prayer by Dong =20 - or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3"/> - - This is a prayer to Dong + This is a prayer to Dong =20 - We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 =20 discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more necess= ary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessar= y; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take adv= antage of any available regularities. =20 =20 great soldierexample lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujv= o el= imination process We use two different ordering rules= : one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lu= jvo like=20 balsoi (from=20 ) has the places of its tert= au followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination proces= s. For=20 =20 balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place struc= ture: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4"/> - - b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 + b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stan= dard b3 =20 - just what appears in=20 . In fact, all place structu= res shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of th= is section, though the fact has been left tacit until now. The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujv= o bridi-schema <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d5"/> b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3 @@ -642,44 +591,38 @@ and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained= in=20 . veterinarianexample lujvo place orderasymmetrical lujv= o an= imal doctorexample Asymmetrica= l lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different r= ule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, = but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the fi= rst place of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 =20 danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7"/> - - - danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 - - mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ail= ment m3 using treatment m4 + + danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 + + mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ail= ment m3 using treatment m4 =20 - ailment= and the lujvo place structure is: =20 =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8"/> - - m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment m= 3 - =20 - using treatment m4 - + m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment = m3 using treatment m4 animal patient Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, = the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared plac= e; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.<= /para> =20
lujvo with more than two parts. tomorrowexample lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more pa= rt veljvo The theory we have outlined so far is an = account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more t= han two parts. An example is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 =20 @@ -688,141 +631,119 @@ day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 bavlamdei as having two components:=20 bavla'i,=20 next, and=20 djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place str= ucture for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in = the usual way. =20 =20 In this case,=20 bavla'i is given the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d1"/> - - b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 - + b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with=20 djedi, which has the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d2"/> - - duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 - + duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 anomalous orderin= g of lujvo places While symmetrical lujvo normally pu= t any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is = a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the def= inition of=20 =20 bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidel= ines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not l= aws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places= in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3"/> - - d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defau= lt 1) by standard d3 - + d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defa= ult 1) by standard d3 long-swordexample medieval weapon Here is another exa= mple of a multi-part lujvo:=20 cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: =20 =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4"/> - - - clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standa= rd c3 + + clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standa= rd c3 dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with bl= ade made of d3 - - xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 = by wielder xa3 - + + xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 = by wielder xa3 sword blade Since=20 cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on=20 cladakfu xarci, and=20 cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can = do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the= knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the= thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given = that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of le= ngth) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so= is dependent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu= in right-to-left order we get: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5"/> - - xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wie= lder xa3, - =20 - with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. - + xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wi= elder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled,= but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it = is best that it be last.
Eliding SE rafsi from seltau lujvodropping SE rafsi It is common to form luj= vo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo= rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful construction= s shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the = lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh eas= e in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual con= cept. proposed law Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1"/> - - - stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 t= o audience st3 + + stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 t= o audience st3 flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for commun= ity f3 under conditions f4 - by lawgiver f5 - + by lawgiver f5 lined up This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the = second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, n= amely f1. However, if we understand=20 ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo=20 selti'ifla, then we get the first places of sel= tau and tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 =20 selti'i is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d2"/> - - - selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by ag= ent se2 to audience se3 - + + selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by ag= ent se2 to audience se3 Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1= (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structur= e is: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d3"/> - - f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 - by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 - + f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under cond= itions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 or, relabeling the places, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d4"/> - - f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 - by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 - + f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under cond= itions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.= lujvoabbreviated Abbreviated lujvo like=20 ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker= ) than their more explicit counterparts like=20 selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don't req= uire the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the s= eltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But shoul= d the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out= , then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, su= ch abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscur= e the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give = our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to enco= urage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -861,27 +782,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d2"/> la djak. cu se blakanla Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes But look now at the place structure of=20 blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the pla= ce structure is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d3"/> - - bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 - + bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 We end up being most interested in talking about the second plac= e, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so=20 se would almost always be required. What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wro= ngly, under the influence of English. The English suffix=20 -eyed does not mean=20 eye, but someone with an eye, which is=20 selkanla. Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a=20 se that really should be there), any attempt to= accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is= fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, luj= vo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their= more explicit counterparts: in this case,=20 blaselkanla. @@ -896,32 +815,32 @@ beefsteakexample beefsteak For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d1"/> [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo - ( bovine meat ) slice + ( bovine meat ) slice =20 bovine<= secondary>example because of the usual Lojban left-= grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that ve= ljvo and <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d2"/> bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e] - bovine ( meat slice ) + bovine ( meat slice ) =20 =20 sneak inexample meat sliceexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o =20 @@ -992,33 +911,31 @@ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> before it, it's better to leave the result= as two words, or else to insert=20 <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.= </para> <para>It is all right to replace the phrase=20 <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase> with=20 <jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase>, and the places of=20 <jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase> are exactly those of=20 <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>. But consider the related lujvo=20 <jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>, meaning=20 <quote>to walk to somewhere</quote>. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, deriv= ed from the veljvo=20 <jbophrase>cadzu klama</jbophrase> as follows:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-4yG0"> + <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-4yG0"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d7"/> - - - cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c= 3 + + cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c= 3 klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 u= sing k5 dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k3 via rou= te k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 - on surface c2 - + on surface c2 We can swap the k1 and k2 places using=20 se dzukla, but we cannot directly make=20 se dzukla into=20 seldzukla, which would represent the veljvo=20 selcadzu klama and plausibly mean something lik= e=20 to go to a walking surface. Instead, we would need=20 selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for=20 ke. Similarly,=20 nalbrablo (from=20 @@ -1051,94 +968,83 @@ =20 se ke te, since there is no need to re-order pl= aces in the way that=20 se te provides. (See=20 =20 .)
Abstract lujvo lujvo place struc= ture"nu" lujvo abstract lujvo lujvoabstract The cmavo of NU can participate in the c= onstruction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Cons= ider that old standard example,=20 klama: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/> - - k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. - + k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. The selbri=20 nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of= -going, but the full five places exist implicitly between=20 nu and=20 kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be p= laced there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and conse= quently the lujvo=20 nunkla (=20 nun- is the rafsi for=20 nu), needs to have six places: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d2"/> - - nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route= k4 by means k5. - + nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rout= e k4 by means k5. Here the first place of=20 nunklama is the first and only place of=20 nu, and the other five places have been pushed = down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information= on=20 nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned = in this section, is given in=20 . lujvo place struc= turemulti-place abstraction lujvo lujvo place structure"ni" lujvo For those ab= stractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to = place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being = abstracted. The place structure of=20 nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 ni klama, is the imposing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d3"/> - - ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rout= e k4 - by means k5, measured on scale ni2. - + ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rou= te k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2. It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making = of more complex lujvo as well. For example,=20 nunsoidji, from the veljvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d4"/> nu sonci kei djica event-of being-a-soldier desirer has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d5"/> - - d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for p= urpose d3 - + d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for = purpose d3 where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by= the places of the seltau. As shown in=20 , the ordering follows this = idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the = omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau. The lujvo=20 nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary = asymmetric lujvo=20 =20 soidji, a=20 soldier desirer, whose place structure is just - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d6"/> - - d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 - + d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 A=20 nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enli= st, whereas a=20 soidji might be a camp-follower. One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit= =20 =20 kei in tanru:=20 nunkalri gasnu means much the same as=20 nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition= , many English words ending in=20 -hood are represented with=20 @@ -1194,69 +1100,63 @@ nu, however, is extremely important in producin= g a class of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. =20 =20 Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 nunctikezgau, meaning=20 to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwi= nded, be patient.) The veljvo of=20 =20 nunctikezgau is=20 nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structur= es are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d1"/> - - - nu: n1 is an event - - citka: c1 eats c2 - - gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event= g2 - + + nu: n1 is an event + + citka: c1 eats c2 + + gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event= g2 In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo = given in=20 , we will first create an in= termediate lujvo,=20 nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 ,=20 nuncti has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d2"/> n1 is the event of c1 eating c2 Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 nunctikezgau into=20 nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is brought abo= ut by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of ea= ting). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative pla= ce structure of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3"/> - - g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 - + g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depe= nd on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the selta= u, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 =20 =20 nunctikezgau is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4"/> - - g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 - + g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoi in=20 , the interpretation of lujv= o is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, = any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstr= action either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of= =20 =20 gasnu is defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nu is the type of abstraction one would expect = to be a=20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 @@ -1273,184 +1173,158 @@ do as=20 bring about an event; so the seltau must refer to an ev= ent,=20 nu citka. The English slang meanings of=20 do someone, namely=20 socialize with someone and=20 have sex with someone, are not relevant to=20 gasnu.) So we can simply use=20 ctigau with the same place structure as=20 nunctikezgau: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d5"/> - - agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 - g1 feeds c2 to c1. - + agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 + g1 feeds c2 to c1. This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau = serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is c= alled an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an= abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit). =20 =20 To give another example: the gismu=20 basti, whose place structure is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d6"/> - - b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 - + b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 can form the lujvo=20 basygau, with the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d7"/> - - g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 - + g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 where both=20 basti and=20 basygau are translated=20 replace in English, but represent different relations:= =20 basti may be used with no mention of any agent = doing the replacing. In addition,=20 gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we wou= ld consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a pred= icate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This= is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages= . For example, the gismu=20 =20 =20 =20 litki, meaning=20 liquid, with the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d8"/> - - l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions= l3 - + l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under condition= s l3 can give=20 likygau, meaning=20 to liquefy: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d9"/> - - g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of compositio= n l2 - under conditions l3. - + g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of compositi= on l2 under conditions l3. While=20 likygau correctly represents=20 causes to be a liquid, a different lujvo based on=20 galfi (meaning=20 modify) may be more appropriate for=20 causes to become a liquid. On the other hand,=20 fetsygau is potentially confusing, because it c= ould mean=20 agent in the event of something becoming female (the im= plicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply=20 female agent (the parallel interpretation), so using im= plicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misu= nderstood. =20 =20 Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and = therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction luj= vo. For example, lujvo based on=20 =20 =20 =20 rinka, with its place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d10"/> - - event r1 causes event r2 to occur - + event r1 causes event r2 to occur are closely related to those based on=20 gasnu. However,=20 rinka is less generally useful than=20 gasnu, because its r1 place is another event ra= ther than a person:=20 lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the pla= ce structure of=20 likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to=20 likygau, is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d11"/> - - event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid - of composition l2 under conditions l3 - + event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition= l2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. =20 =20
Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1"/> - - - lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 a= nd beliefs l3 - - cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 = in medium c4 - + + lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 a= nd beliefs l3 + + cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 = in medium c4 and=20 selsku, the tertau of=20 jdaselsku, has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d2"/> - - s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 - + s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: = the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2).= This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been give= n in=20 or=20 ; therefore, for lack of a = better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places= after them, leading to the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d3"/> - - s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium = s4 - pertaining to religion l1 - + s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium= s4 pertaining to religion l1 The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l= 1 place (the religion) and so is omitted. We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with=20 se seljdasku, where=20 seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with pl= ace structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d4"/> - - c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in med= ium s4 - pertaining to religion l1 - + c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in me= dium s4 pertaining to religion l1 which, according to the rule expressed in=20 , can be further expressed a= s=20 selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the= ugly=20 selsel- prefix just to get the rules right:=20 jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.= However, there is a further problem with=20 jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gis= mu=20 lijda and=20 @@ -1462,84 +1336,74 @@ =20 , is=20 lange'u, meaning=20 sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sh= eep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed= (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no ove= rlap in the places of=20 =20 =20 lanme and=20 gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog= which controls sheep flocks, a=20 terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is= =20 terlantroge'u with place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d5"/> - - g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up of= sheep l1 - =20 - in activity j3 of dog breed g2 - + g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up o= f sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2 based on the gismu place structures - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d6"/> - - - lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging = to flock l3 - - gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 - - jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 - + + lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging = to flock l3 + + gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 + + jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between=20 lantro (sheep-controller) and=20 gerku, but=20 lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 = place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujv= o=20 lange'u is both shorter than=20 terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant= its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the l= onger lujvo, for which=20 lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation. Another example is=20 xanmi'e,=20 to command by hand, to beckon. The component place stru= ctures are: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d7"/> - - - xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 - - minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 = to happen + + xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 + + minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 = to happen =20 - The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for t= here to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (th= e one who commands). But interpreting=20 =20 xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided= =20 sel- in the seltau, as if from=20 se xance minde, misses the point: the real rela= tion expressed by the lujvo is not just=20 one who commands and has a hand, but=20 =20 to command using the hand. The concept of=20 using suggests the gismu=20 pilno, with place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d8"/> - - p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 - + p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly y= ou want to constrain the veljvo) <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d9"/> [ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde (hand user) type-of commander @@ -1588,42 +1452,38 @@ more and=20 most, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can= be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau=20 zmadu,=20 mleca,=20 zenba,=20 jdika, and=20 traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and= easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed. We will begin with lujvo based on=20 zmadu and=20 mleca, whose place structures are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d1"/> - - - zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in= quantity z4 - - mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in= quantity m4 - + + zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in= quantity z4 + + mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in= quantity m4 For example, the concept=20 young is expressed by the gismu=20 citno, with place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d2"/> - - - citno: c1 is young - + + citno: c1 is young younger= example lujvo place ordercomparatives The comparative concept=20 younger can be expressed by the lujvo=20 =20 citmau (based on the veljvo=20 citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3"/> @@ -1631,28 +1491,26 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa</jbo> <gloss>I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six.</gloss> =20 <en>I am six years younger than you.</en> =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The place structure for=20 <jbophrase>citmau</jbophrase> is</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-I3Uh"> + <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-I3Uh"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4"/> - - z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 + z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 =20 - Similarly, in Lojban you can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d5"/> do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six. You are six years less young than me. @@ -1677,38 +1535,34 @@ X likes Y more than X likes Z, or=20 X likes Y more than Z likes Y? Does=20 klamau mean:=20 X goes to Y more than to Z,=20 X goes to Y more than Z does,=20 X goes to Y from Z more than from W, or what? lujvo place struc= turecomparative lujvo comparative lujvostandardized meanings We answer this concern by p= utting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by conven= tion, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the = seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be = expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the ne= w first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place st= ructures: =20 =20 =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d6"/> - - - nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amo= unt z4 - - selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by = n1 in amount z4 - - klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k= 3 via k4 by means of k5 - - selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by = k1 from k3 via k4 - by means of k5 - - terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin p= oint from destination k2 - for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 - + + nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amo= unt z4 + + selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by = n1 in amount z4 + + klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k= 3 via k4 by means of k5 + + selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by = k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5 + + terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin p= oint from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 (See=20 for the way in which this pro= blem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.) The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and th= e other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresse= s by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place= whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while=20 nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place,=20 klamau has it as its sixth place. In any senten= ce where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged w= ith=20 vemau (for=20 zmadu) or=20 veme'a (for=20 mleca) to help make the speaker's intention cle= ar. @@ -1749,59 +1603,51 @@ mi ca tsaze'a I increase in strength. Finally, lujvo with a tertau of=20 traji are used to build superlatives. The place= structure of=20 traji is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d9"/> - - t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (larg= est by default) of set t4 - + t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (lar= gest by default) of set t4 Consider the gismu=20 xamgu, whose place structure is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d10"/> - - xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 - + xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 better<= secondary>example The comparative form is=20 xagmau, corresponding to English=20 better, with a place structure (by the rules given abov= e) of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11"/> - - z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 - + z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 lujvo place order= superlatives lujvo place structuresu= perlatives We would expect the place structure of= =20 xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror= that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, re= sulting in: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d12"/> - - xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3. - + xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.<= /para> The t2 place in=20 traji, normally filled by a property abstractio= n, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extrem= um of=20 =20 =20 traji (whether the most or the least, that is) = is presumed by default to be=20 the most. lujvo place order= superlatives as exceptions But= the set against which the t1 place of=20 traji is compared is not the t2 place (which wo= uld make the place structure of=20 traji fully parallel to that of=20 @@ -1843,77 +1689,69 @@ Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease place= s: it is a pressure tending to provide the=20 right number of places. If something is part of the= essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the ot= her hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then thi= s pressure will tend to remove the place. Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or d= ecrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantic= ally related to it are likely to have the place also. Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discuss= ion of the pressures operating on them: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d1"/> - - - xekri: xe1 is black - + + xekri: xe1 is black color standards Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced b= y one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of colo= r standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 =20 xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color= standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 =20 ci'u (=20 =20 in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2"/> - - - jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and loca= tion j4 - + + jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and loca= tion j4 The gismu=20 jbena contains places for time and location, wh= ich few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something i= s done is supplied by a tense tag (see=20 ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 le te jbena a simple term for=20 birthday and=20 le ve jbena for=20 birthplace, so these places were provided despite their= lack of metaphysical necessity. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d3"/> - - - rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 - + + rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 melting= The place structure of=20 rinka does not have a place for the agent, the = one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. = A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (su= ch as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the f= looding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. =20 lujvoas suppliers of agent place Indeed, there = is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few= such as=20 gasnu and=20 zukte which are then used as tertau in order to= restore the agent place when needed: see=20 . - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4"/> - - - cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 - + + cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 diversified speci= es gen= eral terms The c2 place of=20 cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure t= oward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; althoug= h there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though the= y exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/bree= d place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general te= rms like=20 =20 =20 cinki (insect), and are provided for all other = animals and plants as a matter of regularity. =20 gismuplace orderrationale = Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularitie= s are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychologi= cal saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place struct= ure of=20 klama, for example, that=20 lo klama (the one going) will be talked about m= ore often, and is thus more important, than=20 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.