From bpfk-list+bncCMbnveiNHRDEvqjqBBoEGL4mxQ@googlegroups.com Wed Feb 02 19:22:54 2011 Received: from mail-pw0-f61.google.com ([209.85.160.61]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PkplY-000793-5C; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:22:53 -0800 Received: by pwi2 with SMTP id 2sf278215pwi.16 for ; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:46 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date :message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=lIDYs2oXjnJP39cdvX+OWRv4JxDEFQ/02qCWhXSml0E=; b=JVU3HwNeDCCeXRaVkqXEcBlym3GaH1IaveO+rxY7FAL2zwUQp7ZsGqGLz43rauKRx6 a8v7kEOnlPIkakQYkwbWLh76nEd2gYwfpLELl29JW3lyLZrIAKaGeWhQPv9TL7LoUyaL E8CpKTTUp3vEc5VBDGrraZad5WyU14QKrh8K0= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=ZTRMDxAdaCH55GL3cOIHTjYA26RuIDEyVuM6jLMy18twRa/32QQOh7tvyJhiFYyKNm lyH6GhJGcJNck7UoZh1nKO5QT7jMGu/xPjdayo0W9gEpSkmdMvOPBkCFH4ZUCKWm0qPZ wD1+wuElTKAUJvvGii2+F62HXgd9gqYE10Bbw= Received: by 10.142.191.16 with SMTP id o16mr58313wff.43.1296703300175; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:40 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.142.2.41 with SMTP id 41ls1926852wfb.0.p; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:39 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.229.13 with SMTP id b13mr2056114wfh.61.1296703299472; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:39 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.229.13 with SMTP id b13mr2056113wfh.61.1296703299201; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:39 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTPS id w1si366728wfo.1.2011.02.02.19.21.38 (version=TLSv1/SSLv3 cipher=RC4-MD5); Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:39 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PkplJ-00078t-VU for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:38 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pkpkq-00078V-IB for bpfk@lojban.org; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 19:21:37 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Pkpko-0002kj-VR for bpfk@lojban.org; Wed, 02 Feb 2011 22:21:07 -0500 Date: Wed, 02 Feb 2011 22:21:06 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Wed Feb 2 22:21:06 EST 2011 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=windows-1252 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 66c76006e8c7dc398a53d5e70d57ed461011ad65 Merge: cc630f0 5fb4e67 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 18:42:18 2011 -0800 Merge commit '5fb4e67167139ea9f95b498d19722de8aa521672' into gh-pages commit cc630f0c6dc3b5bd6079f215c2575ed59e8cce93 Merge: 8880d94 cc218de Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 18:33:40 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'cc218deb8bbe027ad82b248076f967a4dbac3ff1' into gh-pages commit 8880d9425ba8c0054b7b0e1d697809baf03da97a Merge: 5c10370 b4d0588 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 12:04:30 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'b4d0588e0fb58a746cfae761de9aae9c9f8f5e32' into gh-pages commit 5fb4e67167139ea9f95b498d19722de8aa521672 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Fri Jan 14 21:33:33 2011 -0500 Chapter 14: s. Also, last commit I invented , whic= h replaces for compound cmavo cmavo-entries. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 0e87b0c..075531e 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -4,27 +4,25 @@ Logical connection and truth tables =20 truth functions logical= languagetruth functions Lojba= n is a logical language: the name of the language itself means=20 =20 logical language. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t= here are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the n= otions of a=20 =20 sentence (sometimes called a=20 statement or=20 proposition), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a= small set of=20 truth functions, which combine two sentences to create = a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that th= e truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only= on the truth value of the component sentences. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e1d1"/> - - John is a man or James is a woman. - + John is a man or James is a woman. man or womanexample is true if=20 John is a man is true, or if=20 James is a woman is true. If we know whether John is a = man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether=20 John is a man or James is a woman is true, provided we = know the meaning of=20 or. Here=20 John is a man and=20 James is a woman are the component sentences. negating a senten= ceand truth value We will use = the phrase=20 negating a sentence to mean changing its truth value. A= n English sentence may always be negated by prefixing=20 @@ -196,46 +194,44 @@ E with both sentences negated truth functionscommutative commutative truth functions Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with=20 U. The three other basic truth= functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of= the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some= of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employe= d. =20
The six types of logical connectives logical connectiv= esrationale for multiple sets in grammar In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1"/> - - Mary went to the window and ... + Mary went to the window and ... =20 - window<= secondary>example where the last word could be foll= owed by=20 the door, a noun phrase, or by=20 saw the horses, a sentence with subject omitted, or by= =20 John went to the door, a full sentence, or by one of a = variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate = such grammatical looseness. JA selma'o GIhA= selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o logical connectivesselma'oenumerated Instead, there are a total = of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, a= nd JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vow= els, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel i= s the entire cmavo. logical connectiv= escmavoformat for each selma'o Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 A is=20 - a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with=20 + a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with= =20 A, which is a truth function, = or=20 - a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for=20 + a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for= =20 E in selma'o GIhA is=20 gi'e, and the cmavo for=20 U in selma'o GA is=20 - gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo easier t= o learn. + gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo = easier to learn. compound logical = connectivescomponents Obviousl= y, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in= =20 . Therefore, compound cmavo = must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has on= e cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also= contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo=20 - se,=20 + se,=20 na, or=20 nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logi= cal connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained = in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relate= s to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar. JA selma'o A se= lma'o = jekdefinition ekdefinition -ek<= secondary>in name for logical connectives compound logical connectivesnaming convention For convenience, each= of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated b= y a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final=20 -A of the selma'o name to=20 -ek; the reasons for using=20 -ek are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Projec= t. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those base= d on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventi= onal to use=20 eks as the plural of=20 =20 ek.) When the term=20 logical connective is used in this chapter, it refers t= o one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo. @@ -295,21 +291,21 @@ John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman. bridilogical connection with negation To obtain= the other truth tables listed in=20 =20 , we need to know how to neg= ate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate = them directly by inserting=20 na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us= to place the negation within the connective itself. I selma'o JA se= lma'o To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix= =20 na to the JA cmavo but after the=20 .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, s= uffix=20 - -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word= is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being= negated. + -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negat= ing word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bri= di being negated. So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires=20 =20 O with either of the two bridi= negated (not both), we can say either: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d5"/> la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. @@ -385,37 +381,37 @@ la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> sein logical connective to exchange sentences = The following example illustrates the use of=20 - se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The norma= l use of=20 - se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as ex= plained in=20 + se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. T= he normal use of=20 + se is to (in effect) transpose places of a brid= i, as explained in=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11"/> la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 na and=20 - se are present, which is legal but never necessary,=20 + se are present, which is legal but never necess= ary,=20 na would come before=20 - se. + se. JA selma'o I se= lma'o = ijekssyntax of The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is: .i [na] [se] JA [nai] where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
Forethought bridi connection =20 =20 @@ -451,24 +447,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d3"/> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). GI selma'o GA s= elma'o=20 - ga is the cmavo which represents the=20 + ga is the cmavo which represents the=20 A truth function in selma'o GA= . The word=20 - gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its ow= n selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any cont= ent of its own. The English translation of=20 - ga ... gi is=20 + gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitute= s its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having = any content of its own. The English translation of=20 + ga ... gi is=20 either ... or, but in the English form the truth functi= on is specified both by the word=20 either and by the word=20 or: not so in Lojban. I selma'o iregarding forethought bridi connection= forethought bridi connectio= nas grammatically one sentence= Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not have any= =20 =20 .i in them. The forethought construct binds up = the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned. Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are: =20 =20 =20 @@ -486,21 +482,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5"/> gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman= . It is worth emphasizing that=20 does not assert that James = is (or is not) a woman. The=20 - gu which indicates that=20 + gu which indicates that=20 la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is unfor= tunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected. Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expre= ssed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as=20 if ... then ...: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d6"/> ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -512,21 +508,21 @@ nai in=20 . When added to afterthought= selma'o such as JA, a following=20 nai negates the second bridi, to which it is ad= jacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following=20 nai negates the first bridi instead. logical connectiv= esnegated first sentence as a potential problem for un= derstanding Why does English insist on forethought = in the translation of=20 ? Possibly because it would = be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (w= hich, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which= involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic= understanding, when expressed using afterthought. if =85 thenlogical connectives contrasted with other translations It must be reiterated here that not every use of English= =20 if ... then is properly translated by=20 =20 .inaja or=20 - ganai ... gi; anything with implications of time needs = a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in=20 + ganai ... gi; anything with implications of tim= e needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in= =20 . Causal sentences like=20 If you feed the pig, then it will grow are not logical = connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using=20 =20 rinka as the selbri joining two event abstracti= ons, thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7"/> @@ -543,37 +539,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/> gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman, Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. GI selma'o gina= i How can the second bridi be negated? By adding=20 - -nai to the=20 - gi. + -nai to the=20 + gi. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d9"/> go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman. Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. GI selma'o gikdefinition A compound cmavo based o= n=20 - gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 + gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 =20 - gi itself and=20 - ginai. + gi itself and=20 + ginai. Further examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d10"/> ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman. @@ -658,36 +654,36 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d5"/> ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. A selma'o se writin= g conventionin eks na writing conventionin eks Of course, eks include all the same patte= rns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When=20 na or=20 - se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is in= voked, as in the following example: + se is part of an ek, a special writing conventi= on is invoked, as in the following example: A selma'o na.a FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6"/> la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci John only if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market only if Alice does. Note the period in=20 na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and the= refore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all = connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must = still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the=20 na and=20 - a would tend to run together. + a would tend to run together.
More than two propositions logical connectiv= esmore than 2 sentences So far= we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. Ho= w about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is= yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions. logical connectiv= esassociative Of the four prim= itive truth functions=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U, all but=20 O have the same truth values n= o matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,<= /para> @@ -789,86 +785,86 @@ is not equivalent to=20 , but is instead a valid tra= nslation into Lojban, using forethought, of=20 .
Grouping of afterthought connectives BO selma'o bo boin logical connectives logical connectionw= ith boprecedence logical connectivesg= rouping with bo There are several ways in Lojban to= render=20 using afterthought only. Th= e simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 - bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in= Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In = particular, if=20 - bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatical= ly distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Co= nnections marked with=20 - bo are interpreted before connections not so marked.=20 + bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several func= tions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short sc= ope. In particular, if=20 + bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a gra= mmatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping = rule. Connections marked with=20 + bo are interpreted before connections not so ma= rked.=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d1"/> mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la= meris. I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary. The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the L= ojban marks far more clearly: the=20 I like Martha and=20 I like Mary sentences are joined by=20 .ija first, before the result is joined to=20 I like John by=20 .ije. =20 Eks can have=20 - bo attached in exactly the same way, so that=20 + bo attached in exactly the same way, so that=20 is equivalent in meaning to= Example 8.1: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d2"/> mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris. bo and forethough= t connectives <= primary>forethought connectives and bo Forethought co= nnectives, however, never can be suffixed with=20 - bo, for every use of forethought connectives clearly in= dicates the intended pattern of grouping. + bo, for every use of forethought connectives cl= early indicates the intended pattern of grouping. =20 What happens if=20 - bo is used on both connectives, giving them the same hi= gh precedence, as in=20 + bo is used on both connectives, giving them the= same high precedence, as in=20 ? <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d3"/> mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris. BO selma'o logical = connectivesright-grouping with bo bor= ight-grouping Does this wind up meaning the same as= =20 and=20 ? Not at all. A second rule = relating to=20 - bo is that where several=20 - bo-marked connectives are used in succession, the norma= l Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a resu= lt,=20 + bo is that where several=20 + bo-marked connectives are used in succession, t= he normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. A= s a result,=20 =20 in fact means the same as= =20 and=20 . This rule may be occasiona= lly exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in writi= ng intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives mark= ed with=20 - bo should be avoided. + bo should be avoided. KEhE selma'o<= /primary> KE= selma'o TUhU selma'o TUhE selma'o ke'e ke tu'u tu'e complex logical connectives<= secondary>grouping with parentheses logical connectiongrou= ping strategies for complex cases contrasted complex logical connectiongrouping strategies contrasted The use= of=20 - bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of mo= re than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of=20 + bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connectio= ns of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations o= f=20 and=20 , parentheses were used to c= larify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two s= ets of them actually.=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discussed lat= er. (=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e are also used in other roles in the language, but = always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: + tu'e and=20 + tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discu= ssed later. (=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e are also used in other roles in the langua= ge, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d4"/> I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. bo<= /indexterm> BO selma'o complex= logical connectivesgrouping with bo where the semantics tells us that the instances of=20 and are meant to have higher precedence than that of=20 @@ -877,42 +873,42 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d5"/> mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo d= o prami mi I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. marking two of the ijeks with=20 - bo for high precedence. (The first=20 - bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-group= ing rule, and is shown here in brackets.) + bo for high precedence. (The first=20 + bo is not strictly necessary, because of the le= ft-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.) complex logical c= onnectivesgrouping with parentheses But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d6"/> tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] ( I kiss you and you kiss me ) if ( I love you and you love me ). where the=20 - tu'e ... tu'u pairs set off the structure. The cmavo=20 - tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second occurren= ce in=20 + tu'e ... tu'u pairs set off the structure. The = cmavo=20 + tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second = occurrence in=20 is bracketed, because all t= erminators may be elided at the end of a text. In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parent= heses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought materia= l may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these t= wo advantages apply to=20 - bo grouping. In general, afterthought constructions tra= de generality for simplicity. + bo grouping. In general, afterthought construct= ions trade generality for simplicity. Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of=20 - tu'e ... tu'u parentheses may actually be left off alto= gether, producing: + tu'e ... tu'u parentheses may actually be left = off altogether, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d7"/> mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me ). @@ -922,36 +918,36 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d8"/> I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and = the office. KE selma'o ke sumtibeginning with "ke" <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">logical connectionof sumtirestriction on ke logical connectionof sumtigrouping with parentheses Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to=20 , would seem to be the right= approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not beg= in with=20 - ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, pr= oducing=20 + ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omi= tted, producing=20 , which is instead parallel = to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d9"/> mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke= 'e] I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the = office ). KE selma'o ke ke in s= umti groupingwhere allowed If = sumti were allowed to begin with=20 - ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 - ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 - tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 + ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 + ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after= a logical connective. This rule does not apply to=20 + tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. German rich manexample Now we have enough facil= ities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these. T= he following paraphrase has the correct meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10"/> [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] @@ -1047,46 +1043,46 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d6"/> mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from yo= u. VAU selma'o vau= bridi= -tailseliding vau in compound bridi with more than one sum= ti in commonwith vau The=20 - vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail = from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable=20 - vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it e= ver necessary to express this=20 + vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bri= di-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable= =20 + vau, but only in connection with compound bridi= is it ever necessary to express this=20 =20 - vau. Thus: + vau. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d7"/> mi klama le zarci [vau] I go-to the market. has a single elided=20 - vau, and=20 + vau, and=20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d8"/> mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau] where the double=20 - vau at the end of=20 + vau at the end of=20 terminates both the right-h= and bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms. logical connectiv= esobservative sentence connection A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete senten= ces, the Lojban observative: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d9"/> klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju @@ -1125,49 +1121,49 @@ =20 [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.
Multiple compound bridi =20 compound bridimultiple with bo Giheks can be co= mbined with=20 - bo in the same way as eks: + bo in the same way as eks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1"/> mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris= . I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ). compound bridimultiple with ke=85ke'e is equiva= lent in meaning to=20 and=20 . Likewise,=20 - ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after giheks: + ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after giheks:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2"/> mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e] I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, or walk-to the school and walk-to the office. KEhE selma'o<= /primary> ke= logic= al connectionof bridi-tailsrestr= iction on ke <= primary>multiple compound bridirestriction on ke is the gihek version of=20 . The same rule about using= =20 - ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a connective app= lies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 + ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a connec= tive applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 cannot be explicitly groupe= d; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them. compound bridiseparate tail-terms for bridi-tails Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its = own set of tail-terms: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3"/> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.<= /jbo> .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. @@ -1290,24 +1286,24 @@ I go to the market from the office and to the house from the = school. =20 PEhE selma'o<= /primary> pe= 'e CEhE selma'o ce'e logical connectiontermsets termsetformation termdefinition T= he Lojban version of=20 requires two termsets joine= d by a logical connective. A=20 term is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense o= r modal tag such as=20 pu or=20 bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linkin= g terms together by inserting the cmavo=20 - ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermor= e, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo=20 - pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combinat= ion of=20 + ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Fu= rthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the = cmavo=20 + pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the = combination of=20 =20 - pe'e and a jek as a=20 + pe'e and a jek as a=20 =20 pehejek, I suppose.) to the market from th= e office FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2"/> mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je =20 @@ -1367,50 +1363,50 @@ mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office. means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the= office;=20 =20 le briju is the x3 place of=20 klama and the x2 place of=20 dzukla. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i forethought termsetslogical connection of logic= al connectionof forethought termsets Forethought termsets also exist, and use=20 - nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and=20 - nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal= the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit= side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a= gek, with the gek just after the=20 - nu'i, and an extra=20 - nu'u just before the gik: + nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning an= d=20 + nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) t= o signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they si= mply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termse= t, use a gek, with the gek just after the=20 + nu'i, and an extra=20 + nu'u just before the gik: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d7"/> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset]. Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 - nu'i is used. + nu'i is used. The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 and=20 .
Logical connection within tanru logical connectiv= es in tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical connec= tive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is pos= sible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru = that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a= blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is b= oth blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within t= he tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were = always prefixed by=20 - pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: + pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Her= e is a pair of examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d1"/> ti blanu zdani This is-a-blue type-of house. @@ -1481,46 +1477,46 @@ la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blu= e team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make s= uch logical manipulations impossible. =20 BO selma'o bo logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= bo It suffices to note here, then, a few purely gra= mmatical points about tanru logical connection.=20 =20 - bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rul= es: + bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the = same rules: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8"/> la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi =20 Terry is rich and ( male or female ). KE selma'o ke logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= ke=20 The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 - ke both before and after a logical connective: + ke both before and after a logical connective:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9"/> la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi= [ke'e] Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female). where the first=20 - ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogether by the rule = of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instan= ce of=20 - ke'e may be elided. + ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogether by t= he rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the las= t instance of=20 + ke'e may be elided. JA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= n= a jeks= syntax of The syntax of jeks i= s: [na] [se] JA [nai] parallel to eks and giheks. =20 GUhA selma'o<= /primary> guhek<= /primary>definition forethought tanru connection Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead.= Guheks have exactly the same form as geks: =20 =20 GUhA selma'o nai se guheks<= /primary>syntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1722,22 +1718,22 @@ JA tanru connective question ji A sumti connective question A selma'o JA se= lma'o GUhA selma'o GIhA selma'o GA selma'o ji je'i gu'i gi'i ge'i connective question cmavodeparture from regularity of (This l= ist unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for= logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of t= he cmavo ending in=20 - -i which is not used for a truth function, but=20 - gi and=20 + -i which is not used for a truth function, but= =20 + gi and=20 .i were not available, and different cmavo had = to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-conn= ective cmavo assignments.) connective questi= onsanswering One correct trans= lation of=20 employs a question gihek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8"/> la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu =20 @@ -1797,23 +1793,23 @@ ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? =20 coffee or teaexample the answer=20 .e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plau= sible, if not necessarily polite. afterthought conn= ectioncontrasted with forethought for grammatical utte= rances forethought connectioncontrasted with afterthought = for grammatical utterances forethought connectivesas ungra= mmatical utterance connectivesas ungrammatical utterance The forethought questions=20 - ge'i and=20 + ge'i and=20 =20 - gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the = start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 + gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity fo= rbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound l= ike the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 =20 =20 is the forethought version = of=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14"/> do djica tu'a @@ -1925,25 +1921,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4"/> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. The cmavo=20 - ku is the elidable terminator for=20 - le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 - ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see= =20 - le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru component is= to follow; since the second=20 - le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. = No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a= following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. + ku is the elidable terminator for=20 + le, which can almost always be elided, but not = in this case. If the first=20 + ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules wou= ld see=20 + le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru comp= onent is to follow; since the second=20 + le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error r= esults. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek s= ignals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguousl= y. JOI selma'o joikdefinition Single or compound cma= vo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the n= ames for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect= bridi-tails. blue and redexample mixed withexample tanru connectionconnotation of non-logical In tanr= u,=20 joi has the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5"/> @@ -1978,21 +1974,21 @@ =20 =20 A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B =20 =20 A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A =20 =20 JOI selma'o se<= /primary> se= pi'u pi'u ku'a = jo'e sefa'u fa'u jo'u sece'o ce'o ce joi JOI selma'o joiksuse of &= quot;se" in seas grammatical in JOI compounds The cmavo=20 - se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful= with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks: + se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but onl= y useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joi= ks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6"/> mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. @@ -2220,22 +2216,22 @@ =20 cu prami se remei James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha =20 are-lover type-of-pairs. andcontrasted with cross-product cross-productcontrast= ed with and <= primary>econtrasted with pi'u = pi'ucon= trasted with .e means that each of the pairs James/= Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefo= re it is similar in meaning to=20 ; however, that example spea= ks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa. JOI selma'o non-log= ical connectivesgrouping joiksgroupin= g Joiks may be combined with=20 - bo or with=20 - ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows groupin= g of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete par= allelism with logical connections: + bo or with=20 + ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows= grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in comp= lete parallelism with logical connections: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d6"/> mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass type-of-two-set @@ -2313,22 +2309,22 @@ And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. ) List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o list of things to doexample<= /indexterm> to-do listexample tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on listsuse of tu'e/tu'u in=20 represents a list of things= to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a= sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the = dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is= related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u as general brackets around the whole list.= This is related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 , because there is no logica= l connective between the introductory phrase=20 mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The brackets= effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 di'e, which means=20 =20 the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 .ijoi is used to connect sentences that represe= nt the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equiva= lent of=20 Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned= would join the events=20 Fran hit her head and=20 Fran fell out of the boat with=20 @@ -2401,21 +2397,21 @@ mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20 bi'i between Dresde= n and Frankfurtexample non-logical connectivesun-ordered intervals In=20 , it is all the same whether= I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresd= en, so=20 =20 bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. Th= e sumti=20 - la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into the x2 place o= f=20 + la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into the x2= place of=20 sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the int= erval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing o= n the whole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 sanli specifies a surface which is typically la= rger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2"/> mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac. I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. @@ -2452,24 +2448,24 @@ le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno =20 The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose di= stance, or radius, is fifty miles. GAhO selma'o<= /primary> ke= 'i ga'o = endpointsinclusion in interval= intervalinclusion of endpoints intervalopen intervalclosed <= primary>open interval closed interval In=20 , is it possible that I am s= tanding in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o B= IhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or= excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo=20 - ga'o and=20 - ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of= the endpoints:=20 - ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 - ke'i that it is excluded: + ga'o and=20 + ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the s= tatus of the endpoints:=20 + ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 + ke'i that it is excluded: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d5"/> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both= . =20 @@ -2500,30 +2496,30 @@ mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both= . =20 between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO selma'ogramm= ar of As these examples should make clear, the GAhO= cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically a= djacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and= the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have ju= st one GAhO. ke'ietymology of ga'oetymology of (Etymologically,=20 - ga'o is derived from=20 + ga'o is derived from=20 ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 - ke'i from=20 + ke'i from=20 kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI selma'ogrammar of BIhI joiks are grammatic= al anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijo= iks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses. =20 intervalseffect of nai on naieffect on intervals negated i= ntervalsmeaning of Negated int= ervals, marked with a=20 - -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval tha= t includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to so= me understood scale): + -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an inte= rval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respe= ct to some understood scale): except from 10 to 12<= /primary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. =20 You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. @@ -2538,21 +2534,21 @@ GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO JOI selma'o GI = selma'o gi joigikdefinition intervalsforethou= ght Notice that the colloquial English translations= of=20 bi'i and=20 bi'o have forethought form:=20 between ... and for=20 bi'i, and=20 from ... to for=20 bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives ca= n be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the fo= rethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by= suffixing=20 =20 - gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a= =20 + gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally ca= lled a=20 joigik; the syntax of joigiks is any of: =20 =20 GAhO selma'o JOI se= lma'o BIhI selma'o GI selma'o nai se joigikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI joigiks= connection types Joigiks may be used to = non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.<= /para> @@ -2563,23 +2559,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. =20 The first=20 - gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 + gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 =20 - gi is the regular gik that separates the two things bei= ng connected in all forethought forms. + gi is the regular gik that separates the two th= ings being connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed in foretho= ught as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11"/> mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). @@ -2590,25 +2586,25 @@
Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso mathematical expr= essionsconnectives in non-logical connectionin mathematical expressions logical connectionin ma= thematical expressions Lojban has a separate gramma= r embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expression= s (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 =20 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are o= perands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. JOI selma'o GUh= A selma'o <= primary>JA selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o BO selma'o bo connecting operatorswith bo in connective boin joiks for operators boin jeks for operators guheksconnecting oper= ators jeksconnecting operators operatorsc= onnecting operandsconnecting geksconnecti= ng operands <= primary>eksconnecting operands= Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with ge= ks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterth= ought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components.= (However, jeks and joiks with=20 =20 - bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is = no accident. + bo are not allowed for operators.) This paralle= lism is no accident. ke'e ke bo BO selma= 'o KE selma'o operatorsanalogue of tanru in connecting operatorswith ke in connective connecting operandswith ke in connective connecting operandswith bo in conn= ective In addition, eks with=20 - bo and with=20 - ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically connecte= d operands, and=20 - ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators. + bo and with=20 + ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically = connected operands, and=20 + ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operat= ors. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 , and contain many mekso features not= explained in this chapter. exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci @@ -2624,23 +2620,23 @@ vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. ve'o Note that the mekso in=20 and=20 are being used as quantifie= rs. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed i= n=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right p= arenthesis mark,=20 - ve'o, is an elidable terminator. + vei and=20 + ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The= right parenthesis mark,=20 + ve'o, is an elidable terminator. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d3"/> li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4. 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. @@ -2685,31 +2681,31 @@ xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 x sub (=20 b sequence=20 d) x boi= x{bd}example Note that t= he=20 - boi in=20 + boi in=20 is not elidable, because th= e=20 - xi subscript needs something to attach to. + xi subscript needs something to attach to.
Tenses, modals, and logical connection PU selma'o The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the= logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simulta= neously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interacti= on with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of th= is chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of sel= ma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the p= resent, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state = the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb= tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is= before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is= generally a=20 - le nu abstraction; see=20 + le nu abstraction; see=20 ). logically connect= ed tensesdefinition logical connectioninteraction with tenses The two types of interacti= on between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses an= d tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be use= d between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in te= nse: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1"/> la .artr. pu nolraitru @@ -2772,145 +2768,145 @@ mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.<= /gloss> fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 .) However, the tense informati= on - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buyi= ng food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 - bo: + bo: ba .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja =20 I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-o= f food. Here the=20 pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the tim= e of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The=20 ba relates the two items to one another: the se= cond item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omittin= g the=20 - bo; if it were omitted, the=20 + bo; if it were omitted, the=20 ba and the second=20 pu would run together to form a compound tense= =20 =20 =20 =20 bapu applying to the second bridi-tail only. BO selma'o A se= lma'o = tensed logical connectivesin ek=85bo Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitt= ed only in the following situations: Between an ek (or joik) and=20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7"/> la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market. John and Alice go to the market simultaneously. KE selma'o JOI = selma'o KE selma'o A selma'o simultaneouslyexample tensed logical co= nnectivesin joik=85ke tensed logical connectives= in ek=85ke Between an ek (or joik) and= =20 - ke, as in: + ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d8"/> mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the schoo= l ). I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the sch= ool. BO selma'o GIhA= selma'o and earlierexample tensed logical connectives= in gihek=85bo Between a gihek and=20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d9"/> mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/t= o you. I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) f= rom you. KE selma'o GIhA= selma'o and then tensed logical connectivesin gihek=85ke Between a gihek and=20 - ke, as in: + ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d10"/> mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. BO selma'o I se= lma'o JA selma'o = and simultaneouslyexample tensed logical connecti= vesin ijoik=85bo tensed logical connectivesin ijek=85bo Between an ijek (or ijoik) and= =20 =20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu =20 I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. TUhE selma'o<= /primary> I = selma'o JOI selma'o JA selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connec= tivesin ijoik=85tu'e tensed logical connectives<= secondary>in ijek=85tu'e Between an ijek (or ijoik)= and=20 =20 - tu'e, as in: + tu'e, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. BO selma'o JA s= elma'o JOI selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connectivesin joik=85bo tensed logical connectivesin = jek=85bo And finally, between a jek (or joik) and= =20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d13"/> mi mikce jebabo ricfu I-am-a doctor and [later] rich I am a doctor and future rich person. tu'e ke bo TUhE sel= ma'o KE selma'o BO selma'o doctor and then richexample tu'econtrasted with bo for tensed logical connection bocontrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection ke= contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bocontras= ted with ke for tensed logical connection As can be= seen from=20 and=20 , the choice between=20 - bo and=20 - ke (or=20 - tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be= connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neithe= r would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always= be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 - bo,=20 - ke, or=20 - tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cma= vo in=20 + bo and=20 + ke (or=20 + tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two thin= gs to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of cours= e neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information mus= t always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 + bo,=20 + ke, or=20 + tu'e that requires the use of one of these grou= ping cmavo in=20 and=20 through=20 . mathematical expr= essionstensed connection in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed connectivesin mathematical expressions tensed non-logical connectivesforethought tensed logical connectivesforethought= for= ethought connectiveswith tense= tensed non-logical connecti= ves no= n-logical connectivesincluding tense Non-logical connectives with=20 - bo and=20 - ke can include tense information in exactly the same wa= y as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted= below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathemat= ical operands and operators can also include tense information in their log= ical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanr= u components respectively: + bo and=20 + ke can include tense information in exactly the= same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except = as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. = Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in t= heir logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti = and tanru components respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d14"/> vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room. Three and, later, four students were in the room. @@ -3070,21 +3066,21 @@ -
Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives logical connectiv= estable by truth function value truth functions<= secondary>table of logical connectives The followin= g table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or co= mpound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connec= tive. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example,=20 se.a means the same as=20 - a, and could be used instead.) + a, and could be used instead.) @@ -3212,69 +3208,69 @@ Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, exce= pt for the prefixed=20 .i.
Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives non-logical conne= ctivessyntax rules summary logical connectivessyntax rules summary The full set of rules= for inserting=20 na,=20 - se, and=20 + se, and=20 nai into any connective is: Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks): =20 Negate first construct: Place=20 na before the connective cmavo (but after t= he=20 .i of an ijek). Negate second construct: Place=20 nai after the connective cmavo. Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo (after=20 + se before the connective cmavo (after=20 na if any). Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks): =20 Negate first construct: Place=20 nai after the connective cmavo. Negate second construct: Place=20 nai after the=20 - gi. + gi. Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo. + se before the connective cmavo. Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks): =20 Negate connection: Place=20 nai after the connective cmavo (but before = the=20 - gi of a joigik). + gi of a joigik). =20 Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo. + se before the connective cmavo.
Locations of other tables : a table explaining the mea= ning of each truth function in English. : a table relating the truth= functions to the four basic vowels. commit cc218deb8bbe027ad82b248076f967a4dbac3ff1 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Fri Jan 14 19:55:48 2011 -0500 Chapter 13: example tags and section titles. diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 2fbf9f7..569b2da 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</ti= tle> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> <title>What are attitudinal indicators? =20 This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1"/> John is coming. @@ -97,37 +97,37 @@ .ianai. In attitudinals,=20 =20 -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of = the simple attitudinal without the=20 -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 .ia expresses belief, since= =20 .ianai expresses disbelief. =20 indicatorstypes of indicators In addition to the atti= tudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion= categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of= them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together = in this chapter. =20 Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respec= t to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indic= ators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. I= ndicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they ap= ply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in=20 - . + . Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in= four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a= corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fou= rth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the appr= oximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with=20 -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omit= ted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and s= hows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with=20 -cu'i. The cmavo=20 =20 cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained m= ore fully in=20 =20 - . + . One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is= that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing yo= ur feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource = of the written word. So the gloss for=20 =20 .ui should not really be=20 happiness but some sound or tone that expresses happine= ss. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or o= bvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different em= otions Lojban speakers can readily express. =20 Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific g= ismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of= the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, t= hus: [gismu]. =20
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Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. =20 Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicators express the way the speaker is = feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators co= mprise the attitudinals which begin with=20 u or=20 o and many of those beginning= with=20 i. The cmavo beginning with=20 u are simple emotions, which = represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceiv= ed to be. @@ -402,21 +402,21 @@ , John's arrival is no probl= em: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the si= tuation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some = kind. The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 i are those which could not b= e fitted into the=20 u or=20 o groups because there was a = lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.=20 .ia,=20 .i'a,=20 .ie, and=20 .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 =20 - instead. + instead. .ii fear nervousness security =20 .i'i togetherness @@ -489,24 +489,24 @@ la djan. klama .iu John is-coming [love!] where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. is a compact way of swear= ing at John: you could translate it as=20 That good-for-nothing John is coming.
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Propositional attitude indicators hypothetical worl= d inte= rnal world propositionalof attitudinals indicatorsplacement of As mentioned at the beginning o= f=20 - , attitudinals may be divide= d into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, a= nd a contrasting group which may be called the=20 + , attitudinals may be divided= into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, an= d a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 =20 =20 what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. attitudinalspropositional effect on claim attitudinals= propositional contrasted with emotional attitudinalsemotio= nal contrasted with propositional In general, the b= ridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like=20 I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The em= otion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically in= dependent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like=20 I intend to go to the market, where the main claim is l= ogically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually= going to the market, but merely that I intend to. attitudinalsi- series attitudinalse- series attitudinalsa- series There is no sharp dist= inction between attitudinals beginning with=20 a and those beginning with=20 e; however, the original inte= nt (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into t= oo little space) was to make the members of the=20 @@ -799,24 +799,22 @@ =20 You [blame] did-not return you to-the house I blame you for not coming home. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d15"/> - .ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika - be le nu xruti - [agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day<= /gloss> - of the event-of (you return) + .ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika be le nu xruti + [agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day = of the event-of (you return) It's true I didn't tell you when to come back. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d16"/> .i'enai do .i'e zukte =20 @@ -837,21 +835,21 @@ do sazri le karce .i .e'a =20 You drive the car. [Permission]. You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.
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Attitudes as scales attitudinalsneutral attitudinalsnegative attitudinalspositive attitudinalsscale of<= /indexterm> In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales = run from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 positive and=20 negative are put into quotation marks because they are = loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects = this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positive words, namely=20 .ii (fear) and=20 @@ -898,119 +896,113 @@ negative emotions take the extra syllable=20 nai to indicate their negative position on the = axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express. attitudinal scale= usage Much of this system is o= ptional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don'= t want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most atti= tudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or=20 cai is used to indicate especially high intensi= ty. Less often,=20 =20 ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity,= and=20 =20 cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal que= stion=20 =20 pei (see=20 - ) to indicate that the emot= ion is not felt. + ) to indicate th= at the emotion is not felt. attitudinalexample of scale effect The followin= g shows the variations resulting from intensity variation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d1"/> .ei - I ought to - (a non-specific obligation) + I ought to (a non-specific obligation) <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d2"/> .eicai =20 - I shall/must - (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)<= /en> + I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a= formal one) <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d3"/> .eisai =20 - I should - (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not= formal requirement) + I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implie= d but not formal requirement) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d4"/> .eiru'e =20 - I might - (a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permission= and desire) + I might (a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permi= ssion and desire) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d5"/> .eicu'i =20 - No matter - (no particular obligation) + No matter (no particular obligation) <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d6"/> .einai =20 - I need not - (a non-obligation) + I need not (a non-obligation) .einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei formal requirementexample attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also ut= ter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the= language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you= mark what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't car= e using=20 =20 cu'i by itself. =20
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The space of emotions attitudinal scale= as axis in emotion-space Each = of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In= effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional spac= e. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point= in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coo= rdinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one= decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale value= s for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct singl= e point, which is our attitude. =20 emotionswhen expressed emotionsinsights emotions= compound compound emotions Now no one is going= to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. = If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a t= ime - usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently changed in= some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insights i= nto a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojban), an= d incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when they = do recognize them. =20 attitudinal scale= neutral compared with positive + negative<= /indexterm> The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion= . We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in=20 - that multiply the set of sc= ales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale,= which might be expressed by=20 + that multiply the set of scales= by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, whi= ch might be expressed by=20 =20 =20 cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both= the=20 =20 positive and=20 negative scale emotions at once. One expression of=20 fortitude might be=20 .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. attitudinalscontrasted with rationalizations of emotion attitudinalsorder of Uttering one or more attitud= inals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter = emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emot= ions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, al= though their order of importance to us is also revealing - of our attitude = towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary; for = those emotions you feel, you express them; the=20 vector sum naturally expresses the result. This is vita= l to their nature as attitudinals - if you had to stop and think about them= , or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations= . attitudinalscontrasted with bridi People have p= roposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; = but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying=20 I'm awed is not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. attitudinalsdesign benefit A nice feature of th= is design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the sa= me way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a= couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready= to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express = your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabu= lary offers a broad range of expression.
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Emotional categories attitudinal categ= oriesrationale attitudinal categories emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting wit= h a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 ava= ilable VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion word= s in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then= assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the = result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to e= xpress very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common feature we identified was that the emotional wor= ds on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of w= hich was assigned its own cmavo: ro'a social asocial antisocial @@ -1113,21 +1105,21 @@ re'e hands moving around spiritual =20 The implicit metaphors=20 heart for emotional and=20 belly for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they wo= rk fine for English-speakers.
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Attitudinal modifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ga'i [galtu] hauteur rank equal rank meekness @@ -1179,22 +1171,22 @@ satiation se'a [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 - and=20 - , and see what emotional pic= tures you can build: + and=20 + , and see what emoti= onal pictures you can build: =20 ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate conde= scension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .io. Whatever it is attached= to is marked as being below (for=20 ga'i) or above (for=20 =20 ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position.= Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is s= o marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the se= ntence, as with=20 @@ -1327,21 +1319,21 @@ [anger] [control] On the other hand,=20 ri'e can be used by itself to signal an emotion= al outburst. =20 fu'i The cmavo=20 fu'i may express a reason for feeling the way w= e do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more em= otionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference b= etween the mental discomfort mentioned in=20 =20 =20 - when it is felt on an easy = test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, = you could use=20 + when it is felt on an easy test= , as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you = could use=20 .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the assistanc= e in your comfort. be'u The cmavo=20 be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the e= motion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, so= mething you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more o= r less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo=20 =20 mo'a,=20 =20 rau, and=20 =20 du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discu= ssed in=20 =20 @@ -1417,21 +1409,21 @@ .e'enaise'anai [I can't!] [dependent] I can't do it by myself! attitudinalscomplexity Some of the emotional ex= pressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumsta= nces. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one p= erson uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unam= biguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most p= robably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speaker= s, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions= (if not cliches) of emotion.
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Compound indicators indicatorsmeaning when compounded indicatorsgrammar fo= r compounding The grammar of indicators is quite si= mple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any ord= er, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; th= us the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, alt= hough the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every = possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning. ge'e attitudinal in= dicatorunspecified attitudinal indicatorsconventions of interpretation unspecified emotion Wi= thin a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation wh= ich amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is= presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an= =20 unspecified emotion word,=20 =20 ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to ex= press a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a = previous but distinct emotional expression.) =20 unspecified level= of emotion unstated emotion For example,=20 .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the = scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or wit= h something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intens= ity. But=20 .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspeci= fied level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a wea= k level. A rough English equivalent of=20 @@ -1487,21 +1479,21 @@ intensity-word nai (possiblyrepeated) ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, function= s as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, the= n in the 2nd or greater position, either=20 =20 ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any m= odifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal. =20
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The uses of indicators su<= /indexterm> sa= si attitudinalsexternal grammar attitudinalsgrammar of= placement in bridi The behavior of indicators in t= he=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 =20 si,=20 sa, and=20 su and some, though not all, kinds of quotation= s. The details of such interactions are discussed in=20 . zo<= /indexterm> A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicat= or may, except in those few situations (as in=20 zo quotation, explained in=20 @@ -1522,21 +1514,21 @@ =20 I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!] can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 Damn, I snapped at you; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 I told you, you pest! Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as= the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla.= Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, = this ambiguity is acceptable. attitudinalsbenefit in written expression Even = if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unint= uitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression= . There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the= scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and = intonation to convey the writer's intent.
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Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pei attitude question dai @@ -1739,21 +1731,21 @@ mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (= I am-sad). I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad. which is a straightforward bridi claim.=20 states that you have (or ha= ve had) certain emotions;=20 expresses those emotions di= rectly.
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Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ja'o [jalge] I conclude ca'e @@ -1812,26 +1804,20 @@ ju'a [jufra] I state =20 evidentialsinspiration for evidentialsdefinition L=E1adan = evidentials American Indian languages and evidentials ElginSuzette= Haden and evidentials Now we proceed from the atti= tudinal indicators and their relatives to the other, semantically unrelated= , categories of indicators. The indicators known as=20 =20 evidentials show how the speaker came to say the uttera= nce; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of evide= ntials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages.= Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language L=E1adan, desig= ned by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. L=E1adan's set of ind= icators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator system.= - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 evidentialsin English It is important to realiz= e, however, that evidentials are not some odd system used by some strange p= eople who live at the other end of nowhere: although their English equivale= nts aren't single words, English-speakers have vivid notions of what consti= tutes evidence, and of the different kinds of evidence. =20 =20 evidentialsscales evidentialsgrammar Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o U= I, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them ar= e not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scales= . =20 =20 =20 evidentialsrhetorical flavor evidentialsindisputable= bridi indisputable bridi A bridi with an evidential in i= t becomes=20 indisputable, in the sense that the speaker is saying= =20 how it is with him or her, which is beyond argument. Cl= aims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly sub= ject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive,= or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discours= e that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than di= scourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogue= s or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices. @@ -1893,21 +1879,21 @@ ja'o is that=20 ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deducti= on (not necessarily rigorous), whereas=20 =20 su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern= recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). =20 su'anai abductionexample The opposite point of th= e scale,=20 su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing specif= ic conclusions from general premises or patterns. =20 =20 discursivessu'a as This cmavo can also function= as a discursive (see=20 - ), in which case=20 + ), in which case=20 su'a means=20 abstractly or=20 in general, and=20 su'anai means=20 =20 concretely or=20 in particular. ti'e hearsayexample A bridi marked by=20 ti'e is relayed information from some source ot= her than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the informatio= n was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equ= ally good example of=20 =20 @@ -1998,21 +1984,21 @@ ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis = for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's state= ment is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 =20 =20 ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at al= l, but in question form it can be useful:=20 =20 ju'apei means=20 =20 What is the basis for your statement? and serves as an = evidential, as distinct from emotional, question. =20
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Discursives discourseexpressing utterance relation to utteranceexp= ressing relation to discourse discursivesdefinition The term=20 discursive is used for those members of selma'o UI that= provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utt= erance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular= bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that=20 I also came, we would have to say=20 I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional in= stance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence, whic= h is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are wor= ds or phrases like=20 however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. discursivesas metalinguistic claims attitudinalscontra= sted with discursives discursivescontrasted with attitudin= als Discursives are not attitudinals: they express = no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic cl= aims that reference the sentence or text they are found in. @@ -2259,21 +2245,21 @@ je'unai can be used to express one kind of sarc= asm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but a= ctually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of iro= ny can be marked with=20 =20 =20 =20 zo'o (humor) or=20 =20 .ianai (disbelief). =20 su'a When used as a discursive,=20 su'a (see=20 - ) belongs to this group. + ) belongs to this group. Next, the=20 knowledge group: ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not @@ -2282,21 +2268,21 @@ la'a [lakne] probably improbably =20 la'a ju'o knowledge d= iscursivescompared with propositional attitudes propositio= nal attitudescompared with knowledge discursives speaker's= state of knowledge discursivesknowledge knowledge discursives These two discursives describe the speaker's state of = knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the = propositional attitudes of=20 =20 =20 - , as they create a hypotheti= cal world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our br= idi with=20 + , as they create a h= ypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and labe= l our bridi with=20 =20 =20 ju'o; but it may be false all the same. =20 Next, the=20 discourse management group: ta'o [tanjo] @@ -2390,59 +2376,52 @@ In fact,=20 In truth,=20 According to the facts). A common use of=20 da'i is to distinguish between: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5"/> - ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno - =20 - =20 - le du'u ri pazvau - If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that - she is-pregnant. + ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'= u ri pazvau + If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know= she is pregnant. =20 pregnant sisterexample sister pregnantexample hypothetical= worldcontrasted with real world= example real worldcontrasted with hypothetical worldexample and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d6"/> - ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno - =20 - le du'u ri pazvau - If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that - she is-pregnant. + ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le = du'u ri pazvau + If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that she is-pregnant. If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is = pregnant. =20 It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, = and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese alw= ays leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d7"/> ru is the equivalent of either=20 or=20 .)
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Miscellaneous indicators Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitu= dinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following misc= ellaneous indicators: ki'a metalinguistic confusion na'i metalinguistic negator @@ -2495,22 +2474,22 @@ ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellan= eous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion abou= t what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (wh= ich is=20 .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning= of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti.= One of the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 ki'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1"/> mi nelci le ctuca - .i le ki'a ctuca - I like the teacher + .i le ki'a ctuca + I like the teacher Which teacher? Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the= sumti=20 le ctuca, and so echoes back the sumti with the= confusion marker. jo'a na'i invalid spe= echmarking as error with na'i = error markingmetalinguistic The metalinguistic negation cm= avo=20 =20 na'i and its opposite=20 jo'a are explained in full in=20 =20 @@ -2555,21 +2534,21 @@ xu is attached to a specific word or construct,= it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct. pau= questionsmarking in advance Lojban question w= ords, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of = the question. Placing the cmavo=20 pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the liste= ner realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning = of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. = The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. =20 paunai questionsrhetorical rhetorical question pauplacement in= sentence Although=20 pau is grammatical in any location (like all in= dicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bri= di. Its scalar opposite,=20 =20 paunai, signals that a bridi is not really a qu= estion despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical quest= ion: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 =20 =20 - . + . pe'a blue= as sadexample figurative speech The cmavo=20 pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, ind= icating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than lit= erally: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d2"/> mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani @@ -2586,29 +2565,29 @@ could mean=20 sad (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> pe'anai literally The negated form,=20 pe'anai, indicates that what has been said is t= o be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language i= ntuition is to be ignored. =20 heartburnexample culturally dependent lujvo figurative lujvo= place structure figurative lujvo lujvoplace structure of figurat= ive lujvo Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 pe'a has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 pev. This rafsi is used in formi= ng figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have= nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus=20 risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a place stru= cture like: - + x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 - + whereas=20 pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figurative,= might have the place structure: - + x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 - + which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either=20 risna or=20 jelca. bi'unai bi'u anexample aexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">theexampl= e a/= ancontrasted with the thecontrasted w= ith a/an The uses of=20 bi'u and=20 =20 bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of the En= glish articles=20 =20 =20 the and=20 @@ -2626,22 +2605,22 @@ Most of the time, the distinction between=20 bi'u and=20 =20 bi'unai need not be made, as the listener can i= nfer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still= later in the story,=20 =20 le bi'u nanmu would clearly show that this man = was different from the previous one. =20 ge'e attitudeavoidance of expression Finally, the= indicator=20 ge'e has been discussed in=20 =20 - and=20 - . It is used to express an = attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing a= ny attitude. + and=20 + . It is used to = express an attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid e= xpressing any attitude. Another use for=20 ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's fe= eling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o = CAI:=20 =20 .iige'e means roughly=20 I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not. kau= indirect questi= on FIXME: TAG SPOT kau indirect question @@ -2657,21 +2636,21 @@ mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. =20
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Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a= name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in = fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other description= s of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the = cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 @@ -2972,21 +2951,21 @@ ta'apei protocolusing vocatives protocolcomputer commun= ications using COI protocolparliamentary using COI Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations w= hich are drawn from radio use:=20 roger,=20 =20 wilco,=20 over and out. This form of translation does not mean th= at Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural = languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in speci= fic domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Loj= ban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener ma= y not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protoc= ol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compu= ter communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the = protocol question=20 =20 ta'apei would mean=20 =20 Will the speaker yield?
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A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 =20 sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sente= nce. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1"/> la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja @@ -3247,21 +3226,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d23"/> .i la djordj. cliva George leaves. George left.
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Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic commen= ts that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index ee526a0..1ed6a84 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -131,21 +131,21 @@ =20 .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. =20 A talks to B about IBM computers. =20 selma'o CAI (=20 - ) + ) Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or= not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion= . .ei cai mi klama le zarci =20 [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. I must go to the market. selma'o CAhA (=20 ) @@ -188,21 +188,21 @@ When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so = that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one. mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. =20 selma'o COI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 =20 . See=20 . coi .djan. Greetings, John. selma'o CU (=20 @@ -227,33 +227,33 @@ When are you going to the store? selma'o DAhO (=20 ) Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o= =20 ) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o=20 ). selma'o DOI (=20 - ) + ) The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 =20 . No pause is required between =93doi=94 and a = following name. See=20 . doi frank. mi tavla do O Frank, I speak-to you. Frank, I=92m talking to you. selma'o DOhU (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 or=20 . Signals the end of a vocative. coi do'u =20 Greetings [terminator] Greetings, O unspecified one! @@ -1075,21 +1075,21 @@ Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [i= s best]. selma'o TUhU (=20 ) Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.<= /para> selma'o UI (=20 - ) + ) Particles which indicate the speaker=92s emotional state or sour= ce of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse. .ui la djan. klama [Happiness!] John is-coming. Hurrah! John is coming! selma'o VA (=20 ) A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither). commit b4d0588e0fb58a746cfae761de9aae9c9f8f5e32 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Fri Jan 14 19:12:08 2011 -0500 Chapter 13: s. Invented some tags and an attribute. =20 * ** Part of s, wrapping the pnemonic gismu corresponding to the cmavo * ** Part of s, wrapping the glosses for the different points on the cnima'o scale. Has attribute "point", with value "sai", "cu'i", or "nai". A can have more than one of the same point. * ** Part of s. Like but longer, with full sentences; this tag might well only apply to chapter 13 section 14, the list of vocatives. * Attribute "orient" ** Specific to . Has value "land". Like 's "orient" attribute. Might well only apply to the "cai sai ru'e ..." cmavo list. diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index cff6a71..2fbf9f7 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -2,21 +2,21 @@ Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</ti= tle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1"> <title>What are attitudinal indicators? =20 This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1"/> - John is coming. + John is coming. can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's fee= ling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of= tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with var= ious sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the=20 =20 =20 Oooh!,=20 Arrgh!,=20 Ugh!, and=20 Yecch! in the title. These are part of the English lang= uage; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't fin= d any of these words in a dictionary. attitudinal indic= ators In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can al= so be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by expli= cit words known as=20 attitudinal indicators, or just=20 @@ -124,36 +124,77 @@ Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. =20 Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicators express the way the speaker is = feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators co= mprise the attitudinals which begin with=20 u or=20 o and many of those beginning= with=20 i. The cmavo beginning with=20 u are simple emotions, which = represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceiv= ed to be. - - .ua discovery confusion=20 - - .u'a gain loss - .ue surprise no surprise expectation - - .u'e wonder commonplace - .ui happiness unhappiness - - .u'i amusement weariness - .uo completion incompleteness - .u'o courage timidity cowardice - .uu pity cruelty - .u'u repentance lack of regret innocence - - + + + .ua + discovery + confusion + + + .u'a + gain + loss + + + .ue + surprise + no surprise + expectation + + + + .u'e + wonder + commonplace + + + .ui + happiness + unhappiness + + + + .u'i + amusement + weariness + + + .uo + completion + incompleteness + + + .u'o + courage + timidity + cowardice + + + .uu + pity + cruelty + + + .u'u + repentance + lack of regret + innocence + + Here are some typical uses of the=20 u attitudinals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d1"/> .ua mi facki fi le mi mapku [Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the = hat] @@ -256,31 +297,58 @@ , John's coming has been ant= icipated by the speaker. In=20 =20 and=20 , no such anticipation has b= een made, but in=20 the lack-of-anticipation go= es no further - in=20 , it amounts to actual surpr= ise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 o or=20 i from those beginning with= =20 u, but in general they repres= ent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions. - - .o'a pride modesty shame=20 - - .o'e closeness detachment distance - .oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure - .o'i caution boldness rashness - - .o'o patience mere tolerance anger - .o'u relaxation composure stress - - + + + .o'a + pride + modesty + shame + =20 + + .o'e + closeness + detachment + distance + + + .oi + complaint/pain + doing OK + pleasure + + + .o'i + caution + boldness + rashness + + + .o'o + patience + mere tolerance + anger + + + .o'u + relaxation + composure + stress + + Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10"/> .oi la djan. klama [Complaint!] John is coming. @@ -335,29 +403,54 @@ The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 i are those which could not b= e fitted into the=20 u or=20 o groups because there was a = lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.=20 .ia,=20 .i'a,=20 .ie, and=20 .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 =20 instead. - - .ii fear nervousness security=20 - - .i'i togetherness privacy - .io respect disrespect - .i'o appreciation envy - .iu love no love lost hatred - .i'u familiarity mystery - + + + .ii + fear + nervousness + security + =20 + + .i'i + togetherness + privacy + + + .io + respect + disrespect + + + .i'o + appreciation + envy + + + .iu + love + no love lost + hatred + + + .i'u + familiarity + mystery + + Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d15"/> .ii smacu [Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse Eek! A mouse! @@ -375,39 +468,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d17"/> la djan. .ionai klama =20 John [disrespect!] is coming. - shows an attitude-colored o= bservative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observa= tive, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddler= s, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like=20 - =20 + shows an attitude-colored= observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the obser= vative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddl= ers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like=20 + =20 a lot. - and=20 - use attitudinals that follo= w=20 + and=20 + use attitudinals that fol= low=20 la djan. rather than being at the beginning of = the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather = than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifi= cally. Compare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d18"/> la djan. klama .iu John is-coming [love!] where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. - is a compact way of swearin= g at John: you could translate it as=20 + is a compact way of swear= ing at John: you could translate it as=20 That good-for-nothing John is coming.
Propositional attitude indicators hypothetical worl= d inte= rnal world propositionalof attitudinals indicatorsplacement of As mentioned at the beginning o= f=20 , attitudinals may be divide= d into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, a= nd a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 =20 =20 what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. @@ -429,33 +522,63 @@ .u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude in= dicator meaning=20 =20 I regret that ..., and=20 .a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure em= otion meaning=20 I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 logical language aspect. =20 =20 Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 a: - - .a'a attentive inattentive avoiding=20 - - - .a'e alertness exhaustion - .ai intent indecision refusal - .a'i effort no real effort repose - - .a'o hope despair - - .au desire indifference reluctance - .a'u interest no interest repulsion - + + + .a'a + attentive + inattentive + avoiding + =20 + + + .a'e + alertness + exhaustion + + + .ai + intent + indecision + refusal + + + .a'i + effort + no real effort + repose + + + .a'o + hope + despair + + + .au + desire + indifference + reluctance + + + .a'u + interest + no interest + repulsion + + Some examples (of a parental kind): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d1"/> .a'a do zgana le veltivni =20 [attentive] you observe the television-receiver. =20 @@ -530,32 +653,57 @@ .a'ucu'i .au .a'o= .= a'i .ai .a'enai .a'a (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.= 1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly= including=20 .oicai, but probably also=20 .iucai.) attitudinalsrationale for attitudinalscontrasted with = bridi Splitting off the attitude into an indicator = allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relat= ionships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whateve= r. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri wou= ld make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 e, which stand roughly in the= relation to those beginning with=20 a as the pure-emotion indicat= ors beginning with=20 o do to those beginning with= =20 u- they are more complex or d= ifficult: - - .e'a permission prohibition=20 - - - .e'e competence incompetence - - .ei obligation freedom - .e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint - .e'o request negative request - - .e'u suggestion no suggestion warning - + + + .e'a + permission + prohibition + + + + .e'e + competence + incompetence + + + + .ei + obligation + freedom + + + .e'i + constraint + independence + resistance to constraint + + + .e'o + request + negative request + + + + .e'u + suggestion + no suggestion + warning + + after sleepexample More examples (after a good = night's sleep): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8"/> .e'a do sazri le karce =20 [permission] You drive the car. Sure, you can drive the car. @@ -599,28 +747,44 @@ .e'u do klama le panka [suggestion] You go to-the park. I suggest going to the park. .e'u .e'o .ei .e'e<= /primary> .e= 'a Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beg= inning with=20 i, which are the overflow fro= m the other sets: - - .ia belief skepticism disbelief=20 - - .i'a acceptance blame - .ie agreement disagreement - .i'e approval non-approval disapproval - - + + + .ia + belief + skepticism + disbelief + + + .i'a + acceptance + blame + + + .ie + agreement + disagreement + + + .i'e + approval + non-approval + disapproval + + Still more examples (much, much later): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d13"/> .ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi =20 [disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me. I can't believe you thought you could fool me. @@ -695,32 +859,47 @@ virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts= . But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful em= otions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, whil= e their counterparts are less commonly expressed. attitudinal scale= srationale for assignment (Why= the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be d= ifficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we = give the monosyllable=20 nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a n= ovice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indica= tor, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 random orientation, which would have unknown biases and= be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sc= ale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be bias= ed in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) CAI selma'o nai= cai naisai nairu'e cu'i ru'e sai cai attitudinal scaleseven-position emotion= al scale In fact, though, each emotional scale has se= ven positions defined, three=20 =20 positive ones (shown below on the left), three=20 negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral= one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The foll= owing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated c= mavo. All of these cmavo, except=20 nai, are in selma'o CAI. - - cai sai ru'e cu'i nairu'e naisai naicai= =20 - - - - - - - - - [carmi] [tsali] [ruble] [cumki] - + + + cai + carmi + + + sai + tsali + + + ru'e + ruble + + + cu'i + cumki + + + nairu'e + + + naisai + + + naicai + + attitudescalar scalar attitude A scalar attitude is e= xpressed by using the attitudinal word, and then following it by the desire= d scalar intensity. The bias creeps in because the=20 =20 negative emotions take the extra syllable=20 nai to indicate their negative position on the = axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express. attitudinal scale= usage Much of this system is o= ptional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don'= t want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most atti= tudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or=20 cai is used to indicate especially high intensi= ty. Less often,=20 =20 ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity,= and=20 =20 cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal que= stion=20 @@ -822,35 +1001,63 @@ attitudinalscontrasted with bridi People have p= roposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; = but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying=20 I'm awed is not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. attitudinalsdesign benefit A nice feature of th= is design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the sa= me way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a= couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready= to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express = your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabu= lary offers a broad range of expression.
Emotional categories attitudinal categ= oriesrationale attitudinal categories emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting wit= h a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 ava= ilable VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion word= s in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then= assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the = result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to e= xpress very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common feature we identified was that the emotional wor= ds on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of w= hich was assigned its own cmavo: - - ro'a social asocial antisocial=20 - - - ro'e mental mindless - - ro'i emotional denying emotion - - ro'o physical denying physical - - ro'u sexual sexual abstinence - - re'e spiritual secular sacrilegious - - + + + ro'a + social + asocial + antisocial + + + + ro'e + mental + mindless + + + + ro'i + emotional + denying + emotion + + + + ro'o + physical + denying + physical + + + + ro'u + sexual + sexual + abstinence + + + + re'e + spiritual + secular + sacrilegious + + + re'e ro'u ro'o ro'i= r= o'e ro'a Using these, we were able to assign=20 o'u to mark a scale of what we might call=20 =20 generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed,= satisfied, you express comfort with=20 o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to = indicate how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to tu= rn this scale into six separate ones, should you wish. =20 mental discomfort= example physical distressexample stressexample embarrassmentexample spiritual disc= omfortexample sexual discomfortexampl= e at= titudinal categoriesexample of effect For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as= =20 =20 .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label=20 stress in English are expressed in Lojban with=20 @@ -864,73 +1071,127 @@ .eiro'u, for example - look it up). =20 ro'anai= example attitudinalsstand-alone categories attitudi= nalscategories with nai attitudinalsc= ategories with scale markers You can use scale mark= ers and=20 nai on these six category words, and you can al= so use category words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentrate could be expressed simply as= =20 ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in som= e non-specific way,=20 =20 ro'anai will express it. =20 attitudinal categ= oriesmnemonic for There is a m= nemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms ab= out. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down= your body in sequence. - - ro'a hands above head social=20 - - - ro'e hands on head intellectual - - ro'i hands on heart emotional - - ro'o hands on belly physical - - ro'u hands on groin sexual - - re'e hands moving around spiritual - - + + + ro'a + hands above head + social + + + + ro'e + hands on head + intellectual + + + + ro'i + hands on heart + emotional + + + + ro'o + hands on belly + physical + + + + ro'u + hands on groin + sexual + + + + re'e + hands moving around + spiritual + + + The implicit metaphors=20 heart for emotional and=20 belly for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they wo= rk fine for English-speakers.
Attitudinal modifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness=20 - - - rank lack of rank - - le'o aggressive passive defensive - - - vu'e [vrude] virtue (zabna) sin (mabla) - - - - se'i [sevzi] self-orientation other-orient= ation - - - - ri'e [zifre] release restraint control - - - fu'i [frili] with help without help with opposit= ion - - easily with difficu= lty - - be'u lack/need presence satiation - - need satisfaction - - se'a [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency - - + + + ga'i + [galtu] + hauteur + rank + equal rank + meekness + lack of rank + + + le'o + aggressive + passive + defensive + + + + + vu'e + [vrude] + virtue (zabna) + sin (mabla= ) + + + + + se'i + [sevzi] + self-orientation + other-orientation + + + + ri'e + [zifre] + release + restraint + control + + + fu'i + [frili] + with help + easily + without help + with opposition + with difficulty + + + be'u + lack/need + presence/satisfaction + satiation + + + se'a + [sevzi] + self-sufficiency + dependency + + self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emotional pic= tures you can build: =20 ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate conde= scension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .io. Whatever it is attached= to is marked as being below (for=20 @@ -1209,31 +1470,34 @@ I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal=20 nai expresses a=20 scalar negation, a concept explained in=20 ; since every attitudinal word imp= lies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 nai on each should be obvious. attitudinalsgrammar of internal compounding attitudinalsinternal grammarcomplete Thu= s, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part= optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it o= bviously would affect meaning. - - attitudinal=20 -nai intensity-word=20 -nai modifier=20 -nai intensity-word=20 -nai - (possibly repeated) - + + attitudinal + nai + intensity-word + nai + modifier + nai + intensity-word + nai + (possiblyrepeated) + - ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, functions = as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then = in the 2nd or greater position, either=20 - =20 + ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, function= s as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, the= n in the 2nd or greater position, either=20 + =20 ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any m= odifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal. =20
The uses of indicators su<= /indexterm> sa= si attitudinalsexternal grammar attitudinalsgrammar of= placement in bridi The behavior of indicators in t= he=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 =20 si,=20 sa, and=20 @@ -1262,29 +1526,39 @@ can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 Damn, I snapped at you; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 I told you, you pest! Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as= the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla.= Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, = this ambiguity is acceptable. attitudinalsbenefit in written expression Even = if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unint= uitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression= . There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the= scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and = intonation to convey the writer's intent.
Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - pei attitude question=20 - - dai empathy - - - bu'o start emotion continue emotion end emotion - - + + + pei + attitude question + + + dai + empathy + + + + + bu'o + start emotion + continue emotion + end emotion + + + You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sen= tence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be= true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more = logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate. pei= attitudinal que= stions The word=20 pei is therefore reserved for attitude question= s. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 How are you? coupled with=20 How do you feel? (which has a slightly different range = of usage). attitudinal answe= rsplausibility When asked in t= he context of discourse,=20 pei acts like other Lojban question words - it = requests the respondent to=20 fill in the blank, in this case with an appropriate att= itudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression.= As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irr= elevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the = questioner. (A=20 =20 =20 @@ -1468,42 +1742,87 @@ I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad. which is a straightforward bridi claim.=20 states that you have (or ha= ve had) certain emotions;=20 expresses those emotions di= rectly.
Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ja'o [jalge] I conclude=20 - - ca'e I define - - ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember - - su'a [sucta] I generalize I particularize - ti'e [tirna] I hear (hearsay) - - - ka'u [kulnu] I know by cultural means - se'o [senva] I know by internal experience - za'a [zgana] I observe - - pe'i [pensi] I opine - - ru'a [sruma] I postulate - - ju'a [jufra] I state - - + + + ja'o + [jalge] + I conclude + + + ca'e + I define + + + + ba'a + [balvi] + I expect + I experience + I remember + + + + su'a + [sucta] + I generalize + I particularize + + + ti'e + [tirna] + I hear (hearsay) + + + + + ka'u + [kulnu] + I know by cultural means + + + se'o + [senva] + I know by internal experience + + + za'a + [zgana] + I observe + + + + pe'i + [pensi] + I opine + + + + ru'a + [sruma] + I postulate + + + + ju'a + [jufra] + I state + + + evidentialsinspiration for evidentialsdefinition L=E1adan = evidentials American Indian languages and evidentials ElginSuzette= Haden and evidentials Now we proceed from the atti= tudinal indicators and their relatives to the other, semantically unrelated= , categories of indicators. The indicators known as=20 =20 evidentials show how the speaker came to say the uttera= nce; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of evide= ntials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages.= Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language L=E1adan, desig= ned by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. L=E1adan's set of ind= icators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator system.= =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 evidentialsin English It is important to realiz= e, however, that evidentials are not some odd system used by some strange p= eople who live at the other end of nowhere: although their English equivale= nts aren't single words, English-speakers have vivid notions of what consti= tutes evidence, and of the different kinds of evidence. @@ -1694,35 +2013,53 @@ I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional in= stance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence, whic= h is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are wor= ds or phrases like=20 however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. discursivesas metalinguistic claims attitudinalscontra= sted with discursives discursivescontrasted with attitudin= als Discursives are not attitudinals: they express = no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic cl= aims that reference the sentence or text they are found in. discursivesplacement in sentence Discursives ar= e most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the=20 .i that separates sentences in running discours= e, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it = seems necessary or useful. discursives for c= onsecutive discourse The discursives discussed in thi= s section are given in groups, roughly organized by function. First, the=20 consecutive discourse group: - - ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast=20 - - - ji'a [jmina] additionally - - si'a [simsa] similarly - - mi'u [mintu] ditto - - - - po'o the only relevant case - - + + + ku'i + [karbi] + however/but/in contrast + + + + ji'a + [jmina] + additionally + + + + si'a + [simsa] + similarly + + + + mi'u + [mintu] + ditto + + + + + + po'o + the only relevant case + + + go'i po'o mi'u si'a= j= i'a ku'i tooexample butexample<= /indexterm> ditto<= secondary>example go'icontrasted with mi'u mi'ucontrasted with go'i discursives for consecutive discoursecontrasted These five discursives are mutuall= y exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The f= irst four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,=20 ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argume= nt. The second,=20 =20 ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The= third,=20 =20 si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, e= numerating an additional example. The fourth,=20 =20 mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argu= ment, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is = being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 =20 go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 @@ -1776,26 +2113,35 @@ I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). hit noseexample hit cousinexample po'oplacement in sentence Note that=20 only can go before or after what it modifies in English= , but=20 po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward.<= /para> =20 Next, the=20 commentary on words group: - - va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words=20 - - ta'u [tanru] expanding a tanru making a tanru - - + + + va'i + [valsi] + in other words + in the same words + + + ta'u + [tanru] + expanding a tanru + making a tanru + + + ta'u va'i discursives= expressing how things are said= discursivesword-level The discursives=20 va'i and=20 ta'u operate at the level of words, rather than= discourse proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An a= lternative English expression for=20 =20 va'i is=20 rephrasing; for=20 va'inai,=20 =20 repeating. Also compare=20 va'i with=20 @@ -1803,41 +2149,86 @@ =20 ta'unai tanruexplicitly defining tanruexplicating tanruexpanding The cmavo=20 ta'u is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expre= sses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semanticall= y ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be re= moved by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, = often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. = The discursive=20 =20 ta'u marks the transition from the use of a bri= ef but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discu= rsive=20 =20 ta'unai marks a transition in the reverse direc= tion. =20 Next, the=20 commentary on discourse group: - - li'a [klina] clearly obscurely=20 - - - obviously - ba'u [banli] exaggeration accuracy understatement - - zo'o humorously dully seriously - - sa'e [satci] precisely speaking loosely speaking - - to'u [tordu] in brief in detail - - do'a [dunda] generously parsimoniously - - sa'u [sampu] simply elaborating - - pa'e [pajni] justice prejudice - - je'u [jetnu] truly falsely - + + + li'a + [klina] + clearly + obscurely + + + obviously + + ba'u + [banli] + exaggeration + accuracy + understatement + + + + zo'o + humorously + dully + seriously + + + + sa'e + [satci] + precisely speaking + loosely speaking + + + + to'u + [tordu] + in brief + in detail + + + + do'a + [dunda] + generously + parsimoniously + + + + sa'u + [sampu] + simply + elaborating + + + + pa'e + [pajni] + justice + prejudice + + + + je'u + [jetnu] + truly + falsely + + zo'o ge'u pa'e sa'u= d= o'a to'u sa'e <= primary>zo'o ba'u li'a discoursegesture markers discourse<= secondary>tone of voice markers discoursecommentary on discurs= ivesdiscourse commentary This = group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of the discourse, s= o as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that listeners often fai= l to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or miss an exagg= eration, or try to read more into a statement than the speaker intends to p= ut there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the necessary cue, bu= t the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse is often simpl= y clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo may seem fussy= to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that=20 =20 zo'o, for example, is the equivalent of smiling= while you speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like=20 =20 What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny. sa'enai A few additional English equivalents: for=20 sa'enai,=20 =20 roughly speaking or=20 approximately speaking; for=20 @@ -1871,53 +2262,90 @@ =20 zo'o (humor) or=20 =20 .ianai (disbelief). =20 su'a When used as a discursive,=20 su'a (see=20 ) belongs to this group. Next, the=20 knowledge group: - - ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not=20 - - - la'a [lakne] probably improbably - - + + + ju'o + [djuno] + certainly + uncertain + certainly not + + + + la'a + [lakne] + probably + improbably + + + la'a ju'o knowledge d= iscursivescompared with propositional attitudes propositio= nal attitudescompared with knowledge discursives speaker's= state of knowledge discursivesknowledge knowledge discursives These two discursives describe the speaker's state of = knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the = propositional attitudes of=20 =20 =20 , as they create a hypotheti= cal world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our br= idi with=20 =20 =20 ju'o; but it may be false all the same. =20 Next, the=20 discourse management group: - - ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point=20 - - - ra'u [ralju] chiefly equally incidentally - - mu'a [mupli] for example omitting end examples - - examples - zu'u on the one hand on the other hand - - ke'u [krefu] repeating continuing - - da'i supposing in fact - - + + + ta'o + [tanjo] + by the way + returning to point + + + + ra'u + [ralju] + chiefly + equally + incidentally + + + + mu'a + [mupli] + for example + omitting ex. + end examples + + + zu'u + on the one hand + on the other hand + + + + ke'u + [krefu] + repeating + continuing + + + + da'i + supposing + in fact + + + da'i ke'u zu'u mu'a= r= a'u ta'o flow of discoursemanaging with discursives discursives fo= r managing discourse flow discursivesdiscourse management This final group is used to perform what may be calle= d=20 managing the discourse: providing reference points to h= elp the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next. ta'onao Other English equivalents of=20 ta'onai are=20 anyway,=20 anyhow,=20 in any case,=20 in any event,=20 as I was saying, and=20 continuing. @@ -2003,41 +2431,73 @@ ru is the equivalent of either=20 or=20 .)
Miscellaneous indicators Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitu= dinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following misc= ellaneous indicators: - - ki'a metalinguistic confusion=20 - - na'i metalinguistic negator - jo'a metalinguistic affirmer - - li'o omitted text (quoted material) - - sa'a material inserted by editor/narrator - - xu true-false question - pau question premarker rhetorical question - - - pe'a figurative language literal language - - bi'u new information old information - - ge'e non-specific indicator - - + + + ki'a + metalinguistic confusion + + + na'i + metalinguistic negator + + + jo'a + metalinguistic affirmer + + + + li'o + omitted text (quoted material) + + + + sa'a + material inserted by editor/narra= tor + + + + xu + true-false question + + + pau + question premarker + rhetorical question + + + + + pe'a + figurative language + literal language + + + + bi'u + new information + old information + + + + ge'e + non-specific indicator + + + ki'a huh?= example confusion about what was said confusionmetali= nguistic The cmavo=20 ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellan= eous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion abou= t what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (wh= ich is=20 .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning= of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti.= One of the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 ki'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1"/> @@ -2127,28 +2587,28 @@ sad (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> pe'anai literally The negated form,=20 pe'anai, indicates that what has been said is t= o be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language i= ntuition is to be ignored. =20 heartburnexample culturally dependent lujvo figurative lujvo= place structure figurative lujvo lujvoplace structure of figurat= ive lujvo Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 pe'a has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 pev. This rafsi is used in formi= ng figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have= nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus=20 risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a place stru= cture like: - x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 - + x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 + whereas=20 pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figurative,= might have the place structure: x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 - + which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either=20 risna or=20 jelca. bi'unai bi'u anexample aexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">theexampl= e a/= ancontrasted with the thecontrasted w= ith a/an The uses of=20 bi'u and=20 =20 bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of the En= glish articles=20 =20 =20 the and=20 @@ -2173,26 +2633,29 @@ ge'e attitudeavoidance of expression Finally, the= indicator=20 ge'e has been discussed in=20 =20 and=20 . It is used to express an = attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing a= ny attitude. Another use for=20 ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's fe= eling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o = CAI:=20 =20 .iige'e means roughly=20 I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not. - kau indirect question FIXME: TAG SPOT - - kau indirect question + kau= indirect questi= on FIXME: TAG SPOT + + + kau + indirect question + =20 =20 - + This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 . It marks the word it is atta= ched to as the focus of an indirect question: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3"/> mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. @@ -2244,194 +2707,265 @@ COI selma'oeffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of vocatives of COI All members of selma'o= COI require a pause when used immediately before a name, in order to preve= nt the name from absorbing the COI word. This is unlike selma'o DOI and LA,= which do not require pauses because the syllables of these cmavo are not p= ermitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. When calling out to someone, this= is fairly natural, anyway.=20 Hey! John! is thus a better translation of=20 ju'i .djan. than=20 =20 Hey John!. No pause is needed if the vocative reference= is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal,=20 ju'i lobypli. =20 (Alternatively,=20 doi can be inserted between the COI cmavo and t= he name, making a pause unnecessary:=20 coi doi djan.) - - coi greetings - - coi= =20 - Hello, X;=20 - Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listener. - - co'o partings - - co'o=20 - Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate company b= y either the speaker or the listener.=20 - coico'o means=20 - greeting in passing. - - ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us=20 - - - - ju'i=20 - Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X; indicates an i= mportant communication that the listener should listen to. - - nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise=20 - - - - nu'e=20 - I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener. In s= ome contexts,=20 - nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other formal= declaration. - =20 - - ta'a [tavla] interruption=20 - - - ta'e=20 - I interrupt, X,=20 - I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (possib= ly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This c= an be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interrupti= ons will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate respons= e to an interruption might be=20 - re'i (or=20 - =20 - re'inai to ignore the interruption). - - pe'u [cpedu] request=20 - - - pe'u e'o<= secondary>contrasted with pe'u pe'ucontrasted with e'o=20 - Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. It is a= formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 - .e'o with a specific recipient being addressed.= On the other hand,=20 - =20 - .e'o may be used when there is no specific list= ener, but merely a=20 - =20 - sense of petition floating in the air, as it were. - - ki'e [ckire] appreciation disappreciation=20 - - - gratitude ingratitude - - fi'i je'e ki'e thank yo= uexample politenessyou're welcome politen= essthank you and you're welcome=20 - Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude towar= d the listener. The usual response is=20 - je'e, but=20 - =20 - fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: see the = explanation of=20 - =20 - fi'i. - =20 - - fi'i [friti] welcome, unwelcome,=20 - - - offering inhospitality - - fi'i hospitalityexample you're welcomeje'e contrasted wi= th fi'i you're welcomefi'i contrasted with je'e=20 - At your service, X;=20 - Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (possibly = in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that=20 - =20 - fi'i is=20 - =20 - not the equivalent of American English=20 - You're welcome as a mechanical response to=20 - Thank you; that is=20 - je'e, as noted below. - =20 - - be'e [benji] request to send=20 - - - - be'e telephone conv= ersationhello=20 - Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker wishes= to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening.= In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant= (s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 - =20 - Hello? Can I speak to X?. - - re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready=20 - - - - re'i=20 - Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker is atte= ntive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead = of=20 - mi'e to respond when called to the telephone. T= he negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to tal= k when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated=20 - Hold on! or=20 - Just a minute. - - mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow=20 - - - - mu'o=20 - Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed the c= urrent utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The neg= ative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows doe= s not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,=20 - I'm not done talking! - - je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt=20 - - - - je'e rogerexample politenessyou're welcome=20 - Roger, X!,=20 - I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt of a = communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to rec= eive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 - ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of=20 - =20 - je'e and=20 - =20 - je'enai are the grunt typically written=20 - uh-huh and=20 - What?/Excuse me?.=20 - je'e is also used to mean=20 - =20 - You're welcome when that is a response to=20 - Thank you. - - vi'o will comply will not comply=20 - - - vi'o vi'o= contrasted with je'e je'econtrasted with vi'o=20 - Wilco, X,=20 - I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 - je'e but signals an intention (similar to=20 - =20 - .ai) to comply with the othe= r speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 - OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 - Agreed!, although=20 - .ie carries some of the same= meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received but tha= t you will not comply: a very colloquial version is=20 - No way!. - - ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed=20 - - - - ke'o ki'a= compared to ke'o ke'ocompared to ki'a=20 - What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or clari= fication due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative= equivalent of=20 - ki'a, and is related to=20 - je'enai. The negative form may be rendered=20 - Okay, already; I get the point! - - fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done=20 - - - fe'o=20 - Over and out, X; indicates completion of statement(s) a= nd communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a = letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been i= dentified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 - Wait, hold it, we're not done! and differs from=20 - mu'onai in that it means more exchanges are to = follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. - fa'ocontrasted with fe'o fe'ocontrasted with fa'o Do not confuse=20 - fe'o with=20 - fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extr= a-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 - =20 - fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conversa= tion and then go on speaking to the others. - - mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification=20 - - - mi'e meexplicitly specifying mi'econtrasted with other m= embers of COI introduce oneself=20 - And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although gramm= atically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 - mi'e is quite different semantically. In partic= ular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or descri= ption) follows=20 - mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, usi= ng=20 - mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti=20 - mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to clo= se letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone. + + + coi + greetings + =20 + + coi<= /indexterm>=20 + Hello, X;=20 + Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listene= r. + + + + co'o + partings + =20 + + co'o= =20 + Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate com= pany by either the speaker or the listener.=20 + coico'o means=20 + greeting in passing. + + + + ju'i + [jundi] + attention + at ease + ignore me/us + =20 + + ju'i= =20 + Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X; indicate= s an important communication that the listener should listen to. + + + + nu'e + [nupre] + promise + release promise + non-promise + =20 + + nu'e= =20 + I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener= . In some contexts,=20 + nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other = formal declaration. + + + =20 + + ta'a + [tavla] + interruption + =20 + + ta'e= =20 + I interrupt, X,=20 + I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (= possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. = This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude inte= rruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate r= esponse to an interruption might be=20 + re'i (or=20 + =20 + re'inai to ignore the interruption). + + + + pe'u + [cpedu] + request + =20 + + pe'u= e'ocontrasted with pe'u pe'ucontrasted with e'o=20 + Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. I= t is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 + .e'o with a specific recipient being addr= essed. On the other hand,=20 + =20 + .e'o may be used when there is no specifi= c listener, but merely a=20 + =20 + sense of petition floating in the air, as it were= . + + + + ki'e + [ckire] + appreciation + gratitude + disappreciation + ingratitude + =20 + + fi'i= je'e ki'e thank you= example politenessyou're welcome politene= ssthank you and you're welcome= =20 + Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude= toward the listener. The usual response is=20 + je'e, but=20 + =20 + fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: se= e the explanation of=20 + =20 + fi'i. + + + =20 + + fi'i + [friti] + welcome + offering + unwelcome + inhospitality + =20 + + fi'i= hospitalityexample you're welcomeje'e contrasted wit= h fi'i you're welcomefi'i contrasted with je'e= =20 + At your service, X;=20 + Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (pos= sibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note tha= t=20 + =20 + fi'i is=20 + =20 + not the equivalent of American English=20 + You're welcome as a mechanical response to=20 + Thank you; that is=20 + je'e, as noted below. + + + =20 + + be'e + [benji] + request to send + =20 + + be'e= telephone conve= rsationhello=20 + Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker = wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is list= ening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conv= ersant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 + =20 + Hello? Can I speak to X?. + + + + re'i + [bredi] + ready to receive + not ready + =20 + + re'i= =20 + Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker i= s attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used in= stead of=20 + mi'e to respond when called to the teleph= one. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing = to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated= =20 + Hold on! or=20 + Just a minute. + + + + mu'o + [mulno] + completion of utterance + more to follow + =20 + + mu'o= =20 + Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed= the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. T= he negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follo= ws does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,= =20 + I'm not done talking! + + + + je'e + [jimpe] + successful receipt + unsuccessful receipt + =20 + + je'e= roger= example politenessyou're welcome=20 + Roger, X!,=20 + I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt= of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure = to receive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 + ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents = of=20 + =20 + je'e and=20 + =20 + je'enai are the grunt typically written= =20 + uh-huh and=20 + What?/Excuse me?.=20 + je'e is also used to mean=20 + =20 + You're welcome when that is a response to=20 + Thank you. + + + + vi'o + will comply + will not comply + =20 + + vi'o= vi'o<= secondary>contrasted with je'e je'econtrasted with vi'o=20 + Wilco, X,=20 + I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 + je'e but signals an intention (similar to= =20 + =20 + .ai) to comply with th= e other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 + OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 + Agreed!, although=20 + .ie carries some of th= e same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received b= ut that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is=20 + No way!. + + + + ke'o + [krefu] + please repeat + no repeat needed + =20 + + ke'o= ki'a<= secondary>compared to ke'o ke'ocompared to ki'a=20 + What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or= clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vo= cative equivalent of=20 + ki'a, and is related to=20 + je'enai. The negative form may be rendere= d=20 + Okay, already; I get the point! + + + + fe'o + [fanmo] + end of communication + not done + =20 + + fe'o= =20 + Over and out, X; indicates completion of statemen= t(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to termin= ate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already = been identified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 + Wait, hold it, we're not done! and differs from= =20 + mu'onai in that it means more exchanges a= re to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. + + + fa'o<= secondary>contrasted with fe'o fe'ocontrasted with fa'o Do not confuse=20 + fe'o with=20 + fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, ex= tra-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 + =20 + fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conver= sation and then go on speaking to the others. + + mi'e + [cmavo: mi] + self-identification + non-identification + =20 + + mi'e= meexplicitly specifying mi'econtrasted with other me= mbers of COI = introduce oneself=20 + And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although= grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 + mi'e is quite different semantically. In = particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or = description) follows=20 + mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefor= e, using=20 + mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sum= ti=20 + mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, = to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone. + + + =20 re'imi'e fe'omi= 'e mi'= eeffect of ordering multiple COI COI selma'oordering multiple with mi'e closingsletter This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:=20 fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing at the= end of a letter;=20 =20 re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in delay= ed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As l= ong as the=20 =20 mi'e comes last, the following name is that of = the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of th= e listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a singl= e vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever = one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may = appear. mi'enai The negative form denies an identity which someone else ha= s attributed to you;=20 mi'enai .djan. means that you are saying you ar= e not John. =20 @@ -2531,21 +3065,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d8"/> .i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i mi ji'a prami la .al= is. fe'o .rik. =20 [Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic]= [emotional] I [additionally] love Alice. [Over and out to] Rick. - I love Alice too, said Fred miserably.=20 + I love Alice too, said Fred miserably.=20 Have a nice life, Rick. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d9"/> .i la fred. cliva Fred leaves. @@ -2662,21 +3196,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d19"/> .i sei la pam. cusku se'u ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi= farlu =20 [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Attention] George, [Warn= ing] the cup [future] [short] falls - George, watch out! said Pam.=20 + George, watch out! said Pam.=20 The cup's falling! <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d20"/> .i le kabri cu je'a farlu The cup indeed falls. @@ -2698,21 +3232,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d22"/> .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. = ga'i =20 [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Partings] all at-plac= e without John [superiority] - Goodbye to all of you, said George sneeringly,=20 + Goodbye to all of you, said George sneeringly,=20 except John. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d23"/> .i la djordj. cliva George leaves. --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.