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spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 0a3bdf0739a75c0e6d2541da9b13fa1191562268 Merge: 7366fc6 a5afd66 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:59:00 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'a5afd6690e84b8f1d48122e2769add15bf5fb169' into gh-pages commit 7366fc69f3978e2e003bde55da2158ee5e613be6 Merge: 9357c6a d627088 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:58:31 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'd627088504b6cca06e2b5d4f7d128147a4295ea6' into gh-pages commit 9357c6aba0d7d6012e0df141bf713f822074cc7f Merge: 9ce1c88 6e36e74 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:53:07 2011 -0800 Merge commit '6e36e744b5f4fdef95580f6bc81e586c8516cf40' into gh-pages commit 9ce1c8811d56983e26e53a044445cd5143eb79c5 Merge: fb67d8b 2f11cfc Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:48:47 2011 -0800 Merge commit '2f11cfcf848291f3f3d92d4f8a36872e50ddbd6a' into gh-pages commit fb67d8b02930871ce4b8c826fa2fb24d29e392bb Merge: 92eccc0 8ad9a80 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:45:07 2011 -0800 Merge commit '8ad9a8063294a8b7e0fd90c7d4dc71b1f8e54cb6' into gh-pages commit 92eccc00dbe0ad4e356a7646423c3e27118f1f30 Merge: 94ec789 d352791 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:29:33 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'd35279157927bd452e05d0311cdc3c723da6f5d1' into gh-pages commit 94ec78942a6467faf4fddb02448a7f232e3afe5b Merge: ddf7931 0e60af0 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 20:26:15 2011 -0800 Merge commit '0e60af080458faf9d216822a274ecafbf83205df' into gh-pages commit ddf79318e760a6f2559e0e0488d08309ad2929a3 Merge: 66c7600 3acfeef Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 18:46:19 2011 -0800 Merge commit '3acfeefd028ea0e0e0ffc87ab3215d2697917c1c' into gh-pages commit a5afd6690e84b8f1d48122e2769add15bf5fb169 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 22:26:44 2011 -0500 Chapter 17: s and indentation. diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 08ac12c..0e92546 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,28 +1,26 @@ As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses
What's a letteral, anyway? letter<= secondary>alphabet letteraldefinition BrownJames Cookeand "letteral" James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the wo= rd=20 =20 letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 - z. A typical example of its use might be - + z. A typical example of its use might be + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1"/> - - There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 - e in this sentence. - + There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 + e in this sentence. fourteen "e&= quot;s lerfudefinition (Don't forget= the one within quotation marks.) Using the word=20 letteral avoids confusion with=20 letter, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly= , there is a Lojban gismu for=20 letteral, namely=20 lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest o= f this chapter. alphabetLatin used for Lojban Latinalphabet of Lojban= Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English do= es, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, eve= ryone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold: =20 alphabetwords for letters inrationale<= /indexterm> First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to a= nd represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in Engl= ish and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphab= et to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in= spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalent= s of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow. =20 @@ -39,36 +37,36 @@ lerfu valsi or=20 lervla.
A to Z in Lojban, plus one lerfu wordsLojban coverage requirement The firs= t requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must= represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for Englis= h are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 doubleyou and=20 w is strictly historical in nature;=20 aitch represents=20 h but has no clear relationship to it at all; and=20 - z has two distinct lerfu words,=20 + z has two distinct lerfu words,=20 zee and=20 zed, depending on the dialect of English in question. BY selma'o lerfu wo= rdfor "'" lerfu wordsfor co= nsonants lerfu wordsfor vowels lerfu wordsformation rules All of Lojban's basic lerfu words = are made by one of three rules: to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add=20 - bu; + bu; to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add=20 - y; + y; the lerfu word for=20 - ' is=20 + ' is=20 .y'y. lerfu wordstable of Lojban Therefore, the follo= wing table represents the basic Lojban alphabet: =20 ' a b c d e @@ -97,28 +95,28 @@ t u v x y z ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. BU selma'o bu bueffect on preceding word lerfu wordscompos= ed of compound cmavo lerfu wordscomposed of single cmavo lerfu= wordsvowel words contrasted with consonant words lerfu wo= rdsconsonant words contrasted with vowel words lerfu words= for vowelspause requirement before There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerf= u words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 - ' lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by= pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from = the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 + ' lerfu words are two syllabl= es and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Anoth= er fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 by and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY,= as is=20 .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand,= are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 - bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the v= owel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sep= arator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 + bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All = of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sent= ence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when= =20 =20 =20 =20 - bu follows. + bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1"/> ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu t a @@ -144,21 +142,21 @@ lerfu wordseffect of systematic formulation spelling out wordsLojban contrasted with English in usefulness Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reas= ons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how= a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the En= glish ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words=20 fail and=20 vale sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu wo= rd of either, namely=20 eff or=20 vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them - an= d even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vail nor=20 fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the = spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling = out words does exist in Lojban. =20 lerfu words endin= g with "y"pause afterr= ationale Note that the lerfu words ending in=20 - y were written (in=20 + y were written (in=20 and=20 ) with pauses after them. It= is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to = do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3"/> mi cy. claxu I lerfu-=20 c without @@ -172,22 +170,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4"/> micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor. A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 - y unless the next word is also a cmavo ending i= n=20 - y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause= after all of them. + y unless the next word is als= o a cmavo ending in=20 + y. The safest and easiest gui= deline is to pause after all of them.
Upper and lower cases lower case letter= suse in Lojban capital lettersuse in = Lojban stressirregular marked with upper-case<= /indexterm> lower-case lette= rsEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban lower-case letters<= /primary>Lojban usage contrasted with English upper-case lettersEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban upper-case lettersLojban usage contrasted with English = Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) lett= ers in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper= -case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban = to mark irregular stress within names, thus: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1"/> @@ -223,24 +221,24 @@ <jbo>.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a</jbo> =20 =20 <gloss>i [upper] V A N [lower]</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called=20 <quote>shift words</quote>.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>shift word</prima= ry><secondary>scope</secondary></indexterm> How long does a shift word last= ? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the= end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is onl= y in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>shift</= primary><secondary>single-letter</secondary><tertiary>grammar of</tertiary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>shift word</pri= mary><secondary>for single letter</secondary></indexterm> It is often conve= nient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo=20 - <quote>tau</quote>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU c= mavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: t= he combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 + <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose.= A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equiv= alent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section14"/> for details.)</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>chemical elements= </primary><secondary>use of single-letter shift for</secondary></indexterm>= A likely use of=20 - <quote>tau</quote> is in the internationally standardized symbols for = the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single up= per-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:</p= ara> + <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase> is in the internationally standardized symb= ols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a s= ingle upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case l= erfu:</para> =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qhS7" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3"/> @@ -254,65 +252,65 @@ tau sy. .ibu [single shift] S i Si (chemical symbol for silicon) single-letter shi= ftas toggle If a shift to uppe= r-case is in effect when=20 =20 - tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lowe= r case, reversing its usual effect. + tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only= to lower case, reversing its usual effect.
The universal=20 - <quote>bu</quote> + bu lerfu word set ex= tensionwith bu bufor extension of ler= fu word set So far we have seen=20 - bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel ler= fu words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 - bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it pr= oved to be useful to allow=20 - bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to a= llow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. + bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce v= owel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 + bu. In developing the lerfu word system, howeve= r, it proved to be useful to allow=20 + bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in or= der to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. fa'o su sa si lo'u la'o= z= oi zo zei za'e ba'e fa'ointeraction with bu = suinter= action with bu sainteraction with bu siin= teraction with bu lo'uinteraction with bu la'ointeraction with bu zoiinteraction with bu zointeraction with bu zeiinteraction with bu za'einteraction with bu ba'einteraction with bu= bu<= /primary>interaction with ba'e buand compound c= mavo bugrammar of Formally,=20 - bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound = cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 - ba'e,=20 - za'e,=20 - =20 - zei,=20 - zo,=20 - zoi,=20 - la'o,=20 - lo'u,=20 + bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. C= ompound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 + ba'e,=20 + za'e,=20 + =20 + zei,=20 + zo,=20 + zoi,=20 + la'o,=20 + lo'u,=20 si,=20 - sa,=20 + sa,=20 su, and=20 fa'o may not have=20 =20 - bu attached, because they are interpreted before=20 - bu detection is done; in particular, + bu attached, because they are interpreted befor= e=20 + bu detection is done; in particular, <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e4d1"/> zo bu the word=20 bu bubu word "bu&= quot; = namespause requirement in lerfu words bueffect of multiple is needed when discussing=20 - bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 - bu to itself, but more than one=20 - bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 + bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 + bu to itself, but more than one=20 + bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not d= efined, but it is presumably different from=20 .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmav= o, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 - bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belo= nging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary= to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absor= b preceding or following words. + bu are treated grammatically as if they were cm= avo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always n= ecessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene m= ay absorb preceding or following words. happy faceexample smiley faceexample logogramswords for smiley faceword for unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 - bu to words has been used primarily to make names for v= arious logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name= for the=20 + bu to words has been used primarily to make nam= es for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Loj= ban name for the=20 =20 =20 happy face is=20 =20 .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 .ui that means=20 happiness. Likewise, the=20 =20 smiley face, written=20 =20 @@ -321,122 +319,122 @@ .uibu into running Lojban text to indicate that= you are happy, or=20 zo'obu when something is funny; instead, use th= e appropriate attitudinal directly. ampersandexample ampersand characterword for "&&q= uot;word for Likewise,=20 joibu represents the ampersand character,=20 =20 =20 &, based on the cmavo=20 joi meaning=20 mixed and. Many more such lerfu words will probably be = invented in future. "<= secondary>"word for "."word for syllable breakword for = pausewor= d for syllable breaksymbol for pausesymbo= l for The=20 - . and=20 - , characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent paus= e and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words=20 + . and=20 + , characters used in Lojbanic= writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assig= ned the lerfu words=20 =20 denpa bu (literally,=20 pause bu) and=20 slaka bu (literally,=20 syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 denpa and=20 slaka are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 denpabu would be a fu'ivla (= word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 denPAbu. No pause is require= d between=20 denpa (or=20 slaka) and=20 - bu, though. + bu, though.
Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of cultural = neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many o= ther writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text = (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standa= rd Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 - bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 + bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 - s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 - bu. Note that the pause after=20 + s and then into a Lojban lerf= u word by adding=20 + bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu w= ord with=20 - bu attached. The following assignments have been made:<= /para> - + bu attached. The following assignments have bee= n made: + .y'y.bu h ky.bu q vy.bu w - + quackexample As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1"/> ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. q u a c k letters= symbol contrasted with sound for spelling letterssound contrasted with symbol for spelling Note th= at the fact that the letter=20 c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the = Lojban letter=20 - c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and En= glish rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and L= ojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters. + c is irrelevant; we are spell= ing an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we= are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those l= etters. =20 A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: - + ty.bu =C3=BE (thorn) dy.bu =C3=B0 (edh) - + However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thin= g, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with=20 - bu added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek = lerfu word would be=20 + bu added they become even longer: the worst-cas= e Greek lerfu word would be=20 .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two manda= tory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have se= parate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to ch= oose? letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with language-shi= ft la= nguage shiftchoice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart langua= ge shifteffect on following words language shift= rationale for lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-word + bu, drawback The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to thos= e introduced in=20 . After the appearance of su= ch a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent th= e lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, fo= r example, the lerfu word=20 =20 ty would represent not Latin=20 t but Greek=20 tau. Why=20 tau? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterp= art of=20 t within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would = be all right to map=20 ty. to=20 phi or even=20 omega, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extr= emely hard to remember. buinteraction with language shift language shiftintera= ction with bu Where no obvious closest counterpart = exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu m= ay simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back= on a=20 - bu form. Since a=20 - bu form may mean different things in different alphabet= s, it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 - bu forms are in use. + bu form. Since a=20 + bu form may mean different things in different = alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 + bu forms are in use. Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o= BY: - + lo'a Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet =20 =20 =20 ge'o Greek alphabet =20 je'o Hebrew alphabet =20 jo'o Arabic alphabet =20 ru'o Cyrillic alphabet =20 - + LAU selma'o zai= langu= age shiftbased on name + bu <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">language shiftcompound language shiftformation of shift alphabet na= me C= yrillic alphabetlanguage shift word for Arabic alphabetlanguage shift word for Hebrew alphabetl= anguage shift word for Greek alphabetlanguage shift word f= or L= atin alphabetlanguage shift word for The cmavo=20 - zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to s= till other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typ= ically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 + zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift wo= rds to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo w= ould typically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 =20 - bu suffixed: + bu suffixed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2"/> zai .devanagar. bu =20 Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet =20 @@ -464,26 +462,26 @@ =20 Japanese hiragana syllabary =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 Japanese hiragana= example hiraganaexample Japanese katakana= example katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not bee= n standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need f= or them. (Note the=20 - . characters marking leading and following pauses.) + . characters marking leading = and following pauses.) LAU selma'o ce'= a bold= example italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsfor font facespecifying for letters fontspecifying for letters In addition, there may be multiple visible representat= ions within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwr= iting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 =20 font and face distinctions are also represented by shif= t words, indicated with the cmavo=20 =20 - ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: + ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5"/> ce'a .xelveticas. bu =20 Helvetica font =20 @@ -534,82 +532,82 @@ =20 umlaut; a mark which looks the same is also used in Fre= nch, but with a different name and meaning. =20 diacritical marks= problem of position These mark= s may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojba= n. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words m= ust be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representi= ng the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer p= rograms that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent ma= rk before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often prono= unced afterwards (for example, in German=20 =20 a umlaut is preferred to=20 =20 umlaut a). =20 FOI selma'o TEI= selma'o foi = tei diacritical marksspecifying with tei=E2=80=A6fo= i Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Eithe= r it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in= question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo=20 - tei (of selma'o TEI) and=20 - foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are alwa= ys used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and th= e whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word=20 + tei (of selma'o TEI) and=20 + foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo = are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them= , and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word= =20 =C3=A9t=C3=A9, with acute accent marks on both=20 =20 - e lerfu, could be spelled as: + e lerfu, could be spelled as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e6d1"/> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi (=20 - e acute )=20 + e acute )=20 t ( acute=20 - e) + e) ete accent markexample diacritical marksorder of specificati= on within tei=E2=80=A6foi and it does not matter wh= ether=20 akut. bu appears before or after=20 .ebu; the=20 - tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the acute accent i= s associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision repr= esented by=20 + tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the acute = accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precis= ion represented by=20 would rarely be required: i= t might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for e= xact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French. diacritical marks= problem with multiple on one lerfu This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent ma= rk on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which = accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to r= epresent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the = word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolv= ed by further conventions not yet established. =20 =20 Spanish chexample Spanish llexample compound lettersnative languagerepresenting as distinc= t letters accented lettersconsidered as distinct from unacc= ented diacritical marksconsidered as forming distinct lett= ers Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consi= der certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented = equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the print= ed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters o= r not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (= like=20 - ll and=20 - ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented b= y enclosing the combination in=20 - tei ... foi. + ll and=20 + ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may = be represented by enclosing the combination in=20 + tei ... foi. lerfu wordsforming new for non-Lojban letters using bu In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible= to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally o= r well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 - ll or Croatian=20 - lj could be called=20 + ll or Croatian=20 + lj could be called=20 libu, but that usage would not necessarily be u= niversally understood. contains a table of propos= ed lerfu words for some common accent marks. =20
Punctuation marks LAU selma'o lau= laueffect on following lerfu word = punctuation lerfu wordsmechanism for creating Lojban does n= ot have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really= a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks ex= tensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation mar= ks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo=20 =20 - lau of selma'o LAU.=20 + lau of selma'o LAU.=20 =20 - lau must always be followed by a BY word; the interpret= ation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typical= ly, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 + lau must always be followed by a BY word; the i= nterpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark.= Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 =20 - bu suffix. + bu suffix. punctuation lerfu= wordsrationale for lau Why is= =20 - lau necessary at all? Why not just use a=20 + lau necessary at all? Why not just use a=20 =20 - bu-marked word and announce that it is always to be int= erpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The=20 - bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy fo= r Lojban users to make up=20 - bu words without bothering to explain what they mean. U= sing the=20 - lau cmavo flags at least the most important of such non= ce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same= argument applies to the use of=20 + bu-marked word and announce that it is always t= o be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The= =20 + bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is= easy for Lojban users to make up=20 + bu words without bothering to explain what they= mean. Using the=20 + lau cmavo flags at least the most important of = such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly = the same argument applies to the use of=20 =20 - zai to signal an alphabet shift or=20 + zai to signal an alphabet shift or=20 =20 - ce'a to signal a font shift.) + ce'a to signal a font shift.) =20 =20 punctuation lerfu= wordsinteraction with different alphabet systems Since different alphabets require different punctuation= marks, the interpretation of a=20 =20 - lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphab= et shift and the current font shift. + lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the curren= t alphabet shift and the current font shift. =20 =20
What about Chinese characters? =20 =20 =20 Amharic writing syllaba= rieslerfu word representation = hiraganacontrasted with kanji kanjicontrasted with alphabets and = syllabaries <= primary>Chinese characterscontrasted with alphabets an= d syllabaries Chinese characters (=20 =20 @@ -644,59 +642,59 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1"/> .y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo h a n 4=20 - z - i 4 + z + i 4 han^{4}zi^{4} lerfu wor= ds with numeric digitsgrammar considerations numeric digit= s in lerfu wordsgrammar considerations The cmavo=20 vo is the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 =20 . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2"/> my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu m - i + i t s u b - i + i s h - i + i Mitsubishiexample kanjirepresenting based on strokes Chine= se charactersrepresenting based on strokes= Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu= words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there ar= e about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about = 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character = with a=20 =20 =20 =20 - tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 - foi. No one has as yet attempted this project. + tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of wri= ting (which is standardized for each character), and a=20 + foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.<= /para>
lerfu words as pro-sumti lerfu stringdefinition So far, lerfu words have= only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several ot= her grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single l= erfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term=20 =20 lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: @@ -709,21 +707,21 @@ .abu prami by. A loves B =20 In=20 ,=20 .abu and=20 by. represent specific sumti, but which sumti t= hey represent must be inferred from context. goi= lerfu stringas pro-sumti assigned by goi Alte= rnatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by=20 - goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: + goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d2"/> le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house. @@ -766,68 +764,68 @@ .abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C BOI selma'o boi= boieliding from lerfu strings Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 =20 by. cy. is a single lerfu string, although writ= ten as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretatio= n is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need= to introduce the elidable terminator=20 =20 - boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate l= erfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these= appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 - boi is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthes= is, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is: + boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to ter= minate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two = of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 + boi is to attach a free modifier - subscript, p= arenthesis, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6"/> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C =20 A gives B to Cexample where the two occurrences= of=20 - boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurre= nce is not. Likewise: + boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining= occurrence is not. Likewise: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7"/> xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. =20 X loves everybody. pro-sumtilerfu stringsinteraction with quantifier= s and boi boirequired between pro-sumti lerfu string and qu= antifier requires the first=20 - boi to separate the lerfu string=20 + boi to separate the lerfu string=20 xy. from the digit string=20 =20 ro.
References to lerfu pro-sumtilerfu stringeffect on reference to lerfu= itself lerfureference to The rules= of=20 make it impossible to use u= nmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1"/> .abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 .abu refers to. The solution to this problem ma= kes use of the cmavo=20 - me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 - me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. + me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string = into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 + me'o is a special case of its mathematical use,= which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than= for its value. "a" is lett= eralexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/> me'o .abu cu lerfu The-expression=20 a is-a-letteral. @@ -837,44 +835,44 @@ four "e"sexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d3"/> dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-expression=20 - e. + e. This sentence contains four=20 - e s. + e s. Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 - e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation i= s not a literal one - but=20 + e lerfu rather than fourteen,= the translation is not a literal one - but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 - lu ... li'u instead of=20 - me'o, producing: + lu ... li'u instead of=20 + me'o, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4"/> lu .abu li'u cu lerfu [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. (The single-word quote=20 - zo cannot be used, because=20 + zo cannot be used, because=20 .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, because it says:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5"/> The word=20 .abu is a letteral @@ -909,37 +907,37 @@ li .abu du li by. su'i cy. the-number a equals the-number b plus c a =3D b + c function name= lerfu string as lerfu stringas functi= on name A lerfu string as function name (preceded b= y=20 =20 - ma'o of selma'o MAhO): + ma'o of selma'o MAhO): function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2"/> li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x =20 y =3D f(x) Note the=20 - boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 + boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 fy and=20 xy. selbrilerfu string as lerfu stringas selbri A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o = MOI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d3"/> @@ -963,63 +961,63 @@ ny.mai Nthly =20 Nthlyexample subscriptslerfu string as= lerfu stringas subscript A lerfu string as su= bscript (preceded by=20 - xi of selma'o XI): + xi of selma'o XI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d5"/> xy. xi ky. x sub k x sub kexample quantifierlerfu string as lerfu string<= /primary>as quantifier A lerfu string as= quantifier (enclosed in=20 - vei ... ve'o parentheses): + vei ... ve'o parentheses): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6"/> vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu (=20 n) persons vei= n peopleexample lerfu stringsas quantifiersavoiding interaction with sumti quantified The parentheses are required because=20 ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti,=20 ny. and=20 lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expressi= on other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantif= ier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 - ve'o, can usually be elided. + ve'o, can usually be elided. lerfu juxtapositi= on interpretationcontrasted with mathematical interpre= tation lerfu stringinterpretationcon= trasted with mathematical interpretation All the exa= mples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in= accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu st= ring would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojba= n,=20 =20 .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication=20 =20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c but is the variable=20 abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employed t= hat made the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values = of the variables=20 - a,=20 - b, and=20 - c multiplied together.) + a,=20 + b, and=20 + c multiplied together.) lerfu shift scope= exception for mathematical texts mathematical textseffect on lerfu shift scope There is = a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathem= atical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical= expressions, and vice versa. =20
Acronyms acronym= definition An acronym is a name construc= ted of lerfu. English examples are=20 =20 DNA,=20 =20 NATO,=20 @@ -1032,21 +1030,21 @@ =20 NATO). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunci= ations:=20 =20 =20 SQL may be=20 =20 ess cue ell or=20 sequel. lerfu wordsas a basis for acronym names acronymsusing = names based on lerfu words In Lojban, a name can be= almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by = a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu wo= rds together, using=20 =20 - ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are i= llegal in names) and adding a final consonant: + ' wherever two vowels would c= ome together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1"/> la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. =20 @@ -1055,23 +1053,23 @@ =20 =20 IBM. NYC. =20 =20 NYCexample SQLexample NATOexample IBMexample CIAexample DNAex= ample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final conson= ant There is no fixed convention for assigning the = final consonant. In=20 , the last consonant of the = lerfu string has been replicated into final position. buomitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words acronyms names based on l= erfu wordsomitting bu Some com= pression can be done by leaving out=20 - bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 + bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 - bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is= moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introduci= ng an involuntary (and illegal) pause: + bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compre= ssion is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without i= ntroducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2"/> la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. DNA. NATO. =20 @@ -1079,63 +1077,63 @@ CIA. SQL. =20 =20 IBM. NYC. =20 =20 In=20 , the final consonant=20 - m stands for=20 + m stands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these a= cronyms. =20 "z" ins= tead of "'"in acronyms names based on lerfu = words acronyms names based on lerfu wordsusing "z&quo= t; instead of "'" in Another approach, wh= ich some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions= of the language that did not have a=20 - ' character, is to use the consonant=20 - z instead of=20 - ': + ' character, is to use the co= nsonant=20 + z instead of=20 + ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3"/> la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. DNA. NATO. =20 =20 CIA. SQL. =20 =20 IBM. NYC. =20 =20 me<= /indexterm> acronymsas lerfu strings using "me" = lerfu stringsas acronyms using "me" One more alt= ernative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed = with=20 - me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: + me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4"/> la me dy ny. .abu that-named what-pertains-to=20 d n a This works because=20 - la, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as su= mti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is = a (meaningful) name: + la, the cmavo that normally introduces names us= ed as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predi= cate is a (meaningful) name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d5"/> la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bear writes. Bear is a writer. @@ -1293,39 +1291,38 @@ start compound lerfu word foi FOI end compound lerfu word LAU selma'ogrammar of following BY cmavo lerfu word cmavolist of auxiliary Note that LAU cmavo must be fo= llowed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where=20 equivalent means: either any Lojban word followed by=20 - bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 - tei ... foi compound cmavo. + bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel)= , or a=20 + tei ... foi compound cmavo.
Proposed lerfu words - introduction lerfu wordslist of proposednotation convention The following sections contain tables of proposed lerf= u words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu sy= stem. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabe= t name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-b= ased lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the sys= tem based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. proposed lerfu wo= rdsas working basis These tabl= es are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban= community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other = and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual u= sage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. P= robably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down= into a final, conventional form. =20 For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu).
Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet =20 - + alpha .alfas. bu .abu=20 =20 - beta .betas. bu by gamma .gamas. bu gy delta .deltas. bu dy epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu zeta .zetas. bu zy eta .etas. bu .e'ebu theta .tetas. bu ty. bu iota .iotas. bu .ibu kappa .kapas. bu ky lambda .lymdas. bu ly @@ -1337,29 +1334,28 @@ rho .ros. bu ry sigma .sigmas. bu sy tau .taus. bu ty upsilon .Upsilon. bu .ubu phi .fis. bu py. bu chi .xis. bu ky. bu psi .psis. bu psis. bu omega .omegas. bu .o'obu rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu - +
Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet =20 Cyrillic alphabet= proposed lerfu words for lerfu wordsp= roposed for Cyrillic alphabet The second column in = this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church = Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages req= uire more letters which can be devised as needed. - + a .azys. bu .abu=20 - b .bukys. bu by v .vedis. bu vy g .glagolis. bu gy d .dobros. bu dy e .iestys. bu .ebu zh .jivet. bu jy z .zemlias. bu zy i .ije,is. bu .ibu short i .itord. bu .itord. bu k .kakos. bu ky @@ -1377,28 +1373,27 @@ ts .tsis. bu tsys. bu ch .tcriyviys. bu tcys. bu sh .cas. bu cy shch .ctas. bu ctcys. bu hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu yu .ius. bu .iubu ya .ias. bu .iabu - +
Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet =20 - + aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu=20 - bet .bet. bu by gimel .gimel. bu gy daled .daled. bu dy he .xex. bu .y'y vav .vav. bu vy zayin .zai,in. bu zy =20 khet .xet. bu xy. bu tet .tet. bu ty. bu yud .iud. bu .iud. bu @@ -1418,31 +1413,30 @@ dagesh .daGEC. bu daGEC. bu hiriq .xirik. bu .ibu tzeirekh .tseirex. bu .eibu segol .seGOL. bu .ebu qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu qamatz .kamats. bu .abu patach .patax. bu .a'abu sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu kholem .xolem. bu .obu shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu - +
Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters= =20 =20 multiple letters<= /primary>proposed lerfu words for diacritic marksproposed lerfu words for accent marksproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for multiple letters= lerfu wordsproposed for diacritic marks lerfu wordsp= roposed for accent marks This list is intended to b= e suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish=20 dark l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.<= /para> - + acute .akut. bu=20 - or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu] grave .grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu] circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu =20 or .midgal. bu [midju galtu] tilde .tildes. bu =20 macron .makron. bu =20 @@ -1457,34 +1451,33 @@ =20 double-acute .re'akut. bu [re akut.] ogonek .ogoniek. bu hacek .xatcek. bu ligatured fi tei fy. ibu foi =20 Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi =20 German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi - +
Proposed lerfu words for radio communication =20 Phonetic Alphabet= proposed lerfu words for ICAO Phonetic Alphabet<= secondary>proposed lerfu words for noisy environmentspropo= sed lerfu words for radio communicationproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for radio communication lerfu words<= /primary>proposed for noisy environments= There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement= , as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy sit= uations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as th= e=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. =20 This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 carlis. bu, not=20 tcarlis. bu). - + Alfa .alfas. bu=20 - Bravo .bravos. bu Charlie .carlis. bu Delta .deltas. bu Echo .ekos. bu Foxtrot .fokstrot. bu Golf .golf. bu Hotel .xoTEL. bu India .indias. bu Juliet .juliet. bu Kilo .kilos. bu @@ -1497,13 +1490,13 @@ Romeo .romios. bu Sierra .sieras. bu Tango .tangos. bu Uniform .Uniform. bu Victor .viktas. bu Whiskey .uiskis. bu X-ray .eksreis. bu =20 Yankee .iankis. bu Zulu .zulus. bu - +
commit d627088504b6cca06e2b5d4f7d128147a4295ea6 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 22:06:20 2011 -0500 Automatic indentation of chapters 12, 14, and 15. diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index b29ae59..649f6c5 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -79,30 +79,30 @@ =20 goer-houseexample As a simple example, consider= the rather non-obvious tanru=20 klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 =20 zdani has two places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1"/> - x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 + x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 (but in this chapter we will use simply=20 house, for brevity), and the gismu=20 klama has five: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2"/> - x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 = using means x5 + x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 us= ing means x5 The tanru=20 klama zdani will also have two places, namely t= hose of=20 zdani. Since a=20 klama zdani is a type of=20 zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses - wha= tever they may be - are also houses. dog houseexample tanrupossible meanings of= fleas= But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is nee= ded to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to = a less unlikely tanru:=20 gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 =20 @@ -181,56 +181,56 @@ gerku. We can proceed as follows: lujvo place struc= turenotation conventions (The = notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) lujvo place struc= tureexplicated walk-through <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">new notation The place structure of=20 zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated here using= the new notation: =20 - doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1"/> - z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 + z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 gerku is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d2"/> - g1 is a dog of breed g2 + g1 is a dog of breed g2 But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structu= re for=20 gerzda now becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d3"/> - z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 + z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 which can also be written <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d4"/> - z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2 + z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2 or more comprehensively <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d5"/> - z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 + z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not yet done: = we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be = eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concern= s will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equippe= d with the terminology needed for those discussions.
Selecting places lujvo place struc= turebasis of The set of places= of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. = More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of plac= es of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just eno= ugh places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, = including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excl= uding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place r= equires assuming a standard value or range of values for it. lujvo place struc= turerationale for standardization It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 se jbopli or a=20 @@ -245,60 +245,60 @@ symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 =20 banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structu= res are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1"/> - banli: b1 is great in property b2 by= standard b3 - sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 + banli: b1 is great in property b2 by s= tandard b3 + sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 In this case the s1 place of=20 sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to t= he b1 place of=20 banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 balsoi need not include places for both s1 and = b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 balsoi is at most =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2"/> - b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stan= dard b3 - =20 + b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standa= rd b3 + =20 listen attentivel= yexample lujvo place structurewhen fi= rst places redundant plus others symmetrical veljvo Som= e symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the resp= ective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 =20 tinju'i,=20 to listen (=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirna and=20 jundi are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3"/> - - tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background= noise t3 - =20 - - jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 + + tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background n= oise t3 + =20 + + jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 background noise<= /primary> and the place structure of the lujvo is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4"/> - j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 - =20 + j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 + =20 Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays atten= tion) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing = paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard). lujvo place struc= turewhen first place redundant with non-first lujvoasymmetrical A substantial minority o= f lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (=20 gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place ot= her than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 asymmetrical tanru and=20 =20 symmetrical tanru used in=20 =20 .) @@ -306,29 +306,29 @@ gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the = g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned= , we could convert=20 zdani to=20 se zdani (or=20 selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place st= ructure of=20 selzda is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d5"/> - s1 is housed by nest s2 + s1 is housed by nest s2 and so the three-part lujvo=20 gerselzda would have the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d6"/> - s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2 + s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2 However, although=20 gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translat= e=20 doghouse; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse.= Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;=20 gerzda is simpler than=20 gerselzda. From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru. =20 car goerexample The lujvo=20 karcykla, for example, is based on=20 @@ -344,50 +344,50 @@ karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 A asymmetrical interpretation of=20 karcykla that is strictly analogous to the plac= e structure of=20 gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 = (car) places, would lead to the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d8"/> - kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3= from origin kl3 - via route kl4 by means of kl5 + kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 f= rom origin kl3 + via route kl4 by means of kl5 But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, s= o a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to t= he kl5 place, leading to <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d9"/> - kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 - by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. + kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 + by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
Dependent places lujvo place struc= turedependent places In order = to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a luj= vo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. = One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can b= e predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example= , the g2 place of=20 =20 =20 gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Becaus= e when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known do= g), then we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependenc= y between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have= not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one hou= se. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know= the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller= . lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent seltau places The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent place= s provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from t= he tentative place structure given in=20 , leaving the place structur= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1"/> - z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 + z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a = lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the dog= house, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2"/> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. =20 @@ -399,21 +399,21 @@ la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. =20 since that is the interpretation we have given=20 gerzda. But that in turn means - unspecified breedexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + unspecified breed= example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d4"/> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified bree= d. =20 =20 @@ -445,34 +445,34 @@ beetle<= secondary>example As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 =20 calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7"/> - - calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made = of ca3 - - cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of specie= s ci2 - =20 + + calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of= ca3 + + cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species = ci2 + =20 lujvo place struc= turedropping cross-dependent places lujvo place structure<= /primary>cross-dependent places cross-dependency arthropod This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one g= ismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because a= ll insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into= ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect ha= s only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivale= nt to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d8"/> - ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 - =20 + ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 + =20 with not a single place of=20 calku surviving independently! beetles= Coleoptera (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tell= s us just why=20 cakcinki means=20 beetle (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in the= ir adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no = way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable featur= e of beetles in particular.) =20 =20 =20 lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent tertau places What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belong= s to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of=20 @@ -497,21 +497,21 @@ =20 =20 kuldi'u (from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9"/> - d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to au= dience c4 + d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audi= ence c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), do= n't seem to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. =20
Ordering lujvo places. lujvo place order= So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places= to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the = story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right ord= er of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becom= es critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way tha= t a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is = which. prayer<= secondary>example lujvo place orderrationale for standardi= zation If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then= , we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some con= ventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take f= or example the lujvo=20 @@ -527,49 +527,49 @@ This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. =20 Dongexample we must be able to know if Dong is = the person making the prayer, giving the meaning =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d2"/> - This is a prayer by Dong - =20 + This is a prayer by Dong + =20 or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3"/> - This is a prayer to Dong - =20 + This is a prayer to Dong + =20 We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 =20 discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more= necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still n= ecessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to t= ake advantage of any available regularities. =20 =20 great soldierexample lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujv= o el= imination process We use two different ordering rules= : one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lu= jvo like=20 balsoi (from=20 ) has the places o= f its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the eliminat= ion process. For=20 =20 balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place struc= ture: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4"/> - b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stan= dard b3 - =20 + b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standa= rd b3 + =20 just what appears in=20 . In fact, all place structu= res shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of th= is section, though the fact has been left tacit until now. The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujv= o bridi-schema <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d5"/> b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3 @@ -595,34 +595,34 @@ dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 =20 danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7"/> - - danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 - - mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ail= ment m3 using treatment m4 - =20 + + danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 + + mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailme= nt m3 using treatment m4 + =20 ailment= and the lujvo place structure is: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8"/> - m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment = m3 using treatment m4 + m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment m3= using treatment m4 animal patient Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, = the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared plac= e; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.<= /para> =20
lujvo with more than two parts. tomorrowexample lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more pa= rt veljvo The theory we have outlined so far is an = account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more t= han two parts. An example is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 =20 @@ -635,115 +635,115 @@ next, and=20 djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place str= ucture for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in = the usual way. =20 =20 In this case,=20 bavla'i is given the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d1"/> - b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 + b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with=20 djedi, which has the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d2"/> - duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 + duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 anomalous orderin= g of lujvo places While symmetrical lujvo normally pu= t any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is = a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the def= inition of=20 =20 bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidel= ines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not l= aws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places= in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3"/> - d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defa= ult 1) by standard d3 + d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defaul= t 1) by standard d3 long-swordexample medieval weapon Here is another exa= mple of a multi-part lujvo:=20 cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4"/> - - clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standa= rd c3 - - dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with bl= ade made of d3 - - xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 = by wielder xa3 + + clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard= c3 + + dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blad= e made of d3 + + xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by= wielder xa3 sword blade Since=20 cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on=20 cladakfu xarci, and=20 cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can = do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the= knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the= thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given = that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of le= ngth) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so= is dependent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu= in right-to-left order we get: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5"/> - xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wi= elder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. + xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wiel= der xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled,= but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it = is best that it be last.
Eliding SE rafsi from seltau lujvodropping SE rafsi It is common to form luj= vo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo= rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful construction= s shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the = lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh eas= e in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual con= cept. proposed law Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1"/> - - stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 t= o audience st3 - - flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for commun= ity f3 under conditions f4 - by lawgiver f5 + + stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to = audience st3 + + flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for communit= y f3 under conditions f4 + by lawgiver f5 lined up This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the = second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, n= amely f1. However, if we understand=20 ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo=20 selti'ifla, then we get the first places of sel= tau and tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 =20 selti'i is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d2"/> - - selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by ag= ent se2 to audience se3 + + selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by agen= t se2 to audience se3 Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1= (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structur= e is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d3"/> - f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under cond= itions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 + f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condit= ions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 or, relabeling the places, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d4"/> - f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under cond= itions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 + f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condit= ions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.= lujvoabbreviated Abbreviated lujvo like=20 ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker= ) than their more explicit counterparts like=20 selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don't req= uire the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the s= eltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But shoul= d the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out= , then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, su= ch abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscur= e the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give = our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to enco= urage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -786,21 +786,21 @@ la djak. cu se blakanla Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes But look now at the place structure of=20 blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the pla= ce structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d3"/> - bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 + bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 We end up being most interested in talking about the second plac= e, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so=20 se would almost always be required. What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wro= ngly, under the influence of English. The English suffix=20 -eyed does not mean=20 eye, but someone with an eye, which is=20 selkanla. Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a=20 se that really should be there), any attempt to= accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is= fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, luj= vo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their= more explicit counterparts: in this case,=20 blaselkanla. @@ -861,36 +861,36 @@ [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost i= dentical with=20 anyway?) shellfishexample shellfish There are cases, however, = where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful= . For example,=20 xaskemcakcurnu means=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo =20 - shell worm<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT + shell wormexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5"/> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) =20 invertebrate (=20 worm in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 =20 xasycakcurnu has the veljvo - ocean shell= example FIXME: TAG SPOT + ocean shellexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6"/> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm =20 @@ -915,27 +915,27 @@ selkla, and the places of=20 selkla are exactly those of=20 se klama. But consider the related lujvo=20 dzukla, meaning=20 to walk to somewhere. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, deriv= ed from the veljvo=20 cadzu klama as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d7"/> - - cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c= 3 - - klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 u= sing k5 - - dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k3 via rou= te k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 - on surface c2 + + cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3<= /para> + + klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 usi= ng k5 + + dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k3 via route= k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 + on surface c2 We can swap the k1 and k2 places using=20 se dzukla, but we cannot directly make=20 se dzukla into=20 seldzukla, which would represent the veljvo=20 selcadzu klama and plausibly mean something lik= e=20 to go to a walking surface. Instead, we would need=20 selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for=20 ke. Similarly,=20 nalbrablo (from=20 @@ -972,79 +972,79 @@ .)
Abstract lujvo lujvo place struc= ture"nu" lujvo abstract lujvo lujvoabstract The cmavo of NU can participate in the c= onstruction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Cons= ider that old standard example,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/> - k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. + k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. The selbri=20 nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of= -going, but the full five places exist implicitly between=20 nu and=20 kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be p= laced there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and conse= quently the lujvo=20 nunkla (=20 nun- is the rafsi for=20 nu), needs to have six places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d2"/> - nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rout= e k4 by means k5. + nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route = k4 by means k5. Here the first place of=20 nunklama is the first and only place of=20 nu, and the other five places have been pushed = down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information= on=20 nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned = in this section, is given in=20 . lujvo place struc= turemulti-place abstraction lujvo lujvo place structure"ni" lujvo For those ab= stractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to = place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being = abstracted. The place structure of=20 nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 ni klama, is the imposing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d3"/> - ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rou= te k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2. + ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route= k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2. It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making = of more complex lujvo as well. For example,=20 nunsoidji, from the veljvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d4"/> nu sonci kei djica event-of being-a-soldier desirer has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d5"/> - d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for = purpose d3 + d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for pu= rpose d3 where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by= the places of the seltau. As shown in=20 , the ordering follows this = idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the = omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau. The lujvo=20 nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary = asymmetric lujvo=20 =20 soidji, a=20 soldier desirer, whose place structure is just <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d6"/> - d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 + d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 A=20 nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enli= st, whereas a=20 soidji might be a camp-follower. One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit= =20 =20 kei in tanru:=20 nunkalri gasnu means much the same as=20 nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition= , many English words ending in=20 -hood are represented with=20 @@ -1104,26 +1104,26 @@ Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 nunctikezgau, meaning=20 to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwi= nded, be patient.) The veljvo of=20 =20 nunctikezgau is=20 nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structur= es are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d1"/> - - nu: n1 is an event - - citka: c1 eats c2 - - gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event= g2 + + nu: n1 is an event + + citka: c1 eats c2 + + gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event g= 2 In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo = given in=20 , we will first create an inte= rmediate lujvo,=20 nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 ,=20 nuncti has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d2"/> @@ -1132,31 +1132,31 @@ <jbo>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</jbo> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 <jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> into=20 <jbophrase>nuncti gasnu</jbophrase>. The g2 place (what is brought abo= ut by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of ea= ting). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative pla= ce structure of</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-izvp"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3"/> - g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 + g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depe= nd on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the selta= u, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 =20 =20 nunctikezgau is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4"/> - g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 + g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoi in=20 , the interpretati= on of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti pla= ces. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstr= action either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of= =20 =20 gasnu is defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nu is the type of abstraction one would expect = to be a=20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 @@ -1177,69 +1177,69 @@ socialize with someone and=20 have sex with someone, are not relevant to=20 gasnu.) So we can simply use=20 ctigau with the same place structure as=20 nunctikezgau: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d5"/> - agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 - g1 feeds c2 to c1. + agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 + g1 feeds c2 to c1. This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau = serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is c= alled an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an= abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit). =20 =20 To give another example: the gismu=20 basti, whose place structure is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d6"/> - b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 + b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 can form the lujvo=20 basygau, with the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d7"/> - g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 + g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 where both=20 basti and=20 basygau are translated=20 replace in English, but represent different relations:= =20 basti may be used with no mention of any agent = doing the replacing. In addition,=20 gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we wou= ld consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a pred= icate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This= is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages= . For example, the gismu=20 =20 =20 =20 litki, meaning=20 liquid, with the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d8"/> - l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under condition= s l3 + l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions = l3 can give=20 likygau, meaning=20 to liquefy: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d9"/> - g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of compositi= on l2 under conditions l3. + g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition= l2 under conditions l3. While=20 likygau correctly represents=20 causes to be a liquid, a different lujvo based on=20 galfi (meaning=20 modify) may be more appropriate for=20 causes to become a liquid. On the other hand,=20 fetsygau is potentially confusing, because it c= ould mean=20 agent in the event of something becoming female (the im= plicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply=20 female agent (the parallel interpretation), so using im= plicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misu= nderstood. @@ -1247,84 +1247,84 @@ =20 Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and = therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction luj= vo. For example, lujvo based on=20 =20 =20 =20 rinka, with its place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d10"/> - event r1 causes event r2 to occur + event r1 causes event r2 to occur are closely related to those based on=20 gasnu. However,=20 rinka is less generally useful than=20 gasnu, because its r1 place is another event ra= ther than a person:=20 lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the pla= ce structure of=20 likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to=20 likygau, is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d11"/> - event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition= l2 under conditions l3 + event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l= 2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. =20 =20
Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1"/> - - lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 a= nd beliefs l3 - - cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 = in medium c4 + + lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and= beliefs l3 + + cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in= medium c4 and=20 selsku, the tertau of=20 jdaselsku, has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d2"/> - s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 + s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: = the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2).= This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been give= n in=20 or=20 ; therefore, for lack = of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau p= laces after them, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d3"/> - s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium= s4 pertaining to religion l1 + s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium s= 4 pertaining to religion l1 The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l= 1 place (the religion) and so is omitted. We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with=20 se seljdasku, where=20 seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with pl= ace structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d4"/> - c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in me= dium s4 pertaining to religion l1 + c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medi= um s4 pertaining to religion l1 which, according to the rule expressed in=20 , can be further expressed as=20 selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the= ugly=20 selsel- prefix just to get the rules right:=20 jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.= However, there is a further problem with=20 jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gis= mu=20 lijda and=20 @@ -1340,70 +1340,70 @@ =20 =20 lanme and=20 gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog= which controls sheep flocks, a=20 terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is= =20 terlantroge'u with place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d5"/> - g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up o= f sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2 + g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up of = sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2 based on the gismu place structures <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d6"/> - - lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging = to flock l3 - - gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 - - jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 + + lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to= flock l3 + + gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 + + jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between=20 lantro (sheep-controller) and=20 gerku, but=20 lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 = place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujv= o=20 lange'u is both shorter than=20 terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant= its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the l= onger lujvo, for which=20 lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation. Another example is=20 xanmi'e,=20 to command by hand, to beckon. The component place stru= ctures are: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d7"/> - - xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 - - minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 = to happen - =20 + + xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 + + minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to= happen + =20 The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for t= here to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (th= e one who commands). But interpreting=20 =20 xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided= =20 sel- in the seltau, as if from=20 se xance minde, misses the point: the real rela= tion expressed by the lujvo is not just=20 one who commands and has a hand, but=20 =20 to command using the hand. The concept of=20 using suggests the gismu=20 pilno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d8"/> - p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 + p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly y= ou want to constrain the veljvo) <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d9"/> [ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde (hand user) type-of commander @@ -1456,34 +1456,34 @@ zenba,=20 jdika, and=20 traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and= easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed. We will begin with lujvo based on=20 zmadu and=20 mleca, whose place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d1"/> - - zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in= quantity z4 - - mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in= quantity m4 + + zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in q= uantity z4 + + mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in q= uantity m4 For example, the concept=20 young is expressed by the gismu=20 citno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d2"/> - - citno: c1 is young + + citno: c1 is young younger= example lujvo place ordercomparatives The comparative concept=20 younger can be expressed by the lujvo=20 =20 citmau (based on the veljvo=20 citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3"/> @@ -1495,22 +1495,22 @@ <en>I am six years younger than you.</en> =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The place structure for=20 <jbophrase>citmau</jbophrase> is</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-I3Uh"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4"/> - z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 - =20 + z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 + =20 Similarly, in Lojban you can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d5"/> do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six. You are six years less young than me. @@ -1539,30 +1539,30 @@ X goes to Y more than Z does,=20 X goes to Y from Z more than from W, or what? lujvo place struc= turecomparative lujvo comparative lujvostandardized meanings We answer this concern by p= utting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by conven= tion, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the = seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be = expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the ne= w first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place st= ructures: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d6"/> - - nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amo= unt z4 - - selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by = n1 in amount z4 - - klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k= 3 via k4 by means of k5 - - selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by = k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5 - - terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin p= oint from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 + + nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amoun= t z4 + + selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1= in amount z4 + + klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 = via k4 by means of k5 + + selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1= from k3 via k4 by means of k5 + + terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin poi= nt from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 (See=20 for the way in which this pro= blem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.) The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and th= e other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresse= s by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place= whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while=20 nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place,=20 klamau has it as its sixth place. In any senten= ce where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged w= ith=20 vemau (for=20 zmadu) or=20 veme'a (for=20 mleca) to help make the speaker's intention cle= ar. @@ -1607,47 +1607,47 @@ I increase in strength. Finally, lujvo with a tertau of=20 traji are used to build superlatives. The place= structure of=20 traji is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d9"/> - t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (lar= gest by default) of set t4 + t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (large= st by default) of set t4 Consider the gismu=20 xamgu, whose place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d10"/> - xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 + xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 better<= secondary>example The comparative form is=20 xagmau, corresponding to English=20 better, with a place structure (by the rules given abov= e) of <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11"/> - z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 + z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 lujvo place order= superlatives lujvo place structuresu= perlatives We would expect the place structure of= =20 xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror= that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, re= sulting in: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d12"/> - xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.<= /para> + xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3. The t2 place in=20 traji, normally filled by a property abstractio= n, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extrem= um of=20 =20 =20 traji (whether the most or the least, that is) = is presumed by default to be=20 the most. lujvo place order= superlatives as exceptions But= the set against which the t1 place of=20 traji is compared is not the t2 place (which wo= uld make the place structure of=20 traji fully parallel to that of=20 @@ -1693,65 +1693,65 @@ Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or d= ecrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantic= ally related to it are likely to have the place also. Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discuss= ion of the pressures operating on them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d1"/> - - xekri: xe1 is black + + xekri: xe1 is black color standards Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced b= y one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of colo= r standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 =20 xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color= standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 =20 ci'u (=20 =20 in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2"/> - - jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and loca= tion j4 + + jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and locati= on j4 The gismu=20 jbena contains places for time and location, wh= ich few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something i= s done is supplied by a tense tag (see=20 ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 le te jbena a simple term for=20 birthday and=20 le ve jbena for=20 birthplace, so these places were provided despite their= lack of metaphysical necessity. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d3"/> - - rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 + + rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 melting= The place structure of=20 rinka does not have a place for the agent, the = one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. = A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (su= ch as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the f= looding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. =20 lujvoas suppliers of agent place Indeed, there = is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few= such as=20 gasnu and=20 zukte which are then used as tertau in order to= restore the agent place when needed: see=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4"/> - - cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 + + cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 diversified speci= es gen= eral terms The c2 place of=20 cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure t= oward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; althoug= h there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though the= y exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/bree= d place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general te= rms like=20 =20 =20 cinki (insect), and are provided for all other = animals and plants as a matter of regularity. =20 gismuplace orderrationale = Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularitie= s are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychologi= cal saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place struct= ure of=20 klama, for example, that=20 lo klama (the one going) will be talked about m= ore often, and is thus more important, than=20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index d6b5eda..94b24ac 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -207,27 +207,27 @@ U TTFF whether or not More precisely: - A is true if eit= her or both sentences are true - =20 - E is true if bot= h sentences are true, but not otherwise - =20 - O is true if the= sentences are both true or both false - =20 - U is true if the= first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second senten= ce + A is true if either = or both sentences are true + =20 + E is true if both se= ntences are true, but not otherwise + =20 + O is true if the sen= tences are both true or both false + =20 + U is true if the fir= st sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence truth functionscreating all 16 with Lojban's basic set With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and th= e ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, w= e can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, w= hich are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to crea= te each of the 14 remaining truth functions: TTTFA @@ -279,22 +279,22 @@ =20
The six types of logical connectives logical connectiv= esrationale for multiple sets in grammar In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1"/> - Mary went to the window and ... - =20 + Mary went to the window and ... + =20 window<= secondary>example where the last word could be foll= owed by=20 the door, a noun phrase, or by=20 saw the horses, a sentence with subject omitted, or by= =20 John went to the door, a full sentence, or by one of a = variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate = such grammatical looseness. JA selma'o GIhA= selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o logical connectivesselma'oenumerated Instead, there are a total = of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, a= nd JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vow= els, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel i= s the entire cmavo. logical connectiv= escmavoformat for each selma'o Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 A is=20 a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with= =20 A, which is a truth function, = or=20 @@ -401,21 +401,21 @@ John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman The meaning of both=20 and=20 is the same as that of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d7"/> - John is a man or James is a woman, but not both. + John is a man or James is a woman, but not both. Here is another example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d8"/> la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman. John is a man if James is a woman. @@ -479,21 +479,21 @@ Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 na and=20 se are present, which is legal but never necess= ary,=20 na would come before=20 se. JA selma'o I se= lma'o = ijekssyntax of The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is: - .i [na] [se] JA [nai] + .i [na] [se] JA [nai] where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
Forethought bridi connection =20 =20 forethought conne= ctivescontrasted with afterthought connectives afterthough= t connectivescontrasted with forethought connectives Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two diffe= rent ways, generally referred to as=20 afterthought and=20 forethought.=20 @@ -549,21 +549,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d4"/> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. - GU selma'o gu FIXME: TAG SPOT + GU selma'o gu FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5"/> gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman= . It is worth emphasizing that=20 @@ -605,21 +605,21 @@ le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of= (it will grow). Causality is discussed in far more detail in=20 . - and=20 + and=20 illustrates a truth functio= n, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We alr= eady understand how to negate the first bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/> gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman, Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. @@ -734,21 +734,21 @@ ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. A selma'o se writin= g conventionin eks na writing conventionin eks Of course, eks include all the same patte= rns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When=20 na or=20 se is part of an ek, a special writing conventi= on is invoked, as in the following example: - A selma'o na.a FIXME: TAG SPOT + A selma'o na.a<= /primary> FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6"/> la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci John only if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market only if Alice does. @@ -794,52 +794,52 @@ mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-= a-man. shows that=20 does not mean that either I= am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate transla= tion would be: - Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I poss= ess either exactly one or else all three. + Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I posse= ss either exactly one or else all three. logical connectio= nnegation in connecting more than 2 sentences logical conn= ectionof more than 2 sentencesth= ings to avoid Because of the counterintuitiveness of= this outcome, it is safest to avoid=20 O with more than two sentences= . Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected tru= th values when used with more than two sentences. logical connectio= nof more than 2 sentencesall or = none In fact, no combination of logical connectives = can produce the=20 all or none interpretation intended (but not achieved) = by=20 without repeating one of th= e bridi. See=20 . There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two = sentences. What is the meaning of: - logical connection of= more than 2 sentencesmixed "and" and "= or" FIXME: TAG SPOT + logical connectio= n of more than 2 sentencesmixed "and" and &q= uot;or" FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d4"/> mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la m= eris. I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary. Does this mean: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d5"/> - I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both. + I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both. Or is the correct translation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d6"/> - Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or bot= h. + Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.= logical connectio= nof more than 2 sentencesforetho= ught = logical connectivespairing from left=20 is the correct translation = of=20 . The reason is that Lojban = logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the lan= guage. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especia= lly when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not sub= ject to this problem: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d7"/> ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. @@ -928,21 +928,21 @@ tu'e and=20 tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 ke and=20 ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discu= ssed later. (=20 ke and=20 ke'e are also used in other roles in the langua= ge, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d4"/> - I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. + I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. bo<= /indexterm> BO selma'o complex= logical connectivesgrouping with bo where the semantics tells us that the instances of=20 and are meant to have higher precedence than that of=20 if. If we wish to express=20 in afterthought, we can say= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d5"/> @@ -979,21 +979,21 @@ mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do= prami mi [tu'u] I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me = ). What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d8"/> - I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and= the office. + I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and t= he office. KE selma'o ke sumtibeginning with "ke" <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">logical connectionof sumtirestriction on ke logical connectionof sumtigrouping with parentheses Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to=20 , would seem to be the right= approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not beg= in with=20 ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omi= tted, producing=20 , which is instead parallel = to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d9"/> @@ -1222,21 +1222,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3"/> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan. = .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the boo= k to John or I take the book from John. is equivalent in meaning to: - owe moneyexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + owe moneyexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d4"/> mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau = la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book t= o/from John. The literal English translation in=20 @@ -1333,35 +1333,35 @@
Termset logical connection So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and= require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and per= mit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly = one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connec= tives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not= in the selbri, such as: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d1"/> - I go to the market from the office and to the house from the= school. - =20 + I go to the market from the office and to the house from the s= chool. + =20 PEhE selma'o<= /primary> pe= 'e CEhE selma'o ce'e logical connectiontermsets termsetformation termdefinition T= he Lojban version of=20 requires two termsets joine= d by a logical connective. A=20 term is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense o= r modal tag such as=20 pu or=20 bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linkin= g terms together by inserting the cmavo=20 ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Fu= rthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the = cmavo=20 pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the = combination of=20 =20 pe'e and a jek as a=20 =20 pehejek, I suppose.) - to the market from th= e office FIXME: TAG SPOT + to the market fro= m the office FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2"/> mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je le zdani ce'e le ckul= e I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-th= e house [plus] from-the school. The literal translation uses=20 @@ -1470,21 +1470,21 @@ blue houseexample unconnected tanrucontrasted with log= ically connected version logical connectionin tanrucontrasted with unconnected version B= ut of course=20 and=20 are not necessarily equival= ent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that=20 might just as well mean <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d3"/> - This is a house for blue inhabitants. + This is a house for blue inhabitants. and=20 certainly is not equivalent= in meaning to=20 . logical connectio= nin tanruexpandability of A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belo= ngs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives = in general. Why? Because although=20 happens to mean the same as= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d4"/> @@ -1506,25 +1506,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d6"/> la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person. - - tanru grouping - effect of jeks - - would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedenc= e than unmarked tanru grouping, but: + + tanru grouping + effect of jeks + + would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence= than unmarked tanru grouping, but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d7"/> la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 @@ -1537,61 +1537,61 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8"/> la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi =20 Terry is rich and ( male or female ). KE selma'o ke logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= ke=20 - The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 + The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 ke both before and after a logical connective:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9"/> la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi= [ke'e] Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female). where the first=20 ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogether by t= he rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the las= t instance of=20 ke'e may be elided. JA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= n= a jeks= syntax of The syntax of jeks i= s: - [na] [se] JA [nai] + [na] [se] JA [nai] parallel to eks and giheks. =20 GUhA selma'o<= /primary> guhek<= /primary>definition forethought tanru connection Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead.= Guheks have exactly the same form as geks: =20 =20 - GUhA selma'o nai se guheks<= /primary>syntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT + GUhA selma'o<= /primary> na= i = se guh= ekssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT - [se] GUhA [nai] + [se] GUhA [nai] logical connectio= nof tanru as opposed to bridi-tail logical connectionof bridi-tail as opposed to tanru = guheks for tanru connectionrationale Using guheks in tanru = connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unaccepta= ble ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d10"/> la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi Alice is both rich and female. JA selma'o GUhA= selma'o tanru connection groupingguheks unmarked tanru tanru gr= oupingguheks compared with jeks=20 - Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are = used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru gro= uping does: + Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are u= sed with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grou= ping does: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d11"/> la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person. @@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d13"/> mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu I see a man and a woman. there is a great temptation to reduce further to: - man-womanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + man-womanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d14"/> mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu I see a man and woman. But=20 @@ -1640,39 +1640,39 @@ =20 So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. truth questionssimple The simplest kind of ques= tion is of the type=20 Is it true that ... where some statement follows. This = type is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1"/> - Is it true that Fido is a dog? - Is Fido a dog? + Is it true that Fido is a dog? + Is Fido a dog? UI selma'o xu Note the two formulations. English truth questions can= always be formed by prefixing=20 Is is true that to the beginning of a statement; there = is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its = subject.=20 Is Fido a dog? is the truth question corresponding to= =20 Fido is a dog. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is t= o prefix the cmavo=20 xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d2"/> xu la faidon. gerku Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog? - and=20 + and=20 are equivalent in meaning.<= /para> truth questionsanswering "no" truth questionsanswering "yes" truth questionsas yes-or-no que= stions A truth question can be answered=20 yes or=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respecti= vely, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 go'i and of saying=20 no is=20 nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explaine= d in=20 =20 .) In answer to=20 @@ -1691,34 +1691,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d4"/> nago'i =20 Fido is not a dog. truth questionscontrasted with connection questions Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth quest= ions so far discussed. Consider - dog or cat<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT + dog or catexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d5"/> - Is Fido a dog or a cat? + Is Fido a dog or a cat? Superficially,=20 seems like a truth question= with the underlying statement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d6"/> - Fido is a dog or a cat. + Fido is a dog or a cat. By translating=20 into Lojban and prefixing= =20 xu to signal a truth question, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d7"/> xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu @@ -1911,49 +1911,49 @@ andas non-logical connective Way back in=20 , the point was made that not = every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 =20 and of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1"/> - John and Alice carried the piano. + John and Alice carried the piano. carried pianoexample massjoining elements into a Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that Joh= n carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d2"/> - John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano. + John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano. JOI selma'o joi= which would mean that each of them carried the piano= by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomeno= n as a=20 mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or mor= e components into a mass: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d3"/> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. =20 components contra= sted with massin properties of= mass contrasted with compon= entsin properties of supervisingas a = contribution to mass action=20 covers the case mentioned, = where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all= the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because= the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can l= ead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then J= ohn-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in=20 =20 . JA selma'o A se= lma'o JOI selma'o non-logical connectionin tanrudistinguishing from connection of sumti non-logical connection= of sumtidistinguishing from connection in = tanru joi grammarcontrasted with jeks joi grammarcontrasted with eks non-logical connectionand elida= bility of terminators Grammatically,=20 joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) o= r between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid = for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: - LE selma'o KU selma= 'o le ku t= erminatorseliding ku in non-logical connections FIXME: TAG SPOT + LE selma'o KU s= elma'o le ku terminatorseliding ku in non-logical connections FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4"/> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. The cmavo=20 @@ -2283,21 +2283,21 @@ asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . termsetsnon-logical connection of non-logical connectionof termsets Non-logical connection is permitted a= t the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumt= i or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place s= tructure of=20 =20 casnu is: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: - discuss in languageexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + discuss in langua= geexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7"/> mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u c= asnu =20 ( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-lan= guage English ) discuss. @@ -2443,38 +2443,38 @@ I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. bi'o from one to tw= o o'clockexample non-logical connectivesordered intervals In=20 , on the other hand, it is e= ssential that=20 la pacac. comes before=20 la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-= hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval,= the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to: - sebi'o<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT + sebi'o FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3"/> mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac. =20 I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] Fi= rst-hour. English cannot readily express=20 sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by re= versing the two sumti. =20 mi'i intervalsexpressed as center and distance Th= e third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a differe= nt viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. F= or example: =20 - bomb destroyed fifty = milesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + bomb destroyed fi= fty milesexample FIXME: TAG SP= OT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4"/> le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno =20 The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. @@ -2533,58 +2533,58 @@ ga'o is derived from=20 ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 ke'i from=20 kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI selma'ogrammar of BIhI joiks are grammatic= al anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijo= iks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses. =20 intervalseffect of nai on naieffect on intervals negated i= ntervalsmeaning of Negated int= ervals, marked with a=20 -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an inte= rval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respe= ct to some understood scale): - except from 10 to 12<= /primary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT + except from 10 to= 12example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. =20 You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. =20 The complete syntax of joiks is: - GAhO selma'o BIhI s= elma'o JOI selma'o nai se joikssyntax of F= IXME: TAG SPOT + GAhO selma'o<= /primary> BI= hI selma'o = JOI selma'o nai se joikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT - [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO + [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO JOI selma'o GI = selma'o gi joigikdefinition intervalsforethou= ght Notice that the colloquial English translations= of=20 bi'i and=20 bi'o have forethought form:=20 between ... and for=20 bi'i, and=20 from ... to for=20 bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives ca= n be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the fo= rethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by= suffixing=20 =20 gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally ca= lled a=20 joigik; the syntax of joigiks is any of: =20 =20 - GAhO selma'o JOI se= lma'o BIhI selma'o GI selma'o nai se joigikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT + GAhO selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o <= primary>BIhI selma'o GI selma'o nai se joigikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT - [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAh= O GI + [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI joigiks= connection types Joigiks may be used to = non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.<= /para> in forethought becomes: - carry the pianoexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + carry the pianoexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. =20 @@ -2697,22 +2697,22 @@ =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6"/> xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 - x sub (=20 - b sequence=20 + x sub (=20 + b sequence=20 d) xb,d boi= x{bd}example Note that t= he=20 boi in=20 is not elidable, because th= e=20 xi subscript needs something to attach to.
@@ -2741,68 +2741,68 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d2"/> la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor. Arthur was and will be king. - and=20 + and=20 are equivalent in meaning; = neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now. non-logically con= nected tenses Non-logical connection with joiks is al= so possible between tenses: - breatheexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + breathe= example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d3"/> mi pu bi'o ba vasxu I [past] from ... to [future] breathe. =20 I breathe from a past time until a future time. =20 The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals exp= ressible, such as=20 =20 from a medium time ago until a long time from now. tenses<= secondary>grouping of connectives in groupingof connection= in tenses tensesforethought connection in forethought connect= ionin tenses No forethought co= nnections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way= to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed = to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or moda= ls can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode expl= icitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications. =20 tensed logical co= nnection Tensed logical connections are both more com= plex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider t= he English sentence: - went and boughtexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + went and boughtexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d4"/> - I went to the market, and I bought food. + I went to the market, and I bought food. The verbatim translation of=20 , namely: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.<= /gloss> fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 .) However, the tense informati= on - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buyi= ng food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 bo: - ba .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT + ba<= /indexterm> .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja =20 I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-o= f food. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 9c988b4..b724d07 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -8,125 +8,125 @@ not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. =20 In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subject and=20 predicate. In the statement <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d1"/> - John goes to the store + John goes to the store - John is the subject, and=20 - goes to the store is the predicate. Negating=20 + John is the subject, and=20 + goes to the store is the predicate. Negating=20 to produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d2"/> - John doesn't go to the store. + John doesn't go to the store. has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for= the subject.=20 says nothing about whether = John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the = store. We will call this kind of negation=20 natural language negation. This kind of negation is dif= ficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follo= w the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is t= rue, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be tru= e. Such negation is termed contradictory negation. Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can= violate the rules of contradictory negation. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d3"/> - Some animals are not white. + Some animals are not white. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d4"/> - Some animals are white. + Some animals are white. Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the neg= ation of the other. Another example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d5"/> - I mustn't go to the dance. + I mustn't go to the dance. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d6"/> - I must go to the dance. + I must go to the dance. At first thought,=20 negates=20 . Thinking further, we reali= ze that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the = dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statement= s are false. Sometimes order is significant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d7"/> - The falling rock didn't kill Sam. + The falling rock didn't kill Sam. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d8"/> - Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock. + Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock. Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because=20 is written in what is calle= d the=20 active voice, we immediately get confused about whether= =20 the falling rock is a suitable subject for the predicat= e=20 did kill Sam.=20 Kill implies volition to us, and rocks do not have voli= tion. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the ar= gument=20 Guns don't kill people; people kill people. Somehow, we don't have the same problem with=20 . The subject is Sam, and we= determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn'= t killed by the falling rock. also helps us focus on the = fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this senten= ce: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him.= If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot. This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of th= e sentence turns out not to exist: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d9"/> - The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner. + The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d10"/> - The King of Mexico did come to dinner. + The King of Mexico did come to dinner. In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both = of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico. The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model= of negation.
bridi negation In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical = negation that simply denies the truth of a statement=20 bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the eq= uivalent of=20 I haven't stopped beating my wife without implying that= I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply=20 It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife. Sinc= e Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negat= ion is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level. For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence be= ing negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a neg= ative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradicto= ry, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d1"/> - Did you go to the store? + Did you go to the store? is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d2"/> - No, I didn't go to the store. + No, I didn't go to the store. The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo= =20 na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affir= mative form of the bridi (but after the=20 cu, if there is one): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d3"/> @@ -277,21 +277,21 @@ mean the same thing with=20 na before the=20 ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; w= e'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to ea= ch other. =20 A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d14"/> - I do not go to the market because the car is broken. + I do not go to the market because the car is broken. as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d15"/> mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu =20 I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken. @@ -314,21 +314,21 @@ In=20 , the negation is clearly co= nfined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the= whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate= sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here). =20 The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d17"/> - I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncl= e the Senator. + I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle = the Senator. we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We= must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sente= nces. The event-clause version would look like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18"/> The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) w= as aided by my uncle the Senator. @@ -337,141 +337,141 @@ na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure= that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negat= ion described in=20 , which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.
Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> - The chair is not brown. + The chair is not brown. we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other colo= r. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d2"/> - It is green. + It is green. Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that t= he statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret som= e responses. If we hear the following exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d3"/> - The chair is not brown. - Correct. The chair is wooden. + The chair is not brown. + Correct. The chair is wooden. we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't= brown. If we hear the exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d4"/> - Is the chair green? - No, it is in the kitchen. + Is the chair green? + No, it is in the kitchen. we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur= . But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can= 't say it is entirely irrelevant! =20 What is going on in these statements is something called=20 scalar negation. As the name suggests, scalar negation = presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one= scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be= true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems = reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversa= tion will help): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d5"/> - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a green house. + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a green house. We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct va= lue which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. Whi= le a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d6"/> - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a blue car. + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a blue car. Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a= different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.<= /para> Now, if the following exchange occurs: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d7"/> - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a green car. + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a green car. we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two= corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of = context,=20 blue house and=20 green car seem to be reasonably equivalent units that s= hould be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a= clear way in English to say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d8"/> - That isn't a=20 - blue-house. + That isn't a=20 + blue-house. aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecti= ng the pair of words as a single unit. Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the= sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d9"/> - John didn't go to Paris from Rome. + John didn't go to Paris from Rome. Might=20 imply that John went to Par= is from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps h= e didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no = event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two = or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener. In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negatio= n from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use t= he partial word=20 non- as a prefix. But this is not always considered goo= d usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For exam= ple, we can clearly distinguish <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d10"/> - That is a non-blue house. + That is a non-blue house. from the related sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d11"/> - That is a blue non-house. + That is a blue non-house. - and=20 + and=20 have the advantage that, wh= ile they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertion= s. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is fa= lse. We can't always use=20 non- though, because of the peculiarities of English's = grammar. It would sound strange to say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d12"/> - John went to non-Paris from Rome. + John went to non-Paris from Rome. or <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d13"/> - John went to Paris from non-Rome. + John went to Paris from non-Rome. although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circuml= ocution for English scalar negation is=20 other than, which works where=20 non- does not, but is wordier. Finally, we have natural language negations that are called pola= r negations, or opposites: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d14"/> - John is moral + John is moral <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d15"/> - John is immoral + John is immoral To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies= the opposite condition. Statements like=20 are strong negations which = not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since,=20 opposite implies a scale, polar negations are a special= variety of scalar negations. To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale= , showing two examples of how the scale is used: Affirmations (positive) Negations (negative) |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------| All Most Some Few None Excellent Good Fair Poor Awful @@ -768,24 +768,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d17"/> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without. The current King of France is a non-bald-one. - and=20 - express the predicate negat= ion forms using a negation word (=20 - na'e) or rafsi (=20 - -nal-); yet they make positive a= ssertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald= or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of=20 + and=20 + express the predicate neg= ation forms using a negation word (=20 + na'e) or rafsi (=20 + -nal-); yet they make positive= assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-ba= ld or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of=20 na'e to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this o= vert by absorbing the negative marker into the word. =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say tha= t he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him= . Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri ne= gation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbr= i negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is in= variably=20 false, since no affirmative statement about the current= King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce= a truth: @@ -1006,21 +1006,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d2"/> na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau =20 [Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the= French country) is-hair-without. Something other than the current King of France is bald. - is true provided that somet= hing reasonably describable as=20 + is true provided that som= ething reasonably describable as=20 other than a current King of France, such as the King o= f Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald. In place of=20 na'ebo, you may also use=20 =20 no'ebo and=20 to'ebo, to be more specific about the sumti whi= ch would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are har= d to come by, but here's a valiant try: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d3"/> @@ -1297,158 +1297,158 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5"/> ja'a go'i (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) - ja'a can replace=20 + ja'a can replace=20 na in a similar manner wherever the latter is u= sed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d6"/> mi ja'a klama le zarci I indeed go to the store. - je'a can replace=20 + je'a can replace=20 na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scal= ar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. I= n the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7"/> ta je'a melbi that is-indeed beautiful.
Metalinguistic negation forms The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with= negation. Consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1"/> - I have not stopped beating my wife. + I have not stopped beating my wife. If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence i= s neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wro= ng with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of vo= ice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:=20 =20 I never have beaten my wife. Negations which follow such a pattern are called=20 metalinguistic negations. In natural languages, the mar= k of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement a= lways, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis ma= y be further used to clarify the error. Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors ar= e inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When s= uch negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims= about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negati= ons which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lo= jban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is p= lausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine. Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would = destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need o= ther means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. W= hen the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express = metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion. =20 Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negatio= n with English-language examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d2"/> - I have not=20 - stopped beating my wife - (I never started - failure of presupposition). + I have not=20 + stopped beating my wife + (I never started - failure of presupposition). <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d3"/> - 5 is not blue - (color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of cate= gory). + 5 is not blue + (color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of catego= ry). <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d4"/> - The current King of France is not bald. - (there is no current King of France - existential failure) - =20 + The current King of France is not bald. + (there is no current King of France - existential failure) + =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d5"/> - I do not have THREE children. - (I have two - simple undue quantity) + I do not have THREE children. + (I have two - simple undue quantity) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d6"/> - I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four. - (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous examp= le is that - someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs) + I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four. + (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example= is that + someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d7"/> - It is not good, but bad. - (undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a - scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect) + It is not good, but bad. + (undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a + scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d8"/> - She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful. - (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale) + She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful. + (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d9"/> - The house is not blue, but green. - (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related c= ategory applies) + The house is not blue, but green. + (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related cat= egory applies) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d10"/> - The house is not blue, but is colored. - (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader c= ategory applies) + The house is not blue, but is colored. + (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader cat= egory applies) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d11"/> - The cat is not blue, but long-haired. - (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelate= d category applies) + The cat is not blue, but long-haired. + (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated = category applies) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d12"/> - A: He ain't coming today. - B:=20 - Ain't ain't a word. - (solecism, or improper grammatical action) + A: He ain't coming today. + B:=20 + Ain't ain't a word. + (solecism, or improper grammatical action) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d13"/> - I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED. - (spelling or mispronunciation error) + I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED. + (spelling or mispronunciation error) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d14"/> - Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep. - (non-contradictory correction) + Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep. + (non-contradictory correction) The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended. Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples t= hat we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't= claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, = due to some error in the statement,=20 true and=20 false don't really apply. Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement inten= ding a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way = (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of = our logical negation schemes using=20 na,=20 na'e and kin. The cmavo=20 na'i is assigned this function. If it is presen= t in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the sta= tement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluat= ion of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive a= nd negative statements. Since=20 commit 6e36e744b5f4fdef95580f6bc81e586c8516cf40 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 22:04:42 2011 -0500 Chapter 16: example tags. diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 89e3af7..783b2cf 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,65 +1,55 @@ <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? nobody<= secondary>interpretation of The following brief dia= logue is from=20 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1"/> - - - Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, hol= ding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. - + + Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, holdi= ng out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d2"/> - - - Nobody, said the Messenger. - + + Nobody, said the Messenger. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d3"/> - - + Quite right, said the King:=20 - this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slow= er than you. - + this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower= than you. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d4"/> - - + I do my best, the Messenger said in a sulky tone.= =20 - I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do! - + I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do! - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d5"/> - - + He can't do that, said the King,=20 - or else he'd have been here first. - + or else he'd have been here first. This nonsensical conversation results because the King insists o= n treating the word=20 nobody as a name, a name of somebody. However, the esse= ntial nature of the English word=20 nobody is that it doesn't refer to somebody; or to put = the matter another way, there isn't anybody to which it refers. nobody<= secondary>ambiguous interpretations of The central = point of contradiction in the dialogue arises in=20 , when the King says=20 ... Nobody walks slower than you. This claim would be p= lausible if=20 Nobody were really a name, since the Messenger could on= ly pass someone who does walk more slowly than he. But the Messenger interp= rets the word=20 nobody in the ordinary English way, and says (in=20 )=20 @@ -91,28 +81,26 @@ I see the man/men. that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). attitudinalsand logic logicand attitudinals In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the= ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are= applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can c= onclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.
Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: - something sees meexample FIXME: TAG SPOT - + something sees me= example FIXME: TAG SPOT + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1"/> - - Something sees me. - + Something sees me. There are two plausible Lojban translations of=20 . The simpler one is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d2"/> [zo'e] viska mi Something-unspecified sees me. @@ -229,27 +217,25 @@ Ralphexample has a variable bound in a prenex w= hose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecifie= d.
Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everything for=20 something in=20 ? We get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1"/> - - Everything sees me. - + Everything sees me. universal claims<= /primary>explanation Of course, this exa= mple is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. = It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal clai= ms (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed= , some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, s= ince they are so rarely true in Lojban.) =20 everything sees m= eexample The Lojban translatio= n of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2"/> @@ -259,21 +245,21 @@ ro da ro everythingexpressing with "ro da" When the variable cmavo=20 da is preceded by=20 ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 will bring them withi= n a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 ro da for=20 everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: - everything loves ever= ythingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT<= /para> + everything loves = everythingexample FIXME: TAG S= POT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3"/> ro da ro de zo'u da prami de For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y. Everything loves everything. @@ -446,42 +432,40 @@ ro da poi gerku cu vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes. Every dog breathes. =20 prenex<= secondary>effect of order of variables in prenexpurpose of= You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of = the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order t= han the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider - everyone bitten by do= g FIXME: TAG SPOT + everyone bitten b= y dog FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d3"/> ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog:= Y bites X. The prenex of=20 is like that of=20 (but with relative clauses)= : it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to= some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi par= t, the=20 de appears before the=20 da. Therefore, the true translation is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d4"/> - - Every person is bitten by some dog (or other). - + Every person is bitten by some dog (or other). If we tried to omit the prenex and move the=20 ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi= , we would get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d5"/> de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person @@ -560,21 +544,21 @@ =20 all persons, just as=20 =20 re prenu means=20 two persons. In fact, unadorned=20 da is also taken to have an implicit number in = front of it, namely=20 su'o, which means=20 at least one. Why is this? Consider=20 again, this time with an ex= plicit=20 su'o: - su'o something sees me<= /primary>example somethingexpressing using &quo= t;su'o" FIXME: TAG SPOT + su'o something sees= meexample somethingexpressing using = "su'o" FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1"/> su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. Something sees me. @@ -750,21 +734,21 @@ NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i CEhE selma'o ce'e termseteffect on scope of mul= tiple indefinite sumti multiple indefinite sumti scopein t= ermset multiple indefinite sumtiexpressing with equal scop= e The solution is to use a termset, which is a grou= p of terms either joined by=20 ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or el= se surrounded by=20 nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (whic= h are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are group= ed into a termset are understood to have equal scope: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d5"/> ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci - nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci + nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci Three dogs [plus] two men, bite. which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this cas= e can be freely elided. roeffect of order when multiple in sentence indefinite sumticompared to sumti with lo sumti with locompared to i= ndefinite sumti quantified sumtidifferent types contrasted= for scope for distribution What about descriptors,= like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in term= sets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 lo case which functions like the case without a= descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 @@ -782,28 +766,26 @@ means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 le other than=20 ro, the problems of this section reappear.
The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence - anyone who goeswalksexample <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">anyas a t= ranslation problem FIXME: TAG SPOT - + anyone who goeswalksexample anyas= a translation problem FIXME: TAG SPOT + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d1"/> - - Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. - + Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation = might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d2"/> ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field. Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field. @@ -829,29 +811,27 @@ ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker= -on the field. anyas a universal claimlater restricted Although=20 is a universal claim as wel= l, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or ano= ther in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothin= g is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the= -field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other. anyas an existential claim There is another use= of=20 any in English that is not universal but existential. C= onsider =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d4"/> - - I need any box that is bigger than this one. - =20 - =20 - + I need any box that is bigger than this one. + =20 + =20 any box= need any box=20 does not at all mean that I= need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only o= ne box. But the naive translation <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d5"/> mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one @@ -879,53 +859,47 @@ I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-= than this-one. Rewritten using variables,=20 becomes <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d8"/> - mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u - da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti - I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that : - X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-t= hing. + mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau = ti + I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that : X is-posses= sed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing. logical variables= explicitly placing in outer prenex logical variablesimplicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex prenexinternal to a bridi So we see that= a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default,= a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionall= y) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not exte= nd beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prene= x explicitly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d9"/> - da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u - mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da - There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : - I need the event-of my possessing X. + da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da + There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : I need the event-of my possessing X. existential varia= blein main bridi contrasted with in abstraction existentia= l variablein abstraction contrasted with in main bridi= But what are the implications of=20 and=20 ? The main difference is tha= t in=20 , the=20 da is said to exist in the real world of the ou= ter bridi; but in=20 =20 , the existence is only with= in the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to= pass. So=20 means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d10"/> - - There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need - + There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need anyexpressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi which is what=20 says, whereas=20 turns out to be an effectiv= e translation of our original=20 . So uses of=20 any that aren't universal end up being reflected by var= iables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.
Negation boundaries "there is a = Y"expressionnotation conven= tion This section, as well as=20 @@ -1007,21 +981,21 @@ roda su'ode zo'u da prami de For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y. =20 Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the = same thing). everybody loves s= omethingexample or: - something is loved by= everybodyexample FIXME: TAG S= POT + something is love= d by everybodyexample FIXME: T= AG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d6"/> su'ode roda zo'u da prami de There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y. There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everyb= ody. @@ -1307,21 +1281,21 @@ prenex manipu= lationexporting na from left of prenex prenex manipulation= importing na from selbri A=20 na before the selbri is always transformed = into a=20 naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, an= d vice versa.
Using=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence - some do not go to sch= oolexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + some do not go to= schoolexample FIXME: TAG SPOT= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1"/> Some children do not go to school. We cannot express this directly with=20 na; the apparently obvious translation @@ -1442,39 +1416,35 @@ =20 naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. = The rules for exporting=20 naku require that you export all of the quantif= ied variables (implicit or explicit) along with=20 naku, and you must export them from left to rig= ht, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 goes into prenex form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d10"/> - su'oda poi verba ku'o naku - su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de - For some X which is a child, it is not the case that - there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. + su'oda poi verba ku'o naku su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de<= /jbo> + For some X which is a child, it is not the case that there = is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. =20 We can now move the=20 naku to the left end of the prenex, getting a c= ontradictory negation that can be expressed with=20 na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d11"/> - naku roda poi verba - su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de - It is not the case that for all X's which are children, - there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. + naku roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de + It is not the case that for all X's which are children, the= re is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. =20 from which we can restore the quantified variables to the senten= ce, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d12"/> naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule @@ -1493,24 +1463,22 @@ conversion of sen= tence with quantified variablestechnique As noted in=20 , a sentence with two differ= ent quantified variables, such as=20 , cannot always be converted= with=20 se without first exporting the quantified varia= bles. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be con= verted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14"/> - roda poi verba - su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da - It is not the case that for all X's which are children, - there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. + roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da + It is not the case that for all X's which are children, the= re is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. =20 multiple quantifi= cationeffect on selbri placement among sumti selbri placem= ent among sumtieffect of multiple quantification on While you can't freely convert with=20 se when you have two quantified variables in a = sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as = long as the order isn't changed. If you use=20 na negation in such a sentence, nothing special= need be done. If you use=20 naku negation, then quantified variables that c= ross the negation boundary must be inverted. negation manipula= tion"na" contrasted with "naku" in= difficulty of negation manipulation"naku" contr= asted with "na" in difficulty of Clearly,= if all of Lojban negation was built on=20 naku negation instead of=20 na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban wou= ld be as difficult as in natural languages. In=20 @@ -1606,24 +1574,22 @@ go to Paris or Ro= meexample DeMorgan's Lawand logically= connected sentences logically connected sentencesand DeMo= rgan's Law negatormovement from bridi to sumti= It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator= from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,=20 and related examples are no= t sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected senten= ces. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,=20 =20 expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3"/> - ge la djan. la paris. na klama - gi la djan. la rom. na klama - [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, - and John, to-Rome, [false] goes. + ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama + [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and Jo= hn, to-Rome, [false] goes. The=20 ga and=20 gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 ge and=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. DeMorgan's Lawand bridi-tail logical connection= bridi-tail logical connecti= onand DeMorgan's Law Here is a= nother example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical co= nnection (explained in=20 @@ -1664,49 +1630,43 @@ naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs)= . And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into t= wo bridi, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d7"/> - naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla - gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla - It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks) - and (Jane to-the market runs). + naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla gi la djein. le zar= ci cu bajrykla + It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks) and (Jane= to-the market runs). is the result. At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute th= e negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d8"/> - ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla - gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla - Either Jane to-the market [false] walks, - or Jane to-the market [false] runs. + ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla gi la djein. le zarci na bajr= ykla + Either Jane to-the market [false] walks, or Jane to-the mar= ket [false] runs. which is the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d9"/> - ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla - ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla - If Jane to-the market walks, - then Jane to-the market [false] runs. + ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci c= u bajrykla + If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false= ] runs. If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run. which then condenses down to=20 . DeMorgan's Lawand internal naku negations internal naku negations= and DeMorgan's Law DeMorgan's Law must a= lso be applied to internal=20 naku negations: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d10"/> @@ -1787,30 +1747,30 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d3"/> ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-= John. Every relationship exists between Jim and John. - and=20 - are almost certainly true: = Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least= have the property of being jointly human.=20 - =20 + and=20 + are almost certainly true= : Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at lea= st have the property of being jointly human.=20 + =20 is palpably false, however;= if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they wou= ld have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible. =20
A few notes on variables quantifieron previously quantified variable A v= ariable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has alre= ady been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as i= n: - three cats whiteand two bigexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + three cats white<= /primary>and two bigexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1"/> ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. What does=20 commit 2f11cfcf848291f3f3d92d4f8a36872e50ddbd6a Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 17:00:41 2011 -0500 Chapter 16: section titles and s. diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index f4be710..89e3af7 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? nobody<= secondary>interpretation of The following brief dia= logue is from=20 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1"/> @@ -73,36 +73,36 @@ some/no/any/everyone and=20 some/no/any/everything), but they obey rules which can = often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot b= e translated into Lojban without distortion: the name=20 Nobody would have to be represented by a Lojban name, w= hich would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this = is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversation= alists to affirm=20 =20 Nobody walks slower than the Messenger and=20 Nobody walks faster than the Messenger and both be tell= ing the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, o= r everyone walks at exactly the same speed.) logicresolving ambiguities of "nobody" This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct an= d consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There ar= e no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it disc= usses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to re= solve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However,= we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although = readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojba= n guise. logiclimits of Although Lojban is called a logi= cal language, not every feature of it is=20 =20 logical. In particular, the use of=20 - le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the = description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you canno= t conclude from my statement that + le is incompatible with logical reasoning based= on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: y= ou cannot conclude from my statement that <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d6"/> mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. I see the man/men. that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). attitudinalsand logic logicand attitudinals In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the= ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are= applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can c= onclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.
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Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: something sees meexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1"/> Something sees me. @@ -133,26 +133,26 @@ da zo'u da viska mi There-is-an-X such-that X sees me. da<= /indexterm> zo'econtrasted with da dacontrasted with zo'e existential= claimsdefinition daas a translation = for "something"=20 does not presuppose that th= e listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that t= here is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called=20 existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in princip= le - an inanimate object. We will see in=20 =20 =20 - how to represent such restr= ictions.) + how to represent such re= strictions.) ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u log= ical variablesnotation convention variableslogical prenexsyntax of prenexexpla= nation=20 has a two-part structure: t= here is the part=20 da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part=20 da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban = bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sum= ti followed by the cmavo=20 - zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will = consist of one or more of the cmavo=20 + zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sum= ti will consist of one or more of the cmavo=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal tr= anslations as=20 X,=20 Y, and=20 Z respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbol= ic logic, these cmavo are called=20 variables. Here is an example of a prenex with two variables: @@ -223,21 +223,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8"/> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. =20 Ralphexample has a variable bound in a prenex w= hose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecifie= d.
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Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everything for=20 something in=20 ? We get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1"/> @@ -255,21 +255,21 @@ ro da zo'u da viska mi For-every X : X sees me. ro da ro everythingexpressing with "ro da" When the variable cmavo=20 da is preceded by=20 ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 - will bring them within a co= mmon viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 + will bring them withi= n a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 ro da for=20 everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: everything loves ever= ythingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3"/> ro da ro de zo'u da prami de @@ -281,21 +281,21 @@ does not mean=20 Everything loves everything else. Furthermore, because = the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, s= o we cannot use=20 everyone or=20 everybody in the translation. universalmixed claim with existential existentialmixed= claim with universal mixed claimdefinition Note that=20 ro appears before both=20 da and=20 de. If=20 ro is omitted before either variable, we get a = mixed claim, partly existential like those of=20 =20 - , partly universal. + , partly universal. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d4"/> ro da de zo'u da viska de For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y. Everything sees something. @@ -312,41 +312,41 @@ something sees ev= erythingexample everything sees somethingexample <= primary>logical variableseffect of order in prenex=20 and=20 mean completely different t= hings.=20 says that for everything, t= here is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for ev= ery seer.=20 , on the other hand, says th= at there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (incl= uding itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds= of silliness. =20 There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 =20 anybody/anything rather than=20 everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference whic= h of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle o= ne which is explained in=20 - . + .
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Restricted claims:=20 - <quote>da poi</quote> + da poi restricted claims= definition universal claimsrestrictin= g The universal claims of=20 =20 - are not only false but absu= rd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivia= l about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over th= e distinction between=20 + are not only false but ab= surd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-triv= ial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over = the distinction between=20 everything and=20 everybody and the other pairs ending in=20 -thing and=20 -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. vau= ku'o da poi poi= exist= ential claimsrestricting relative clausesuse in restricting existential claims In Lojban= , a variable=20 da,=20 de, or=20 di may be followed by a=20 - poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of t= hings that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail= in=20 + poi relative clause in order to restrict the ra= nge of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described i= n detail in=20 , but the kind we will nee= d at present consist of=20 - poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminate= d with=20 - ku'o or=20 - vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the differe= nce between + poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) t= erminated with=20 + ku'o or=20 + vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the= difference between <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d1"/> da zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X : X sees Jim. Something sees Jim. @@ -416,25 +416,25 @@ da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Some dog breathes. =20
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Dropping the prenex prenex<= secondary>considerations for dropping It isn't real= ly necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on= the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenex= es at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables app= ear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the = prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 ro or=20 - poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the = first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 + poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred= to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thu= s,=20 becomes just: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d1"/> da viska mi There-is-an-X-which sees me. Something sees me. @@ -505,34 +505,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6"/> ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-do= g. using the conversion operator=20 - se (explained in=20 + se (explained in=20 ) to change the selbri=20 batci (=20 bites) into=20 se batci (=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the corresponding stra= tegy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained= =20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 =20 =20 - se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the va= riables. + se; one must be careful to preserve the order o= f the variables. poi= ro poi<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables ro<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables logical varia= bleswith poiin multiple appearan= ces l= ogical variableswith roin multip= le appearances If a variable occurs more than once, = then any=20 ro or=20 - poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence = of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, + poi decorations are moved only to the first occ= urrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7"/> di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for= -use-against-Z by-Z This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself. @@ -543,21 +543,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8"/> ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-pe= rson by-Z. prenex<= secondary>dropping for terseness As the examples in= this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression o= ften even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguou= s language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are= observed.
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Variables with generalized quantifiers PA selma'o quantifi= erswith logical variables So f= ar, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo= =20 ro in front. Now=20 ro is a Lojban number, and means=20 all; thus=20 ro prenu means=20 =20 all persons, just as=20 =20 re prenu means=20 @@ -630,39 +630,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d5"/> su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 - . + . ro prenu all person= sexample restricted variablecompared = with indefinite description indefinite descriptioncompared= with restricted variable indefinite descriptiondefinition= Now we can explain the constructions=20 ro prenu for=20 =20 all persons and=20 =20 re prenu for=20 two persons which were casually mentioned at the beginn= ing of this Section. In fact,=20 ro prenu, a so-called=20 =20 indefinite description, is shorthand for=20 =20 =20 ro DA poi prenu, where=20 DA represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been us= ed yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di have been used up, it does not matter, for t= here are ways of getting more variables, discussed in=20 - .) So in fact + .) So in fact <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d6"/> re prenu cu viska mi Two persons see me. is short for @@ -680,21 +680,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d8"/> re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me. order of variable= sin moving to prenex Note that= when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached= relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same ord= er in the prenex as in the bridi proper.
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Grouping of quantifiers distribution of q= uantified sumti indefinite sumtimultiple in sentence Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expre= ssions neither of which is=20 ro or=20 su'o (remembering that=20 su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier i= s given): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1"/> @@ -741,58 +741,58 @@ For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X b= ites Y for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly tw= o, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The d= istinction is called a=20 scope distinction: in=20 ,=20 ci gerku is said to have wider scope than=20 re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in the pren= ex. In=20 the reverse is true. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i CEhE selma'o ce'e termseteffect on scope of mul= tiple indefinite sumti multiple indefinite sumti scopein t= ermset multiple indefinite sumtiexpressing with equal scop= e The solution is to use a termset, which is a grou= p of terms either joined by=20 - ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surro= unded by=20 - nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 - nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are ei= ther sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into = a termset are understood to have equal scope: + ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or el= se surrounded by=20 + nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 + nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (whic= h are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are group= ed into a termset are understood to have equal scope: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d5"/> ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci Three dogs [plus] two men, bite. which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 - nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be= freely elided. + nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this cas= e can be freely elided. roeffect of order when multiple in sentence indefinite sumticompared to sumti with lo sumti with locompared to i= ndefinite sumti quantified sumtidifferent types contrasted= for scope for distribution What about descriptors,= like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in term= sets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 - lo case which functions like the case without a descrip= tor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 + lo case which functions like the case without a= descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 le nanmu means=20 ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 . Two sumti with=20 ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6"/> [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men. means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 - le other than=20 + le other than=20 ro, the problems of this section reappear.
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The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence anyone who goeswalksexample <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">anyas a t= ranslation problem FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d1"/> Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. @@ -919,25 +919,25 @@ There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need anyexpressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi which is what=20 says, whereas=20 turns out to be an effectiv= e translation of our original=20 . So uses of=20 any that aren't universal end up being reflected by var= iables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.
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Negation boundaries "there is a = Y"expressionnotation conven= tion This section, as well as=20 - through=20 - , are in effect a continuat= ion of=20 + through=20 + , are in effect a continuatio= n of=20 , introducing features of Lojban n= egation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the exa= mples below,=20 there is a Y and the like must be understood as=20 =20 there is at least one Y, possibly more. bridi negationtwo forms of As explained in=20 , the negation of a bridi is usual= ly accomplished by inserting=20 na at the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1"/> @@ -948,21 +948,21 @@ <gloss>It is false that I go to the store.</gloss> <en>I don't go to the store.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>naku</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primar= y></indexterm> The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the c= ompound cmavo=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> in the prenex, which is identified and com= pounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban gram= mar,=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,= =20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> means precisely the same thing as the logi= cian's=20 <quote>it is not the case that</quote> in a similar English context. (= Outside of a prenex,=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is also grammatically treated as a single = entity - the equivalent of a sumti - but does not have this exact meaning; = we'll discuss these other situations in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section11"/>.)</para> + <xref linkend=3D"section-na-outside-prenex"/>.)</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>external bridi ne= gation</primary><secondary>compared to internal bridi negation</secondary><= /indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>internal bridi n= egation</primary><secondary>compared to external bridi negation</secondary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>internal bridi = negation</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm= type=3D"general-imported"><primary>external bridi negation</primary><secon= dary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-importe= d"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>na before selbri compared to= naku in prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-importe= d"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>naku in prenex compared to n= a before selbri</secondary></indexterm> To represent a bridi negation using= a prenex, remove the=20 <jbophrase>na</jbophrase> from before the selbri and place=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> at the left end of the prenex. This form i= s called=20 <quote>external bridi negation</quote>, as opposed to=20 =20 =20 <quote>internal bridi negation</quote> using=20 =20 <jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. The prenex version of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-hBRH"/> is</para> @@ -1166,21 +1166,21 @@ <en>At least one person loves everything.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>which is clearly the desired contradiction of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qCph"/>.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>double negatives<= /primary><secondary>effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation= on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>= interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary><secondary>effect</s= econdary></indexterm> The interactions between quantifiers and negation mea= n that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You mus= t first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any = quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.</pa= ra> =20 =20 =20 </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-connectives"> <title>bridi negation and logical connectives =20 =20 =20 =20 logical connectiv= es and bridi negation bridi negation and logical connectives logical connectives and ne= gationcaveat for logic chapter discussions= negation and lo= gical connectivescaveat for logic chapter discussions<= /secondary> A complete discussion of logical connectives appear= s in=20 . What is said here is intentio= nally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications. A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapt= er, we will make use of the logical connectives=20 and and=20 or (where=20 @@ -1303,21 +1303,21 @@ prenex manipu= lationmoving naku past bound variable Within a prenex, whenever you move=20 naku past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc= .), you must invert the quantifier. prenex manipu= lationexporting na from left of prenex prenex manipulation= importing na from selbri A=20 na before the selbri is always transformed = into a=20 naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, an= d vice versa.
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Using=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence some do not go to sch= oolexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1"/> Some children do not go to school. @@ -1358,21 +1358,21 @@ su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.= Some children don't go to a school. nakucompared with sumti in grammar Although it = is not technically a sumti,=20 naku can be used in most of the places where a = sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to naku quantifierseffect of moving naku nakueffect on moving quanti= fiers nakuas creating a negation boundary When you use=20 naku within a bridi, you are explicitly creatin= g a negation boundary. As explained in=20 - , when a prenex negation bou= ndary expressed by=20 + , when a prenex negatio= n boundary expressed by=20 naku moves past a quantifier, the quantifier ha= s to be inverted. The same is true for=20 naku in the bridi proper. We can move=20 naku to any place in the sentence where a sumti= can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus= , the following are equivalent to=20 (no good English translatio= ns exist): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d5"/> su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku @@ -1410,42 +1410,42 @@ su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child. naku negationrationale for considering an advanced technique naku negation = boundaryeffect on conversion with se conversion with seeffect of naku negation boundary on or rather,=20 means something completely = different from=20 . Conversion with=20 - se under=20 + se under=20 naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti a= re treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. = Thus, internal negation with=20 naku is considered an advanced technique, used = to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages. It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverte= d in a sentence.=20 is identical in meaning to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d9"/> su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule Some children don't go-to some school. indefinite sumti<= /primary>as implicit quantification but = in=20 , the bound variables=20 da and=20 de have been hidden. exporting negatio= n to prenex"naku" contrasted with internal b= ridi negation exporting negation to prenexinternal bridi n= egation contrasted with "naku" It is triv= ial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with=20 =20 na to the prenex, as we saw in=20 - ; you just move it to the le= ft end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 + ; you just move it to t= he left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 =20 naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. = The rules for exporting=20 naku require that you export all of the quantif= ied variables (implicit or explicit) along with=20 naku, and you must export them from left to rig= ht, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 goes into prenex form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d10"/> @@ -1485,105 +1485,105 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d13"/> ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule All children [false] go-to some school(s). conversion of sen= tence with quantified variablestechnique As noted in=20 - , a sentence with two differ= ent quantified variables, such as=20 + , a sentence with two differ= ent quantified variables, such as=20 , cannot always be converted= with=20 - se without first exporting the quantified variables. Wh= en the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, = but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: + se without first exporting the quantified varia= bles. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be con= verted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14"/> roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. =20 multiple quantifi= cationeffect on selbri placement among sumti selbri placem= ent among sumtieffect of multiple quantification on While you can't freely convert with=20 - se when you have two quantified variables in a sentence= , you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as = the order isn't changed. If you use=20 + se when you have two quantified variables in a = sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as = long as the order isn't changed. If you use=20 na negation in such a sentence, nothing special= need be done. If you use=20 naku negation, then quantified variables that c= ross the negation boundary must be inverted. negation manipula= tion"na" contrasted with "naku" in= difficulty of negation manipulation"naku" contr= asted with "na" in difficulty of Clearly,= if all of Lojban negation was built on=20 naku negation instead of=20 na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban wou= ld be as difficult as in natural languages. In=20 - , for example, we'll discus= s DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connec= tion is moved across a negation boundary. + , for example, we'll discuss = DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connecti= on is moved across a negation boundary. nakuin linked sumti places Since=20 naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be plac= ed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including=20 - be and=20 - bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we rec= ommend avoiding such constructs. + be and=20 + bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, an= d we recommend avoiding such constructs. double negationand naku nakumultiple in sentence You can put multiple=20 naku s in a sentence, each forming a separate n= egation boundary. Two adjacent=20 naku s in a bridi are a double negative and can= cel out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d15"/> mi naku naku le zarci cu klama Other expressions using two=20 naku s may or may not cancel out. If there is n= o quantified variable between them, then the=20 naku s cancel. Negation with internal=20 naku is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical ma= nipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating= .
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Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law negations with lo= gical connectiveseffects on expansion of sentence logical = connectives within negationeffects of expansion on DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective b= etween terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires = a change in the connective. Thus (where=20 p and=20 q stand for terms or sentences)=20 not (p or q) is identical to=20 not p and not q, and=20 not (p and q) is identical to=20 not p or not q. The corresponding changes for the other= two basic Lojban connectives are:=20 not (p equivalent to q) is identical to=20 not p exclusive-or not q, and=20 not (p whether-or-not q) is identical to both=20 not p whether-or-not q and=20 not p whether-or-not not q. In any Lojban sentence havi= ng one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction fro= m these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in=20 .) The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by= modifying the basic connectives with=20 nai,=20 na and=20 - se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the= basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identit= ies, and then, apply each=20 + se can be derived directly from these rules; mo= dify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above= identities, and then, apply each=20 nai,=20 na and=20 - se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any dou= ble negatives that result. + se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel= any double negatives that result. =20 =20 DeMorgan's Lawand moving a logical connective relative to "naku&qu= ot; = DeMorgan's Lawand distributing a negation<= /indexterm> distributing a n= egation When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we = wish to=20 distribute a negation over a logical connective; and, f= or internal=20 naku negation, whenever a logical connective mo= ves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation - when it crosses a negation = boundary. nai= gi ge ga DeMorgan's L= awsample applications Let us a= pply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of f= orethought logical connectives, which are explained in=20 =20 . It suffices to know that=20 - ga and=20 - gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean= =20 + ga and=20 + gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or brid= i, mean=20 either and=20 or respectively, and that=20 - ge and=20 - gi used similarly mean=20 + ge and=20 + gi used similarly mean=20 both and=20 and. Furthermore,=20 - ga,=20 - ge, and=20 - gi can all be suffixed with=20 + ga,=20 + ge, and=20 + gi can all be suffixed with=20 nai to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.<= /para> naku zo'u na bridi ne= gationand DeMorgan's Law bridi negationand negation boundary naku zo'uand negation boundary naand negation boundary We have defin= ed=20 na and=20 naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and extern= al bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary alway= s remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negat= ion between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMor= gan's Law to be applied.=20 =20 =20 =20 and=20 are exactly equivalent: @@ -1613,25 +1613,25 @@ ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and John, to-Rome, [false] goes. The=20 - ga and=20 - gi, meaning=20 + ga and=20 + gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 - ge and=20 - gi, meaning=20 + ge and=20 + gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. DeMorgan's Lawand bridi-tail logical connection= bridi-tail logical connecti= onand DeMorgan's Law Here is a= nother example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical co= nnection (explained in=20 =20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4"/> la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla @@ -1722,21 +1722,21 @@ la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom. John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome. That=20 and=20 mean the same should become= evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the= Lojban and prove that they are the same.
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selbri variables =20 bu'i bu'e bu'a GOhA= selma'o selbri logical variables logical variablesfor selbri In addition to the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di that we have seen so far, which function as = sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables= =20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 =20 bu'i which function as selbri and belong to sel= ma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which = are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themsel= ves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation w= ill represent=20 @@ -1757,21 +1757,21 @@ For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. There's some relationship between Jim and John. =20 some relationship= example selbri variablesprenex form a= s indefinite description The translations of=20 show how unidiomatic selbri= variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 =20 need to be totally reworded= in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it = is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 - bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only sumti ca= n appear in the prenex, and=20 + bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only = sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 su'o bu'a is technically a sumti - in fact, it = is an indefinite description like=20 =20 =20 re nanmu, since=20 bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla li= ke=20 nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involvi= ng the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex. selbri variables<= /primary>form when not in prenex When th= e prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d2"/> @@ -1793,21 +1793,21 @@ <en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-gEWB"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-XxgT"/> are almost certainly true: = Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least= have the property of being jointly human.=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-L068"/> is palpably false, however;= if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they wou= ld have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para> =20 </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-notes-on-variables"> <title>A few notes on variables quantifieron previously quantified variable A v= ariable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has alre= ady been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as i= n: three cats whiteand two bigexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1"/> ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. @@ -1820,49 +1820,49 @@ re da appears later, it refers to two of those = three things - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of=20 da alone, if there were any, would refer once m= ore to the three cats, so the requantification of=20 da is purely local. prenex scopein abstractions prenex scopein relative cl= auses prenex scopein embedded bridi prenex scopeinformal prenex scopefor sentences joined by .i prenex = scopefor sentences joined by ijeks In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to = following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 ) such as the=20 .ije in=20 . Theoretically, a bare=20 .i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informal= ly, however, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 .i, as if it were an=20 .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such= as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause,= as explained in=20 - . A prenex preceding=20 - tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persists until the=20 - tu'u, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs la= ter. + . A prenex preceding=20 + tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persists unti= l the=20 + tu'u, which may be many sentences or even parag= raphs later. subscriptsuse with logical variables logical variables= creating more by subscripting If the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di (or the selbri variables=20 =20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 =20 bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a= particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of th= em. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo= counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full = in=20 =20 , but in general consist of the c= mavo=20 - xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more le= rfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enc= losed in parentheses. + xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or= more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expres= sion enclosed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2"/> ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them. The=20 pa da in=20 does not specify the number= of things to which=20 da refers, as the preceding=20 ci da does. Instead, it selects one of them for= use in this sumti only. The number of referents of=20 da remains three, but a single one (there is no= way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.
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Conclusion logic and Lojban<= /primary>more aspects This chapter is in= complete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully underst= and nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban = realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logi= c speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someo= ne who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope = to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication,= those that are not). =20
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index dc10c57..74ac11a 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -166,21 +166,21 @@ =20 .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. =20 The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. =20 selma'o CEhE (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses. =20 mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo =20 I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. selma'o CO (=20 @@ -856,21 +856,21 @@ ) Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 . li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 selma'o NUhI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultan= eous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated = by=20 . mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. selma'o NUhU (=20 ) Elidable terminator for=20 @@ -1252,20 +1252,20 @@ ) Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (w= hich can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The d= elimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the = text by pauses. zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra =20 The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence. =20 selma'o ZOhU (=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 ) Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to= which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment s= entences. su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves= Y There is a man who loves all fish.
commit 8ad9a8063294a8b7e0fd90c7d4dc71b1f8e54cb6 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 16:52:23 2011 -0500 Chapter 15: section titles. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index a7efcc4..9c988b4 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <quote>No</quote> Problems: On Lojban Negation -
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Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. =20 In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subject and=20 predicate. In the statement @@ -93,21 +93,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d10"/> The King of Mexico did come to dinner. In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both = of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico. The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model= of negation.
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bridi negation In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical = negation that simply denies the truth of a statement=20 bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the eq= uivalent of=20 I haven't stopped beating my wife without implying that= I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply=20 It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife. Sinc= e Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negat= ion is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level. For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence be= ing negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a neg= ative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradicto= ry, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d1"/> @@ -328,23 +328,23 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18"/> The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) w= as aided by my uncle the Senator. It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 -nar- has been reserved for=20 na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure= that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negat= ion described in=20 - , which will be much more co= mmon in tanru and lujvo. + , which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.
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Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> The chair is not brown. we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other colo= r. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: @@ -490,28 +490,28 @@ Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive = than scalar negation - it says that the point or value stated is incorrect = (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value= , whether or not on the scale. In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such a= s=20 other than,=20 reverse of, or=20 opposite from expressions and their equivalents. More c= ommonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes=20 non-,=20 un-,=20 il-, and=20 im-. Just which form and permissible values are implied= by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept = which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English resul= ts from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixe= s. In the examples of=20 - , we will translate the gene= ral case of scalar negation using the general formula=20 + , we will translate the general case o= f scalar negation using the general formula=20 other than when a phrase is scalar-negated, and=20 non- when a single word is scalar-negated.
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selbri and tanru negation All the scalar negations illustrated in=20 - are expressed in Lojban usi= ng the cmavo=20 + are expressed in Lojban us= ing the cmavo=20 na'e (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of= =20 na'e is as a prefix to the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d1"/> mi klama le zarci I go to the market. @@ -797,24 +797,24 @@ It is false that the current King of France is bald. Note:=20 lo is used in these sentences because negation = relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in= sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description ac= tually applies to the referent. A sentence using=20 le instead of=20 lo can be true even if there is no current king= of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe somet= hing as the current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 le in=20 .)
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Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 - , the default is the set of = plausible alternatives. Thus if we say: + , the default is the set of plausible = alternatives. Thus if we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1"/> le stizu cu na'e xunre The chair is a non-(red-thing). the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color a= nd not @@ -971,21 +971,21 @@ tolmle respectively. This large variety of scalar negations is provided because diffe= rent scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both d= irections: there is no=20 ultimately ugly or=20 ultimately beautiful. Other scales, like temperature, a= re open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature = (so-called=20 absolute zero) but no maximum temperature. Still other = scales are closed at both ends. Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious=20 to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? - while ot= hers have more than one, and need=20 ci'u to specify which opposite is meant. =20
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sumti negation There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choi= ce of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator=20 na'ebo before the sumti. It turns out that a ze= ro quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use im= plies,=20 =20 na'ebo forms a scalar negation. =20 Let us show examples of each. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d1"/> @@ -1029,21 +1029,21 @@ <gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss> <en>I go to Perth.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. I= n a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better=20 <quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, b= ecause attaching=20 <jbophrase>to'ebo</jbophrase> to a description sumti is usually the sa= me as attaching=20 <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> to the selbri of the description.</para> <para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type i= nto bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be = used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations lo= gically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natu= ral languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-other-negation"> <title>Negation of minor grammatical constructs We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them = based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-co= mbining negator, which is=20 nai.=20 nai, by the way, is almost always written as a = compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regul= ar separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI. Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be = discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular = construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here. The following are places where=20 nai is used: When attached to tenses and modals (see=20 ), the=20 nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory ne= gation of the tagged bridi. Thus=20 @@ -1116,21 +1116,21 @@ The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai ni just as=20 punai je ca corresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logica= lly connected abstractors will be: see=20 . A=20 nai attached to a non-logical connective (of se= lma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false u= nder the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-= logical connectives are discussed in=20 .
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Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of= a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1"/> @@ -1200,21 +1200,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d7"/> la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom. John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome. We stated in=20 - that sentences like=20 + that sentences like=20 and=20 appear to be semantically i= dentical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found. You can also use a scalar negation with=20 na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to puttin= g a=20 na'eke immediately after any tense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d8"/> @@ -1229,26 +1229,26 @@ la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom. John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.<= /gloss> He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 ke and=20 ke'e would have been essential if the selbri ha= d been a tanru.
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Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresp= onding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the= positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion= . Assuming the same context as in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1"/> xu na go'i Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]? or equivalently @@ -1321,21 +1321,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7"/> ta je'a melbi that is-indeed beautiful.
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+
Metalinguistic negation forms The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with= negation. Consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1"/> I have not stopped beating my wife. If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence i= s neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wro= ng with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of vo= ice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:=20 =20 @@ -1474,21 +1474,21 @@ ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that somethi= ng is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 .) Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 le'a has meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 ci'u has meaning=20 =20 on scale X, and=20 ci'e, based on=20 ciste, can be used to talk about universes of d= iscourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 - .=20 + .=20 kai and=20 la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other qua= lity and quantity errors. =20 We have to make particular note of potential problems in the are= as of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the rel= ationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It = is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is = colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,=20 blanu (=20 blue) is not explicitly defined as a=20 skari (=20 color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite= of=20 good is=20 bad. @@ -1503,21 +1503,21 @@ for explanations of these usages= . In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors hav= e been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References = to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma= 'o GOhA.=20 na'i at the beginning of a statement merely say= s that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.= =20 In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression. =20 Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 =20 xu question (see=20 - ).=20 + ).=20 na'i will be used when something about the ques= tioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 Have you stopped beating your wife?: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15"/> xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-= spouse? @@ -1550,21 +1550,21 @@ go'i ji'una'iku Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use= for=20 =20 jo'a might be to affirm that a particular const= ruction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another us= age would be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguist= ic negation. =20
-
+
Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answere= d? <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1"/> na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 460c975..dc10c57 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -90,21 +90,21 @@ . mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20 selma'o BO (=20 ,=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 ) Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to b= ind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.=20 is always high precedence and right-grouping. ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). That is a small school for girls. selma'o BOI (=20 @@ -769,35 +769,35 @@ cmavo. le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. =20 selma'o NA (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (o= r true). mi na klama le zarci It is not true that I go to the market. Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo. selma'o NAI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain sel= ma'o as specified by the grammar. selma'o NAhE (=20 - ) + ) Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other = than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with fo= llowing=20 to construct a sumti qualifier; see=20 . ta na'e blanu zdani That is-a-non- blue house. That is a house which is other than blue. selma'o NAhU (=20 commit d35279157927bd452e05d0311cdc3c723da6f5d1 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 15 16:46:49 2011 -0500 Chapter 15: example tags. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 17c4890..a7efcc4 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -197,26 +197,23 @@ isn't or=20 doesn't, as appropriate). The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 na. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d8"/> - mi na gleki le nu - na klama le nu dansu - I [false] am-happy-about the event-of - ([false] going-to the event-of dancing). - It is not the case that I am happy about it not being - the case that I am going to the dance. + mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu + I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the= event-of dancing). + It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the c= ase that I am going to the dance. I am not happy about not going to the dance. In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstracti= on bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. Fo= r example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d9"/> @@ -276,27 +273,25 @@ =20 I habitually go to the market. mean the same thing with=20 na before the=20 ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; w= e'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to ea= ch other. =20 A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d14"/> - - I do not go to the market because the car is broken. - + I do not go to the market because the car is broken. as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d15"/> mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu =20 I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken. @@ -305,229 +300,189 @@ you end up negating too much. Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compou= nded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation o= f the normal interpretation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d16"/> - lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu - lenu le karce cu spofu - The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified = by - the event-of (the car being broken). + lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu lenu le karce cu spofu<= /jbo> + The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified = by the event-of (the car being broken). My not going to the market is because the car is broken. In=20 , the negation is clearly co= nfined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the= whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate= sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here). =20 The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:<= /para> =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d17"/> - - I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle= the Senator. - + I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncl= e the Senator. we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We= must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sente= nces. The event-clause version would look like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18"/> - The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was= aided by my uncle the Senator. + The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) w= as aided by my uncle the Senator. It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 -nar- has been reserved for=20 na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure= that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negat= ion described in=20 , which will be much more co= mmon in tanru and lujvo.
Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> - - The chair is not brown. - + The chair is not brown. we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other colo= r. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d2"/> - - It is green. - + It is green. Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that t= he statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret som= e responses. If we hear the following exchange: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d3"/> - - The chair is not brown. - Correct. The chair is wooden. - + The chair is not brown. + Correct. The chair is wooden. we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't= brown. If we hear the exchange: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d4"/> - - Is the chair green? - No, it is in the kitchen. - + Is the chair green? + No, it is in the kitchen. we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur= . But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can= 't say it is entirely irrelevant! =20 What is going on in these statements is something called=20 scalar negation. As the name suggests, scalar negation = presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one= scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be= true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems = reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversa= tion will help): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d5"/> - - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a green house. - + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a green house. We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct va= lue which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. Whi= le a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d6"/> - - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a blue car. - + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a blue car. Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a= different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.<= /para> Now, if the following exchange occurs: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d7"/> - - That isn't a blue house. - Right! That is a green car. - + That isn't a blue house. + Right! That is a green car. we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two= corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of = context,=20 blue house and=20 green car seem to be reasonably equivalent units that s= hould be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a= clear way in English to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d8"/> - - That isn't a=20 - blue-house. - + That isn't a=20 + blue-house. aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecti= ng the pair of words as a single unit. Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the= sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d9"/> - - John didn't go to Paris from Rome. - + John didn't go to Paris from Rome. Might=20 imply that John went to Par= is from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps h= e didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no = event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two = or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener. In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negatio= n from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use t= he partial word=20 non- as a prefix. But this is not always considered goo= d usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For exam= ple, we can clearly distinguish - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d10"/> - - That is a non-blue house. - + That is a non-blue house. from the related sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d11"/> - - That is a blue non-house. - + That is a blue non-house. and=20 have the advantage that, wh= ile they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertion= s. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is fa= lse. We can't always use=20 non- though, because of the peculiarities of English's = grammar. It would sound strange to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d12"/> - - John went to non-Paris from Rome. - + John went to non-Paris from Rome. or - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d13"/> - - John went to Paris from non-Rome. - + John went to Paris from non-Rome. although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circuml= ocution for English scalar negation is=20 other than, which works where=20 non- does not, but is wordier. Finally, we have natural language negations that are called pola= r negations, or opposites: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d14"/> - - John is moral - + John is moral - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d15"/> - - John is immoral - + John is immoral To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies= the opposite condition. Statements like=20 are strong negations which = not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since,=20 opposite implies a scale, polar negations are a special= variety of scalar negations. To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale= , showing two examples of how the scale is used: - - - All Most Some - Few - None - - - Excellent Good Fair - Poor - Awful - - + + Affirmations (positive) Negations (negative) + |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------| + All Most Some Few None + Excellent Good Fair Poor Awful + Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thu= s we have=20 not necessary or=20 unnecessary being the polar opposite of necessary. Anot= her scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situation= s modified by one's philosophy:=20 not true may be equated with=20 false in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in t= ri-valued logic an intermediate between=20 true and=20 false is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous sca= le exists from true to false. The meaning of=20 =20 not true requires a knowledge of which variety of truth= scale is being considered. We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indic= ating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not = valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This= is the intent expressed in most contexts by=20 @@ -645,38 +600,38 @@ set, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything whic= h plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interp= reted in the same way that answers to a=20 mo question must be plausible - the result must= not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate= to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the con= text.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, w= hile still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbr= i negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a differe= nt relationship. We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than= a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as= exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given= twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the=20 na'e): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d7"/> mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci - mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci + mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market. This negation uses the same=20 ke and=20 ke'e delimiters (the=20 ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri)= that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. Th= e=20 ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that th= e negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti pl= ace-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti th= emselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by=20 na'e. Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d8"/> mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci - mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci + mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market. In=20 , only the=20 sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is= indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly. Negations made with=20 na'e or=20 na'eke also include within their scope any sumt= i attached to the brivla or tanru with=20 be or=20 @@ -692,31 +647,31 @@ Note that=20 and=20 do not express the same thi= ng: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d10"/> mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka - mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka + mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d11"/> mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e] - mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]) + mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]) I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms). The translations show that the negation in=20 is more restricted in scope= ; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=20 mi). Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be= unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of=20 na'e as an operator. Grouping with=20 ke and=20 ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is i= ts advantage.=20 @@ -726,29 +681,29 @@ co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope th= at is longer than all other tanru constructs. =20 In short,=20 na'e and=20 na'eke define a type of negation, which is shor= ter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri= . The result of=20 na'e negation remains an assertion of some spec= ific truth and not merely a denial of another claim. The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafs= i=20 -nal-, representing=20 na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, fo= rms an exact parallel to the English usage of=20 non-. Turning a series of related negations int= o lujvo gives: - + .i.
-
+
Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives non-logical conne= ctivessyntax rules summary logical connectivessyntax rules summary The full set of rules= for inserting=20 na,=20 se, and=20 nai into any connective is: Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks): =20 Negate first construct: Place=20 @@ -3260,23 +3277,23 @@ nai after the connective cmavo (but before = the=20 gi of a joigik). =20 Exchange constructs: Place=20 se before the connective cmavo.
-
+
Locations of other tables - : a table explaining the mea= ning of each truth function in English. + : a table explaining the meani= ng of each truth function in English. - : a table relating the truth= functions to the four basic vowels. + : a table relating the truth fu= nctions to the four basic vowels. - : a table of the connective= question cmavo. + : a table of the connective quest= ion cmavo. =20 - : a table of the meanings o= f JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti. + : a table of the me= anings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 1ed6a84..460c975 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -2,21 +2,21 @@ A Catalogue of selma'o
<!-- <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br /> mkhtml: 1.1</h6> --> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary>= <secondary>cross-reference list of</secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</te= rtiary></indexterm> The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban= , with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the = chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o na= mes are given in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the c= apital of =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo,= often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example i= s given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most comm= on use is shown.</para> =20 <bridgehead> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>A</prim= ary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</seconda= ry><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-secti= on6"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives= -section-sumti-connection"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D), usually between sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci John and/or Jane goes to the store. </programlisting> <para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with =E2=80= =9Cbu=E2=80=9D.</para> <bridgehead> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI</pr= imary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>sumti place</primary><secondary>additional</= secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"BAI"/> selma'o BAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-BAI"/>)</bridgehead> <para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not o= therwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a s= ingle place of some other selbri.</para> @@ -78,21 +78,21 @@ =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze =20 =20 The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI"/> selma'o BIhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-con= tinued"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to for= m intervals. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GAhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BO"/> selma'o BO (=20 @@ -165,21 +165,21 @@ ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda =20 .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. =20 The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. =20 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE"/> selma'o CEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses.</para> =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo =20 I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -356,31 +356,31 @@ <xref linkend=3D"UI"/> which are in effect.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse =20 =20 I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GA"/> selma'o GA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connect= ion"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-= tails, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth .= .. and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2= =80=9D, and so on. See=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO"/> selma'o GAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-con= tinued"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies whether an interval specified by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI"/> includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in p= airs before and after the=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI"/> cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left= - and the right-hand endpoints.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt= . I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. =20 </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -388,33 +388,33 @@ <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)= </bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI"/>. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GI"/> selma'o GI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connect= ion"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru = units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought conne= ctive involving=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"GUhA"/>, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA"/> selma'o GIhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > <para>Specifies a logical connective (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-t= ail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any = preceding sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GOI"/> selma'o GOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)= </bridgehead> <para>Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a= subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"GEhU"/> See=20 @@ -429,57 +429,57 @@ <para>A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of briv= la. There are several groups of these.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> A: mi klama le zarci B: mi go'i =20 A: I=E2=80=99m going to the market. B: Me, too. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA"/> selma'o GUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. = Takes the place of=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/> when forming logically-connected tanru. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu Alice is both rich and blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"I"/> selma'o I (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section2"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Separates two sentences from each other.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani I go-to the market. I go-to the office. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JA"/> selma'o JA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two tanru units, mathemati= cal operands, tenses, or abstractions.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ti blanu je zdani This is-blue and a-house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JAI"/> selma'o JAI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-jai"/>)</bridgehead> <para>When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator= attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place o= f the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place = of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of= the abstracted-over bridi.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. I act so as to modify the wall color. I change the color of the wall. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI"/> selma'o JOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-connectives"/= >)</bridgehead> <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>, provides forethought non-logical connection an= alogous to=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. =20 </programlisting> @@ -768,31 +768,31 @@ <para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specif= ied by a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"FAhA"/> cmavo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. =20 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NA"/> selma'o NA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (o= r true).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi na klama le zarci It is not true that I go to the market. </programlisting> <para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NAI"/> selma'o NAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section3"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain sel= ma'o as specified by the grammar.</para> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE"/> selma'o NAhE (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section4"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other = than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with fo= llowing=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta na'e blanu zdani @@ -855,49 +855,49 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultan= eous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated = by=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU"/> selma'o NUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhI"/>. Marks the end of a termset.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PA"/> selma'o PA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section2"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminat= ed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi speni re ninmu I am-married-to two women. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE"/> selma'o PEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead> <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two term= sets. Termsets (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"CEhE"/>) are used to associate several terms for logi= cal connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in t= enses.</para> =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo =20 I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -1093,21 +1093,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"VA"/> selma'o VA (=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead= > <para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU"/> selma'o VAU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section9"/>)</bridgehead> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-compound-bridi"/>)</bridg= ehead> <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"GIhA"/> logical connection.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI"/> selma'o VEI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead> diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 6e207d2..041cb43 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1285,21 +1285,21 @@ <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">sask-</jbophrase> represents=20 <jbophrase>saske</jbophrase> (=20 <quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel=20 <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">a</jbophrase> added to the end of the wor= d, and the diphthong=20 <jbophrase role=3D"diphthong">ua</jbophrase>, which never appears in g= ismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para> <example role=3D"lojbanization-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-id-FT= fQ"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8"/> - =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) + =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi) where=20 ler- represents=20 lerfu (=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.