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spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 3456d19b9aff90c33372e5ce8e20119d1527d888 Merge: 53d76a4 b3c220e Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Thu Feb 3 00:14:57 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'b3c220e1eb32de09528b4da0ede1eeae92a75686' into gh-pages commit 53d76a4209add44a9209f7cd157464a3ac1685f8 Merge: 567f200 bb854a5 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Thu Feb 3 00:09:56 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'bb854a5567fb9c2fbb20c71b00957b440a854196' into gh-pages commit 567f200f5dbba86fe59f583f08a30a526ae3e3df Merge: 4499796 7204957 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 23:56:27 2011 -0800 Merge commit '72049575be537ccaad711c13847c3a8d496976fd' into gh-pages commit 4499796358c3763e2641a062f5902635914772ee Merge: 5a70502 a295b27 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 23:56:16 2011 -0800 Merge commit 'a295b27569e8fb02a9f76e34b7b8d579049b0385' into gh-pages commit 5a70502ca93a3baa45efecc44b9007e0f1b0a1bd Merge: 0a23b05 3943d8f Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 23:29:16 2011 -0800 Merge commit '3943d8f859588dbc75bf01e11c21c523470b6aef' into gh-pages commit 0a23b05ddec980ee18297861ae3267df8a920a8c Merge: 32a1f4b 7f71f5d Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Wed Feb 2 23:14:41 2011 -0800 Merge commit '7f71f5d52e3da6b06c48038a68bf06ef8758ef03' into gh-pages commit b3c220e1eb32de09528b4da0ede1eeae92a75686 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 29 15:46:59 2011 -0500 and to and , since that seems more conventional. diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index f526842..018a76f 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -2691,258 +2691,258 @@ ju'i lobypli. =20 (Alternatively,=20 doi can be inserted between the COI cmavo and t= he name, making a pause unnecessary:=20 coi doi djan.) coi greetings =20 - + coi<= /indexterm>=20 Hello, X;=20 Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listene= r. - + co'o partings =20 - + co'o= =20 Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate com= pany by either the speaker or the listener.=20 coico'o means=20 greeting in passing. - + ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us =20 - + ju'i= =20 Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X; indicate= s an important communication that the listener should listen to. - + nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise =20 - + nu'e= =20 I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener= . In some contexts,=20 nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other = formal declaration. - + =20 ta'a [tavla] interruption =20 - + ta'e= =20 I interrupt, X,=20 I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (= possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. = This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude inte= rruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate r= esponse to an interruption might be=20 re'i (or=20 =20 re'inai to ignore the interruption). - + pe'u [cpedu] request =20 - + pe'u= e'ocontrasted with pe'u pe'ucontrasted with e'o=20 Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. I= t is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 .e'o with a specific recipient being addr= essed. On the other hand,=20 =20 .e'o may be used when there is no specifi= c listener, but merely a=20 =20 sense of petition floating in the air, as it were= . - + ki'e [ckire] appreciation gratitude disappreciation ingratitude =20 - + fi'i= je'e ki'e thank you= example politenessyou're welcome politene= ssthank you and you're welcome= =20 Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude= toward the listener. The usual response is=20 je'e, but=20 =20 fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: se= e the explanation of=20 =20 fi'i. - + =20 fi'i [friti] welcome offering unwelcome inhospitality =20 - + fi'i= hospitalityexample you're welcomeje'e contrasted wit= h fi'i you're welcomefi'i contrasted with je'e= =20 At your service, X;=20 Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (pos= sibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note tha= t=20 =20 fi'i is=20 =20 not the equivalent of American English=20 You're welcome as a mechanical response to=20 Thank you; that is=20 je'e, as noted below. - + =20 be'e [benji] request to send =20 - + be'e= telephone conve= rsationhello=20 Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker = wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is list= ening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conv= ersant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 =20 Hello? Can I speak to X?. - + re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready =20 - + re'i= =20 Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker i= s attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used in= stead of=20 mi'e to respond when called to the teleph= one. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing = to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated= =20 Hold on! or=20 Just a minute. - + mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow =20 - + mu'o= =20 Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed= the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. T= he negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follo= ws does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,= =20 I'm not done talking! - + je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt =20 - + je'e= roger= example politenessyou're welcome=20 Roger, X!,=20 I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt= of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure = to receive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents = of=20 =20 je'e and=20 =20 je'enai are the grunt typically written= =20 uh-huh and=20 What?/Excuse me?.=20 je'e is also used to mean=20 =20 You're welcome when that is a response to=20 Thank you. - + vi'o will comply will not comply =20 - + vi'o= vi'o<= secondary>contrasted with je'e je'econtrasted with vi'o=20 Wilco, X,=20 I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 je'e but signals an intention (similar to= =20 =20 .ai) to comply with th= e other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 Agreed!, although=20 .ie carries some of th= e same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received b= ut that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is=20 No way!. - + ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed =20 - + ke'o= ki'a<= secondary>compared to ke'o ke'ocompared to ki'a=20 What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or= clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vo= cative equivalent of=20 ki'a, and is related to=20 je'enai. The negative form may be rendere= d=20 Okay, already; I get the point! - + fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done =20 - + fe'o= =20 Over and out, X; indicates completion of statemen= t(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to termin= ate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already = been identified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 Wait, hold it, we're not done! and differs from= =20 mu'onai in that it means more exchanges a= re to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. - + fa'o<= secondary>contrasted with fe'o fe'ocontrasted with fa'o Do not confuse=20 fe'o with=20 fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, ex= tra-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 =20 fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conver= sation and then go on speaking to the others. mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification =20 - + mi'e= meexplicitly specifying mi'econtrasted with other me= mbers of COI = introduce oneself=20 And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although= grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 mi'e is quite different semantically. In = particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or = description) follows=20 mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefor= e, using=20 mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sum= ti=20 mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, = to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone. - + =20 re'imi'e fe'omi= 'e mi'= eeffect of ordering multiple COI COI selma'oordering multiple with mi'e closingsletter This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:=20 fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing at the= end of a letter;=20 =20 re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in delay= ed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As l= ong as the=20 =20 mi'e comes last, the following name is that of = the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of th= e listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a singl= e vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever = one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may = appear. mi'enai The negative form denies an identity which someone else ha= s attributed to you;=20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 3593a6c..12005da 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -3301,233 +3301,233 @@
Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a,= b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethough= t operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules= apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU. operatorslist of simple FIXME: TAG SPOT su'i plus - (((a + b) + c) + ...= ) + (((a + b) += c) + ...) pi'i times - (((a =C3=97 b) =C3= =97 c) =C3=97 ...) + (((a =C3=97= b) =C3=97 c) =C3=97 ...) vu'u minus - (((a =E2=88=92 b) = =E2=88=92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) + (((a =E2=88= =92 b) =E2=88=92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) fe'i divided by - (((a / b) / c) / ...= ) + (((a / b) /= c) / ...) ju'u number base - numeral string a interpreted = in the base b + numeral string a int= erpreted in the base b pa'i ratio - the ratio of a to b<= /varname> a:b + the ratio of a to b a:b fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse - 1 / a + 1 / a gei scientific notation - b =C3=97 (c [default 10] to the a power) + b =C3=97 (c [default 10] to the a power) ge'a null operator - (no operands) + (no operands) =20 de'o logarithm - log a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate) + log a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate) te'a to the power/exponential - a to the b= power + a to the b<= /varname> power fe'a nth root of/inverse power - bth root of a (defaul= t square root: b =3D 2) + bth root of = a (default square root: b =3D 2) cu'a absolute value/norm - | a | + | a | ne'o factorial - a! + a! pi'a matrix row vector combiner - (all operands are row vectors) + (all operands are row vectors) =20 sa'i matrix column vector combiner - (all operands are column vectors) + (all operands are column vectors) =20 ri'o integral - integral of a with respect to b over range c + integral of a with respect to b over ra= nge c =20 sa'o derivative - derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (d= efault 1) + derivative of a with respect to b of de= gree c (default 1) fu'u non-specific operator - (variable) + (variable) si'i sigma (=CE=A3) summation - summation of a using variable b over range c + summation of a using variable b over ra= nge c va'a negation of/additive inverse - -a + -a re'a matrix transpose/dual - a* + a*
Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numb= ers. digitslist of decimal Decimal digits: no non - 0 + 0 pa pav - 1 + 1 re rel - 2 + 2 ci cib - 3 + 3 vo von - 4 + 4 mu mum - 5 + 5 xa xav - 6 + 6 ze zel - 7 + 7 bi biv - 8 + 8 so soz - 9 + 9 digitslist of hexadecimal Hexadecimal digit= s: dau - A/10 + A/10 fei - B/11 + B/11 gai - C/12 + C/12 jau - D/13 + D/13 rei - E/14 + E/14 vai - F/15 + F/15 numberslist of special Special numbers: pai - =CF=80 + =CF=80 ka'o - imaginary i + imaginary i te'o - exponential e + exponential e ci'i - infinity (=E2=88=9E) + infinity (=E2=88=9E) punctuationlist of numerical Number punctua= tion: pi piz decimal point commit bb854a5567fb9c2fbb20c71b00957b440a854196 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 29 15:38:58 2011 -0500 Chapter 10: summary s to s. Invented role=3D"direction" and role=3D"movement" for . =20 The two roles are for the table at the end of chapter 10. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 67191e2..5c81c50 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -654,24 +654,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1"/> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. really means: - At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as - well, the event=20 -I went to the market was in progress. - + At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the eve= nt I went to the market was in progress. + tense directionimplications on scope of event = past eventpossible extension into present The vague or unsp= ecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there = is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past= ! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-m= arket is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. tenseLojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 points up a fundamental dif= ference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sen= tence like=20 I went to the market generally signifies that the going= -to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete= at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 pu has no such implication. tenseaorist aoristdefinition = Classical Greek aorist tense<= /primary>compared with Lojban tense This= property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tense = system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property,= however: =20 =20 @@ -1746,21 +1744,21 @@ I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites th= e dog. Here the second=20 pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds = to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is tak= en to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d3"/> - I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog. + I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog. =20 compound tensecompared with tense in scope of sticky tense<= /indexterm> tense in scope o= f sticky tensecompared with compound tense= and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation = from any other sentences) to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d4"/> mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the = dog. @@ -3271,34 +3269,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8"/> seka'a le briju With-destination the office. modal-or-tense qu= estionspre-specifying some information tense-or-modal ques= tionspre-specifying some information cu'ecombining with other tense cmavo The only way t= o combine=20 cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical = connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: - when elseexample sowed grainexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + when elseexample sowed grainexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9"/> do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain? You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow i= t? =20 Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a= question word: - tense questionsby using logical connective question= FIXME: TAG SPOT + tense questionsby using logical connective question FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d10"/> la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru =20 Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king Was Arthur a king or will he be? @@ -3361,372 +3359,432 @@ .a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe fi le lojbo = temci selsku ciste
Summary of tense selma'o tense selma'osummary of FIXME: TAG SPOT - - PU - - temporal direction - - pu - past - ca - present - ba - future - - - - - ZI - - temporal distance - - zi - short - za - medium - zu - long - - - - - ZEhA - - temporal interval - - ze'i - short - ze'a - medium - ze'u - long - ze'e - infinite - - - - - ROI - - objective quantified tense flag - - noroi - never - paroi - once - ... - roroi - always - etc. - pare'u - the first time - rere'u - the second time - etc. - - - - - TAhE - - subjective quantified tense - - di'i - regularly - na'o - typically - ru'i - continuously - ta'e - habitually - - - - - ZAhO - - event contours - see - - - - FAhA - - spatial direction - see - - - - VA - - spatial distance - - vi - short - va - medium - vu - long - - - - - VEhA - - spatial interval - - ve'i - short - ve'a - medium - ve'u - long - ve'e - infinite - - - - - VIhA - - spatial dimensionality - - vi'i - line - vi'a - plane - vi'u - space - vi'e - space-time - - - - - FEhE - - spatial interval modifier flag - - fe'enoroi - nowhere - fe'eroroi - everywhere - fe'eba'o - beyond - etc. - - - - - MOhI - - spatial movement flag - - mo'i - motion - - see - - - - KI - - set or reset sticky tense - - tense+ki - set - ki alone - reset - - - - - CUhE - - tense question, reference point - - cu'e - asks for a tense or aspect - nau - use speaker's reference point - - - - - JAI - - tense conversion - - jaica - the time of - jaivi - the place of - etc. - - - + + + PU + + temporal direction + + + pu + past + + + ca + present + + + ba + future + + + + + + ZI + + temporal distance + + + zi + short + + + za + medium + + + zu + long + + + + + + ZEhA + + temporal interval + + + ze'i + short + + + ze'a + medium + + + ze'u + long + + + ze'e + infinite + + + + + + ROI + + objective quantified tense flag + + + noroi + never + + + paroi + once + + ... + + roroi + always + + etc. + + pare'u + the first time + + + rere'u + the second time + + etc. + + + + + TAhE + + subjective quantified tense + + + di'i + regularly + + + na'o + typically + + + ru'i + continuously + + + ta'e + habitually + + + + + + ZAhO + + event contours + see + + + + FAhA + + spatial direction + see + + + + VA + + spatial distance + + + vi + short + + + va + medium + + + vu + long + + + + + + VEhA + + spatial interval + + + ve'i + short + + + ve'a + medium + + + ve'u + long + + + ve'e + infinite + + + + + + VIhA + + spatial dimensionality + + + vi'i + line + + + vi'a + plane + + + vi'u + space + + + vi'e + space-time + + + + + + FEhE + + spatial interval modifier flag + + + fe'enoroi + nowhere + + + fe'eroroi + everywhere + + + fe'eba'o + beyond + + etc. + + + + + MOhI + + spatial movement flag + + mo'i + motion + + see + + + + KI + + set or reset sticky tense + + tense+ki + set + ki alone + reset + + + + + CUhE + + tense question, reference point + + + cu'e + asks for a tense or aspect + + + nau + use speaker's reference point + + + + + + JAI + + tense conversion + + + jaica + the time of + + + jaivi + the place of + + etc. + + + +
List of spatial directions and direction-like relations =20 spatial direction= slist of The following list of= FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used with= out=20 mo'i to express a direction, and then when used= with=20 mo'i to express movement in the direction. When= possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. - - - - - - - - - cmavo - gismu - without mo'i - with mo'i - - - - - ca'u - crane - in front (of) - forward - - - ti'a - trixe - behind - backward - - - zu'a - zunle - on the left (of) - leftward - - - ga'u - gapru - above - upward(ly) - - - ni'a - cnita - below - downward(ly) - - - ne'i - nenri - within - into - - - ru'u - sruri - surrounding - orbiting - - - pa'o - pagre - transfixing - passing through - - - ne'a - - next to - moving while next to - - - te'e - - bordering - moving along the border (of) - - - re'o - - adjacent (to) - along - - - fa'a - farna - towards - arriving at - - - to'o - - away from - departing from - - - zo'i - - inward (from) - approaching - - - ze'o - - outward (from) - receding from - - - zo'a - - tangential (to) - passing (by) - - - be'a - berti - north (of) - northward(ly) - - - ne'u - snanu - south (of) - southward(ly) - - - du'a - stuna - east (of) - eastward(ly) - - - vu'a - - west (of) - westward(ly) - - - - =20 + + + ca'u + crane + in front (of) + forward + + + ti'a + trixe + behind + backward + + + zu'a + zunle + on the left (of) + leftward + + + ga'u + gapru + above + upward(ly) + + + ni'a + cnita + below + downward(ly) + + + ne'i + nenri + within + into + + + ru'u + sruri + surrounding + orbiting + + + pa'o + pagre + transfixing + passing through + + + ne'a + + next to + moving while next to + + + te'e + + bordering + moving along the border (of) + + + re'o + + adjacent (to) + along + + + fa'a + farna + towards + arriving at + + + to'o + + away from + departing from + + + zo'i + + inward (from) + approaching + + + ze'o + + outward (from) + receding from + + + zo'a + + tangential (to) + passing (by) + + + be'a + berti + north (of) + northward(ly) + + + ne'u + snanu + south (of) + southward(ly) + + + du'a + stuna + east (of) + eastward(ly) + + + vu'a + + west (of) + westward(ly) + + ze'ospecial note on direction orientation zo'ispecial = note on direction orientation to'ospecial note on directio= n orientation fa'aspecial note on direction orientation Special note on=20 fa'a,=20 to'o,=20 zo'i, and=20 ze'o: - zo'i and=20 + zo'i and=20 ze'o refer to direction towards or away from th= e speaker's location, or whatever the origin is. - fa'a and=20 + fa'a and=20 to'o refer to direction towards or away from so= me other point.
commit 72049575be537ccaad711c13847c3a8d496976fd Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 29 15:11:29 2011 -0500 Chapter 2: s. Invented several tags and attributes. =20 , , , for the interlinear glosses. can have elidable=3D"false", which means it's wrapping an elidable terminator that cannot be elided, or delineated=3D"false", which means it's wrapping an elidable terminator that can be elided but for some reason wasn't surrounded with [] (there's only of these). is for UI and such. =20 Also, now has to be wrapped in (i.e. it is no longer a child of the same parents that can be a child of) diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 6d0622c..c2e99df 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -46,20 +46,21 @@ [svg version] + John is the father of Sam| | |=20 sumti selbri sumti (argument) giveexample In a relationship, there are a defi= nite number of things being related. In English, for example,=20 give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: @@ -313,21 +314,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"chapter-lujvo"/> explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-some-simple-bridi"> <title>Some simple Lojban bridi bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 tavla is <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1"/> - x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 + x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 where the=20 x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2"/> John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. =20 @@ -343,192 +344,267 @@ Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and su= bject matter engineering and language Lojban. The Lojban bridi corresponding to=20 will have the form <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d4"/> - x1 [cu]= =20 - tavla=20 - x2=20 - x3=20 - x4 + + x1 + cu + tavla=20 + x2=20 + x3=20 + x4 + cu<= secondary>quick-tour version tavla cuuse ofquick-tour version cuomission ofquick-tour version The word=20 cu serves as a separator between any preceding = sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples= . <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> - mi=20 - tavla=20 - do=20 - zo'e=20 - zo'e + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do=20 + zo'e=20 + zo'e + I talk to you about something in some language. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d6"/> - do=20 - tavla=20 - mi=20 - ta=20 - zo'e + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta=20 + zo'e + You talk to me about that thing in a language. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d7"/> - mi=20 - tavla=20 - zo'e=20 - tu=20 - ti + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + zo'e=20 + tu=20 + ti + I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. (=20 is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) zo'equick-tour version ellipsisquick-tour version<= /secondary> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo= =20 zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted= , a process called=20 ellipsis.=20 - =20 + and=20 may be expressed thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> - mi=20 - tavla=20 - do + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do + I talk to you (about something in some language). =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d9"/> - do=20 - tavla=20 - mi=20 - ta + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta + You talk to me about that thing (in some language). Note that=20 is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 - =20 + zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.
Variant bridi structure sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d1"/> - mi [cu]=20 - vecnu - ti - ta - zo'e - seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 - I sell this to that for some price. - I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers. - (The price is obvious or unimportant.) + + mi + cu + vecnu + ti + ta + zo'e + + + seller-x1 + sells + goods-sold-x2 + buyer-x3 + price-x4 + + + I + sell + this + to that + for some price. + + + I + sell + this-thing/these-things + to that-buyer/those-buyers. + The price is obvious or unimportant. + has one sumti (the x1) befo= re the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the se= lbri, without changing the order of sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d2"/> - mi - ti [cu]=20 - vecnu - ta - seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 sells buyer-x3 - I this sell to that. - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing do sell to that buyer. + + mi + ti =20 + cu + vecnu + ta + + + seller-x1 + goods-sold-x2 + sells + buyer-x3 =20 - =20 + + + I + this + sell + to that. + translates as stilted or poetic English + + I this thing do sell to that buyer. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d3"/> - mi - ti - ta [cu]=20 - vecnu - seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 sells - I this to that sell. - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing to that buyer do sell. + + mi + ti + ta =20 + cu + vecnu + + + seller-x1 + goods-sold-x2 + buyer-x3 + sells + + + I + this + to that + sell. + translates as stilted or poetic English + + I this thing to that buyer do sell. through=20 mean the same thing. Usuall= y, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for e= mphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Nat= ive speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) observativesquick-tour version If there are no = sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is e= quivalent to=20 zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefor= e not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d4"/> - ta [cu]=20 - melbi - object/idea-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) - That/Those is/are beautiful. - That is beautiful. - Those are beautiful. + + ta =20 + cu + melbi + + + object/idea-x1 + is-beautiful=20 + to someone by some standard + + + That/Those + is/are beautiful. + + That is beautiful. + Those are beautiful. when the x1 is omitted, becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d5"/> - ________ = [cu]=20 - melbi - unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) - Beautiful! - It's beautiful! + + ________ =20 + cu + melbi + + + unspecified-x1 + is-beautiful=20 + to someone by some standard + + Beautiful! + It's beautiful! Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 =20 =20 Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in da= nger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear be= fore the selbri. =20 The word=20 cu does not occur in an observative;=20 @@ -541,64 +617,72 @@
Varying the order of sumti SE selma'oquick-tour version sequick-tour vers= ion = sumti reorderingquick-tour version For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing on= e particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 se, when placed before the last word of the sel= bri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> - mi - tavla - do - ti + + mi + tavla + do + ti + I talk to you about this. has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d2"/> - do - se tavla - mi - ti + + do + se tavla + mi + ti + You are talked to by me about this. te<= secondary>quick-tour version The cmavo=20 te, when used in the same location, switches th= e meanings of the first and the third sumti places. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> - mi - tavla - do - ti + + mi + tavla + do + ti + I talk to you about this. has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d4"/> - ti - te tavla - do - mi + + ti + te tavla + do + mi + This is talked about to you by me. Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. xe<= secondary>quick-tour version vequick-tour version The cmavo=20 ve and=20 xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, an= d the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the orde= r of places are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 se,=20 te,=20 @@ -646,38 +730,38 @@ sutra tavla has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2"/> - x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 - x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 + x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in= language x4 + x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 fast talkerexample tanru default groupingquick-tour ve= rsion When three or more gismu are in a row, the fi= rst modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and = that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3"/> sutra tavla cutci fast-talker shoe<= /primary>example has the place structure= <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4"/> - s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 + s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 o= f material s3 That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. =20 Note especially the use of=20 type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5"/> @@ -712,218 +796,293 @@ Lepidopteraexample butterflysocialexample social butterflyexample m= ust always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family=20 Lepidoptera. =20 tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> - mi [cu]=20 - sutra klama - la meris. - I quickly-go to Mary. + + mi + cu + sutra klama + la meris. + + + I + quickly-go + to Mary. + tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> - mi [cu]=20 - sutra se klama - la meris. - I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. + + mi + cu + sutra se klama + la meris. + + + I + + quickly + am-gone-to + by Mary. + tanruand conversionquick-tour version<= /indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion th= an merely switching places, though: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d10"/> - la tam. [cu]=20 - melbi tavla - la meris. - Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. - Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. + + la tam. + cu + melbi tavla + la meris. + + + Tom + beautifully-talks + to Mary. + + + Tom + is a beautiful-talker + to Mary. + has the place structure of=20 tavla, but note the two distinct interpretation= s. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> - la meris. [cu]=20 - melbi se tavla - la tam. - Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. - Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. + + la meris. + cu + melbi se tavla + la tam. + + + Mary + is beautifully-talked-to + by Tom. + + + Mary + is a beautiful-audience + for Tom. + and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying te= rm is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d12"/> - la tam. [cu]=20 - tavla melbi - la meris. - Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. + + la tam. + cu + tavla melbi + la meris. + + + Tom + is talkerly-beautiful + to Mary. + =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d13"/> - la tam. [cu]=20 - se tavla melbi - la meris. - Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. + + la tam. + cu + se tavla melbi + la meris. + + + Tom + is audiencely-beautiful + to Mary. + and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.
Description sumti talker<= secondary>example descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, t= he listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a ta= lker other than=20 mi. What I want to talk about would naturally f= it into the first place of=20 tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator th= at pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called= a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 le tavla ku means=20 the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> - mi - tavla - do - le tavla ku + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla + ku + means the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2"/> - - I talk to you about the talker - + I talk to you about the talker where=20 the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. Similarly=20 le sutra tavla ku is=20 the fast talker, and=20 =20 le sutra te tavla ku is=20 the fast subject of talk or=20 the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. In many cases the word=20 ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never n= ecessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> - mi - tavla - do - le tavla - I talk-to you about-the talker + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla + + + I + talk-to + you + about-the talker + means exactly the same thing as=20 . cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 The fast one is talking. The=20 obvious translation=20 le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 =20 cu, which so far has always been optional, in f= ront of the selbri. The word=20 cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the = beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sum= ti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo lik= e=20 se or=20 te. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> - le sutra tavla - The fast talker - - - =20 + le sutra tavla + The fast talker <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d5"/> - le sutra cu=20 - tavla - The fast one is talking. - - =20 + + le sutra + cu + tavla + + + The fast one + is talking. + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d6"/> - le sutra se tavla - The fast talked-to one - - =20 + le sutra se tavla + The fast talked-to one <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d7"/> - le sutra cu=20 - se tavla - The fast one is talked to. + + le sutra + cu + se tavla + + + The fast one + is talked to. + KU selma'oquick-tour version kuquick-tour version Consider the following more complex example, with two= description sumti. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d8"/> - mi [cu]=20 - tavla - le vecnu [ku] - le blari'o [ku] - I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing. + + mi + cu + tavla + le vecnu + ku + le blari'o + ku + + + I + talk-to + the seller + about the blue-green-thing. + The sumti=20 le vecnu contains the selbri=20 vecnu, which has the=20 seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to= describe a particular=20 seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she= probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speake= r has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 le to mark=20 blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is somethin= g blue-green. It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 @@ -935,123 +1094,172 @@ Examples of brivla brivla<= secondary>types ofquick-tour version The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may = by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (ro= ot words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages)= . All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been= gismu or tanru built from gismu. =20 gismuquick-tour version gismu: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d1"/> - mi [cu]=20 - klama - ti - zo'e - zo'e - ta - Go-er goes destination origin route means. - I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some rout= e). + + mi =20 + cu + klama + ti + zo'e + zo'e + ta + + + Go-er + goes + destination + origin + route + means. + + + I + go + here + (to this) + using that means + (from somewhere + via some route). + lujvoquick-tour version lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d2"/> - ta [cu]=20 - blari'o - That is-blue-green. + + ta=20 + cu + blari'o + + + That + is-blue-green. + fu'ivla= quick-tour version fu'ivla: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d3"/> - ti [cu]=20 - djarspageti - This is-spaghetti. + + ti=20 + cu + djarspageti + + + This + is-spaghetti. + =20 cmavo as selbriquick-tour version Some cmavo ma= y also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. = The most commonly used of these is=20 go'i, which represents the main bridi of the pr= evious Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being= expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d4"/> - ta [cu]=20 - go'i - That too/same-as-last selbri. - That (is spaghetti), too. + + ta=20 + cu + go'i + + + That + too/same-as-last selbri. + + That (is spaghetti), too. =20
The sumti=20 <jbophrase>di'u</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me. How do you know what=20 =20 this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> - le gerku [ku] cu=20 - melbi + + le gerku + ku + cu=20 + melbi + The dog is beautiful. The following three sentences all might translate as=20 This pleases me. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d2"/> - ti [cu]=20 - pluka - mi + + ti + cu + pluka + mi + This (the dog) pleases me. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d3"/> - di'u [cu]=20 - pluka - mi + + di'u + cu + pluka + mi + This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is gra= mmatical or sounds nice). =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d4"/> - la'e di'u [cu]=20 - pluka - mi + + la'e di'u + cu + pluka + mi + This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is b= eautiful) pleases me. =20 la'edi'uquick-tour version di'uquick-tour vers= ion = pleases=20 uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more ofte= n than=20 =20 di'u by itself.
@@ -1059,24 +1267,30 @@ Possession possessionquick-tour version=20 Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 . A simple means of expres= sing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of= an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specific= ally, between the=20 le and the selbri of the description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1"/> - le mi gerku cu=20 - sutra - The of-me dog is fast. - My dog is fast. + + le mi gerku + cu=20 + sutra + + + The of-me dog + is fast. + + My dog is fast. possession not ow= nershipquick-tour version In L= ojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may=20 possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it= actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the = same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intima= te relationships:=20 my arm doesn't mean=20 some arm I own but rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.
Vocatives and commands @@ -1124,86 +1338,101 @@ co'o. djan. Good-bye, John. imperativesquick-tour version commandsquick-tour vers= ion Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple va= riation of the main bridi structure. If you say <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d4"/> - do - tavla - You are-talking. + + do + tavla + + + You + are-talking. + you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a c= ommand in Lojban, substitute the word=20 ko for=20 do. The bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> - ko - tavla + + ko + tavla + ko<= secondary>quick-tour version Talk!example instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 true; it means=20 Talk! Other examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> - ko - sutra + + ko + sutra + Be fast! The=20 ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can = occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that= are very unlike English commands: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> - mi - tavla - ko - Be talked to by me - Let me talk to you. + + mi + tavla + ko + + Be talked to by me. + Let me talk to you. The cmavo=20 ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and ca= n be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d8"/> - ko - kurji - ko + + ko + kurji + ko + and <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d9"/> - ko - ko - kurji + + ko + ko + kurji + Take care!example both mean=20 You take care of you and=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.
Questions questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 @@ -1216,104 +1445,137 @@ Who? or=20 What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 When?,=20 Where?, and=20 Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d1"/> - ma - tavla - do - mi - Who? talks to-you about-me. - Who is talking to you about me? + + ma + tavla + do + mi + + + Who? + talks + to-you + about-me. + + Who is talking to you about me? The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d2"/> - la djan. - John (is talking to you about me). + la djan. + John (is talking to you about me). Like=20 ko,=20 ma can occur in any position where a sumti is a= llowed, not just in the first position: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d3"/> - do [cu]=20 - tavla - ma - You talk to what/whom? + + do + cu + tavla + ma + + + You + talk + to what/whom? + A=20 ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions = in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d4"/> - ma [cu] =20 - tavla - ma - What/Who talks to what/whom? + + ma + cu =20 + tavla + ma + + + What/Who + talks + to what/whom? + separate question= squick-tour version The two se= parate=20 ma positions ask two separate questions, and ca= n therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place. =20 mo<= secondary>quick-tour version bridi questionsquick-tour ver= sion selbri questionsquick-tour version The cmavo=20 mo is the selbri analogue of=20 ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri = that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d5"/> - do [cu]=20 - mo - You are-what/do-what? + + do + cu + mo + + + You + are-what/do-what? + A=20 mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbr= i might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 mo is a very non-specific question. The respons= e to the question in=20 could be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> - mi [cu]=20 - melbi + + mi + cu + melbi + I am beautiful. or: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d7"/> - mi [cu]=20 - tavla + + mi + cu + tavla + I talk. speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 mo requires some cooperation between the speake= r and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. I= f context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask t= he question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a t= anru (see=20 ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 @@ -1333,241 +1595,330 @@ Is it true that you are talking to me? xu<= secondary>quick-tour version In Lojban we have a wo= rd that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo= =20 xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks wheth= er that bridi is true as stated. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> - xu =20 - do - tavla - mi - Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me? + + xu =20 + do + tavla + mi + + + Is-it-true-that + you + are-talking + to-me? + is the Lojban translation of=20 . affirmative answe= rquick-tour version go'i with xuquick= -tour version The answer=20 Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without = the=20 xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for do= ing this with the word=20 go'i, mentioned in=20 . Instead of a negative answer,= the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be= done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 =20 go'i as well. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d11"/> - xu=20 - do - kanro - Are you healthy? - + + xu + do + kanro + + Are you healthy? healthy= example can be answered with <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d12"/> - mi - kanro - I am healthy. + + mi + kanro + + I am healthy. =20 or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d13"/> - go'i - I am healthy. + + go'i + + I am healthy. =20 =20 (Note that=20 do to the questioner is=20 mi to the respondent.) or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d14"/> - le tavla cu=20 - kanro - The talker is healthy. + + le tavla + cu + kanro + + The talker is healthy. =20 or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d15"/> - le tavla cu=20 - go'i - The talker is healthy. + + le tavla + cu + go'i + + The talker is healthy. =20 nago'iquick-tour version negative answerquick-to= ur version A general negative answer may be given b= y=20 =20 na go'i.=20 na may be placed before any selbri (but after t= he=20 cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 .
Indicators - interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. + interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. =20 Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d1"/> - .ie=20 - mi [cu]=20 - klama - Agreement! I go. - Yep! I'll go. + + .ie=20 + mi + cu + klama + + + Agreement! + I + go. + + Yep! I'll go. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d2"/> - .ei=20 - mi [cu]=20 - klama - Obligation! I go. - I should go. + + .ei=20 + mi + cu + klama + + + Obligation! + I + go. + + I should go. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d3"/> - mi [cu]=20 - klama - le melbi .ui [ku] - I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beau= tiful - thing I'm going to). + + mi + cu + klama + le melbi + .ui + ku + + + I + go + to the beautiful-thing + and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm go= ing to). + UI selma'oquick-tour version but/and equivalence = metalinguistic wordsquick-tour version discursivesquick-tour vers= ion Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursi= ves, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal = indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the = main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-ca= lled=20 =20 metalinguistic features from the underlying statements = and logical structure. By comparison, the English words=20 =20 but and=20 also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added = weight of example, are logically equivalent to=20 and, which does not have a discursive content. The aver= age English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the par= adoxical idea that=20 but basically means=20 and. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d4"/> - mi [cu]=20 - klama .i=20 - do [cu]=20 - stali - I go. You stay. + + mi + cu + klama + .i=20 + do + cu + stali + + + I + go. + You + stay. + =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d5"/> - mi [cu]=20 - klama .i ji'a=20 - - do [cu]=20 - stali - I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight) + + mi + cu + klama + .i + ji'a + do + cu + stali + + + I + go. + In addition, + you + stay. + added weight + =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d6"/> - mi [cu]=20 - klama .i ku'i=20 - - do [cu]=20 - stali - I go. However, you stay. (contrast) + + mi + cu + klama + .i + ku'i + do + cu + stali + + + I + go. + However, + you + stay. + contrast + evidentialsquick-tour version Another group of = indicators are called=20 evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 =20 =20 za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 =20 pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),= =20 =20 ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others= . Many American Indian languages use this kind of words. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d7"/> - pe'i=20 =20 - do [cu]=20 - melbi - I opine! You are beautiful. + + pe'i + do + cu + melbi + + + I opine! + You + are beautiful. + =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d8"/> - za'a=20 =20 - do [cu]=20 - melbi - I directly observe! You are beautiful. + + za'a + do + cu + melbi + + + I directly observe! + You + are beautiful. +
Tenses time tensesquick-tour version tensesquick-tour versio= n In English, every verb is tagged for the grammati= cal category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1"/> @@ -1580,119 +1931,161 @@ John is going to the store is necessarily happening right now. sentencestenselessquick-tour version The Lojban sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d3"/> - la djan. [cu]=20 - klama - le zarci - John goes/went/will-go to-the store + + la djan.=20 + cu + klama + le zarci + + + John + goes/went/will-go + to-the store + serves as a translation of either=20 or=20 , and of many other possible= English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an= event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that= Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translatio= n of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d4"/> - la djan. - pu klama - le zarci - John [past] goes to-the store + + la djan. + pu klama + le zarci + + John + [past] goes to-the store where the tag=20 pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in th= e past. Similarly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d5"/> - la djan. - ca klama - le zarci - John [present] goes to-the store + + la djan. + ca klama + le zarci + + + John + [present] goes to-the store + necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the = very beginning of the selbri, just after the=20 cu, and they may make a=20 cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed i= nto tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. = In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the ap= propriate tense is picked up from context. =20 space tensesquick-tour version Lojban also exte= nds the notion of=20 tense to refer not only to time but to space. The follo= wing example uses the tag=20 vu to specify that the event it describes happe= ns far away from the speaker: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6"/> - do - vu vecnu - zo'e - You yonder sell something-unspecified. + + do + vu vecnu + zo'e + + + You + yonder sell + something-unspecified. + In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefix= ed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d7"/> - le pu bajra [ku] cu = =20 - tavla - The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. + + le pu bajra + ku + cu + tavla + + + The earlier/former/past runner + talked/talks. + (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.) Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 this or=20 that as adjectives, as in the following example, which = uses the tag=20 =20 vi meaning=20 nearby: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> - le vi bajra [ku] cu=20 - tavla - The nearby runner talks. + + le vi bajra + ku + cu + tavla + + + The nearby runner + talks. + This runner talks. Do not confuse the use of=20 vi in=20 with the cmavo=20 ti, which also means=20 this, but in the sense of=20 this thing. sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 ba is the tag for future time): <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> - le vi tavla [ku] cu=20 - ba klama - The here talker [future] goes. - The talker who is here will go. + + le vi tavla + ku + cu + ba klama + + + The here talker + [future] goes. + + The talker who is here will go. This talker will go.
Lojban grammatical terms =20 grammatical terms= quick-tour version Here is a r= eview of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some other= s used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words ar= e included: there are of course many expressions like=20 =20 indicator in=20 commit a295b27569e8fb02a9f76e34b7b8d579049b0385 Merge: 3943d8f d3fdace Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 29 12:10:37 2011 -0500 Merge remote branch 'upstream/gh-pages' into gh-pages commit 3943d8f859588dbc75bf01e11c21c523470b6aef Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sat Jan 29 12:09:23 2011 -0500 Chapter 2: cmavo-list, table, jbophrases, some example tags. diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 5a8fd73..6d0622c 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -92,150 +92,226 @@ bridi,=20 sumti, and=20 selbri, because it is best to come to understan= d them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words= , which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. underlinesexample double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chap= ter un= derscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notation conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this= chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) und= er each sumti, and a double underline (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to hel= p you to tell them apart.
Pronunciation pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u and=20 - y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u and=20 + y. The first five are roughly= pronounced as=20 a as in=20 father,=20 - e as in=20 + e as in=20 let,=20 - i as in=20 + i as in=20 machine,=20 - o as in=20 + o as in=20 dome and=20 - u as in=20 + u as in=20 flute.=20 - y is pronounced as the sound called=20 + y is pronounced as the sound = called=20 schwa, that is, as the unstressed=20 a as in=20 about or=20 around. consonantspronunciation ofquick-tour version Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less = as their counterparts are in English:=20 - b,=20 - d,=20 - f,=20 - k,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n,=20 - p,=20 - r,=20 - t,=20 - v and=20 - z. The letter=20 - c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 + b,=20 + d,=20 + f,=20 + k,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n,=20 + p,=20 + r,=20 + t,=20 + v and=20 + z. The letter=20 + c, on the other hand is prono= unced as the=20 sh in=20 hush, while=20 - j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the= =20 + j is its voiced counterpart, = the sound of the=20 s in=20 pleasure.=20 - g is always pronounced as it is in=20 + g is always pronounced as it = is in=20 gift, never as in=20 giant.=20 - s is as in=20 + s is as in=20 sell, never as in=20 rose. The sound of=20 - x is not found in English in normal words. It i= s found as=20 - ch in Scottish=20 - loch, as=20 + x is not found in English in = normal words. It is found as=20 + ch in Scottish=20 + loch, as=20 j in Spanish=20 - junta, and as=20 - ch in German=20 - Bach; it also appears in the English interjection=20 + junta, and as=20 + ch in German=20 + Bach; it also appears in the English in= terjection=20 yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The = letter=20 r can be trilled, but doesn't= have to be. diphthongspronunciation ofquick-tour version The Lojban diphthongs=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au are pronounced much as in the English words= =20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, and=20 + au are pronounced much as in= the English words=20 sigh,=20 say,=20 boy, and=20 how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=20 i pronounced like English=20 - y (for example,=20 - io is pronounced=20 + y (for example,=20 + io is pronounced=20 yo) or else with a=20 u pronounced like English=20 w (for example,=20 - ua is pronounced=20 + ua is pronounced=20 wa). period<= secondary>quick-tour version commaquick-tour version apostroph= equick-tour version Lojban als= o has three=20 semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 =20 h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. stress<= secondary>quick-tour version Stress falls on the ne= xt to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is=20 y, which is never stressed; i= n such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one= syllable, then that syllable is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.
Words that can act as sumti pro-sumtiquick-tour version Here is a short tab= le of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not th= e entire set of such words, which may be found in=20 . - - mi I/me, we/us - do you - ti this, these - ta that, those - tu that far away, those far away - zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is - unimportant or obvious) - + + + mi + I/me, we/us + + + do + you + + + ti + this, these + + + ta + that, those + + + tu + that far away, those far away + + + zo'e + unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant o= r obvious) + + Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. =20 pointing cmavoquick-tour version The cmavo=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at= , and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be poi= nted at. namesquick-tour version Names may also be used = as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word=20 la: - - la meris. the one/ones named Mary - la djan. the one/ones named John - + + + + + + + la meris. + the one/ones named Mary + + + la djan. + the one/ones named John + + + + Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 for more information.<= /para>
Some words used to indicate selbri relations selbri list for q= uick tour Here is a short table of some words used as= Lojban selbri in this chapter: - - vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) - tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in langu= age x4 - sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) - blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green - melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x= 3 - cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) - bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait) - klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via= x4 (route) using - x5 (means of transportation) - pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions = x3 + + + + + + + vecnu + x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (bu= yer) for x4 (price) + + + tavla + x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) abo= ut x3 (topic) in language x4 + + + sutra + x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action= ) + + + blari'o + x1 (object/light source) is blue-green= + + + melbi + x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (o= bserver) by standard x3 + + + cutci + x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made o= f x3 (material) + + + bajra + x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limb= s) in manner x4 (gait) + + + klama + x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from= x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation) + + + pluka + x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experien= cer) under conditions x3 + =20 - gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2 - kurji x1 takes care of x2 - kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2 + + gerku + x1 is a dog of breed x2 + + + kurji + x1 takes care of x2<= /entry> + + + kanro + x1 is healthy by standard x2 + =20 - stali x1 stays/remains with x2 - zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by = x3 (storekeeper) - + + stali + x1 stays/remains with x2 + + + zarci + x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (= products) operated by x3 (storekeeper) + + + + x1notation conventionquick-tour version Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the r= ole of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, = that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4,= and x5. words not in the = dictionary Like the table in=20 , this table is far from comple= te: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words t= o be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the exi= sting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between= Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; = in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words,= and=20 explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.
Some simple Lojban bridi bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 @@ -286,84 +362,84 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> mi=20 tavla=20 do=20 zo'e=20 zo'e - I talk to you about something in some language. + I talk to you about something in some language. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d6"/> do=20 tavla=20 mi=20 ta=20 zo'e - You talk to me about that thing in a language. + You talk to me about that thing in a language. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d7"/> mi=20 tavla=20 zo'e=20 tu=20 ti - I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. + I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. (=20 is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) zo'equick-tour version ellipsisquick-tour version<= /secondary> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo= =20 zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted= , a process called=20 ellipsis.=20 =20 and=20 may be expressed thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> mi=20 tavla=20 do - I talk to you (about something in some language). + I talk to you (about something in some language). =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d9"/> do=20 tavla=20 mi=20 ta - You talk to me about that thing (in some language). + You talk to me about that thing (in some language). Note that=20 is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 =20 zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.
Variant bridi structure sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence @@ -469,61 +545,61 @@ se, when placed before the last word of the sel= bri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> mi tavla do ti - I talk to you about this. + I talk to you about this. has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d2"/> do se tavla mi ti - You are talked to by me about this. + You are talked to by me about this. te<= secondary>quick-tour version The cmavo=20 te, when used in the same location, switches th= e meanings of the first and the third sumti places. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> mi tavla do ti - I talk to you about this. + I talk to you about this. has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d4"/> ti te tavla do mi - This is talked about to you by me. + This is talked about to you by me. Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. xe<= secondary>quick-tour version vequick-tour version The cmavo=20 ve and=20 xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, an= d the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the orde= r of places are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 se,=20 te,=20 ve, and=20 @@ -639,90 +715,90 @@ tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> mi [cu]=20 sutra klama la meris. - I quickly-go to Mary. + I quickly-go to Mary. tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> mi [cu]=20 sutra se klama la meris. - I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. + I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. tanruand conversionquick-tour version<= /indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion th= an merely switching places, though: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d10"/> la tam. [cu]=20 melbi tavla la meris. - Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. + Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. has the place structure of=20 tavla, but note the two distinct interpretation= s. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> la meris. [cu]=20 melbi se tavla la tam. - Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. + Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying te= rm is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d12"/> la tam. [cu]=20 tavla melbi la meris. - Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. + Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d13"/> la tam. [cu]=20 se tavla melbi la meris. - Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. + Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.
Description sumti talker<= secondary>example descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, t= he listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a ta= lker other than=20 mi. What I want to talk about would naturally f= it into the first place of=20 tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator th= at pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called= a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 @@ -762,21 +838,21 @@ ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never n= ecessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> mi tavla do le tavla - I talk-to you about-the talker + I talk-to you about-the talker means exactly the same thing as=20 . cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 The fast one is talking. The=20 obvious translation=20 le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 =20 @@ -784,57 +860,57 @@ The word=20 cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the = beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sum= ti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo lik= e=20 se or=20 te. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> le sutra tavla - The fast talker + The fast talker =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d5"/> le sutra cu=20 tavla - The fast one is talking. + The fast one is talking. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d6"/> le sutra se tavla - The fast talked-to one + The fast talked-to one =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d7"/> le sutra cu=20 se tavla - The fast one is talked to. + The fast one is talked to. KU selma'oquick-tour version kuquick-tour version Consider the following more complex example, with two= description sumti. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d8"/> mi [cu]=20 tavla @@ -924,59 +1000,59 @@ =20 this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> le gerku [ku] cu=20 melbi - The dog is beautiful. + The dog is beautiful. The following three sentences all might translate as=20 This pleases me. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d2"/> ti [cu]=20 pluka mi - This (the dog) pleases me. + This (the dog) pleases me. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d3"/> di'u [cu]=20 pluka mi - This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammat= ical or sounds nice). + This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is gra= mmatical or sounds nice). =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d4"/> la'e di'u [cu]=20 pluka mi - This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beaut= iful) pleases me. + This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is b= eautiful) pleases me. =20 la'edi'uquick-tour version di'uquick-tour vers= ion = pleases=20 uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more ofte= n than=20 =20 di'u by itself.
@@ -1075,21 +1151,21 @@ ko<= secondary>quick-tour version Talk!example instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 true; it means=20 Talk! Other examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> ko sutra - Be fast! + Be fast! The=20 ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can = occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that= are very unlike English commands: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> @@ -1213,60 +1289,56 @@ mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbr= i might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 mo is a very non-specific question. The respons= e to the question in=20 could be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> mi [cu]=20 melbi - I am beautiful. + I am beautiful. or: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d7"/> mi [cu]=20 tavla - I talk. + I talk. speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 mo requires some cooperation between the speake= r and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. I= f context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask t= he question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a t= anru (see=20 ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 Yes or=20 No, such as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> - - Are you talking to me? - + Are you talking to me? Like all yes-or-no questions in English,=20 may be reformulated as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d9"/> - - Is it true that you are talking to me? - + Is it true that you are talking to me? xu<= secondary>quick-tour version In Lojban we have a wo= rd that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo= =20 xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks wheth= er that bridi is true as stated. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> xu =20 do @@ -1587,41 +1659,41 @@ vi meaning=20 nearby: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> le vi bajra [ku] cu=20 tavla The nearby runner talks. - This runner talks. + This runner talks. Do not confuse the use of=20 vi in=20 with the cmavo=20 ti, which also means=20 this, but in the sense of=20 this thing. sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 ba is the tag for future time): <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> le vi tavla [ku] cu=20 ba klama The here talker [future] goes. The talker who is here will go. - This talker will go. + This talker will go.
Lojban grammatical terms =20 grammatical terms= quick-tour version Here is a r= eview of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some other= s used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words ar= e included: there are of course many expressions like=20 =20 indicator in=20 that are not explained here. S= ee the Index for further help with these. commit 7f71f5d52e3da6b06c48038a68bf06ef8758ef03 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Thu Jan 27 18:48:09 2011 -0500 Chapter 2: section IDs, s, partial s. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index d4e80ba..36d37aa 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -478,23 +478,23 @@ la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 na and=20 se are present, which is legal but never necess= ary,=20 na would come before=20 se. JA selma'o I se= lma'o = ijekssyntax of The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is: - + .i [na] [se] JA [nai] - + where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
Forethought bridi connection =20 =20 forethought conne= ctivescontrasted with afterthought connectives afterthough= t connectivescontrasted with forethought connectives Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two diffe= rent ways, generally referred to as=20 afterthought and=20 forethought.=20 discussed what is called= =20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 6e266cf..3593a6c 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -2591,52 +2591,26 @@ li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo the-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. Here is a classic example of operand logical connection: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/> - - - 17.6) go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i = xy. + =20 - su'i cy. du li no - gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u - fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [= ku'e] ve'o - fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu - If-and-only-if the-number=20 - a-times-(=20 - x power two ) plus=20 - b-times- - x - plus=20 - c equals the-number zero - then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b ) plus or= minus - the-root-of (=20 - b-power-2 minus four-times- - a-times- - c ) ] - divided-by two-times- - a. - Iff ax - 2 + bx + c =3D 0, - then x =3D -b =C2=B1=20 - =E2=88=9A - (b - 2 =E2=88=92 4ac) - =20 - - 2a - + go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy= . su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei= by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i r= e bi'epi'i .abu + If-and-only-if the-number a-times-(x<= /quote> power two ) plus b-times- x plus c equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ t= he-negation-of( b ) plus or minus the-root-of (b-power-2 min= us four-times- a-times- c ) ] divided-by two-= times- a. + Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then x = =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88= =92 4ac) 2a + quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added = to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses c= annot be removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 fe'a and=20 ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are pr= esent in the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence= rules be understood. @@ -2732,31 +2706,28 @@ te'u mo'e= terminator for ni'eterminator for na'uterminator for One of the mekso design goal= s requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within = mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are th= ree relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator=20 te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors m= arked with=20 jo'i) na'u operator deriv= ed from selbrieffect of selbri place structure on selbri p= lace structureeffect on operator formed by= conversion of s= elbri into operator operatorconverting selbri into selbriconverting into an operator The cmavo= =20 na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In genera= l, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and = the other unfilled places specify the operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d1"/> - + =20 - 18.1) li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i + li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i =20 - The-number the-operator tangent (=20 - =CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. + The-number the-operator tangent (=CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-numbe= r infinity. =20 - tan( - =CF=80/2) =3D=20 - =E2=88=9E - + tan(=CF=80/2) =3D =E2=88=9E + tan(pi/2) =3D inf= inityexample=20 tanjo is the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 na'u here makes it into an operator which is th= en used in forethought ni'e formulaeexpressing based on pure dimensions = conversion of selbri into op= erand = operandconverting selbri into = selbric= onverting into an operand The cmavo=20 ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 pla= ce of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 =20 ni abstraction, since=20 ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index bb10196..5a8fd73 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,43 +1,37 @@ A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams -
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The concept of the bridi bridiconcept of This chapter gives diagrammed e= xamples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is co= vered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of t= he Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this ch= apter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. taller<= secondary>example hitsexample fatherexamp= le J= ohn and Samexample Let us cons= ider John and Sam and three statements about them: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1"/> - - John is the father of Sam. - + John is the father of Sam. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2"/> - - John hits Sam. - =20 - + John hits Sam. + =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d3"/> - - John is taller than Sam. - =20 - + John is taller than Sam. + =20 sumtirelation with bridi brivlarelation to bridi predicati= oncompared with bridi bridicompared w= ith predication predicationas a relationship relationshipactive/static/attributive compared = These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in= English, we use the noun=20 =20 father to describe a static relationship in=20 , the verb=20 hits to describe an active relationship in=20 =20 , and the adjective=20 taller to describe an attributive relationship in=20 =20 @@ -60,605 +54,554 @@ John is the father of Sam| | |=20 sumti selbri sumti (argument) giveexample In a relationship, there are a defi= nite number of things being related. In English, for example,=20 give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4"/> - - John gives Sam the book. - + John gives Sam the book. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d5"/> - - Sam gives John the book. - + Sam gives John the book. mean two different things because the relative positions of=20 John and=20 Sam have been switched. Further, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d6"/> - - The book gives John Sam. - + The book gives John Sam. seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 give has not changed. place structuredefinition of In Lojban, each se= lbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as it= s=20 place structure. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives= the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban = sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will= use to fill in the sumti places. This book uses the Lojban terms=20 bridi,=20 sumti, and=20 selbri, because it is best to come to understan= d them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words= , which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. underlinesexample double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chap= ter un= derscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notation conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this= chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) und= er each sumti, and a double underline (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to hel= p you to tell them apart.
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Pronunciation pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 - a,=20 + a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 - o,=20 - u and=20 + o,=20 + u and=20 y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 a as in=20 father,=20 e as in=20 let,=20 i as in=20 machine,=20 - o as in=20 + o as in=20 dome and=20 - u as in=20 + u as in=20 flute.=20 y is pronounced as the sound called=20 schwa, that is, as the unstressed=20 a as in=20 about or=20 around. consonantspronunciation ofquick-tour version Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less = as their counterparts are in English:=20 - b,=20 - d,=20 - f,=20 - k,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n,=20 - p,=20 - r,=20 - t,=20 - v and=20 + b,=20 + d,=20 + f,=20 + k,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n,=20 + p,=20 + r,=20 + t,=20 + v and=20 z. The letter=20 - c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 + c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 sh in=20 hush, while=20 - j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the=20 + j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the= =20 s in=20 pleasure.=20 g is always pronounced as it is in=20 gift, never as in=20 giant.=20 - s is as in=20 + s is as in=20 sell, never as in=20 rose. The sound of=20 - x is not found in English in normal words. It is found = as=20 + x is not found in English in normal words. It i= s found as=20 ch in Scottish=20 loch, as=20 - j in Spanish=20 + j in Spanish=20 junta, and as=20 ch in German=20 Bach; it also appears in the English interjection=20 yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The = letter=20 - r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be. + r can be trilled, but doesn't= have to be. diphthongspronunciation ofquick-tour version The Lojban diphthongs=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, and=20 au are pronounced much as in the English words= =20 sigh,=20 say,=20 boy, and=20 how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=20 - i pronounced like English=20 - y (for example,=20 + i pronounced like English=20 + y (for example,=20 io is pronounced=20 yo) or else with a=20 - u pronounced like English=20 + u pronounced like English=20 w (for example,=20 ua is pronounced=20 wa). period<= secondary>quick-tour version commaquick-tour version apostroph= equick-tour version Lojban als= o has three=20 semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 =20 h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. stress<= secondary>quick-tour version Stress falls on the ne= xt to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is=20 - y, which is never stressed; in such words the t= hird-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then th= at syllable is not stressed. + y, which is never stressed; i= n such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one= syllable, then that syllable is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.
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Words that can act as sumti pro-sumtiquick-tour version Here is a short tab= le of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not th= e entire set of such words, which may be found in=20 - . - - mi I/me, we/us - do you - ti this, these - ta that, those - tu that far away, those far away - zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is - unimportant or obvious) - + . + + mi I/me, we/us + do you + ti this, these + ta that, those + tu that far away, those far away + zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is + unimportant or obvious) + Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. =20 pointing cmavoquick-tour version The cmavo=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at= , and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be poi= nted at. namesquick-tour version Names may also be used = as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word=20 - la: - - la meris. the one/ones named Mary - la djan. the one/ones named John - + la: + + la meris. the one/ones named Mary + la djan. the one/ones named John + Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 - for more information. + for more information.<= /para>
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Some words used to indicate selbri relations selbri list for q= uick tour Here is a short table of some words used as= Lojban selbri in this chapter: - - vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) - tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in languag= e x4 - sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) - blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green - melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3 - cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) - bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait) - klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x= 4 (route) using - x5 (means of transportation) - pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3 - - gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2 - kurji x1 takes care of x2 - kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2 - - stali x1 stays/remains with x2 - zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3= (storekeeper) - + + vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) + tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in langu= age x4 + sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) + blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green + melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x= 3 + cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) + bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait) + klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via= x4 (route) using + x5 (means of transportation) + pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions = x3 + + gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2 + kurji x1 takes care of x2 + kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2 + + stali x1 stays/remains with x2 + zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by = x3 (storekeeper) + x1notation conventionquick-tour version Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the r= ole of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, = that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4,= and x5. words not in the = dictionary Like the table in=20 - , this table is far from comp= lete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words= to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the e= xisting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference betwe= en Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English= ; in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 + , this table is far from comple= te: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words t= o be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the exi= sting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between= Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; = in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words,= and=20 explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.
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Some simple Lojban bridi bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 tavla is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1"/> - - x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 - + x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 where the=20 x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2"/> - - John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. - =20 - + John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. + =20 engineeringexample has=20 John in the x1 place,=20 Sam in the x2 place,=20 engineering in the x3 place, and=20 =20 Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3"/> - - Talking is going on, - with speaker John - and listener Sam - and subject matter engineering - =20 - and language Lojban. - + Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and su= bject matter engineering and language Lojban. The Lojban bridi corresponding to=20 will have the form <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d4"/> - - - 5.4) =20 -x1 [cu]=20 -tavla=20 -x2=20 -x3=20 -x4 - + + x1 [cu]= =20 + tavla=20 + x2=20 + x3=20 + x4 + cu<= secondary>quick-tour version tavla cuuse ofquick-tour version cuomission ofquick-tour version The word=20 - cu serves as a separator between any preceding sumti an= d the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples. + cu serves as a separator between any preceding = sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples= . <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> - - - 5.5) =20 -mi=20 -tavla=20 -do=20 -zo'e=20 -zo'e - I talk to you about something in some language. + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do=20 + zo'e=20 + zo'e + I talk to you about something in some language. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d6"/> - - - 5.6) =20 -do=20 -tavla=20 -mi=20 -ta=20 -zo'e - You talk to me about that thing in a language. + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta=20 + zo'e + You talk to me about that thing in a language. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d7"/> - - - 5.7) =20 -mi=20 -tavla=20 -zo'e=20 -tu=20 -ti - I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. - + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + zo'e=20 + tu=20 + ti + I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. + (=20 is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) zo'equick-tour version ellipsisquick-tour version<= /secondary> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo= =20 zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted= , a process called=20 ellipsis.=20 =20 and=20 may be expressed thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> - - - 5.8) =20 -mi=20 -tavla=20 -do - I talk to you (about something in some language). + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do + I talk to you (about something in some language). =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d9"/> - - - 5.9) =20 -do=20 -tavla=20 -mi=20 -ta + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta You talk to me about that thing (in some language). - + Note that=20 is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 =20 zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.
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Variant bridi structure sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d1"/> - - - 6.1) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -vecnu -ti -ta -zo'e - seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 - I sell this to that for some price. - I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers. - (The price is obvious or unimportant.) - + + mi [cu]=20 + vecnu + ti + ta + zo'e + seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 + I sell this to that for some price. + I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers. + (The price is obvious or unimportant.) + has one sumti (the x1) befo= re the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the se= lbri, without changing the order of sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d2"/> - - - 6.2) =20 -mi -ti [cu]=20 -vecnu -ta - seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 sells buyer-x3 - I this sell to that. - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing do sell to that buyer. + + mi + ti [cu]=20 + vecnu + ta + seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 sells buyer-x3 + I this sell to that. + (translates as stilted or poetic English) + I this thing do sell to that buyer. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d3"/> - - - 6.3) =20 -mi -ti -ta [cu]=20 -vecnu - seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 sells - I this to that sell. - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing to that buyer do sell. - + + mi + ti + ta [cu]=20 + vecnu + seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 sells + I this to that sell. + (translates as stilted or poetic English) + I this thing to that buyer do sell. + - through=20 + through=20 mean the same thing. Usuall= y, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for e= mphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Nat= ive speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) observativesquick-tour version If there are no = sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is e= quivalent to=20 zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefor= e not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d4"/> - - - 6.4) =20 -ta [cu]=20 -melbi - object/idea-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) - That/Those is/are beautiful. - That is beautiful. - Those are beautiful. - + + ta [cu]=20 + melbi + object/idea-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) + That/Those is/are beautiful. + That is beautiful. + Those are beautiful. + when the x1 is omitted, becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d5"/> - - - 6.5) =20 -________ [cu]= =20 -melbi - unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) - Beautiful! - It's beautiful! - + + ________ = [cu]=20 + melbi + unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) + Beautiful! + It's beautiful! + Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 =20 =20 Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in da= nger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear be= fore the selbri. =20 The word=20 - cu does not occur in an observative;=20 + cu does not occur in an observative;=20 =20 - cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the= selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 - cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 - cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 - cu which serve grammatical functions are called=20 + cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti be= fore the selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 + cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selb= ri,=20 + cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 + cu which serve grammatical functions are called= =20 cmavo in Lojban.
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Varying the order of sumti SE selma'oquick-tour version sequick-tour vers= ion = sumti reorderingquick-tour version For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing on= e particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 - se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So + se, when placed before the last word of the sel= bri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> - - - 7.1) =20 -mi -tavla -do -ti - I talk to you about this. - + + mi + tavla + do + ti + I talk to you about this. + has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d2"/> - - - 7.2) =20 -do -se tavla -mi -ti - You are talked to by me about this. - + + do + se tavla + mi + ti + You are talked to by me about this. + te<= secondary>quick-tour version The cmavo=20 - te, when used in the same location, switches the meanin= gs of the first and the third sumti places. + te, when used in the same location, switches th= e meanings of the first and the third sumti places. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> - - - 7.3) =20 -mi -tavla -do -ti - I talk to you about this. - + + mi + tavla + do + ti + I talk to you about this. + has the same meaning as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d4"/> - - - 7.4) =20 -ti -te tavla -do -mi - This is talked about to you by me. - + + ti + te tavla + do + mi + This is talked about to you by me. + Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. xe<= secondary>quick-tour version vequick-tour version The cmavo=20 - ve and=20 - xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fi= rst and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of pla= ces are known as=20 + ve and=20 + xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, an= d the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the orde= r of places are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 - se,=20 - te,=20 - ve, and=20 - xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. + se,=20 + te,=20 + ve, and=20 + xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 - for details. + for details. passive voice The effect is similar to what in English is called the= =20 passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 =20 =20 - le selbri [ku] (see=20 - ). + le selbri [ku] (see=20 + ).
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The basic structure of longer utterances NIhO selma'o<= /primary>quick-tour version ni'oquick-tour = version <= primary>Iquick-tour version <= indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported">.iqui= ck-tour version People don't always say just one se= ntence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer = than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is = called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an u= tterance are separated by the cmavo=20 ni'o and=20 .i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothi= ng at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period= , question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators = prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken= for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence. =20 The cmavo=20 ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different t= opics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of= the text may be indicated by multiple=20 ni'o s, with perhaps=20 ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,=20 ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single=20 ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a = single English paragraph. The cmavo=20 .i separates sentences. It is sometimes compoun= ded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentenc= e in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 xu, discussed in=20 - , is one such word =E2=80=93= it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When mo= re than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 + , is one such word =E2=80=93 it t= urns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more th= an one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 .i even though she/he may be continuing on the = same topic. It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 .i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged = for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might mer= ely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good t= ranslation for=20 .i is the=20 and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....
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tanru tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 tanru. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1"/> sutra tavla has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2"/> - - x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 - x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 - + x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 + x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 fast talkerexample tanru default groupingquick-tour ve= rsion When three or more gismu are in a row, the fi= rst modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and = that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3"/> sutra tavla cutci fast-talker shoe<= /primary>example has the place structure= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4"/> - - s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 - + s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. =20 Note especially the use of=20 type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5"/> @@ -692,425 +635,381 @@ Lepidopteraexample butterflysocialexample social butterflyexample m= ust always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family=20 Lepidoptera. =20 tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> - - - 9.8) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -sutra klama -la meris. - I quickly-go to Mary. - + + mi [cu]=20 + sutra klama + la meris. + I quickly-go to Mary. + tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> - - - 9.9) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -sutra se klama -la meris. - I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. - + + mi [cu]=20 + sutra se klama + la meris. + I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. + tanruand conversionquick-tour version<= /indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion th= an merely switching places, though: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d10"/> - - - 9.10) =20 -la tam. [cu]=20 -melbi tavla -la meris. - Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. - Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. - + + la tam. [cu]=20 + melbi tavla + la meris. + Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. + Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. + has the place structure of=20 tavla, but note the two distinct interpretation= s. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> - - - 9.11) =20 -la meris. [cu]=20 -melbi se tavla -la tam. - Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. - Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. - + + la meris. [cu]=20 + melbi se tavla + la tam. + Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. + Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. + and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying te= rm is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d12"/> - - - 9.12) =20 -la tam. [cu]=20 -tavla melbi -la meris. - Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. + + la tam. [cu]=20 + tavla melbi + la meris. + Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d13"/> - - - 9.13) =20 -la tam. [cu]=20 -se tavla melbi -la meris. - Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. - + + la tam. [cu]=20 + se tavla melbi + la meris. + Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. + and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.
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Description sumti talker<= secondary>example descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, t= he listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a ta= lker other than=20 mi. What I want to talk about would naturally f= it into the first place of=20 tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator th= at pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called= a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 le tavla ku means=20 the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> - - - 10.1) =20 -mi -tavla -do -le tavla ku - + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla ku + means the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2"/> I talk to you about the talker where=20 the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. Similarly=20 le sutra tavla ku is=20 the fast talker, and=20 =20 le sutra te tavla ku is=20 the fast subject of talk or=20 the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. In many cases the word=20 - ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary= in a description at the end of a sentence, so: + ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never n= ecessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> - - - 10.3) =20 -mi -tavla -do -le tavla - I talk-to you about-the talker - + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla + I talk-to you about-the talker + means exactly the same thing as=20 . cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 The fast one is talking. The=20 obvious translation=20 le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 =20 - cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of = the selbri. + cu, which so far has always been optional, in f= ront of the selbri. The word=20 - cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginnin= g of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It c= omes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like=20 - se or=20 - te. Thus: + cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the = beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sum= ti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo lik= e=20 + se or=20 + te. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> - - - 10.4) =20 -le sutra tavla - The fast talker + + le sutra tavla + The fast talker =20 =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d5"/> - - - 10.5) =20 -le sutra cu=20 -tavla - The fast one is talking. + + le sutra cu=20 + tavla + The fast one is talking. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d6"/> - - - 10.6) =20 -le sutra se tavla - The fast talked-to one + + le sutra se tavla + The fast talked-to one =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d7"/> - - - 10.7) =20 -le sutra cu=20 -se tavla - The fast one is talked to. - + + le sutra cu=20 + se tavla + The fast one is talked to. + KU selma'oquick-tour version kuquick-tour version Consider the following more complex example, with two= description sumti. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d8"/> - - - 10.8) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -tavla -le vecnu [ku] -le blari'o [ku] - I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing. - + + mi [cu]=20 + tavla + le vecnu [ku] + le blari'o [ku] + I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing. + The sumti=20 le vecnu contains the selbri=20 vecnu, which has the=20 seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to= describe a particular=20 seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she= probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speake= r has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 - le to mark=20 + le to mark=20 blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is somethin= g blue-green. It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 - ku in=20 + ku in=20 , and it is also safe to omi= t the=20 - cu. + cu.
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Examples of brivla brivla<= secondary>types ofquick-tour version The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may = by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (ro= ot words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages)= . All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been= gismu or tanru built from gismu. =20 gismuquick-tour version gismu: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d1"/> - - - 11.1) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama -ti -zo'e -zo'e -ta - Go-er goes destination origin route means. - I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route= ). - + + mi [cu]=20 + klama + ti + zo'e + zo'e + ta + Go-er goes destination origin route means. + I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some rout= e). + lujvoquick-tour version lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d2"/> - - - 11.2) =20 -ta [cu]=20 -blari'o - That is-blue-green. - + + ta [cu]=20 + blari'o + That is-blue-green. + fu'ivla= quick-tour version fu'ivla: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d3"/> - - - 11.3) =20 -ti [cu]=20 -djarspageti - This is-spaghetti. + + ti [cu]=20 + djarspageti + This is-spaghetti. =20 - + cmavo as selbriquick-tour version Some cmavo ma= y also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. = The most commonly used of these is=20 go'i, which represents the main bridi of the pr= evious Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being= expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d4"/> - - - 11.4) =20 -ta [cu]=20 -go'i - That too/same-as-last selbri. - That (is spaghetti), too. + + ta [cu]=20 + go'i + That too/same-as-last selbri. + That (is spaghetti), too. =20 - +
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The sumti=20 <jbophrase>di'u</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me. How do you know what=20 =20 this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: - beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> - - - 12.1) =20 -le gerku [ku] cu=20 -melbi - The dog is beautiful. - + + le gerku [ku] cu=20 + melbi + The dog is beautiful. + The following three sentences all might translate as=20 This pleases me. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d2"/> - - - 12.2) =20 -ti [cu]=20 -pluka -mi - This (the dog) pleases me. + + ti [cu]=20 + pluka + mi + This (the dog) pleases me. =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d3"/> - - - 12.3) =20 -di'u [cu]=20 -pluka -mi - This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammati= cal or sounds nice). + + di'u [cu]=20 + pluka + mi + This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammat= ical or sounds nice). =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d4"/> - - - 12.4) =20 -la'e di'u [cu]=20 -pluka -mi - This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beauti= ful) pleases me. + + la'e di'u [cu]=20 + pluka + mi + This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beaut= iful) pleases me. =20 - + la'edi'uquick-tour version di'uquick-tour vers= ion = pleases=20 uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more ofte= n than=20 =20 di'u by itself.
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Possession possessionquick-tour version=20 Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 . A simple means of expres= sing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of= an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specific= ally, between the=20 - le and the selbri of the description: + le and the selbri of the description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1"/> - - - 13.1) =20 -le mi gerku cu=20 -sutra - The of-me dog is fast. - My dog is fast. - + + le mi gerku cu=20 + sutra + The of-me dog is fast. + My dog is fast. + possession not ow= nershipquick-tour version In L= ojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may=20 possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it= actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the = same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intima= te relationships:=20 my arm doesn't mean=20 some arm I own but rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.
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Vocatives and commands =20 DOI selma'oquick-tour version doiquick-tour ve= rsion vocativesquick-tour version = You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them b= y using=20 doi followed by their name. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1"/> doi djan. @@ -1148,229 +1047,203 @@ co'o. djan. Good-bye, John. imperativesquick-tour version commandsquick-tour vers= ion Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple va= riation of the main bridi structure. If you say <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d4"/> - - - 14.4) =20 -do -tavla - You are-talking. - + + do + tavla + You are-talking. + you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a c= ommand in Lojban, substitute the word=20 ko for=20 do. The bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> - - - 14.5) =20 -ko -tavla - + + ko + tavla + ko<= secondary>quick-tour version Talk!example instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 true; it means=20 Talk! Other examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> - - - 14.6) =20 -ko -sutra - Be fast! - + + ko + sutra + Be fast! + The=20 ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can = occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that= are very unlike English commands: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> - - - 14.7) =20 -mi -tavla -ko - Be talked to by me - Let me talk to you. - + + mi + tavla + ko + Be talked to by me + Let me talk to you. + The cmavo=20 ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and ca= n be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d8"/> - - - 14.8) =20 -ko -kurji -ko - + + ko + kurji + ko + and <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d9"/> - - - 14.9) =20 -ko -ko -kurji - + + ko + ko + kurji + Take care!example both mean=20 You take care of you and=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.
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Questions questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 - and in various other chapters th= roughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti qu= estions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. + and in various= other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce thr= ee kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. =20 =20 ma<= secondary>quick-tour version sumti questionsquick-tour ver= sion questionsquick-tour version T= he cmavo=20 ma is used to create a sumti question: it indic= ates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at th= e location of the=20 ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated= as=20 Who? or=20 What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 When?,=20 Where?, and=20 Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d1"/> - - - 15.1) =20 -ma -tavla -do -mi - Who? talks to-you about-me. - Who is talking to you about me? - + + ma + tavla + do + mi + Who? talks to-you about-me. + Who is talking to you about me? + The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d2"/> - - - 15.2) =20 -la djan. - John (is talking to you about me). - + + la djan. + John (is talking to you about me). + Like=20 ko,=20 ma can occur in any position where a sumti is a= llowed, not just in the first position: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d3"/> - - - 15.3) =20 -do [cu]=20 -tavla -ma - You talk to what/whom? - + + do [cu]=20 + tavla + ma + You talk to what/whom? + A=20 ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions = in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d4"/> - - - 15.4) =20 -ma [cu] =20 -tavla -ma - What/Who talks to what/whom? - + + ma [cu] =20 + tavla + ma + What/Who talks to what/whom? + separate question= squick-tour version The two se= parate=20 ma positions ask two separate questions, and ca= n therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place. =20 mo<= secondary>quick-tour version bridi questionsquick-tour ver= sion selbri questionsquick-tour version The cmavo=20 mo is the selbri analogue of=20 ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri = that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d5"/> - - - 15.5) =20 -do [cu]=20 -mo - You are-what/do-what? - + + do [cu]=20 + mo + You are-what/do-what? + A=20 mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbr= i might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 mo is a very non-specific question. The respons= e to the question in=20 could be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> - - - 15.6) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -melbi - I am beautiful. - + + mi [cu]=20 + melbi + I am beautiful. + or: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d7"/> - - - 15.7) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -tavla - I talk. - + + mi [cu]=20 + tavla + I talk. + speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 mo requires some cooperation between the speake= r and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. I= f context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask t= he question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a t= anru (see=20 - ). + ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 Yes or=20 No, such as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> @@ -1387,412 +1260,372 @@ Is it true that you are talking to me? xu<= secondary>quick-tour version In Lojban we have a wo= rd that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo= =20 xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks wheth= er that bridi is true as stated. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> - - - 15.10) xu =20 -do -tavla -mi - Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me? - + + xu =20 + do + tavla + mi + Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me? + is the Lojban translation of=20 . affirmative answe= rquick-tour version go'i with xuquick= -tour version The answer=20 Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without = the=20 xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for do= ing this with the word=20 go'i, mentioned in=20 - . Instead of a negative answ= er, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can= be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 + . Instead of a negative answer,= the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be= done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 =20 go'i as well. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d11"/> - - - 15.11) xu=20 -do -kanro - Are you healthy? + + xu=20 + do + kanro + Are you healthy? =20 - + healthy= example can be answered with <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d12"/> - - - 15.12)=20 -mi -kanro - I am healthy. + + mi + kanro + I am healthy. =20 - + or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d13"/> - - - 15.13)=20 -go'i - I am healthy. + + go'i + I am healthy. =20 =20 - + - - (Note that=20 -do to the questioner is=20 -mi to the respondent.) - + + (Note that=20 + do to the questioner is=20 + mi to the respondent.) + or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d14"/> - - - 15.14)=20 -le tavla cu=20 -kanro - The talker is healthy. + + le tavla cu=20 + kanro + The talker is healthy. =20 - + or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d15"/> - - - 15.15)=20 -le tavla cu=20 -go'i - The talker is healthy. + + le tavla cu=20 + go'i + The talker is healthy. =20 - + nago'iquick-tour version negative answerquick-to= ur version A general negative answer may be given b= y=20 =20 na go'i.=20 na may be placed before any selbri (but after t= he=20 - cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 + cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 .
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Indicators interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. =20 Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d1"/> - - - 16.1) .ie=20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama - Agreement! I go. - Yep! I'll go. + + .ie=20 + mi [cu]=20 + klama + Agreement! I go. + Yep! I'll go. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d2"/> - - - 16.2) .ei=20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama - Obligation! I go. - I should go. + + .ei=20 + mi [cu]=20 + klama + Obligation! I go. + I should go. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d3"/> - - - 16.3) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama -le melbi .ui [ku] - I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beaut= iful - thing I'm going to). - + + mi [cu]=20 + klama + le melbi .ui [ku] + I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beau= tiful + thing I'm going to). + UI selma'oquick-tour version but/and equivalence = metalinguistic wordsquick-tour version discursivesquick-tour vers= ion Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursi= ves, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal = indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the = main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-ca= lled=20 =20 metalinguistic features from the underlying statements = and logical structure. By comparison, the English words=20 =20 but and=20 also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added = weight of example, are logically equivalent to=20 and, which does not have a discursive content. The aver= age English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the par= adoxical idea that=20 but basically means=20 and. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d4"/> - - - 16.4) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama .i=20 -do [cu]=20 -stali - I go. You stay. + + mi [cu]=20 + klama .i=20 + do [cu]=20 + stali + I go. You stay. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d5"/> - - - 16.5) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama .i ji'a=20 + + mi [cu]=20 + klama .i ji'a=20 =20 -do [cu]=20 -stali - I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight) + do [cu]=20 + stali + I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight) =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d6"/> - - - 16.6) =20 -mi [cu]=20 -klama .i ku'i=20 + + mi [cu]=20 + klama .i ku'i=20 =20 -do [cu]=20 -stali - I go. However, you stay. (contrast) - + do [cu]=20 + stali + I go. However, you stay. (contrast) + evidentialsquick-tour version Another group of = indicators are called=20 evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 =20 =20 za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 =20 pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),= =20 =20 ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others= . Many American Indian languages use this kind of words. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d7"/> - - - 16.7) pe'i=20 + + pe'i=20 =20 -do [cu]=20 -melbi - I opine! You are beautiful. + do [cu]=20 + melbi + I opine! You are beautiful. =20 - =20 - + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d8"/> - - - 16.8) za'a=20 + + za'a=20 =20 -do [cu]=20 -melbi - I directly observe! You are beautiful. - + do [cu]=20 + melbi + I directly observe! You are beautiful. +
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Tenses time tensesquick-tour version tensesquick-tour versio= n In English, every verb is tagged for the grammati= cal category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1"/> - - John went to the store - + John went to the store necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d2"/> - - John is going to the store - + John is going to the store is necessarily happening right now. sentencestenselessquick-tour version The Lojban sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d3"/> - - - 17.3) =20 -la djan. [cu]=20 -klama -le zarci - John goes/went/will-go to-the store - + + la djan. [cu]=20 + klama + le zarci + John goes/went/will-go to-the store + serves as a translation of either=20 or=20 , and of many other possible= English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an= event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that= Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translatio= n of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d4"/> - - - 17.4) =20 -la djan. -pu klama -le zarci - John [past] goes to-the store - + + la djan. + pu klama + le zarci + John [past] goes to-the store + where the tag=20 pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in th= e past. Similarly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d5"/> - - - 17.5) =20 -la djan. -ca klama -le zarci - John [present] goes to-the store - + + la djan. + ca klama + le zarci + John [present] goes to-the store + necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the = very beginning of the selbri, just after the=20 - cu, and they may make a=20 - cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanr= u. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojba= n, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriat= e tense is picked up from context. + cu, and they may make a=20 + cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed i= nto tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. = In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the ap= propriate tense is picked up from context. =20 space tensesquick-tour version Lojban also exte= nds the notion of=20 tense to refer not only to time but to space. The follo= wing example uses the tag=20 vu to specify that the event it describes happe= ns far away from the speaker: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6"/> - - - 17.6) =20 -do -vu vecnu -zo'e - You yonder sell something-unspecified. - + + do + vu vecnu + zo'e + You yonder sell something-unspecified. + In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefix= ed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d7"/> - - - 17.7) =20 -le pu bajra [ku] cu =20 -tavla - The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. - + + le pu bajra [ku] cu = =20 + tavla + The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. + (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.) Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 this or=20 that as adjectives, as in the following example, which = uses the tag=20 =20 vi meaning=20 nearby: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> - - - 17.8) =20 -le vi bajra [ku] cu=20 -tavla - The nearby runner talks. - This runner talks. - + + le vi bajra [ku] cu=20 + tavla + The nearby runner talks. + This runner talks. + Do not confuse the use of=20 vi in=20 with the cmavo=20 ti, which also means=20 this, but in the sense of=20 this thing. sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 ba is the tag for future time): <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> - - - 17.9) =20 -le vi tavla [ku] cu=20 -ba klama - The here talker [future] goes. - The talker who is here will go. - This talker will go. - + + le vi tavla [ku] cu=20 + ba klama + The here talker [future] goes. + The talker who is here will go. + This talker will go. +
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Lojban grammatical terms =20 grammatical terms= quick-tour version Here is a r= eview of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some other= s used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words ar= e included: there are of course many expressions like=20 =20 indicator in=20 that are not explained here. S= ee the Index for further help with these. bridi: --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.