From bpfk-list+bncCMbnveiNHRDSma7qBBoEyLtuRg@googlegroups.com Thu Feb 03 21:21:39 2011 Received: from mail-pz0-f61.google.com ([209.85.210.61]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PlE6y-0006jL-Fo; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:39 -0800 Received: by pzk9 with SMTP id 9sf482039pzk.16 for ; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:30 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date :message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=krEsM2gD5t7S7SzFJftob6Raj3EKhZPSKryuwyPO9ac=; b=Dqa1aBVMC5jI5JbSf1PzPWauRGmlulAJ1S36guu57kygQ+gNC7S7+83PFIxm8zXVz/ CDZer7DVlLLAWJoFZ18pgumj9d8xs+R1Y3yWlRanK2lCMTf7ZefBHbecK/6BKp5xN4N/ C1dd0LBmT5OBEfCSSxa+dJJGVwllrXGnmUgmk= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=Vltb0T1vHxZ6vUN5oqWVLTC6PX82O86OkmmrvzAk2ewdjLTkfkYl0iVZ87B0of9wwW uv8HTOt7f/Nwtj6u9PVGjrjQ8Xc2ziVBG1yBw+RiAKqLYoIFn10HeQT1Urp7zezG4cy5 xn76U23T2zDCDqEl2p5ueD+u0vjzAUaY/f8uc= Received: by 10.142.178.17 with SMTP id a17mr29910wff.34.1296796882920; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:22 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.142.201.17 with SMTP id y17ls469366wff.1.p; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:22 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.178.6 with SMTP id a6mr2314572wff.40.1296796881772; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:21 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.178.6 with SMTP id a6mr2314570wff.40.1296796881227; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:21 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTPS id w13si386930wfh.7.2011.02.03.21.21.17 (version=TLSv1/SSLv3 cipher=RC4-MD5); Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:21 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PlE6e-0006hB-8u for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:16 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PlE6Z-0006gF-Jw for bpfk@lojban.org; Thu, 03 Feb 2011 21:21:16 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PlE6S-0003ri-5l for bpfk@lojban.org; Fri, 04 Feb 2011 00:21:09 -0500 Date: Fri, 04 Feb 2011 00:21:04 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Fri Feb 4 00:21:03 EST 2011 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit ce2576a0f5114f8cd5007dbc2bde9be3e768d25c Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Thu Feb 3 21:06:27 2011 -0800 All the changes to [0-9]*.xml are fully automated, again. =20 is dead, long live =20 Many new tags supported, but not done yet. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index d2d1625..2b58c1a 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -128,21 +128,21 @@ this bookcredits for credits for this book The resear= ch into natural languages from which parts of=20 draw their material was performed b= y Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits o= f his research. =20 picturescredits for credits for pictures The pictures= in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture= appearing in=20 =20 , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Ris= sell. The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. this bookreviewers of reviewers of this book I would = like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions,= comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, = English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, C= olin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barret= o, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter= , Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as=20 pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 - manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for h= is even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he = was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, = his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been b= urdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program co= nverting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassin= g errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo alg= orithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the t= hree lujvo classes. + manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias,= for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more th= an he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the i= ssue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has = been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the prog= ram converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embar= rassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing luj= vo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying= the three lujvo classes. =20 BrownJames Cooke Of course, the entire Loglan P= roject owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language invent= or, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the lang= uage. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson,= Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors= and infelicities is solely mine. =20
Informal Bibliography Loglan<= /indexterm> bibliography The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which t= his book is one of the products, is=20 Loglan 1: A Logical Language b= y James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Flori= da, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very clos= e to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably neces= sary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and= that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him. =20 The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Amer= ican philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially=20 diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 099a26c..4f6d317 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -34,37 +34,37 @@ go to marketexample can be understood as: I went to the market. I am going to the market. I have gone to the market. I will go to the market. I continually go to the market. as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is c= orrect. cu<= /indexterm> cueffect of tense specification tense specificationef= fect on elidability of terminators tense specificationeffe= ct on "cu" tenseposition of in sentence The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is= easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the=20 - cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 - cu (although in very complex sentences the rule= s for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following exa= mples,=20 - pu is the tense marker for=20 + cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 + cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for el= iding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,= =20 + pu is the tense marker for=20 past time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2"/> mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci I in-the-past go-to the market. I went to the market. ku<= /indexterm> kuwith tense tensewith ku tenseposit= ion in sentence alternative It is also possible to = put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding=20 - ku after it. This=20 - ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost n= ever possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: + ku after it. This=20 + ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never pos= sible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3"/> puku mi klama le zarci In-the-past I go-to the market. Earlier, I went to the market. @@ -86,21 +86,21 @@ mi klama le zarci pu [ku] I go-to the market in-the-past. I went to the market earlier. tenseemphasizing by position in sentence tenseeffect o= f different position in sentence=20 through=20 are different only in empha= sis. Abnormal order, such as=20 through=20 exhibit, adds emphasis to t= he words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 - pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to= be more noticeable. + pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more= noticeable.
Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: vi VA short distance @@ -166,86 +166,86 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. va<= /indexterm> spatial tensereference frame spatial tensereferent o= f im= aginary journeyending point <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">imaginary journeystarting point man biting dog What is at a medium= distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What= is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can un= derstand the=20 - va as saying:=20 + va as saying:=20 If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location = of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified)= . This=20 imaginary journey can be used to understand not only=20 , but also every other spati= al tense construct. directionspecification with FAhA FAhA selma'oand direc= tion spatial tensedirection Suppos= e you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a = VA cmavo: zu'a FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2"/> le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location = to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left = (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reason= able translation is: To my left, the man bites the dog. The=20 - my does not have an explicit equivalent in the = Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.= + my does not have an explicit equivalent i= n the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting = point. vu<= /indexterm> va= vi VA selma'o= z= u'a VA= selma'orelation of words to tit= a, tu zu'aderivation of word (Etymo= logically, by the way,=20 - zu'a is derived from=20 - zunle, the gismu for=20 + zu'a is derived from=20 + zunle, the gismu for=20 left, whereas=20 - vi,=20 - va, and=20 - vu are intended to be reminiscent of=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu, the demonstrative pronouns=20 + vi,=20 + va, and=20 + vu are intended to be reminiscent of=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu, the demonstrative pronouns=20 this-here,=20 that-there, and=20 that-yonder.) distanceorder of relative to direction in spatial tenses directionorder of relative to distance in spatial tenses spatial tensesorder of direction and distance specifications<= /indexterm> tense<= secondary>order of distance specification in tenseorder of= direction specification in What about specifying b= oth a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must co= me before the distance: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/> le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. As explained in=20 , it would be perfectly= correct to use=20 - ku to move this tense to the beginning or the e= nd of the sentence to emphasize it: + ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of th= e sentence to emphasize it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/> zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.
Compound spatial tenses compound tensedefinition Humph, says the reader= : this talk of=20 imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the poi= nt of it? =E2=80=93=20 - zu'a means=20 + zu'a means=20 on the left and=20 - vi means=20 + vi means=20 nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1"/> le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku @@ -358,38 +358,38 @@ le nanmu pu batci le gerku The man [past] bites the dog. The man bit the dog. means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary j= ourney through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of c= ourse, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in th= e previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) ba<= /indexterm> ca= pu spacecontrasted with time in number of directions timecontrasted with space in number of directions Lo= jban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 - pu for the past,=20 - ca for the present, and=20 - ba for the future. (Etymologically, these deriv= e from the corresponding gismu=20 - purci,=20 - cabna, and=20 - balvi. See=20 + pu for the past,=20 + ca for the present, and=20 + ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from t= he corresponding gismu=20 + purci,=20 + cabna, and=20 + balvi. See=20 for an explanation of the= exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more s= patial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relativ= e directions as well as=20 =20 direction-like relationships like=20 surrounding,=20 within,=20 touching, etc. (See=20 for a complete list.= ) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, t= oward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of s= elma'o PU? bu'u ca tenseas subjective perception bu'ucompared with ca= ca<= /primary>compared with bu'u carational for The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings pe= rceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objecti= ve measurements. We have a sense of=20 =20 now which includes part of the objective past and part = of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into thr= ee parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a se= parate time-direction cmavo for the=20 zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for th= e zero space direction:=20 - bu'u, which means something like=20 + bu'u, which means something like=20 =20 coinciding. tenseas observer-based relativity theoryrelation to Lo= jban tense system (Technical note for readers conve= rsant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen b= y the speaker, who is assumed to be a=20 =20 =20 =20 point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they do = not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, sti= ll less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjectiv= e but also observer-based.) Here are some examples of temporal tenses: =20 @@ -444,21 +444,21 @@ le nanmu zu batci le gerku The man [long] bites the dog. A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the d= og. unspecified direc= tiontemporal contrasted with in spatial=20 and=20 are perfectly legitimate, b= ut may not be very much used:=20 - zi by itself signals an event that happens at a= time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or= the future. A rough translation might be=20 + zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time cl= ose to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the fut= ure. A rough translation might be=20 about now, but not exactly now. nearby in timeexample Because we can move in an= y direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening = in an unspecified space direction (=20 nearby or=20 far away), but we live only from past to future, and th= e idea of an event which happens=20 nearby in time is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots = of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, = even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limi= tation of English. =20 tensewith both temporal and spatial Finally, he= re are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense: long ago and far away= example FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -513,21 +513,21 @@ <description>medium time interval</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>ze'u</cmavo> <selmaho>ZEhA</selmaho> <description>long time interval</description> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZEhA selma'o<= /primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>VE= hA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><pri= mary>tense</primary><secondary>interval contrasted with point</secondary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><s= econdary>point contrasted with interval</secondary></indexterm> So far, we = have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a p= articular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place = and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 <quote>spread out</quote> than that:=20 - <jbophrase>mi vasxu</jbophrase> (I breathe) is something which is true= during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part = of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA = (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already stud= ied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the b= ridi is claimed to be true.</para> + <oldjbophrase>mi vasxu</oldjbophrase> (I breathe) is something which i= s true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire= part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and= ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have alread= y studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which= the bridi is claimed to be true.</para> =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Pgzz"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1"/> le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. In a small space, the child walks on the ice. The child walks about a small area of the ice. @@ -568,21 +568,21 @@ mi ca ze'ica cusku dei I [present] [short time interval - present] express this-ut= terance. I am now saying this sentence. interval sizeas context-dependent means that fo= r an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short ti= me in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is=20 . Of course,=20 short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sen= tence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, t= he era of=20 Homo sapiens would only be a=20 - ze'i interval. + ze'i interval. By contrast, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d5"/> mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei I [present] [short time interval - past] express this-utter= ance. I have just been saying this sentence. @@ -594,22 +594,22 @@ mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal. For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal. I ate my meal for a while. With=20 - ca instead of=20 - ba,=20 + ca instead of=20 + ba,=20 becomes=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7"/> mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal. For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. @@ -661,21 +661,21 @@ really means: At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the eve= nt I went to the market was in progress. tense directionimplications on scope of event = past eventpossible extension into present The vague or unsp= ecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there = is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past= ! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-m= arket is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. tenseLojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 points up a fundamental dif= ference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sen= tence like=20 I went to the market generally signifies that the going= -to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete= at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 - pu has no such implication. + pu has no such implication. tenseaorist aoristdefinition = Classical Greek aorist tense<= /primary>compared with Lojban tense This= property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tense = system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property,= however: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3"/> le tricu ba crino @@ -734,50 +734,50 @@ =20 The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on = the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. vi'a size= order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals= dimensionality<= /primary>order with size in spatial tense intervals<= /indexterm> spatial tense in= tervalsorder of size and dimensionality in= spatial tense i= ntervalsorder of VEhA and VIhA in Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, V= EhA must come first, as=20 shows. dimensionalityof walking dimensionality of intervalas = subjective The reader may wish to raise a philosoph= ical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) T= he ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but s= ince the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjecti= ve nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essential= ly planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walkin= g. Even walking on a mountain could be called=20 =20 =20 - vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain = is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is = not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-di= mensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a = single mountain) would be properly described with=20 + vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is assoc= iated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not conf= ined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensiona= l network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single m= ountain) would be properly described with=20 =20 - vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physica= l, dimensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. + vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimen= sionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. =20 vi'e spatial tense<= /primary>4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense temporal tens= einteraction with 4-dimensional spatial tense futurewardas a spatial tense pastwardas a spatial= tense tensespace-time dimension for intervals= spatial tensefour-dimensional Einsteinianspace-time = intervals with 4 dimensions VIhA has a member=20 - vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, = one that involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to in= vade, to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statement= s about space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently= no cmavo of FAhA assigned to=20 + vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that= involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to= some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about = space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmav= o of FAhA assigned to=20 =20 =20 =20 pastward and=20 =20 futureward considered as space rather than time directi= ons =E2=80=93 they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time ex= pression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense const= ruct with a=20 =20 =20 - vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-= contradictory. + vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradi= ctory. =20
Movement in space: MOhI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: mo'i MOhI movement flag MOhI selma'o<= /primary> mo= 'i mov= ement specificationinteraction with direction in tense= s di= rectioninteraction with movement specification in tens= es t= enseexpressing movement in tensestati= c contrasted with moving All the information carrie= d by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: = the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less r= emote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on th= e result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speake= r is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cma= vo=20 =20 - mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction= and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion r= ather than a static direction from the speaker. + mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opt= ional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather th= an a static direction from the speaker. on rightcontrasted with toward right toward rightcontrasted= with on right FIXME: TAG SPOT <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>toward my right</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1"/> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. @@ -807,60 +807,60 @@ le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a =20 The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-= frame the-x1-place. The child walks toward her right on the ice. =20 toward her right<= /primary>example=20 is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 - ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 + ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 =20 ), and allows specifying a reference fr= ame. =20 tenseorder of movement specification in movementorder = in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 - mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, wit= h the=20 - mo'i construct coming last: + mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 + mo'i construct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/> le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on= the ice. Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward= my right on the ice. =20 movementwith multiple directions directionsmultiple wi= th movement <= primary>complex movementsexpressing It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 - zu'a ca'u after=20 - mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in= a separate bridi. + zu'a ca'u after=20 + mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separ= ate bridi. =20 Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently= involving movement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/> mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. eat in airplaneexample (Perhaps I am eating in = an airplane.) time travel movementtime There is no parallel facilit= y in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time =E2=80=93 time trave= l =E2=80=93 but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. =20
Interval properties: TAhE and=20 - <jbophrase>roi</jbophrase> + roi =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: di'i TAhE regularly =20 @@ -947,27 +947,27 @@ mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule =20 I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-p= upil. Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. ta'e na'o di'i ru'i= regul= arlyexample interval spreadmutually= contrasted The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated = as follows:=20 - ru'i covers the entirety of the interval,=20 + ru'i covers the entirety of the interval,=20 =20 - di'i covers the parts of the interval which are= systematically spaced subintervals;=20 + di'i covers the parts of the interval which are systema= tically spaced subintervals;=20 =20 - na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly w= hich part is determined by context;=20 + na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which par= t is determined by context;=20 =20 - ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with= reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears= in the x1 place of the bridi). + ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with referen= ce to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the = x1 place of the bridi). =20 interval spreadwith unspecified interval Using = TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the t= ime interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For exa= mple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3"/> mi ba ta'e klama le zarci =20 I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. @@ -984,51 +984,51 @@ mi na'o klama le zarci =20 I [typically] go-to the market. I typically go/went/will go to the market. illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no dist= ance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is = no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-= to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine t= hese vague values. nai= intermittently<= /primary>example interval spreadexpressing Engl= ish "intermittently"=20 Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, = but by adding the negation suffix=20 - -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 - ru'i. For example: + -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 + ru'i. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5"/> le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. The child intermittently walks on the ice. =20 interval spreadnegation with nai As shown in th= e cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with=20 - -nai;=20 - ru'inai and=20 - di'inai are probably the most useful. + -nai;=20 + ru'inai and=20 + di'inai are probably the most useful. ROI selma'o roi= once<= /primary>example tensequantified quantified tempora= l tensedefinition An intermitt= ent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the = interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 - roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appen= ded to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in= English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 + roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a= number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English= , but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 =20 =20 never,=20 once,=20 twice,=20 thrice, ...=20 always, and by the related phrases=20 many times,=20 a few times,=20 too many times, and so on. All of these are handled in = Lojban by a number plus=20 - -roi: + -roi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d6"/> mi paroi klama le zarci I [one time] go-to the market. I go to the market once. @@ -1049,94 +1049,94 @@ mi pu reroi klama le zarci I [past] [two times] go-to the market. I went to the market twice. quantified tempor= al tense with directionLojban contrasted with English = in implications The English is slightly over-specif= ic here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which = may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval i= s vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the = present or even the future. quantified tempor= al tensenegating with nai Addi= ng=20 - -nai to=20 - roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 + -nai to=20 + roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 =20 other than (the number specified): rat eats cheeseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d9"/> le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese. The rat eats the cheese other than twice. This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more = times, or not at all. ze'e only onceexample whole time intervalexpressing quantifi= ed temporal tenses"once" contrasted with &qu= ot;only once" quantified temporal tensescaveat on imp= lication of It is necessary to be careful with sent= ences like=20 and=20 , where a quantified tense a= ppears without an interval. What=20 really says is that during = an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past= , the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says noth= ing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often les= s than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and = only once, we can use the cmavo=20 =20 - ze'e which represents the=20 + ze'e which represents the=20 =20 whole time interval: conceptually, an interval which st= retches from time's beginning to its end: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d10"/> mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci =20 I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market. Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,=20 might in appropriate contex= t mean the same as=20 after all =E2=80=93 but=20 allows us to be specific wh= en specificity is necessary. =20 ze'eca ze'eba ze'= epu PU selma'o have neverexample ze'ecameanin= g of ze'ebameaning of ze'epumeaning of ze'eeffect on following PU direction= temporal directionexception in meaning when following ze'e A PU cmavo following=20 - ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one = that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo=20 + ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one that fol= lows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo=20 =20 - ze'epu signifies the interval stretching from t= he infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has= taken you);=20 + ze'epu signifies the interval stretching = from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journ= ey has taken you);=20 =20 - ze'eba is the interval stretching from the refe= rence point to the infinite future. The remaining form,=20 + ze'eba is the interval stretching from th= e reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form,=20 =20 - ze'eca, makes specific the=20 + ze'eca, makes specific the=20 =20 whole of time interpretation just given. These compound= forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without= asserting that it never will. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d11"/> mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci =20 I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market. I have never gone to the market. =20 says nothing about whether I might go in future. ve'e quantified spa= ce The space equivalent of=20 - ze'e is=20 + ze'e is=20 =20 - ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a= quantified space tense: see=20 + ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a quantif= ied space tense: see=20 =20 =20 for an explanation of space interval = modifiers.
Event contours: ZAhO and=20 - <jbophrase>re'u</jbophrase> + re'u =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pu'o ZAhO inchoative ca'o @@ -1203,23 +1203,23 @@ event contours of selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keyw= ords, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, a= n occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, an= d an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will = be explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax,= ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are foun= d in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The i= maginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of = the event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies. =20 =20 event contoursas characteristic portions of events speaker-relative viewpoi= ntcontrasted with event-relative viewpoint= event-relative = viewpointcontrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint tenses= viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO PU tense= scontrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint<= /indexterm> event contoursas timeless in perspective It is= important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other tense cmavo, spe= cify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen from an essentially= timeless perspective. The=20 beginning of an event is the same whether the event is = in the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not t= o confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-re= lative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses. =20 =20 =20 =20 ba'o ca'o pu'o ca'oderivation of word ba'oderivation of word= pu'= oderivation of word The cmavo= =20 - pu'o,=20 - ca'o, and=20 - ba'o (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo)= refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has= ended, respectively: + pu'o,=20 + ca'o, and=20 + ba'o (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer t= o an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, = respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d1"/> mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I'm on the verge of fighting. @@ -1246,45 +1246,45 @@ finishedexample continuesexample on vergeexample <= primary>tense directioncontrasted with event contours = in implication of extent event contourscontrasted with ten= se direction in implication of extent event contoursimplic= ations on scope of event event contoursperfective event contou= rscontinuitive event contoursinchoati= ve As discussed in=20 , the simple PU cmavo make no ass= umptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extend= s into one of the other tenses as well.=20 =20 through=20 illustrate that these ZAhO = cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begu= n, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over. ba'oas futureward of event pu'oas pastward of event ba'oexplanation of derivation pu'oexplanati= on of derivation Note that in=20 and=20 ,=20 - pu'o and=20 - ba'o may appear to be reversed:=20 - pu'o, although etymologically connected with=20 - pu, is referring to a future event; whereas=20 + pu'o and=20 + ba'o may appear to be reversed:=20 + pu'o, although etymologically connected with=20 + pu, is referring to a future event; whereas=20 =20 - ba'o, connected with=20 - ba, is referring to a past event. This is the n= atural result of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or= =20 + ba'o, connected with=20 + ba, is referring to a past event. This is the natural r= esult of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or=20 =20 - pu'o, part of an event, is in the=20 + pu'o, part of an event, is in the=20 pastward portion of that event, when seen from the pers= pective of the event itself. It is only by inference that we suppose that= =20 =20 refers to the speaker's fut= ure: in fact, no PU tense is given, so the inchoative part of the event nee= d not be coincident with the speaker's present:=20 - pu'o is not necessarily, though in fact often i= s, the same as=20 - ca pu'o. + pu'o is not necessarily, though in fact often is, the s= ame as=20 + ca pu'o. event contourscessative event contoursinitiative event con= toursdivision of the event into event contourspoints associated with The cmavo in=20 through=20 refer to spans of time. The= re are also two points of time that can be usefully associated with an even= t: the beginning, marked by=20 - co'a, and the end, marked by=20 - co'u. Specifically,=20 - co'a marks the boundary between the=20 - pu'o and=20 - ca'o parts of an event, and=20 - co'u marks the boundary between the=20 - ca'o and=20 - ba'o parts: + co'a, and the end, marked by=20 + co'u. Specifically,=20 + co'a marks the boundary between the=20 + pu'o and=20 + ca'o parts of an event, and=20 + co'u marks the boundary between the=20 + ca'o and=20 + ba'o parts: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d4"/> mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi I [future] [initiative] eat my meal. I will begin to eat my meal. @@ -1327,23 +1327,23 @@ I finished eating my meal. =20 In=20 , the meal has reached its n= atural end; in=20 =20 , the meal has merely ceased= , without necessarily reaching its natural end. =20 di'a de'a event conto= ursresumptive event contourspausative= eve= nt contoursresumption event contoursi= nterruption <= primary>begincontrasted with resume resumecontrasted with begin pausecontrasted with stop stopcontrasted with pause A process suc= h as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is int= errupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before t= he interruption, marked by=20 - de'a, and the point just after the interruption= , marked by=20 + de'a, and the point just after the interruption, marked= by=20 =20 - di'a. Some examples: + di'a. Some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d8"/> mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi =20 I [past] [pausative] eat my meal. I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming). @@ -1356,52 +1356,52 @@ mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi =20 I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal. I will resume eating my meal. =20 za'o event contours= superfective natural endcontinuing b= eyond In addition, it is possible for a process to = continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and t= he actual end points is represented by=20 =20 - za'o: + za'o: =20 too longexample kept on too longexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d10"/> le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri =20 The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics= problem to the student-group. The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the = class too long. =20 That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already = understood the problem. co'i pointevent considered as event contoursachievative<= /secondary> An entire event can be treated as a single moment u= sing the cmavo=20 - co'i: + co'i: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d11"/> la djan. pu co'i catra la djim =20 John [past] [achievative] kills Jim. John was at the point in time where he killed Jim. ROI selma'o re'= u cycl= es ord= inal tense Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an= individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by=20 - re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:<= /para> + re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d12"/> mi pare'u klama le zarci I [first time] go-to the store. I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval)= . @@ -1435,21 +1435,21 @@ fe'e FEhE space interval modifier flag FEhE selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'e ten= seorder of spatial interval modifiers in <= /indexterm> spatial interval= modifiersorder in tense spatial intervalsexpressing degree of continuity over space intervalsc= ompared with time intervals in continuity Like time= intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repet= itive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interva= l properties, we instead prefix the flag=20 =20 =20 - fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval proper= ties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interv= al size and/or dimensionality cmavo: + fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A = space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size = and/or dimensionality cmavo: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1"/> ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni =20 @@ -1474,91 +1474,91 @@ ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo [whole t= ime] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places] The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. Always and everywhere, two plus two is four. As shown in=20 , when a tense comes first i= n a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this ca= se=20 - du), it is emphasized. + du), it is emphasized. be'a ZAhO selma= 'o fe'e = spatial contoursexpressing The= =20 - fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpo= se before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 - be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space d= irection meaning=20 + fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose befor= e members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 + be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction= meaning=20 =20 north of.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d4"/> tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci That-yonder [medium space interval - north] [space] [initia= tive] is-a-rock. That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north. That is the south face of a rock. =20 rock faceexample south faceexample event contourstemporal contrasted with spatial spatial contourscontrasted with temporal event contours beginning point= spatial Here the notion of a=20 beginning point represented by the cmavo=20 =20 - co'a is transferred from=20 + co'a is transferred from=20 beginning in time to=20 beginning in space under the influence of the=20 - fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, un= like time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of o= rientation is necessary, and the=20 - ve'abe'a provides an orientation in which the s= outh face is the=20 + fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike tim= e, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientati= on is necessary, and the=20 + ve'abe'a provides an orientation in which= the south face is the=20 =20 beginning and the north face is the=20 end, since the rock extends from south (near me) to nor= th (away from me). FAhA selma'ouse in specifying space/time mapping direction<= /indexterm> space/time metap= horexpressing direction mapping for spaceas time-based metaphor timeas space-based metaphor Many natural languages represent time by a space-based= metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be=20 behind us. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed= . Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a tim= e-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicat= es which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather = than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.) fe'eeffect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on ZAhO selma'oeffect= on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI ROI selma'oeffect of ZAhO o= n fe'e flag <= primary>TAhE selma'oeffect of ZAhO on fe'e flag If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space i= nterval modifiers, the=20 - fe'e flag must be prefixed to each. + fe'e flag must be prefixed to each.
Tenses as sumti tcita argument tagsbased on tenses (see also sumti tcita) sumti tcitabased on tenses temporal informationadding to a s= entence with tense sumti tcita spatial informationadding t= o a sentence with tense sumti tcita tensesuse as sumti tci= ta So far, we have seen tenses only just before the= selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with=20 - ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lo= jban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial = or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: + ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as= sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or tempo= ral information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d1"/> mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the hou= se. I go to the market when you go to the house. ca<= /indexterm> sumti tcitabased on tense direction tense directionas= sumti tcita = cameaning as a sumti tcita Here=20 - ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with= =20 - ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, th= e=20 - le nu construct. What=20 + ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with=20 + ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, the=20 + le nu construct. What=20 asserts is that the action = of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by t= hat sumti. So=20 - ca, which means=20 + ca, which means=20 now when used with a selbri, means=20 simultaneously-with when used with a sumti. Consider an= other example: pu pumeaning as a sumti tcita FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d2"/> mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the= house. The second=20 - pu is simply the past tense marker for the even= t of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's = past. How are we to understand the first=20 - pu, the sumti tcita? + pu is simply the past tense marker for the event of you= r going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. Ho= w are we to understand the first=20 + pu, the sumti tcita? imaginary journey= starting at a different point = imaginary journey<= secondary>starting point All of our imaginary journ= eys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we= are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, n= amely at the event of your going to the house.=20 then says that my going to = the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, bu= t instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.=20 can therefore be translated= : I had gone to the market before you went to the house. sumti tcitabased on tense distance tense distanceas su= mti tcita spatial tensesas sumti tcita (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present contex= t.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d3"/> @@ -1586,21 +1586,21 @@ le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance= ] park The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park. fe'e rat eats chees= eexample near the parkexample sumti tcita= based on event contoursrelation of main bridi to sumt= i process in = sumti tcitaevent contours contrasted with dir= ection/distance as basis for tense direction/distance as sumti tcita<= secondary>contrasted with event contours event contours as sumti tcitacontrasted with direction and distance = ZAhO selma'o sumti tcita= based on spatial contours spatial contoursas su= mti tcita sumti tcitabased on event contours event contoursas sumti tcita The event contours= of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with=20 =20 =20 - fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The inter= pretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, ho= wever. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the act= ion of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO spe= cifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi i= tself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase= of the main bridi is intended. For example: + fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretatio= n of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. T= he event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of t= he main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, = or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is= seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the = main bridi is intended. For example: in the aftermathexample die after livingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d6"/> mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live. I die in the aftermath of my living. =20 @@ -1648,21 +1648,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d10"/> le bloti pu za'o xelklama fe'e ba'o le lalxu The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism [sp= ace] [perfective] the lake. The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake. Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification:= although=20 - xelklama appears to mean simply=20 + xelklama appears to mean simply=20 is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not =E2=80=93 the bridi= of=20 has four omitted arguments,= and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its = meaning. =20 sumti tcita based= on quantified tenses quantified tensesas sumti tcita sumti tcit= a based on interval properties interval propertiesmeaning as= sumti tcita = sumti tcita based on interval continuousness= interval continuousnessmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on dimension dimensionmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on interval size interval si= zemeaning as sumti tcita The r= emaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and c= ontinuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify th= e particular interval over which the main bridi operates: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d11"/> @@ -1709,51 +1709,51 @@ ki KI sticky tense set/reset imaginary journey= originwith sticky tenses sticky tenseseffect on future tense meaning sticky tensesdefinition= ten= sescope of So far we have only= considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban provides several ways for a te= nse to continue in effect over more than a single bridi. This property is k= nown as=20 stickiness: the tense gets=20 stuck and remains in effect until explicitly=20 unstuck. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the = place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way= -station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses= are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than= from the speaker. KI selma'o ki To make a tense sticky, suffix=20 - ki to it: + ki to it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d1"/> mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.<= /gloss> I went to the market. The man bit the dog. Here the use of=20 - puki rather than just=20 - pu ensures that the tense will affect the next = sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there = would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence = might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first senten= ce. + puki rather than just=20 + pu ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence= as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be= no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might ha= ppen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence. (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form p= art of a narrative. See=20 for an explanation of=20 story time, which employs a different set of convention= s.) =20 What if the second sentence has a tense anyway? had earlier= example tenseeffect of sticky tense on FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d2"/> mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites th= e dog. Here the second=20 - pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds = to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is tak= en to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 + pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, i= n the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be= the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d3"/> I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog. =20 compound tensecompared with tense in scope of sticky tense<= /indexterm> tense in scope o= f sticky tensecompared with compound tense= and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation = from any other sentences) to: @@ -1770,22 +1770,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d5"/> puku mi ba klama le zarci [past] I [future] go-to the market. Earlier, I was going to go to the market. Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating = free and specified by=20 - puku, the second in the usual place and specifi= ed by=20 - ba. They are considered cumulative in the same = way as the two tenses in separate sentences of=20 + puku, the second in the usual place and s= pecified by=20 + ba. They are considered cumulative in the same way as t= he two tenses in separate sentences of=20 .=20 is therefore equivalent in = meaning, except for emphasis, to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d6"/> mi puba klama le zarci I [past] [future] go-to the market. I was going to go to the market. @@ -1812,81 +1812,81 @@ mi bapu klama le zarci I [future] [past] go-to the market. I will have gone to the market. So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved= , order counts =E2=80=93 the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as i= f there were only one tense to worry about. sticky tensesfrom part of a multiple tense But = why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate= portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part= of a tense sticky. Consider=20 , which adds a second bridi = and a=20 - ki to=20 + ki to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d9"/> pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites = the dog. What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not=20 - puba, but only=20 - pu, since only=20 - pu was made sticky with=20 - ki. So the translation is: + puba, but only=20 + pu, since only=20 + pu was made sticky with=20 + ki. So the translation is: I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog. sumti with tense<= /primary>effect of main bridi tense on = embedded bridi tenseseffect of main bridi tense on tense on main bridieffect on embedded sumti with tenses tense on main bridieffect on embedded bridi tenses tenseon embedded bridi<= /secondary> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within= another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, = descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these = subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted re= lative to the tense of the main bridi: former marketexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10"/> mi pu klama le ba'o zarci I [past] go-to the [perfective] market I went to the former market. =20 The significance of the=20 - ba'o in=20 + ba'o in=20 is that the speaker's desti= nation is described as being=20 in the aftermath of being a market; that is, it is a ma= rket no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market = is in the speaker's past, because the=20 =20 - ba'o is interpreted relative to the=20 - pu tense of the main bridi. + ba'o is interpreted relative to the=20 + pu tense of the main bridi. Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d11"/> mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead. I now believe that I will be dead. Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with re= spect to the opinion, which is in the present. =20 kiwith no tense sticky tensescanceling=20 - ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This = cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the= speaker's location in both space and time. + ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels = all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker= 's location in both space and time. tensehandling multiple episodes tensesubscripting subscrip= tsfor sticky tense In complex = descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscr= ipt to=20 =20 - ki. A time made sticky with=20 - kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specify= ing=20 - kixipa as a tense by itself. In the case of wri= tten expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the read= er's, and a pair of subscripted=20 - ki tenses could be used to distinguish the two.= + ki. A time made sticky with=20 + kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by s= pecifying=20 + kixipa as a tense by itself. In the case = of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from th= e reader's, and a pair of subscripted=20 + ki tenses could be used to distinguish the two.
Story time stories= flow of time in story timerationale for story time<= /primary>definition Making strict use of= the conventions explained in=20 would be intolerably awkward= when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narra= tor is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time w= ithin the story itself. The term=20 story in this section refers to any series of statement= s related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.<= /para> story timetenseless sentences in tenseless sentences in story time story timeas a convention for inferring tense Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called=20 story time, for inferring tense within a story. It is p= resumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time mor= e or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are impli= citly tensed as=20 =20 what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setti= ng is advanced by each sentence. @@ -1961,21 +1961,21 @@ .i ko'e bartu klama It-2 out ran It ran out. caveexample story tenseLojban convention contrasted wi= th English convention=20 sets both the time (long ag= o) and the place (in a cave) using=20 =20 - ki, just like the sentence sequences in=20 + ki, just like the sentence sequences in=20 . No further space cmavo are = used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged.= The English translation of=20 is marked for past tense al= so, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all o= ther English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't no= tice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past= tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narrativ= es. =20 is tenseless. Outside story= time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that = of=20 =20 , since a sticky tense is in= effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afte= rwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set = in=20 =20 ). @@ -2080,141 +2080,141 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d8"/> la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to t= he market. Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is=20 . The=20 - ca looks quite odd, as if George were going to = the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this=20 - ca is really a=20 - ca with respect to a reference point specified = by the outer=20 - pu. This behavior is the same as the additive b= ehavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in=20 + ca looks quite odd, as if George were going to the mark= et right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this=20 + ca is really a=20 + ca with respect to a reference point specified by the o= uter=20 + pu. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior = of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in=20 =20 . CUhE selma'o<= /primary> na= u nau<= /primary>syntax tenseoverriding to speaker's cu= rrent tensespeaker's current There= is a special cmavo=20 - nau (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to over= ride these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it= sounds like English=20 + nau (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override the= se rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds = like English=20 =20 now.) It is not grammatical to combine=20 - nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by = way of a logical or non-logical connection (see=20 + nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a= logical or non-logical connection (see=20 =20 =20 ). Here is a convoluted se= ntence with several nested bridi which uses=20 - nau at the lowest level: + nau at the lowest level: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d9"/> la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la = djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the s= tatement-that George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to the = market. John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said tha= t Mary is now going to the market. =20 sticky tenseseffect of nau on naueffect on sticky ten= ses The use of=20 - nau does not affect sticky tenses. + nau does not affect sticky tenses. =20
Tense relations between sentences tense with sumti = tcitaasymmetry of The sumti tc= ita method, explained in=20 , of asserting a tense relationship b= etween two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d1"/> le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le ge= rku The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bite= s the dog. The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites = the dog. bo<= /indexterm> .i= sentencesconnecting with tense tenseconnecting sente= nces in with which specifies an imaginary journey l= eftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims= only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of=20 - le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely refer= red to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each eve= nt can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of=20 - .i connecting them: + le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely= referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, ea= ch event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of= =20 + i connecting them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d2"/> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisl= i The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice= . - .izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the=20 - .i separates the sentences and the=20 - zu'a is the tense. The=20 - bo is required to prevent the=20 - zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, name= ly=20 - le verba. + .izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the=20 + i separates the sentences and the=20 + zu'a is the tense. The=20 + bo is required to prevent the=20 + zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, namely=20 + le verba. tensesumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences tense connection = of sentencescontrasted with sumti tcita form imaginary jou= rneyorigin of in tense-connected sentences= tense connectio= n of sentencesorder of Note th= at the bridi in=20 appear in the reverse order= from their appearance in=20 . With=20 - .izu'abo (and all other afterthought tense conn= ectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. Thi= s is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting = between this form and the sumti tcita form. + .izu'abo (and all other afterthought tens= e connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes firs= t. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when conve= rting between this form and the sumti tcita form. =20 means the same thing as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d3"/> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu= le bisli =20 The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sent= ence the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the chil= d walks on the ice. tense connected s= entencesimportance of bo in If= the=20 - bo is omitted in=20 + bo is omitted in=20 , the meaning changes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d4"/> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli= The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-o= n the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something wal= ks on the ice. Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, beca= use=20 - zu'a has absorbed the sumti=20 - le verba. + zu'a has absorbed the sumti=20 + le verba. Do not confuse either=20 or=20 with the following: separately tensed sen= tencescontrasted with tense connected sentences tense conn= ected sentencescontrasted with separately tensed sente= nces FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d5"/> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bis= li The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.= In=20 , the origin point is the sp= eaker, as is usual with=20 - zu'aku.=20 + zu'aku.=20 makes the origin point of t= he tense the event described by the first sentence. tense connected s= entencesforethought mode Two s= entences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just= like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims bo= th sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship sp= ecified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe. gi<= /indexterm> imaginary journe= yorigin in tense forethought sentence connection sentences= forethought tense connection of forethought tense connecti= on of sentencesorder of The or= igin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus=20 - gi. Another=20 - gi is used to separate the sentences: + gi. Another=20 + gi is used to separate the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d6"/> pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani [past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house. Before I go to the market, I go to the house. @@ -2246,22 +2246,22 @@ mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house. I, before going to the market, go to the house. tense connection = of bridi-tailsmeaning of tense connection of sumtimeaning of In both=20 and=20 , the underlying sentences= =20 - mi klama le zarci and=20 - mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only the rel= ationship in time between them is claimed. + mi klama le zarci and=20 + mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only t= he relationship in time between them is claimed. tense afterthough= t connection formsselma'o allowed tense forethought connec= tion formsselma'o allowed tense connectionexpansions of tense connectionequivalent meanings Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are ap= propriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equival= ent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cma= vo): subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X @@ -2299,21 +2299,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d3"/> la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit. bo<= /indexterm> stoke cat then r= abbitexample and thenexample Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical= connective=20 and? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later stroke= s the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective b= y placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo= =20 - bo, thus: + bo, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d4"/> la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu =20 Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit. @@ -2332,34 +2332,34 @@ la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit. tensed logically = connected sumti tensed logically connected bridi-tails tensed logically connected sente= nces=20 through 17.6 are equivalent= in meaning. They are also analogous to=20 through=20 respectively. The=20 - bo is required for the same reason as in=20 + bo is required for the same reason as in=20 : to prevent the=20 - ba from functioning as a sumti tcita for the fo= llowing sumti (or, in=20 + ba from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following = sumti (or, in=20 , from being attached to the= following selbri). tensed logical co= nnectiveswith tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u tensed logical connectives= with ke=E2=80=A6ke'e In additi= on to the=20 - bo construction of=20 + bo construction of=20 through=20 , there is also a form of te= nsed logical connective with=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - ke ... ke'e (=20 - tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical conne= ctive system makes=20 + ke ... ke'e (=20 + tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical= connective system makes=20 through=20 equivalent in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7"/> mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri l= e mlatu tu'u I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the = cat). I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or = I carry both. @@ -2422,34 +2422,34 @@ tensed logically = connected sumtiwith grouping = tensed logically connected br= idi-tailswith grouping tensed logically connected sentence= swith grouping=20 through=20 are equivalent in meaning t= o each other, and correspond to the tenseless=20 through=20 respectively.
Tense negation nai= ZAhO selma'ocontradictory negation of FAhA selma'oco= ntradictory negation of PU selma'ocontradictory negation o= f ne= gationof tenses tensesnegating Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or Z= AhO can be contradicted by a=20 - -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples= : + -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some ex= amples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d1"/> mi punai klama le zarci I [past] [not] go-to the market. I didn't go to the market. nai= negation of ten= sesmeaning of tensescontradictory neg= ation of with nai As a contradictory negation,=20 implies that the bridi as a= whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negate= d tense is a sumti tcita,=20 - -nai negation indicates that the stated relatio= nship does not hold: + -nai negation indicates that the stated r= elationship does not hold: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d2"/> mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to t= he house. It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that= you went to the house. @@ -2510,35 +2510,35 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d8"/> mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live. I am dead other than during my life. FAhA selma'o<= /primary> PU= selma'o scalar negation of tensesselma'o allowed with contradic= tory negation of tensesselma'o allowed with Unlike=20 - -nai contradictory negation, scalar negation of= tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA: + -nai contradictory negation, scalar negat= ion of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d9"/> le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice The child walks on the ice other than to my right. ROI selma'oscalar negation of TAhE selma'oscalar nega= tion of The use of=20 - -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been = discussed in=20 + -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already= been discussed in=20 ; this use is also a sc= alar negation.
Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ca'a =20 CAhA @@ -2597,26 +2597,26 @@ ro datka ca ca'a flulimna =20 All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are now actually swimming by floating. ki<= /indexterm> CAhA selma'o= c= a'a st= icky tensesand CAhA CAhA selma'omakin= g sticky CAhA selma'oorder in tense construct<= /indexterm> actual eventsexplicitly expressing A CAhA cmav= o is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for spa= ce. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before=20 - ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky= . + ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky. is false in both Lojban and= English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, tru= e of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck tha= t is not swimming now. ka'e innate capabil= ityexpressing explicitly Furth= ermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatc= hed (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by pr= edators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless= , all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming =E2=80=93 it is pa= rt of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 =20 - ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability= : + ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d4"/> ro datka ka'e flulimna =20 All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers. @@ -2646,66 +2646,66 @@ le cukta ka'e viska =20 The book [capable] sees. The book can see. =20 is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is = not part of the innate nature of a book. undemonstrated po= tentialexpressing Consider onc= e again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential = of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expr= essed using=20 - nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated pote= ntial: + nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d7"/> ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna =20 All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers. All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimm= ing by floating. =20 =20 Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet. nu'o infant ducksexample demonstrated potentialexpressin= g Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, t= hen=20 - pu'i is appropriate: + pu'i is appropriate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d8"/> la frank. pu'i viska =20 Frank [can and has] sees. Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing. Frank can see and has seen. =20 pu'i actualityexpressing in past/future potentialexpress= ing in past/future Note that the glosses given at t= he beginning of this section for=20 - ca'a,=20 + ca'a,=20 =20 - nu'o, and=20 + nu'o, and=20 =20 - pu'i incorporate=20 + pu'i incorporate=20 =20 - ca into their meaning, and are really correct f= or=20 - ca ca'a,=20 + ca into their meaning, and are really correct for=20 + ca ca'a,=20 =20 - ca nu'o, and=20 + ca nu'o, and=20 =20 - ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly = meaningful with other tenses than the present: + ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perf= ectly meaningful with other tenses than the present: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d9"/> mi pu ca'a klama le zarci =20 I [past] [actual] go-to the store. I actually went to the store. @@ -2818,23 +2818,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d4"/> mi ba klama le zarci I [future] go-to the market. which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about = my past or present.=20 - ba does not imply=20 - punai or=20 - canai; to compel that interpretation, either a = logical connection or a ZAhO is needed. + ba does not imply=20 + punai or=20 + canai; to compel that interpretation, eit= her a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed. connected tenses<= /primary>negation of compared with negation in connective Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation = in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in = meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d5"/> mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. @@ -2844,21 +2844,21 @@ mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. tenses<= secondary>possible groupings of tensesforethought logical = connections There are no forethought logical connec= tions between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is= there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Loj= ban default. GAhO selma'o<= /primary> BI= hI selma'o = JOI selma'o intervalsexpressing by endpoints with b= i'o = tensesnon-logical connection of The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permi= tted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, b= ut by their end-points (=20 - bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the = end-points of an ordered interval, like English=20 + bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-poin= ts of an ordered interval, like English=20 from ... to): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d7"/> mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe. =20 I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come. @@ -2880,23 +2880,23 @@ mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti =20 I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-= launcher. =20 On two occasions, I fire the gun six times. pi'u on two occasio= nsexample cross productwith tenses Cartes= ian productwith tenses pi'uuse in con= necting tenses It would be confusing, though gramma= tical, to run the=20 - reroi and the=20 - xaroi directly together. However, the non-logic= al connective=20 - pi'u expresses a Cartesian product (also known = as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firing= s each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in a= ll (hence the name=20 + reroi and the=20 + xaroi directly together. However, the non= -logical connective=20 + pi'u expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cro= ss product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each o= f which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (henc= e the name=20 =20 =20 =20 product: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifi= es very precisely what occurs. event contoursstrings of interval propertiesstrings of= In fact, you can specify strings of interval prope= rties and event contours within a single tense without the use of a logical= or non-logical connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type: =20 =20 =20 @@ -2949,21 +2949,21 @@ <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qEu9" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d2"/> le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by-me. jai= jai with tense<= /primary>as equivalent of SE in grammar = tense conversionaccessing tense of bridi with jai conversionacces= sing tense of bridi with jai It is also possible to= bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this= chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using=20 - jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalen= t of SE: + jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d3"/> le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. The rat eats the cheese in the park. @@ -2972,21 +2972,21 @@ le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat. The park is where the rat eats the cheese. FA selma'o fai<= /primary> rat ea= ts cheese in parkexample tense conversionaccessing original first place with fai In=20 , the construction JAI+tense= converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place= has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; howev= er, it can be inserted back into the bridi with=20 - fai, the indefinite member of selma'o FA. + fai, the indefinite member of selma'o FA. (The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc= . places of a bridi explicitly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d5"/> fa mi cu klama fe le zarci means the same as @@ -3016,21 +3016,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d8"/> mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla I saw the place-of eating the cheese. Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no=20 - fai appears. + fai appears. tense conversion<= /primary>of temporal tenses Of course, t= emporal tenses are also usable with JAI: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d9"/> mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan. I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. @@ -3049,42 +3049,42 @@ mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi =20 I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me. I like you because you like me. places the=20 - le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu=20 - mukti (which underlies the modal=20 - mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed = bridi + le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu= =20 + mukti (which underlies the modal=20 + mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d2"/> mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi I like you after the event-of you like me. I like you after you like me. tenses<= secondary>importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use places the=20 - le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu=20 - balvi (which underlies the tense=20 - ba), namely the point of reference for the futu= re tense. Paraphrases of=20 + le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu= =20 + balvi (which underlies the tense=20 + ba), namely the point of reference for the future tense= . Paraphrases of=20 and=20 , employing the brivla=20 - mukti and=20 - balvi explicitly, would be: + mukti and=20 + balvi explicitly, would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d3"/> le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci do The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.= Your liking me is the motive for my liking you. @@ -3118,28 +3118,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d6"/> do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do You like me. Afterward, I like you. In=20 , the order of the two bridi= =20 - mi nelci do and=20 - do nelci mi is the same as in=20 + mi nelci do and=20 + do nelci mi is the same as in=20 . In=20 , however, the order is reve= rsed: the origin point=20 - do nelci mi physically appears before the futur= e-time event=20 - mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi character= izing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the= event in the x1 place of=20 - mukti or=20 - balvi. + do nelci mi physically appears before the= future-time event=20 + mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi cha= racterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizi= ng the event in the x1 place of=20 + mukti or=20 + balvi. afterthought tens= e connectioncontrasted with forethought in likeness to= modal connection forethought tense connectioncontrasted w= ith afterthought in likeness to modal connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">forethought connectionsmodal compared with tense in semantics In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and ten= ses is not found. The forethought equivalents of=20 =20 and=20 are <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d7"/> mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do @@ -3166,35 +3166,35 @@ tense sentence co= nnectiontable of equivalent schemata whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same me= aning: X .i TENSE bo Y TENSE gi X gi Y Y TENSE le nu X neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentenc= e schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representin= g the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the ten= sed sentences, no such simple rule exists.
Tense questions:=20 - <jbophrase>cu'e</jbophrase> + cu'e The following cmavo is discussed in this section: cu'e CUhE tense question ma<= /indexterm> mafor tense questions tense questions with ma tense questionsmethods of asking There are two main ways to ask = questions about tense. The main English tense question words are=20 When? and=20 Where?. These may be paraphrased respectively as=20 At what time? and=20 At what place? In these forms, their Lojban equivalents= simply involve a tense plus=20 - ma, the Lojban sumti question: + ma, the Lojban sumti question: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d1"/> do klama le zdani ca ma You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?]. You go to the house at what time? When do you go to the house? @@ -3204,21 +3204,21 @@ le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the i= ce. The child at/near what place walked on the ice? Where did the child walk on the ice? whereexample whenexample modal-or-tense question= with cu'e tense-or-modal questionswith cu'e There is also a non-specific tense and modal question,= =20 - cu'e, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be us= ed wherever a tense or modal construct can be used. + cu'e, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used where= ver a tense or modal construct can be used. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d3"/> le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku The man [what tense?] bites the dog. When/Where/How does the man bite the dog? @@ -3269,21 +3269,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8"/> seka'a le briju With-destination the office. modal-or-tense qu= estionspre-specifying some information tense-or-modal ques= tionspre-specifying some information cu'ecombining with other tense cmavo The only way t= o combine=20 - cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical = connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: + cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical connecti= on, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: when elseexample sowed grainexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9"/> do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain? You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow i= t? =20 @@ -3297,52 +3297,52 @@ la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru =20 Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king Was Arthur a king or will he be? Answers to=20 would be logical connective= s such as=20 - je, meaning=20 + je, meaning=20 both,=20 - naje meaning=20 + naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 - jenai meaning=20 + jenai meaning=20 the former.
Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 and=20 .) It is grammatical fo= r a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, wh= ich allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be = specified. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1"/> la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [= nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thi= ng-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George. Here the termset extends from the=20 - nu'i to the implicit=20 - nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes t= he terms=20 - la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point,= and the tagged sumti=20 - lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 - la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 + nu'i to the implicit=20 + nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms= =20 + la djordj., which is the unmarked origin = point, and the tagged sumti=20 + lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 + la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 ) marks as a quantity. Both terms are g= overned by the tag=20 - zu'a + zu'a It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d2"/> @@ -3599,23 +3599,23 @@ motion see KI set or reset sticky tense - tense+ki + tense+ki set - ki alone + ki alone reset CUhE tense question, reference point @@ -3645,22 +3645,22 @@ etc.
List of spatial directions and direction-like relations =20 spatial direction= slist of The following list of= FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used with= out=20 - mo'i to express a direction, and then when used= with=20 - mo'i to express movement in the direction. When= possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. + mo'i to express a direction, and then when used with=20 + mo'i to express movement in the direction. When possibl= e, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. ca'u crane in front (of) forward ti'a trixe @@ -3770,22 +3770,22 @@ eastward(ly) vu'a west (of) westward(ly) ze'ospecial note on direction orientation zo'ispecial = note on direction orientation to'ospecial note on directio= n orientation fa'aspecial note on direction orientation Special note on=20 - fa'a,=20 - to'o,=20 - zo'i, and=20 - ze'o: + fa'a,=20 + to'o,=20 + zo'i, and=20 + ze'o: - zo'i and=20 - ze'o refer to direction towards or away from th= e speaker's location, or whatever the origin is. + zo'i and=20 + ze'o refer to direction towards or away from the speake= r's location, or whatever the origin is. - fa'a and=20 - to'o refer to direction towards or away from so= me other point. + fa'a and=20 + to'o refer to direction towards or away from some other= point.
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index e250930..956096d 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,74 +1,74 @@ Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban A= bstraction
The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole brid= i and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abs= tractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and comp= lex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and ano= ther. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a = result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with = this difficulty until=20 . KEI selma'o kei= N= U selma'o An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a= full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve s= uch cmavo; they are known as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 - kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi<= /para> + kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d1"/> mi klama le zarci I go-to the store into an abstraction using=20 - nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change= it into + nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into= <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d2"/> nu mi klama le zarci [kei] an-event-of my going-to the store KEI selma'oeliding observativesand abstractions The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associat= ed sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding=20 - kei improperly, as many of the common uses of a= bstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be= part of the abstraction if=20 - kei had been elided. + kei improperly, as many of the common uses of abstracti= on selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of= the abstraction if=20 + kei had been elided. (Technically,=20 - kei is never necessary, because the elidable te= rminator=20 - vau that closes every bridi can substitute for = it; however,=20 - kei is specific to abstractions, and using it i= s almost always clearer.) + kei is never necessary, because the elidable terminator= =20 + vau that closes every bridi can substitute for it; howe= ver,=20 + kei is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost= always clearer.) tanruand abstractions abstractionsgrammatical uses The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exac= tly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri= may be used as observatives, as in=20 =20 , or used in tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3"/> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. want to be a sold= ierexample descriptionsand abstractio= ns Abstraction selbri may also be used in descripti= ons, preceded by=20 - le (or any other member of selma'o LE): + le (or any other member of selma'o LE): <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d4"/> la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction eithe= r at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its=20 - cu; in either of these circumstances,=20 - kei can normally be elided. + cu; in either of these circumstances,=20 + kei can normally be elided. abstractionsplace structure The place structure= of an abstraction selbri depends on the particular abstractor, and will be= explained individually in the following sections. Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical f= orm used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of=20 we see=20 my going-to the store rather than=20 I go-to the store; likewise, in the glosses of=20 and=20 we see=20 being-a-soldier rather than=20 is-a-soldier. This procedure reflects the desire for mo= re understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban f= orm. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of= an abstraction selbri.
@@ -77,25 +77,25 @@ abstractionsevent event abstractions The following cm= avo is discussed in this section: nu NU event abstractor NU selma'o nu le nudefinition nudefinition common abstractor The examples in=20 made use of=20 - nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the m= ost common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event o= r state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 + nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most comm= on abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state = of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 =20 - le description built on a=20 - nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based= on=20 - le alone. The following sumti are quite distinc= t: + le description built on a=20 + nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 + le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1"/> le klama the comer, that which comes @@ -141,21 +141,21 @@ le nu klama the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by som= e route using some means through=20 are descriptions that iso= late the five individual sumti places of the selbri=20 - klama.=20 + klama.=20 describes something associa= ted with the bridi as a whole: the event of it. events<= secondary>duration In Lojban, the term=20 event is divorced from its ordinary English sense of so= mething that happens over a short period of time. The description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d7"/> le nu mi vasxu the event-of my breathing @@ -174,21 +174,21 @@ kissing Janeexample normal circumstances is relativel= y brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances). =20 =20 abstractionssumti ellipsis in We can see from= =20 =20 through=20 that ellipsis of sumti is v= alid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sen= tence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure o= ut from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that t= he proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 =20 - nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 = place ellipsized: + nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place el= lipsized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d9"/> mi nelci le nu limna I like the event-of swimming. I like swimming. @@ -201,53 +201,53 @@ mi nelci le nu mi limna I like the event-of I swim. In the proper context, of course,=20 could refer to the event of= somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,=20 I like swimming, can't be interpreted as=20 I like Frank's swimming; this is a fundamental distinct= ion between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatev= er the context indicates that it should mean. abstractionsimplicit in sumti Note that the lac= k of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstrac= tion. In the context of=20 , the appearance of=20 - le se nelci (=20 + le se nelci (=20 that which is liked) is in effect an abstraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11"/> le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. The thing which I like happens often. which in this context means My swimming happens often. Event descriptions with=20 - le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 + le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and = lujvo place structures: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12"/> la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study= Lojban is easy for me when I study. under conditions<= /primary>example (The=20 when of the English would also be appropriate for a con= struction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than = that the studying is concurrent with the ease.) nuplace structure eventsplace structure The place structure of a=20 - nu abstraction selbri is simply: + nu abstraction selbri is simply: x1 is an event of (the bridi)
Types of event abstractions =20 NU selma'o za'i= z= u'o pu'u mu'e event abstractionstypes Th= e following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -273,93 +273,93 @@ za'i =20 NU state abstractor =20 Event abstractions with=20 - nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whet= her long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more fine= ly discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are fo= ur other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of= events, or four ways of looking at the same event. + nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long= , short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discr= iminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other= abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events,= or four ways of looking at the same event. mu'e achievement ab= stractionsdefinition point-event abstractionsdefinition abstractionsachievement abstractionspoint-event triumph point-event abstractor An eve= nt considered as a point in time is called a=20 point-event, or sometimes an=20 achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in t= his context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event ca= n be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought o= f as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor=20 =20 - mu'e means=20 + mu'e means=20 =20 point-event-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1"/> le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri =20 The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.= =20 pu'u killing Jimexample abstractionsprocess<= /indexterm> process abstract= ionsdefinition process abstractor <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginnin= g, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a=20 process. The abstractor=20 - pu'u means=20 + pu'u means=20 =20 process-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2"/> ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu se= lcatra =20 [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaki= ng-up ) many state-rulers were-killed During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed= . zu'o Roman Empireexample abstractionsactivity activity abstr= actionsdefinition activity abstractor Roman Empire An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive i= s called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 - zu'o means=20 + zu'o means=20 =20 activity-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3"/> mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe =20 I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump). I am tired because I jump. za'i abstractionsstate state abstractionsdefinition state ab= stractor An event considered as something that is eit= her happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a=20 state. The abstractor=20 - za'i means=20 + za'i means=20 =20 state-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d4"/> le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do =20 The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. My being alive is dangerous to you. =20 being aliveexample event typesdescribed The abstractors in=20 through=20 could all have been replace= d by=20 - nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojb= an allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: + nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allow= s every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: state eventdescribed the=20 state of running begins when the runner starts and = ends when the runner stops; activity even= tdescribed the=20 activity of running consists of the cycle=20 lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...= (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition= of the cycle); @@ -404,53 +404,53 @@ XE "za'i: place structure" "za'i=E2=80=9D: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true =20 XE "activity abstraction: pla= ce structure" =20 XE "zu'o: place structure" "zu'o=E2=80=9D: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated a= ctions x2 =20 --> =20 - mu'e: x1 is a point event of (the bridi) + mu'e: x1 is a point event of (the bridi) =20 =20 - pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with sta= ges x2 + pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 =20 =20 - za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi)= being true + za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being t= rue =20 =20 =20 - zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consis= ting of repeated actions x2 + zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of = repeated actions x2 =20
Property abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ka NU property abstractor =20 ce'u KOhA abstraction focus The things described by=20 - le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, = the things of which=20 - nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only= moderately=20 + le nu descriptions (or, to put it another= way, the things of which=20 + nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderat= ely=20 abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in = space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is=20 the property of being blue, or=20 the property of being a go-er? They are what logicians = call=20 intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 =20 the property of having a heart is an abstract object wh= ich, when applied to John, is true. In fact, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1"/> @@ -555,21 +555,21 @@ John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me). John loves me more than George loves me. property abstract= ionsspecifying determining place with ce'u= The=20 X used in the glosses of=20 through=20 as a place-holder cannot be= represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there = must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in=20 =20 . Instead, the cmavo=20 - ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explic= it sumti is wanted. (The form=20 + ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti= is wanted. (The form=20 X will be used in literal translations.) Therefore, an explicit equivalent of=20 , with no ellipsis, is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d9"/> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u @@ -616,36 +616,36 @@ le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei] the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the hors= e to X) the property of being one to whom the horse is given which is also a possible interpretation. property abstract= ionsuse of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction<= /secondary> rela= tionship abstraction It is also possible to have more= than one=20 - ce'u in a=20 - ka abstraction, which transforms it from a prop= erty abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions= =20 + ce'u in a=20 + ka abstraction, which transforms it from a property abs= traction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions=20 =20 =20 =20 package up a complex relationship for future use; such = an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2= place of the selbri=20 - bridi, whose place structure is: + bridi, whose place structure is: =20 - bridi: x1 is a predicate relationship with re= lation + bridi: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3 propertiesplace structure The place structure o= f=20 - ka abstraction selbri is simply: + ka abstraction selbri is simply: - ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi) + ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
Amount abstractions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: ni NU amount abstraction @@ -676,37 +676,37 @@ le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei] the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother) the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?) the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?) makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply d= o not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother. =20 Semantically, a sumti with=20 - le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treate= d grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematic= al cmavo=20 - mo'e: + le ni is a number; however, it cannot be = treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the math= ematical cmavo=20 + mo'e: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d3"/> li pa vu'u mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture b= eing-blue) 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 - ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, + ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d4"/> le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue). The picture varies in being blue. The picture varies in blueness. @@ -720,38 +720,38 @@ le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue). The picture varies in how blue it is. The picture varies in blueness. conveys that the blueness= comes and goes, whereas=20 conveys that its quantity c= hanges over time. Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort= of scale, and so the place structure of=20 - ni abstraction selbri is: + ni abstraction selbri is: ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2 Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is= to use something like=20 - le ni ... kei be. See=20 + le ni ... kei be. See=20 for the use of this constru= ction.
Truth-value abstraction:=20 =20 - <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> + jei The=20 blueness of the picture discussed in=20 refers to the measurable amount of= blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of = the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban= using=20 - jei, which is closely related semantically to= =20 - ni. In the simplest cases,=20 - le jei produces not a number but a truth value:= + jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 + ni. In the simplest cases,=20 + le jei produces not a number but a truth = value: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1"/> le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4 the truth of 2 + 2 being 4 @@ -763,44 +763,44 @@ le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5 the truth of 2 + 2 being 5 is equivalent to=20 falsehood. However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply tr= ue or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and=20 - jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the sh= ade of grey intended: + jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of g= rey intended: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d3"/> mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei] I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime= doer)). I will decide whether George is a criminal. whether criminal<= /primary>example jeiplace structure= truth-value abs= tractionsplace structure legal system=20 does not imply that George = is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am us= ing, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,=20 =20 - jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of= =20 - ni: + jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of=20 + ni: jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 fuzzy logic and t= ruth-value abstraction abstractionstruth-value and fuzzy log= ic Abstractions using=20 - jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban= ; the=20 - jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 an= d 1 inclusive (as distinct from=20 - ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended = scales). The detailed conventions for using=20 - jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been e= stablished. + jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 + jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 incl= usive (as distinct from=20 + ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales).= The detailed conventions for using=20 + jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establish= ed.
Predication/sentence abstraction =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section: du'u NU predication abstraction @@ -856,58 +856,58 @@ mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the predication that Frank is a fool. =20 Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion=20 Frank is a fool is not a property of=20 =20 - le du'u abstraction, but of=20 - djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (= As a result,=20 - djuno like=20 - jei has a place for epistemology, which specifi= es how we know.)=20 + le du'u abstraction, but of=20 + djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a res= ult,=20 + djuno like=20 + jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how w= e know.)=20 has no such implied asserti= on: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5"/> mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. =20 =20 Frank is a foolexample curiousexample curious and here=20 - du'u could probably be replaced by=20 - jei without much change in meaning: + du'u could probably be replaced by=20 + jei without much change in meaning: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6"/> mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. =20 =20 truth-value abstr= actionsplace structure As a ma= tter of convenience rather than logical necessity,=20 - du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sen= tence (piece of language) expressing the bridi: + du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (p= iece of language) expressing the bridi: du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2 abstractionsspeakingwriting, etc. se du'u linguistic behavio= r and=20 - le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places= of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior r= egarding bridi: + le se du'u ... is very useful in filling = places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic beha= vior regarding bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d7"/> la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei] John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to = the store John says that George goes to the store. @@ -922,41 +922,41 @@ la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote. John says=20 George goes to the store. because=20 claims that John actually s= aid the quoted words, whereas=20 claims only that he said so= me words or other which were to the same purpose. lu'e=20 - le se du'u is much the same as=20 - lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but= =20 - se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas=20 - lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 + le se du'u is much the same as=20 + lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predicatio= n, but=20 + se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas= =20 + lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 for a discussion of=20 - lu'e.) + lu'e.)
Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: kau =20 UI indirect question marker =20 du'u There is an alternative type of sentence involving=20 - du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional at= titude. In addition to sentences like + du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. = In addition to sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d1"/> I know that John went to the store. we can also say things like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d2"/> @@ -967,101 +967,101 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>know who</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imp= orted"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>with wonder</secondary><te= rtiary>doubt, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> This form is called an=20 <quote>indirect question</quote> in English because the embedded Engli= sh sentence is a question:=20 =20 <quote>Who went to the store?</quote> A person who says=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-N4Ja"/> is claiming to know the ans= wer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English = verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who= went to the store.</para> =20 =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>kau<= /primary></indexterm> To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a=20 =20 =20 - <jbophrase>le du'u</jbophrase> abstraction, but rather than using a qu= estion word like=20 + <oldjbophrase>le du'u</oldjbophrase> abstraction, but rather than usin= g a question word like=20 <quote>who</quote> (=20 - <jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> in Lojban), we use any word that will fit gr= ammatically and mark it with the suffix particle=20 - <jbophrase>kau</jbophrase>. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so gramm= atically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 + <valsi>ma</valsi> in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatica= lly and mark it with the suffix particle=20 + <valsi>kau</valsi>. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically= it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-N4Ja"/> is therefore:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-QUxG"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d3"/> mi djuno le du'u makau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of X [indirect question] [past] goin= g to the store. =20 know whocontrasted with know that indirect questions&q= uot;ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau" kau"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau"<= /indexterm> In=20 , we have chosen to use=20 - ma as the word marked by=20 - kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done a= s well:=20 + ma as the word marked by=20 + kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:= =20 =20 - zo'e or=20 - da or even=20 - la djan.. Using=20 - la djan. would suggest that it was John who I k= new had gone to the store, however: + zo'e or=20 + da or even=20 + la djan.. Using=20 + la djan. would suggest that it was John w= ho I knew had gone to the store, however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d4"/> mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of/fact-that John [indirect question= ] [past] going to the store. I know who went to the store, namely John. =20 I know that it was John who went to the store. Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as=20 =20 - ma,=20 - zo'e, or=20 - da does not suggest any particular value. + ma,=20 + zo'e, or=20 + da does not suggest any particular value. Why does Lojban require the=20 - kau marker, rather than using=20 + kau marker, rather than using=20 =20 - ma as English and Chinese and many other langua= ges do? Because=20 - ma always signals a direct question, and so + ma as English and Chinese and many other languages do? = Because=20 + ma always signals a direct question, and so <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d5"/> mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the = store means <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d6"/> Who is it that I know goes to the store? indirect question= s without "kau" indirect question involving sumti= It is actually not necessary to use=20 - le du'u and=20 - kau at all if the indirect question involves a = sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type: + le du'u and=20 + kau at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; t= here is generally a paraphrase of the type: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d7"/> mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci I know about the [past] goer to-the store. I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, = his identity). because the x3 place of=20 - djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed t= o the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but= (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to=20 - kau: + djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fa= ct that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a= logical connection, then there is no good alternative to=20 + kau: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d8"/> mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le pan= ka I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [conne= ctive indirect question] George is-at the park. I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park. @@ -1087,78 +1087,78 @@ concept abstractor =20 su'u NU general abstractor li'i abstractionsexperience experience abstraction experience abstractor<= /indexterm> There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little = used so far. The abstractor=20 - li'i expresses experience: + li'i expresses experience: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d1"/> mi morji le li'i mi verba =20 I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child) si'o abstractionsconcept abstractionsidea concept abstractio= n idea= abstraction concept abstractor The abstractor=20 - si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an id= ea: + si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d2"/> mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete. su'u abstractionsvague vague abstraction vague abstractor Fin= ally, the abstractor=20 - su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must = be grasped from context: + su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasp= ed from context: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d3"/> ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three m= ice running =20 See how the three mice run! =20 miceexample experience abstractionsplace structure All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An ex= perience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of=20 - li'i is: + li'i is: =20 - li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as = experienced by x2 + li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experien= ced by x2 =20 =20 idea abstractions= place structure concept abstractionsp= lace structure Similarly, an idea requires a mind t= o hold it, so the place structure of=20 - si'o is: + si'o is: - si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) i= n the mind of x2 + si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mi= nd of x2 vague abstraction= splace structure Finally, ther= e needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction=20 - su'u is representing, so its place structure is= : + su'u is representing, so its place structure is: - su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)= of type x2 + su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type= x2 abstractionscreating new types template The x2 place = of=20 - su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any= of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For exam= ple, + su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the = other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d4"/> le nu mi klama the event-of my going @@ -1179,24 +1179,24 @@ le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke= nalmatma'e sutyterjvi the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape type-of= -killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-= competition The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race= =20 Note the importance of using=20 - kei after=20 - su'u when the x2 of=20 - su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specifi= ed; otherwise, the=20 - be lo ends up inside the abstraction bridi. + kei after=20 + su'u when the x2 of=20 + su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specified; othe= rwise, the=20 + be lo ends up inside the abstraction brid= i. =20
Lojban sumti raising =20 LAhE selma'o<= /primary> JA= I selma'o <= primary>jai tu'a = abstraction conversion The following cmavo a= re discussed in this section: tu'a LAhE @@ -1232,73 +1232,73 @@ which has an abstract description within an abstract description= , quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), w= e may also say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d3"/> I try the door. =20 LAhE selma'o<= /primary> tu= 'a try= the doorexample abstractionssimplifi= cation to sumti with tu'a where it is understood th= at what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. T= he same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explici= tly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is=20 - tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban= equivalent of=20 + tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equival= ent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d4"/> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-action-to-do-with the door. intermediate abst= raction The term=20 sumti-raising, as in the title of this section, signifi= es that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even with= in an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is=20 =20 raised to the main bridi level. This transformation fro= m=20 to=20 loses information: nothing = except convention tells us what the abstraction was. Using=20 - tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking e= asier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must= be prepared for the listener to respond something like: + tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at= the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prep= ared for the listener to respond something like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d5"/> tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a =20 something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!] LUhU selma'o<= /primary> lu= 'u which indicates that=20 - tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The termin= ator for=20 - tu'a is=20 - lu'u, and is used in=20 + tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The = terminator for=20 + tu'a is=20 + lu'u, and is used in=20 =20 to make clear just what is = being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word=20 - vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raise= d sumti might be: + vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti = might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d6"/> tu'a la djan. cu cafne something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 - tu'a,=20 + tu'a,=20 would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs =E2=80=93 in other words, that John has = some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as ev= ents in English, but the x1 place of=20 - cafne is an event, and if something that does n= ot seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to = construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 - djan. is the name of a person, and not the name= of some event.) + cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem = to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe= it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 + djan. is the name of a person, and not th= e name of some event.) JAI selma'o jai= abstr= actionssimplification to sumti with jai abstractionsmaking concrete Logically, a counter= part of some sort is needed to=20 - tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a = concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 - jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than = one function, discussed in=20 + tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete= one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 + jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one func= tion, discussed in=20 and=20 ; for the purposes of this chapter, it = operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. T= his conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/> tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death. @@ -1310,40 +1310,40 @@ mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. In English, the subject of=20 cause can either be the actual cause (an event), or els= e the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the= x1 of=20 - rinka is always an event.=20 + rinka is always an event.=20 and=20 look equally convenient (or= inconvenient), but in making descriptions,=20 can be altered to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d9"/> le jai rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) the one who caused your death because=20 - jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated= into the description =E2=80=93 not so for=20 - tu'a. + jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description =E2=80=93 not so for=20 + tu'a. The weakness of=20 - jai used in descriptions in this way is that it= does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raise= d into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by = using the modal form of=20 - jai explained in=20 + jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 + jai explained in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10"/> le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death) @@ -1353,93 +1353,93 @@ This section is a logical continuation of=20 . ZAhO selma'o<= /primary> NU= selma'o There exists a relationship between the four= types of events explained in=20 and the event contour tense cm= avo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually inte= rdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event t= ypes and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 =20 , and only summarized here.<= /para> The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: process abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = The cmavo=20 - pu'o,=20 - ca'o, and=20 - ba'o represent spans of time: before an eve= nt begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. + pu'o,=20 + ca'o, and=20 + ba'o represent spans of time: before an event begin= s, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. The cmavo=20 - co'a,=20 - de'a,=20 + co'a,=20 + de'a,=20 =20 - di'a, and=20 + di'a, and=20 =20 - co'u represent points of time: the start of= an event, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event a= fter a stop, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have= breaks in them, in which case=20 - de'a and=20 + co'u represent points of time: the start of an even= t, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event after a s= top, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have breaks = in them, in which case=20 + de'a and=20 =20 - di'a do not apply. + di'a do not apply. =20 The cmavo=20 - mo'u and=20 - za'o correspond to=20 + mo'u and=20 + za'o correspond to=20 =20 - co'u and=20 - ba'o respectively, in the case of those eve= nts which have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actua= l ending point:=20 - mo'u refers to the natural ending point, an= d=20 - za'o to the time between the natural ending= point and the actual ending point (the=20 + co'u and=20 + ba'o respectively, in the case of those events whic= h have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actual ending= point:=20 + mo'u refers to the natural ending point, and=20 + za'o to the time between the natural ending point a= nd the actual ending point (the=20 =20 excessive or=20 superfective part of the event). The cmavo=20 - co'i represents an entire event considered = as a point-event or achievement. + co'i represents an entire event considered as a poi= nt-event or achievement. =20 pu'u All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes an= d abstracted with=20 - pu'u. Only processes have enough internal struc= ture to make all these points and spans of time meaningful. + pu'u. Only processes have enough internal structure to = make all these points and spans of time meaningful. =20 za'i state abstract= ionsrelated tense contours For= events seen as states and abstracted with=20 - za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 + za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 =20 =20 =20 - pu'o,=20 - ca'o, and=20 - ba'o; the starting and ending points=20 - co'a and=20 - co'u, and the achievement contour=20 - co'i. States do not have natural endings distin= ct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be= stopped and resumed.) + pu'o,=20 + ca'o, and=20 + ba'o; the starting and ending points=20 + co'a and=20 + co'u, and the achievement contour=20 + co'i. States do not have natural endings distinct from = their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped= and resumed.) =20 zu'o activity abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = For events seen as activities and abstracted with=20 - zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 + zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 =20 =20 =20 - pu'o,=20 - ca'o, and=20 - ba'o, and the achievement contour=20 - co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic = and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you d= o not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat. + pu'o,=20 + ca'o, and=20 + ba'o, and the achievement contour=20 + co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repe= titive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not kn= ow whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat. =20 achievement abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = point-event abstractionsrelated tense contours For events = seen as point-events and abstracted with=20 - mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 + mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 =20 =20 =20 - pu'o and=20 - ba'o but not=20 - ca'o (a point-event has no duration), and the a= chievement contour=20 - co'i. + pu'o and=20 + ba'o but not=20 + ca'o (a point-event has no duration), and the achieveme= nt contour=20 + co'i. =20 Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be = treated as such. The points in time may be seen as=20 - mu'e point-events; the spans of time may consti= tute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to proce= sses within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated= abstract things. + mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute pro= cesses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes wit= hin processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstrac= t things. =20
Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 . The connection can be expande= d to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent in meaning:<= /para> diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 9e5663b..f67d595 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -26,192 +26,192 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e1d2"/> ti fagyfesti That is-fire-waste. That is-ashes. Although the lujvo=20 - fagyfesti is derived from the tanru=20 - fagri festi, it is not equivalent in meaning to= it. In particular,=20 - fagyfesti has a distinct place structure of its= own, not the same as that of=20 - festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the sa= me place structure as=20 - festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the = places of=20 - fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujv= o, there is no equivalent of=20 - be ... bei ... be'o (described in=20 + fagyfesti is derived from the tanru=20 + fagri festi, it is not equivalent in mean= ing to it. In particular,=20 + fagyfesti has a distinct place structure = of its own, not the same as that of=20 + festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place= structure as=20 + festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places o= f=20 + fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there= is no equivalent of=20 + be ... bei ... be'o (described in=20 ) to incorporate sumti into the mi= ddle of the lujvo. lujvorationale for creative understanding So why have= lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there i= s a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding = further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing mor= e information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there a= re more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since l= ujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning,= encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of = the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shor= ter than the corresponding tanru. =20 lujvo place struc= tureguidelines lujvoguidelines for pl= ace structure absolute laws alternative guidelines There are no= absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The mak= er must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru an= d then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is sa= id in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standar= d, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may = well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in acc= ordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guideli= nes someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all i= s so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place s= tructure =E2=80=93 one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at = by similar consideration. =20 =20 lujvocmavo incorporation If the tanru includes = connective cmavo such as=20 - bo,=20 - ke,=20 - ke'e, or=20 - je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as= =20 - se or=20 - nu, there are ways of incorporating them into t= he lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, t= he cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one t= anru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the poss= ible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. + bo,=20 + ke,=20 + ke'e, or=20 + je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as=20 + se or=20 + nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo= as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo= may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru cou= ld produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tan= ru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 .
The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour =20 The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by =E2=80=93 but is not the= same as =E2=80=93 the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constr= ucted. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 - veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise= English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, t= he left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 - seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 - tertau, following the usage of=20 + veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no c= oncise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furtherm= ore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 + seltau, and the right (modified) part the= =20 + tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the = seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the = veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifier for=20 - seltau and=20 + seltau and=20 modified for=20 - tertau may help.) + tertau may help.) tanruplace structure of The place structure of = a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a resul= t, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the ter= tau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the thi= ngs referred to by the tertau. tanrupurpose wine-dark sea The purpose of a tanru is = to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning= of the seltau. For example, in the=20 Iliad, the poet talks about=20 the wine-dark sea, in which=20 =20 wine is a seltau relative to=20 dark, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to=20 sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or col= or. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in w= hich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of t= he time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or colo= r will be rejected as irrelevant. =20 goer-houseexample As a simple example, consider= the rather non-obvious tanru=20 - klama zdani, or=20 + klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 =20 - zdani has two places: + zdani has two places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1"/> x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2= (but in this chapter we will use simply=20 house, for brevity), and the gismu=20 - klama has five: + klama has five: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2"/> x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x= 3 via route x4 using means x5 The tanru=20 - klama zdani will also have two places, namely t= hose of=20 - zdani. Since a=20 - klama zdani is a type of=20 - zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses =E2= =80=93 whatever they may be =E2=80=93 are also houses. + klama zdani will also have two places, na= mely those of=20 + zdani. Since a=20 + klama zdani is a type of=20 + zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses =E2=80=93 wha= tever they may be =E2=80=93 are also houses. dog houseexample tanrupossible meanings of= fleas= But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is nee= ded to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to = a less unlikely tanru:=20 - gerku zdani, literally=20 + gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 =20 - gerku zdani is a house that has something to do= with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left unstated= . Thus, the meaning of=20 - lo gerku zdani can include all of the following= : houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also house= s (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is = essential is that the place structure of=20 + gerku zdani is a house that has something= to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left un= stated. Thus, the meaning of=20 + lo gerku zdani can include all of the fol= lowing: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also= houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All th= at is essential is that the place structure of=20 =20 - zdani continues to apply. + zdani continues to apply. =20 For something (call it z1) to qualify as a=20 - gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a house, = first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call that z2= ). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to co= unt as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (called g2= ). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of=20 - gerku zdani, as opposed to just=20 - zdani, there's got to be some relationship (cal= led r) between some place of=20 - =20 - zdani and some place of=20 - gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because = if there's a relationship between some place of=20 - zdani and any place of=20 - gerku, then that relationship can be compounded= with the relationship between the places of=20 - gerku- namely,=20 - gerku itself =E2=80=93 to reach any of the othe= r=20 - gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns o= ut to be between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:=20 + gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a h= ouse, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call t= hat z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1= to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (cal= led g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of=20 + gerku zdani, as opposed to just=20 + zdani, there's got to be some relationship (called r) b= etween some place of=20 + =20 + zdani and some place of=20 + gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there= 's a relationship between some place of=20 + zdani and any place of=20 + gerku, then that relationship can be compounded with th= e relationship between the places of=20 + gerku- namely,=20 + gerku itself =E2=80=93 to reach any of the other=20 + gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be= between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:=20 the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do wit= h the occupant of the house z1. Bill Clintonexample Doubtless to the relief of = the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White H= ouse (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a=20 - gerku zdani. We go through the five variables. = The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this writing= , so it counts as a=20 + gerku zdani. We go through the five varia= bles. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this w= riting, so it counts as a=20 =20 - zdani. Let's take a dog =E2=80=93 say, Spot (g1= ). Spot has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the = White House counts as a=20 - gerku zdani if there is any relationship (r) at= all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places t= o relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply go= tten a different relationship.) + zdani. Let's take a dog =E2=80=93 say, Spot (g1). Spot = has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White Ho= use counts as a=20 + gerku zdani if there is any relationship = (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 pl= aces to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and sim= ply gotten a different relationship.) Chelsea Clinton The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated a= s=20 The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea = Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White Ho= use) or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take anoth= er dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we sa= y that the White House cannot fit into the first place of=20 =20 =20 - gerku zdani. + gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 - gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller, the = dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), = and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explici= tly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a ta= nru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, h= owever, can be expressed =E2=80=93 thus: + gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller= , the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed foll= ows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are e= xplicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed withi= n a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other pla= ces, however, can be expressed =E2=80=93 thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d3"/> la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o zdani la bil. klinton. The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. =20 derogatory terms<= /primary> Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either = Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the= White House,=20 is arguably true. If we con= centrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru=20 - gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 - gerku zdani changes. So if we understand=20 - gerku zdani as having the same meaning as the E= nglish word=20 + gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 + gerku zdani changes. So if we understand= =20 + gerku zdani as having the same meaning as= the English word=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 - gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because as fa= r as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White = House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).<= /para> + gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because= as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the = White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstand= ing). =20
The meaning of lujvo This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say= =20 doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru =E2=80=93 the one left deliberately vague =E2=80=93 is the precise relat= ion between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tant= amount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. lujvoand seltau/tertau relationship lujvointerpreting<= /secondary> disa= mbiguated instance A lujvo is defined by a single dis= ambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the p= lace structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation be= tween the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we'r= e looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it d= etermines the place structure of the lujvo itself. =20 Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujv= o and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more s= pecific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one wil= l be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r. lujvodesign consideration for relationship The = insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expres= sed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the re= lationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close.= This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, pi= cks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau= place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship=20 dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as = a single short word; the relationship=20 dog lives in house is not. From all the various interpr= etations of=20 - gerku zdani, the person creating=20 - gerzda should pick the most useful value of r. = The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and the mo= st obvious one is usually the closest one. + gerku zdani, the person creating=20 + gerzda should pick the most useful value = of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and = the most obvious one is usually the closest one. In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that th= e predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate = itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like=20 - zdani in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates expr= ess relations; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together=20 - le zdani and=20 - le gerku, the most obvious relation to pick is = the very relation named by the tertau,=20 - zdani: the relation between a home and its dwel= ler. As a result, the object which fills the first place of=20 - gerku (the dog) also fills the second place of= =20 - zdani (the house-dweller). + zdani in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express rela= tions; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together=20 + le zdani and=20 + le gerku, the most obvious relation to pi= ck is the very relation named by the tertau,=20 + zdani: the relation between a home and its dweller. As = a result, the object which fills the first place of=20 + gerku (the dog) also fills the second place of=20 + zdani (the house-dweller). lujvo place struc= turedropping redundant places = The seltau-tertau relationship in the veljvo is expressed by the seltau or = tertau predicate itself. Therefore, at least one of the seltau places is go= ing to be equivalent to a tertau place. This place is thus redundant, and c= an be dropped from the place structure of the lujvo. As a corollary, the pr= ecise relationship between the veljvo components can be implicitly determin= ed by finding one or more places to overlap in this way. So what is the place structure of=20 - gerzda? We're left with three places, since the= dweller, the=20 - se zdani, turned out to be identical to the dog= , the=20 - gerku. We can proceed as follows: + gerzda? We're left with three places, sin= ce the dweller, the=20 + se zdani, turned out to be identical to t= he dog, the=20 + gerku. We can proceed as follows: lujvo place struc= turenotation conventions (The = notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 - zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 - gerku.) + zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 + gerku.) lujvo place struc= tureexplicated walk-through <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">new notation The place structure of=20 - zdani is given as=20 + zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated here using= the new notation: =20 doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1"/> z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 - gerku is: + gerku is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d2"/> g1 is a dog of breed g2 But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structu= re for=20 - gerzda now becomes: + gerzda now becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d3"/> z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 which can also be written <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d4"/> @@ -226,158 +226,158 @@ <para><place-structure>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of bree= d g2</place-structure></para> </example> <para>Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-Wx42"/>, our task is not yet done: = we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be = eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concern= s will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equippe= d with the terminology needed for those discussions.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-selecting-places"> <title>Selecting places lujvo place struc= turebasis of The set of places= of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. = More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of plac= es of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just eno= ugh places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, = including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excl= uding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place r= equires assuming a standard value or range of values for it. lujvo place struc= turerationale for standardization It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 - se jbopli or a=20 - te klagau is. But this would mean that, rather = than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist = would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or n= o apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines doc= umented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional = wherever possible. + se jbopli or a=20 + te klagau is. But this would mean that, r= ather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojb= anist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with littl= e or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelin= es documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it convent= ional wherever possible. The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case =E2=80=93 that is to say, if the lujvo pla= ces are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places =E2=80=93 then it will be v= ery difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular plac= e means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic tha= t will be further discussed in=20 . However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.
Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo great soldierexample lujvo place structurewhen first p= laces redundant veljvosymmetrical = lujvosy= mmetrical A common pattern, perhaps the most common= pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 - balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 + balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 =20 - banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structu= res are: + banli sonci. The underlying gismu place s= tructures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1"/> - banli: b1 is great in= property b2 by standard b3 - sonci: s1 is a soldie= r of army s2 + banli: b1 is great in propert= y b2 by standard b3 + sonci: s1 is a soldier of arm= y s2 In this case the s1 place of=20 - sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to t= he b1 place of=20 - banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 - balsoi need not include places for both s1 and = b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 - balsoi is at most + sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 pl= ace of=20 + banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 + balsoi need not include places for both s= 1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 + balsoi is at most =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2"/> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in prop= erty b2 by standard b3 =20 listen attentivel= yexample lujvo place structurewhen fi= rst places redundant plus others symmetrical veljvo Som= e symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the resp= ective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 =20 - tinju'i,=20 + tinju'i,=20 to listen (=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 - tirna and=20 - jundi are: + tirna and=20 + jundi are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3"/> - tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background n= oise t3 + tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3<= /place-structure> =20 - jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 + jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 background noise<= /primary> and the place structure of the lujvo is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4"/> j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background= noise t3 =20 Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays atten= tion) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing = paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard). lujvo place struc= turewhen first place redundant with non-first lujvoasymmetrical A substantial minority o= f lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (=20 - gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place ot= her than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 + gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place other than= the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=20 asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with= the terms=20 asymmetrical tanru and=20 =20 symmetrical tanru used in=20 =20 .) lujvo place struc= tureeffect of "SE" I= n principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujv= o. Consider=20 - gerzda, discussed in=20 + gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the = g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned= , we could convert=20 - zdani to=20 - se zdani (or=20 - selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place st= ructure of=20 - selzda is + zdani to=20 + se zdani (or=20 + selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The pl= ace structure of=20 + selzda is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d5"/> s1 is housed by nest s2 and so the three-part lujvo=20 - gerselzda would have the place structure + gerselzda would have the place structure<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d6"/> s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog bre= ed g2 However, although=20 - gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translat= e=20 + gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't tr= anslate=20 doghouse; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse.= Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;=20 - gerzda is simpler than=20 - gerselzda. + gerzda is simpler than=20 + gerselzda. From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru. =20 car goerexample The lujvo=20 - karcykla, for example, is based on=20 - karce klama, or=20 + karcykla, for example, is based on=20 + karce klama, or=20 car goer. The place structure of=20 =20 - karce is: + karce is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d7"/> karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 A asymmetrical interpretation of=20 - karcykla that is strictly analogous to the plac= e structure of=20 - gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 = (car) places, would lead to the place structure + karcykla that is strictly analogous to th= e place structure of=20 + gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) an= d ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d8"/> kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 p= ropelled by ka3 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5 But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, s= o a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to t= he kl5 place, leading to <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d9"/> kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 v= ia route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead.
Dependent places lujvo place struc= turedependent places In order = to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a luj= vo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. = One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can b= e predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example= , the g2 place of=20 =20 =20 - gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Becaus= e when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known do= g), then we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 + gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when w= e know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then= we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 - zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependenc= y between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have= not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one hou= se. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know= the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller= . + zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent seltau places The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent place= s provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 - gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from t= he tentative place structure given in=20 + gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed = from the tentative place structure given in=20 , leaving the place structur= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1"/> z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 Informally put, the reason this has happened =E2=80=93 and it ha= ppens a lot with seltau places =E2=80=93 is that the third place was descri= bing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence @@ -394,21 +394,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d3"/> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. =20 since that is the interpretation we have given=20 - gerzda. But that in turn means + gerzda. But that in turn means unspecified breed= example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d4"/> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified bree= d. =20 =20 @@ -432,93 +432,93 @@ la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Ber= nard, of breed St. Bernard. supplementary inf= ormation employing the over-ample place structure of= =20 . The dog breed is redundant= ly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitive= ly speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplem= entary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. =20 beetle<= secondary>example As a further example, take=20 - cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 + cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 =20 - calku cinki, or=20 + calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7"/> - calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of= ca3 + calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3 - cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species = ci2 + cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2 =20 lujvo place struc= turedropping cross-dependent places lujvo place structure<= /primary>cross-dependent places cross-dependency arthropod This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one g= ismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because a= ll insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into= ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect ha= s only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivale= nt to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d8"/> ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 =20 with not a single place of=20 - calku surviving independently! + calku surviving independently! beetles= Coleoptera (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tell= s us just why=20 - cakcinki means=20 + cakcinki means=20 beetle (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in the= ir adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no = way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable featur= e of beetles in particular.) =20 =20 =20 lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent tertau places What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belong= s to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of=20 =20 - cakcinki could be eliminated on the same reason= ing that allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of=20 - gerzda above. However, it is a rule that depend= ent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from the t= ertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structures of l= ujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a place is n= ecessary in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as well. + cakcinki could be eliminated on the same = reasoning that allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of=20 + gerzda above. However, it is a rule that = dependent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from= the tertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structure= s of lujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a plac= e is necessary in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as wel= l. lujvo place struc= tureselecting tertau shoehorn wrong concept In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is a sign = that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures imply = different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn the wrong= concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is obvious w= hen someone tries to shoehorn a=20 =20 =20 - klama tertau into a=20 - litru or=20 - cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ = in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of=20 - klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the = resulting modified place structure is that of=20 - litru or=20 - cliva. + klama tertau into a=20 + litru or=20 + cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ in their= number of arguments, and suppressing places of=20 + klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resultin= g modified place structure is that of=20 + litru or=20 + cliva. Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau= and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed furt= her in=20 . school buildingexample lujvo place structuredropping d= ependent placescaveat auditoriums <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">elementary schools playgrounds recital roo= ms Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the sel= tau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the l= ujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed = of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the constr= uction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools nee= d auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and s= o on: therefore, the place structure of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - kuldi'u (from=20 - ckule dinju, and meaning=20 + kuldi'u (from=20 + ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9"/> d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching s= ubject c3 to audience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 - ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), do= n't seem to be necessary to the concept=20 + ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem= to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. =20
Ordering lujvo places. lujvo place order= So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places= to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the = story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right ord= er of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becom= es critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way tha= t a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is = which. prayer<= secondary>example lujvo place orderrationale for standardi= zation If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then= , we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some con= ventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take f= or example the lujvo=20 - jdaselsku, meaning=20 + jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1"/> di'e jdaselsku la dong. =20 This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. =20 @@ -541,25 +541,25 @@ This is a prayer to Dong =20 We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 =20 discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more= necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still n= ecessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to t= ake advantage of any available regularities. =20 =20 great soldierexample lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujv= o el= imination process We use two different ordering rules= : one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lu= jvo like=20 - balsoi (from=20 + balsoi (from=20 ) has the places o= f its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the eliminat= ion process. For=20 =20 - balsoi, the surviving places of=20 - banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place struc= ture: + balsoi, the surviving places of=20 + banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4"/> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in prop= erty b2 by standard b3 =20 just what appears in=20 . In fact, all place structu= res shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of th= is section, though the fact has been left tacit until now. The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujv= o bridi-schema @@ -576,247 +576,247 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d6"/> b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3 b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-s= tandard-b3 where=20 - gi'e is the Lojban word for=20 + gi'e is the Lojban word for=20 and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained= in=20 . veterinarianexample lujvo place orderasymmetrical lujv= o an= imal doctorexample Asymmetrica= l lujvo like=20 - gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different r= ule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, = but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the fi= rst place of the seltau. Consider=20 - dalmikce, meaning=20 + gerzda, on the other hand, employ a diffe= rent rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place struc= ture, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to = the first place of the seltau. Consider=20 + dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 =20 - danlu mikce, or=20 + danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7"/> - danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 + danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 - mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailme= nt m3 using treatment m4 + mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 us= ing treatment m4 =20 ailment= and the lujvo place structure is: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8"/> m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species = d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4 animal patient Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, = the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared plac= e; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.<= /para> =20
lujvo with more than two parts. tomorrowexample lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more pa= rt veljvo The theory we have outlined so far is an = account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more t= han two parts. An example is=20 - bavlamdei,=20 + bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 =20 future,=20 adjacent, and=20 day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 - bavlamdei as having two components:=20 - bavla'i,=20 + bavlamdei as having two components:=20 + bavla'i,=20 next, and=20 - djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place str= ucture for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in = the usual way. + djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure f= or the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usua= l way. =20 =20 In this case,=20 - bavla'i is given the place structure + bavla'i is given the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d1"/> b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with=20 - djedi, which has the place structure: + djedi, which has the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d2"/> duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 anomalous orderin= g of lujvo places While symmetrical lujvo normally pu= t any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is = a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the def= inition of=20 =20 - bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidel= ines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not l= aws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places= in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: + bavlamdei. This is an example of how the = guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that,= not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank = places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3"/> d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 d= ays later (default 1) by standard d3 long-swordexample medieval weapon Here is another exa= mple of a multi-part lujvo:=20 - cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 + cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4"/> - clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard= c3 + clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3 - dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blad= e made of d3 + dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made o= f d3 - xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by= wielder xa3 + xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder= xa3 sword blade Since=20 - cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on=20 - cladakfu xarci, and=20 - cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can = do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the= knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the= thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given = that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of le= ngth) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so= is dependent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu= in right-to-left order we get: + cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based = on=20 + cladakfu xarci, and=20 + cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, w= e can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d= 1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 plac= e (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), = given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction= of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, = and so is dependent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining= gismu in right-to-left order we get: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5"/> xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against= xa2=3Dd2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by stand= ard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 - cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled,= but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it = is best that it be last. + cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly f= illed, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom importan= t, it is best that it be last.
Eliding SE rafsi from seltau lujvodropping SE rafsi It is common to form luj= vo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo= rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful construction= s shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the = lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh eas= e in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual con= cept. proposed law Consider as an example the lujvo=20 - ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 - stidi flalu, and meaning=20 + ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 + stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1"/> - stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to = audience st3 + stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience= st3 - flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for communit= y f3 under conditions f4 + flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 und= er conditions f4 by lawgiver f5 lined up This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the = second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, n= amely f1. However, if we understand=20 - ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo=20 - selti'ifla, then we get the first places of sel= tau and tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 + ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo= =20 + selti'ifla, then we get the first places = of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 =20 - selti'i is: + selti'i is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d2"/> - selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by agen= t se2 to audience se3 + selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested b= y agent se2 to audience se3 Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1= (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structur= e is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d3"/> f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for communit= y f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 or, relabeling the places, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d4"/> f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for communit= y f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.= lujvoabbreviated Abbreviated lujvo like=20 - ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker= ) than their more explicit counterparts like=20 - selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don't req= uire the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the s= eltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But shoul= d the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out= , then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, su= ch abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscur= e the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give = our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to enco= urage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 + ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo= -maker) than their more explicit counterparts like=20 + selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don= 't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between= the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But= should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be work= ed out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that ca= se, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they = obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To= give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and t= o encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - ti'ifla are given the place structure they woul= d have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau. + ti'ifla are given the place structure the= y would have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau. plausibilityin abbreviated lujvo abbreviated lujvo and plausibility implausible Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiri= ng SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or = unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojb= anists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity. =20
Eliding SE rafsi from tertau lujvo place struc= tureeffect of "SE"-dropping in tertau Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more troub= le. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe = some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,=20 - posydji describes a type of=20 - djica,=20 - gerzda describes a type of=20 - zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 - gerzda does not describe a=20 - se zdani- it is not a word that could be used t= o describe an inhabitant such as a dog. + posydji describes a type of=20 + djica,=20 + gerzda describes a type of=20 + zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 + gerzda does not describe a=20 + se zdani- it is not a word that could be = used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog. blue-eyedexample Now consider how we would tran= slate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 =20 - blakanla (from=20 - blanu kanla, meaning=20 + blakanla (from=20 + blanu kanla, meaning=20 blue eye). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot= say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d1"/> la djak. cu blakanla Jack is-a-blue-eye because Jack is not an eye,=20 - kanla, but someone with an eye,=20 - se kanla. At best we can say + kanla, but someone with an eye,=20 + se kanla. At best we can say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d2"/> la djak. cu se blakanla Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes But look now at the place structure of=20 - blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the pla= ce structure is: + blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so t= he place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d3"/> bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 We end up being most interested in talking about the second plac= e, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so=20 - se would almost always be required. + se would almost always be required. What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wro= ngly, under the influence of English. The English suffix=20 -eyed does not mean=20 eye, but someone with an eye, which is=20 - selkanla. + selkanla. Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a=20 - se that really should be there), any attempt to= accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is= fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, luj= vo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their= more explicit counterparts: in this case,=20 - blaselkanla. + se that really should be there), any attempt to accommo= date the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting= a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with = SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more ex= plicit counterparts: in this case,=20 + blaselkanla.
Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo lujvo place struc= turedropping "KEhE" = lujvo place structuredropping "KE" People constr= ucting lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, the= y will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to g= et thrown out are usually=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tan= ru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the te= rtau with=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e missing is less plausible than that with t= he cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. + ke and=20 + ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We c= an usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau wit= h=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo= inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. beefsteakexample beefsteak For example, in=20 - bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 + bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d1"/> [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo ( bovine meat ) slice =20 @@ -828,21 +828,21 @@ bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e] bovine ( meat slice ) =20 =20 sneak inexample meat sliceexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 - zernerkla, meaning=20 + zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d3"/> zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e] crime ( inside go ) to go within, criminally @@ -854,212 +854,212 @@ [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside =E2=80=93 an interpretation = almost identical with=20 anyway?) shellfishexample shellfish There are cases, however, = where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful= . For example,=20 - xaskemcakcurnu means=20 + xaskemcakcurnu means=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo =20 shell wormexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5"/> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) =20 invertebrate (=20 worm in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 =20 - xasycakcurnu has the veljvo + xasycakcurnu has the veljvo ocean shellexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6"/> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm =20 clamshells parasitic wo= rmsexample and might refer to = the parasitic worms that infest clamshells. =20 =20 lujvo creationinteraction of KE with NAhE lujvo creationinteraction of KE with SE misinterpretation Such misint= erpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with=20 =20 sel- (from=20 - se),=20 + se),=20 nal- (from=20 - na'e) or=20 + na'e) or=20 tol- (from=20 - to'e): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be= presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bi= nd only to the following brivla or=20 - ke ... ke'e group. For that reason, if we want = to modify an entire lujvo by putting=20 - se,=20 - na'e or=20 - to'e before it, it's better to leave the result= as two words, or else to insert=20 - ke, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.= + to'e): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presume= d to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only = to the following brivla or=20 + ke ... ke'e group. For that reason, if we= want to modify an entire lujvo by putting=20 + se,=20 + na'e or=20 + to'e before it, it's better to leave the result as two = words, or else to insert=20 + ke, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on. It is all right to replace the phrase=20 - se klama with=20 - selkla, and the places of=20 - selkla are exactly those of=20 - se klama. But consider the related lujvo=20 - dzukla, meaning=20 + se klama with=20 + selkla, and the places of=20 + selkla are exactly those of=20 + se klama. But consider the related lujvo= =20 + dzukla, meaning=20 to walk to somewhere. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, deriv= ed from the veljvo=20 - cadzu klama as follows: + cadzu klama as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d7"/> - cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using lim= bs c3 - klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route = k4 using k5 - dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k3 via= route k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 on surface c2 + cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3 + klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using= k5 + dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from = k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 on surface c2 We can swap the k1 and k2 places using=20 - se dzukla, but we cannot directly make=20 - se dzukla into=20 - seldzukla, which would represent the veljvo=20 - selcadzu klama and plausibly mean something lik= e=20 + se dzukla, but we cannot directly make=20 + se dzukla into=20 + seldzukla, which would represent the velj= vo=20 + selcadzu klama and plausibly mean somethi= ng like=20 to go to a walking surface. Instead, we would need=20 - selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for=20 - ke. Similarly,=20 - nalbrablo (from=20 - na'e barda bloti) means=20 + selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for= =20 + ke. Similarly,=20 + nalbrablo (from=20 + na'e barda bloti) means=20 non-big boat, whereas=20 =20 - na'e brablo means=20 + na'e brablo means=20 other than a big boat. =20 lujvo creationuse of multiple SE in If the lujv= o we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starting with a SE rafsi, = we can take a shortcut. For instance,=20 - gekmau means=20 + gekmau means=20 happier than, while=20 - selgekmau means=20 + selgekmau means=20 making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se = gleki' than. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we= can say it is=20 - se selgekmau. + se selgekmau. But we can also say it is=20 - selselgekmau. Two=20 + selselgekmau. Two=20 se cmavo in a row cancel each other (=20 - se se gleki means the same as just=20 - gleki), so there would be no good reason to hav= e=20 - selsel in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, w= e can feel free to interpret=20 - selsel- as=20 - selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations=20 - terter-,=20 - velvel- and=20 - xelxel- work in the same way. + se se gleki means the same as just=20 + gleki), so there would be no good reason to have=20 + selsel in a lujvo with that meaning. Inst= ead, we can feel free to interpret=20 + selsel- as=20 + selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations=20 + terter-,=20 + velvel- and=20 + xelxel- work in the same way. Other SE combinations like=20 - selter-, although they might conceivably mean= =20 - se te, more than likely should be interpreted i= n the same way, namely as=20 + selter-, although they might conceivably = mean=20 + se te, more than likely should be interpr= eted in the same way, namely as=20 =20 - se ke te, since there is no need to re-order pl= aces in the way that=20 - se te provides. (See=20 + se ke te, since there is no need to re-or= der places in the way that=20 + se te provides. (See=20 =20 .)
Abstract lujvo lujvo place struc= ture"nu" lujvo abstract lujvo lujvoabstract The cmavo of NU can participate in the c= onstruction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Cons= ider that old standard example,=20 - klama: + klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/> k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by m= eans k5. The selbri=20 - nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of= -going, but the full five places exist implicitly between=20 - nu and=20 - kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be p= laced there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and conse= quently the lujvo=20 - nunkla (=20 + nu klama [kei] has only one place, the ev= ent-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between=20 + nu and=20 + kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed th= ere. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently = the lujvo=20 + nunkla (=20 nun- is the rafsi for=20 - nu), needs to have six places: + nu), needs to have six places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d2"/> nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 f= rom k3 via route k4 by means k5. Here the first place of=20 - nunklama is the first and only place of=20 - nu, and the other five places have been pushed = down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information= on=20 - nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned = in this section, is given in=20 + nunklama is the first and only place of= =20 + nu, and the other five places have been pushed down by = one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on=20 + nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this = section, is given in=20 . lujvo place struc= turemulti-place abstraction lujvo lujvo place structure"ni" lujvo For those ab= stractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to = place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being = abstracted. The place structure of=20 - nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 - ni klama, is the imposing: + nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 + ni klama, is the imposing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d3"/> ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 = from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.<= /para> It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making = of more complex lujvo as well. For example,=20 - nunsoidji, from the veljvo + nunsoidji, from the veljvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d4"/> nu sonci kei djica event-of being-a-soldier desirer has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d5"/> d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier o= f army s2) for purpose d3 where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by= the places of the seltau. As shown in=20 , the ordering follows this = idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the = omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau. The lujvo=20 - nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary = asymmetric lujvo=20 + nunsoidji is quite different from the ord= inary asymmetric lujvo=20 =20 - soidji, a=20 + soidji, a=20 soldier desirer, whose place structure is just <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d6"/> d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose= d3 A=20 - nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enli= st, whereas a=20 - soidji might be a camp-follower. + nunsoidji might be someone who is about t= o enlist, whereas a=20 + soidji might be a camp-follower. One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit= =20 =20 - kei in tanru:=20 - nunkalri gasnu means much the same as=20 - nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition= , many English words ending in=20 - -hood are represented with=20 + kei in tanru:=20 + nunkalri gasnu means much the same as=20 + nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In ad= dition, many English words ending in=20 + -hood are represented with=20 nun- lujvo, and other words ending in=20 -ness or=20 -dom are often representable with=20 kam- lujvo (=20 kam- is the rafsi for=20 - ka);=20 - kambla is=20 + ka);=20 + kambla is=20 blueness. Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing = the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-s= cope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in=20 . There is also a rafsi for the cmavo=20 - jai, namely=20 - jax, which allows sentences like + jai, namely=20 + jax, which allows sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7"/> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. @@ -1069,324 +1069,324 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8"/> mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying. In making a lujvo that contains=20 jax- for a selbri that contains=20 - jai, the rule is to leave the=20 - fai place as a=20 - fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate= in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 - fai is explained in=20 + jai, the rule is to leave the=20 + fai place as a=20 + fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the = regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 + fai is explained in=20 and .)
Implicit-abstraction lujvo =20 Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 - nu, however, is extremely important in producin= g a class of lujvo called=20 + nu, however, is extremely important in producing a clas= s of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. =20 =20 Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 - nunctikezgau, meaning=20 + nunctikezgau, meaning=20 to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwi= nded, be patient.) The veljvo of=20 =20 - nunctikezgau is=20 - nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structur= es are: + nunctikezgau is=20 + nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place st= ructures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d1"/> - nu: n1 is an event + nu: n1 is an event - citka: c1 eats c2 + citka: c1 eats c2 - gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event g= 2 + gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2 In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo = given in=20 , we will first create an inte= rmediate lujvo,=20 - nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 - nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 + nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 + nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 ,=20 - nuncti has the place structure + nuncti has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d2"/> n1 is the event of c1 eating c2 Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 - nunctikezgau into=20 - nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is brought abo= ut by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of ea= ting). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative pla= ce structure of + nunctikezgau into=20 + nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is broug= ht about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event= of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentati= ve place structure of <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3"/> g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 ea= ting c2 But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly =E2=80=93 it does = not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from t= he seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 =20 =20 - nunctikezgau is: + nunctikezgau is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4"/> g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2<= /place-structure> There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 - balsoi in=20 + balsoi in=20 , the interpretati= on of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti pla= ces. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 - gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstr= action either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of= =20 + gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstraction e= ither implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of=20 =20 - gasnu is defined. + gasnu is defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 - nu is the type of abstraction one would expect = to be a=20 - se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 + nu is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a= =20 + se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 nun and=20 kez in=20 - nunctikezgau are only telling us what we would = already have guessed =E2=80=93 that the seltau of a=20 - gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi= out, and use instead the shorter lujvo=20 - ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpretatio= n (=20 + nunctikezgau are only telling us what we = would already have guessed =E2=80=93 that the seltau of a=20 + gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, an= d use instead the shorter lujvo=20 + ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpr= etation (=20 someone who both does and eats;=20 an eating doer), we can still deduce that the seltau re= fers to an event. (You can't=20 do an eater/=20 - gasnu lo citka, with the meaning of=20 - do as=20 + gasnu lo citka, with the meaning of=20 + do as=20 bring about an event; so the seltau must refer to an ev= ent,=20 - nu citka. The English slang meanings of=20 + nu citka. The English slang meanings of= =20 do someone, namely=20 socialize with someone and=20 have sex with someone, are not relevant to=20 - gasnu.) + gasnu.) So we can simply use=20 - ctigau with the same place structure as=20 - nunctikezgau: + ctigau with the same place structure as= =20 + nunctikezgau: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d5"/> agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 g1 feeds c2 to c1 This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau = serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is c= alled an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an= abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit). =20 =20 To give another example: the gismu=20 - basti, whose place structure is + basti, whose place structure is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d6"/> b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 can form the lujvo=20 - basygau, with the place structure: + basygau, with the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d7"/> g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstanc= es b3 where both=20 - basti and=20 - basygau are translated=20 + basti and=20 + basygau are translated=20 replace in English, but represent different relations:= =20 - basti may be used with no mention of any agent = doing the replacing. + basti may be used with no mention of any agent doing th= e replacing. In addition,=20 - gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we wou= ld consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a pred= icate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This= is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages= . For example, the gismu=20 + gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we would consi= der nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, s= o adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is cons= istent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For ex= ample, the gismu=20 =20 =20 =20 - litki, meaning=20 + litki, meaning=20 liquid, with the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d8"/> l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 = under conditions l3 can give=20 - likygau, meaning=20 + likygau, meaning=20 to liquefy: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d9"/> g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liqu= id of composition l2 under conditions l3. While=20 - likygau correctly represents=20 + likygau correctly represents=20 causes to be a liquid, a different lujvo based on=20 - galfi (meaning=20 + galfi (meaning=20 modify) may be more appropriate for=20 causes to become a liquid. On the other hand,=20 - fetsygau is potentially confusing, because it c= ould mean=20 + fetsygau is potentially confusing, becaus= e it could mean=20 agent in the event of something becoming female (the im= plicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply=20 female agent (the parallel interpretation), so using im= plicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misu= nderstood. =20 =20 Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and = therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction luj= vo. For example, lujvo based on=20 =20 =20 =20 - rinka, with its place structure + rinka, with its place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d10"/> event r1 causes event r2 to occur are closely related to those based on=20 - gasnu. However,=20 - rinka is less generally useful than=20 - gasnu, because its r1 place is another event ra= ther than a person:=20 - lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the pla= ce structure of=20 - likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to=20 - likygau, is + gasnu. However,=20 + rinka is less generally useful than=20 + gasnu, because its r1 place is another event rather tha= n a person:=20 + lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus t= he place structure of=20 + likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to=20 + likygau, is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d11"/> event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l= 2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. =20 =20
Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 =20 - jdaselsku, meaning=20 + jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1"/> - lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and= beliefs l3 + lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs= l3 - cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in= medium c4 + cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium = c4 and=20 - selsku, the tertau of=20 - jdaselsku, has the place structure + selsku, the tertau of=20 + jdaselsku, has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d2"/> s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 i= n medium s4 Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: = the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2).= This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been give= n in=20 or=20 ; therefore, for lack = of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau p= laces after them, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d3"/> s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audien= ce s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1 The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l= 1 place (the religion) and so is omitted. We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with=20 - se seljdasku, where=20 - seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with pl= ace structure: + se seljdasku, where=20 + seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo w= ith place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d4"/> c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to au= dience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1 which, according to the rule expressed in=20 , can be further expressed as=20 - selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the= ugly=20 - selsel- prefix just to get the rules right:=20 - jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.= + selseljdasku. However, there is no need f= or the ugly=20 + selsel- prefix just to get the rules righ= t:=20 + jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, = lujvo. However, there is a further problem with=20 - jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 - seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gis= mu=20 - lijda and=20 - cusku can fully express the relationship implic= it in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a reli= gion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that reli= gion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or = using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the = religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical. + jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 + seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the t= wo gismu=20 + lijda and=20 + cusku can fully express the relationship implicit in pr= ayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; no= r is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Ra= ther, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using th= e religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion= , or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical. As a result, both=20 - seljdasku and=20 - jdaselsku belong to the second class of anomalo= us lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires. + seljdasku and=20 + jdaselsku belong to the second class of a= nomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo require= s. Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the = tanru lists in=20 =20 , is=20 - lange'u, meaning=20 + lange'u, meaning=20 sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sh= eep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed= (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no ove= rlap in the places of=20 =20 =20 - lanme and=20 - gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog= which controls sheep flocks, a=20 - terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is= =20 - terlantroge'u with place structure: + lanme and=20 + gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which c= ontrols sheep flocks, a=20 + terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from whic= h is=20 + terlantroge'u with place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d5"/> g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3= =3Dj2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2<= /para> based on the gismu place structures <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d6"/> - lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to= flock l3 + lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l= 3 - gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 + gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 - jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 + jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3 Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between=20 - lantro (sheep-controller) and=20 - gerku, but=20 - lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 = place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujv= o=20 - lange'u is both shorter than=20 - terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant= its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the l= onger lujvo, for which=20 - lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation. + lantro (sheep-controller) and=20 + gerku, but=20 + lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. T= he l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, th= e lujvo=20 + lange'u is both shorter than=20 + terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to w= arrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of= the longer lujvo, for which=20 + lange'u can be understood as an abbreviat= ion. Another example is=20 - xanmi'e,=20 + xanmi'e,=20 to command by hand, to beckon. The component place stru= ctures are: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d7"/> - xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 + xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 - minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to= happen + minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen<= /para> =20 The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for t= here to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (th= e one who commands). But interpreting=20 =20 - xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided= =20 - sel- in the seltau, as if from=20 - se xance minde, misses the point: the real rela= tion expressed by the lujvo is not just=20 + xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an el= ided=20 + sel- in the seltau, as if from=20 + se xance minde, misses the point: the rea= l relation expressed by the lujvo is not just=20 one who commands and has a hand, but=20 =20 to command using the hand. The concept of=20 using suggests the gismu=20 - pilno, with place structure + pilno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d8"/> p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly y= ou want to constrain the veljvo) <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d9"/> @@ -1409,90 +1409,90 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-yCod"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d11"/> minde ke xance pilno [ke'e] commander type-of (hand user) which lead to the three different lujvo=20 - xanplimi'e,=20 - mi'erxanpli, and=20 - minkemxanpli respectively. + xanplimi'e,=20 + mi'erxanpli, and=20 + minkemxanpli respectively. latent component<= /primary> Does this make=20 - xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does mean th= at there is a latent component to the meaning of=20 + xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does m= ean that there is a latent component to the meaning of=20 =20 - xanmi'e, the gismu=20 - pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And= it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes s= ense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a = derivation for=20 - xancypliminde or one of the other possibilities= that is analogous to the analysis of=20 - terlantroge'u above, even if he or she decides = to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 - xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the possibilit= ies of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously =E2= =80=93 an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind. + xanmi'e, the gismu=20 + pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also= means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, ra= ther than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivati= on for=20 + xancypliminde or one of the other possibi= lities that is analogous to the analysis of=20 + terlantroge'u above, even if he or she de= cides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 + xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the poss= ibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously= =E2=80=93 an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.
Comparatives and superlatives lujvosuperlatives lujvocomparatives English has the concepts of=20 comparative adjectives and=20 =20 superlative adjectives which can be formed from other a= djectives, either by adding the suffixes=20 =20 -er and=20 -est or by using the words=20 more and=20 most, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can= be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau=20 - zmadu,=20 - mleca,=20 - zenba,=20 - jdika, and=20 - traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and= easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed. + zmadu,=20 + mleca,=20 + zenba,=20 + jdika, and=20 + traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to= make, certain special guidelines are imposed. We will begin with lujvo based on=20 - zmadu and=20 - mleca, whose place structures are: + zmadu and=20 + mleca, whose place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d1"/> - zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in q= uantity z4 + zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity = z4 - mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in q= uantity m4 + mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity = m4 For example, the concept=20 young is expressed by the gismu=20 - citno, with place structure + citno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d2"/> - citno: c1 is young + citno: c1 is young younger= example lujvo place ordercomparatives The comparative concept=20 younger can be expressed by the lujvo=20 =20 - citmau (based on the veljvo=20 - citno zmadu, meaning=20 + citmau (based on the veljvo=20 + citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3"/> mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six. =20 I am six years younger than you. =20 The place structure for=20 - citmau is + citmau is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4"/> z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4<= /place-structure> =20 Similarly, in Lojban you can say: @@ -1507,81 +1507,81 @@ <para>In English,=20 <quote>more</quote> comparatives are easier to make and use than=20 =20 <quote>less</quote> comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equa= lly easy.</para> =20 <para>Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in= =20 <rafsi>-mau</rafsi> and=20 =20 <rafsi>-me'a</rafsi> are in fact used much more frequently than=20 =20 - <jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase> themselves as selbri. It is highly unlike= ly for such lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstracti= on lujvo. But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, a= nd which has to do with what is being compared.</para> + <valsi>zmadu</valsi> and=20 + <valsi>mleca</valsi> themselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for s= uch lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo= . But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which= has to do with what is being compared.</para> =20 =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>comparative lujvo= </primary><secondary>potential ambiguity in</secondary></indexterm> For exa= mple, does=20 - <jbophrase>nelcymau</jbophrase> mean=20 + <oldjbophrase>nelcymau</oldjbophrase> mean=20 <quote>X likes Y more than X likes Z</quote>, or=20 <quote>X likes Y more than Z likes Y</quote>? Does=20 - <jbophrase>klamau</jbophrase> mean:=20 + <oldjbophrase>klamau</oldjbophrase> mean:=20 <quote>X goes to Y more than to Z</quote>,=20 <quote>X goes to Y more than Z does</quote>,=20 <quote>X goes to Y from Z more than from W</quote>, or what?</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lujvo place struc= ture</primary><secondary>comparative lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indext= erm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>comparative lujvo</primary><secondar= y>standardized meanings</secondary></indexterm> We answer this concern by p= utting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by conven= tion, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the = seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be = expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the ne= w first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place st= ructures:</para> =20 =20 =20 <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-eSTr"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d6"/> - nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amoun= t z4 + nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by= amount z4 - selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1= in amount z4 + selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked= by n1 in amount z4 - klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 = via k4 by means of k5 + klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 fr= om k3 via k4 by means of k5 - selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1= from k3 via k4 by means of k5 + selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to= by k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5 - terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin poi= nt from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 + terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an orig= in point from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 (See=20 for the way in which this pro= blem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.) The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and th= e other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresse= s by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place= whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while=20 - nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place,=20 - klamau has it as its sixth place. In any senten= ce where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged w= ith=20 - vemau (for=20 - zmadu) or=20 - veme'a (for=20 - mleca) to help make the speaker's intention cle= ar. + nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place,=20 + klamau has it as its sixth place. In any = sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly ta= gged with=20 + vemau (for=20 + zmadu) or=20 + veme'a (for=20 + mleca) to help make the speaker's intention clear. comparative lujvo= and seltau presupposition octogenarian nonagenarian It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not pre= suppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than so= meone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogena= rian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year-= old has a greater=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - ni citno than the 90-year-old. Similarly, a 5-y= ear-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered=20 + ni citno than the 90-year-old. Similarly,= a 5-year-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered=20 old by most standards. comparative lujvo= against former state former state Th= ere are some comparative concepts which are in which the=20 - se zmadu is difficult to specify. Typically, th= ese involve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, whe= re stating a z2 place explicitly would be problematic. + se zmadu is difficult to specify. Typical= ly, these involve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affair= s, where stating a z2 place explicitly would be problematic. =20 In such cases, it is best not to use=20 - zmadu and leave the comparison hanging, but to = use instead the gismu=20 + zmadu and leave the comparison hanging, but to use inst= ead the gismu=20 =20 - zenba, meaning=20 + zenba, meaning=20 increase (and=20 - jdika, meaning=20 + jdika, meaning=20 decrease, in place of=20 - mleca). The gismu=20 - zenba was included in the language precisely in= order to capture those notions of increase which=20 - zmadu can't quite cope with; in addition, we do= n't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fi= ll in with a value anyway. So we can translate=20 + mleca). The gismu=20 + zenba was included in the language precisely in order t= o capture those notions of increase which=20 + zmadu can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have= to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in wi= th a value anyway. So we can translate=20 I'm stronger now not as <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d7"/> mi ca tsamau I now am-stronger. @@ -1589,65 +1589,65 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d8"/> mi ca tsaze'a I increase in strength. Finally, lujvo with a tertau of=20 - traji are used to build superlatives. The place= structure of=20 - traji is + traji are used to build superlatives. The place structu= re of=20 + traji is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d9"/> t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t= 3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4 Consider the gismu=20 - xamgu, whose place structure is: + xamgu, whose place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d10"/> xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 better<= secondary>example The comparative form is=20 - xagmau, corresponding to English=20 + xagmau, corresponding to English=20 better, with a place structure (by the rules given abov= e) of <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11"/> z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 = in amount z4 lujvo place order= superlatives lujvo place structuresu= perlatives We would expect the place structure of= =20 - xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror= that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, re= sulting in: + xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow = mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concep= ts, resulting in: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d12"/> xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by= standard xa3. The t2 place in=20 - traji, normally filled by a property abstractio= n, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extrem= um of=20 + traji, normally filled by a property abstraction, is re= placed by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of=20 =20 =20 - traji (whether the most or the least, that is) = is presumed by default to be=20 + traji (whether the most or the least, that is) is presu= med by default to be=20 the most. lujvo place order= superlatives as exceptions But= the set against which the t1 place of=20 - traji is compared is not the t2 place (which wo= uld make the place structure of=20 - traji fully parallel to that of=20 - zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, = by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of=20 - traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of t= he lujvo. Some examples: + traji is compared is not the t2 place (which would make= the place structure of=20 + traji fully parallel to that of=20 + zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a spe= cial exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of=20 + traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo= . Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d13"/> la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists. =20 @@ -1682,72 +1682,72 @@ Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or d= ecrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantic= ally related to it are likely to have the place also. Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discuss= ion of the pressures operating on them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d1"/> - xekri: xe1 is black + xekri: xe1 is black color standards Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced b= y one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of colo= r standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 =20 - xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color= standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 + xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color standar= ds can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 =20 - ci'u (=20 + ci'u (=20 =20 in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2"/> - jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and locati= on j4 + jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4 The gismu=20 - jbena contains places for time and location, wh= ich few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something i= s done is supplied by a tense tag (see=20 + jbena contains places for time and location, which few = other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done i= s supplied by a tense tag (see=20 ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 - le te jbena a simple term for=20 + le te jbena a simple term for=20 birthday and=20 - le ve jbena for=20 + le ve jbena for=20 birthplace, so these places were provided despite their= lack of metaphysical necessity. <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d3"/> - rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 + rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 melting= The place structure of=20 - rinka does not have a place for the agent, the = one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. = A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (su= ch as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the f= looding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. + rinka does not have a place for the agent, the one who = causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-= effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as sn= ow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding = of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. =20 lujvoas suppliers of agent place Indeed, there = is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few= such as=20 - gasnu and=20 - zukte which are then used as tertau in order to= restore the agent place when needed: see=20 + gasnu and=20 + zukte which are then used as tertau in order to restore= the agent place when needed: see=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4"/> - cinfo: c1 is a lion o= f species/breed c2 + cinfo: c1 is a lion of specie= s/breed c2 diversified speci= es gen= eral terms The c2 place of=20 - cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure t= oward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; althoug= h there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though the= y exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/bree= d place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general te= rms like=20 + cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure toward re= gularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there = is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist,= aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place = must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like= =20 =20 =20 - cinki (insect), and are provided for all other = animals and plants as a matter of regularity. + cinki (insect), and are provided for all other animals = and plants as a matter of regularity. =20 gismuplace orderrationale = Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularitie= s are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychologi= cal saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place struct= ure of=20 - klama, for example, that=20 - lo klama (the one going) will be talked about m= ore often, and is thus more important, than=20 - lo se klama (the destination), which is in turn= more important than=20 + klama, for example, that=20 + lo klama (the one going) will be talked a= bout more often, and is thus more important, than=20 + lo se klama (the destination), which is i= n turn more important than=20 =20 - lo xe klama (the means of transport). + lo xe klama (the means of transport). Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed= . For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place= . Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the dest= ination is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as=20 =20 under conditions and=20 by standard, which often go unfilled, are moved to near= the end of the place structure.
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index b376fc1..c646df7 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -87,36 +87,36 @@ .io,=20 .iu,=20 .ua,=20 .ue,=20 =20 .ui,=20 .uo, and=20 .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a perio= d before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginnin= g with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators de= scribed in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI. attitudinalscompound Attitudinals can also be c= ompound cmavo, of the types explained in Sections 4-8;=20 illustrates one such possib= ility, the compound attitudinal=20 - .ianai. In attitudinals,=20 + .ianai. In attitudinals,=20 =20 - -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of = the simple attitudinal without the=20 - -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 + -nai indicates polar negation: the opposi= te of the simple attitudinal without the=20 + -nai. Thus, as you might suppose,=20 .ia expresses belief, since=20 - .ianai expresses disbelief. + .ianai expresses disbelief. =20 indicatorstypes of indicators In addition to the atti= tudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion= categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of= them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together = in this chapter. =20 Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respec= t to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indic= ators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. I= ndicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they ap= ply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in=20 . Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in= four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a= corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fou= rth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the appr= oximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with=20 - -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omit= ted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and s= hows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with=20 - -cu'i. The cmavo=20 + -nai. The third column, which is sometime= s omitted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns,= and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed w= ith=20 + -cu'i. The cmavo=20 =20 - cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained m= ore fully in=20 + cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more full= y in=20 =20 . One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is= that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing yo= ur feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource = of the written word. So the gloss for=20 =20 .ui should not really be=20 happiness but some sound or tone that expresses happine= ss. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or o= bvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different em= otions Lojban speakers can readily express. =20 Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific g= ismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of= the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, t= hus: [gismu]. =20 @@ -255,22 +255,22 @@ In particular, both=20 .uu and=20 .u'u can be translated into English as=20 =20 I'm sorry; the difference between these two attitudes f= requently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, lead= ing to responses like=20 Why are you sorry? It's not your fault! It is important to realize that=20 .uu, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to = be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation=20 Pity! is just as likely to be ironically intended, but = this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally)= as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps w= orse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than m= isunderstood statements. The following examples display the effects of=20 - nai and=20 - cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal: + nai and=20 + cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d7"/> .ue la djan. klama =20 [Surprise!] John comes. @@ -398,23 +398,23 @@ In=20 and=20 , John's arrival is no probl= em: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the si= tuation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some = kind. The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 i are those which could not be fitted into the=20 u or=20 o groups because there was a lack of room, so the= y are a mixed lot.=20 .ia,=20 - .i'a,=20 + i'a,=20 .ie, and=20 - .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 + i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 =20 instead. .ii fear nervousness security =20 @@ -474,21 +474,21 @@ John [disrespect!] is coming. shows an attitude-colored= observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the obser= vative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddl= ers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like=20 =20 a lot. and=20 use attitudinals that fol= low=20 - la djan. rather than being at the beginning of = the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather = than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifi= cally. Compare: + la djan. rather than being at the beginni= ng of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John r= ather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John s= pecifically. Compare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d18"/> la djan. klama .iu John is-coming [love!] where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. @@ -512,24 +512,24 @@ e; however, the original intent (not entirely rea= lized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was= to make the members of the=20 a-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of= a potential world, while the members of the=20 e-series were more ambivalent or complex about th= e speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship betw= een the=20 a-series and the=20 e-series is similar to that between the=20 u-series and the=20 o-series, respectively. A few propositional attit= ude indicators overflowed into the=20 i-series as well. attitudinalslogical language and attitudinalspropositi= onal/emotional caveat attitudinalsemotional/propositional = caveat In fact, the entire distinction between pure= emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:=20 =20 - .u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude in= dicator meaning=20 + u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude indicator m= eaning=20 =20 I regret that ..., and=20 - .a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure em= otion meaning=20 + a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion mea= ning=20 I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 logical language aspect. =20 =20 Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 a: .a'a attentive @@ -645,22 +645,22 @@ .a'ucu'i do pante =20 [no interest] you complain I have no interest in your complaints. .a'ucu'i .au .a'o= .= a'i .ai .a'enai .a'a (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.= 1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly= including=20 - .oicai, but probably also=20 - .iucai.) + .oicai, but probably also=20 + .iucai.) attitudinalsrationale for attitudinalscontrasted with = bridi Splitting off the attitude into an indicator = allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relat= ionships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whateve= r. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri wou= ld make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 e, which stand roughly in the relation to those b= eginning with=20 a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with= =20 o do to those beginning with=20 u- they are more complex or difficult: .e'a permission @@ -815,23 +815,23 @@ .i'enai do .i'e zukte =20 =20 [disapproval] you [approval] act I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you. .i'e .i'enai .ie<= /primary> .i= 'anai .ianai=20 illustrates the use of a pr= opositional attitude indicator,=20 - i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning = of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to=20 + i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the b= ridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to=20 =20 - do). The event expressed by the main bridi is d= isapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place= (namely the listener) is approved of. + do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapprov= ed of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely= the listener) is approved of. attitudinalsignaling as non-propositional To in= dicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indica= te a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitud= inal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of=20 which actually claimed that= the listener was or would be driving the car might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d17"/> do sazri le karce .i .e'a =20 You drive the car. [Permission]. @@ -846,28 +846,28 @@ negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 positive and=20 negative are put into quotation marks because they are = loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects = this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positive words, namely=20 .ii (fear) and=20 .oi (pain/complaint), represent emotions common= ly thought of as less=20 virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts= . But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful em= otions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, whil= e their counterparts are less commonly expressed. attitudinal scale= srationale for assignment (Why= the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be d= ifficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we = give the monosyllable=20 - nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a n= ovice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indica= tor, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 + nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to= recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if = not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 random orientation, which would have unknown biases and= be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sc= ale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be bias= ed in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) CAI selma'o nai= cai naisai nairu'e cu'i ru'e sai cai attitudinal scaleseven-position emotion= al scale In fact, though, each emotional scale has se= ven positions defined, three=20 =20 positive ones (shown below on the left), three=20 negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral= one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The foll= owing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated c= mavo. All of these cmavo, except=20 - nai, are in selma'o CAI. + nai, are in selma'o CAI. cai carmi sai tsali @@ -884,29 +884,29 @@ naisai naicai attitudescalar scalar attitude A scalar attitude is e= xpressed by using the attitudinal word, and then following it by the desire= d scalar intensity. The bias creeps in because the=20 =20 negative emotions take the extra syllable=20 - nai to indicate their negative position on the = axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express. + nai to indicate their negative position on the axis, an= d thus require a bit more effort to express. attitudinal scale= usage Much of this system is o= ptional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don'= t want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most atti= tudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or=20 - cai is used to indicate especially high intensi= ty. Less often,=20 + cai is used to indicate especially high intensity. Less= often,=20 =20 - ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity,= and=20 + ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and=20 =20 - cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal que= stion=20 + cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal question=20 =20 - pei (see=20 + pei (see=20 ) to indicate th= at the emotion is not felt. attitudinalexample of scale effect The followin= g shows the variations resulting from intensity variation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d1"/> .ei I ought to (a non-specific obligation) @@ -957,41 +957,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d6"/> .einai =20 I need not (a non-obligation) .einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei formal requirementexample attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also ut= ter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the= language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you= mark what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 - cai. You could also indicate that you don't car= e using=20 + cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 =20 - cu'i by itself. + cu'i by itself. =20
The space of emotions attitudinal scale= as axis in emotion-space Each = of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In= effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional spac= e. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point= in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coo= rdinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one= decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale value= s for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct singl= e point, which is our attitude. =20 emotionswhen expressed emotionsinsights emotions= compound compound emotions Now no one is going= to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. = If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a t= ime =E2=80=93 usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently ch= anged in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful in= sights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Loj= ban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions wh= en they do recognize them. =20 attitudinal scale= neutral compared with positive + negative<= /indexterm> The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion= . We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in=20 that multiply the set of scales= by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, whi= ch might be expressed by=20 =20 =20 - cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both= the=20 + cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both the=20 =20 positive and=20 negative scale emotions at once. One expression of=20 fortitude might be=20 - .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. + .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. attitudinalscontrasted with rationalizations of emotion attitudinalsorder of Uttering one or more attitud= inals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter = emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emot= ions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, al= though their order of importance to us is also revealing =E2=80=93 of our a= ttitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessa= ry; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the=20 vector sum naturally expresses the result. This is vita= l to their nature as attitudinals =E2=80=93 if you had to stop and think ab= out them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rational= izations. attitudinalscontrasted with bridi People have p= roposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; = but emotions aren't logical or analytical =E2=80=93 saying=20 I'm awed is not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. attitudinalsdesign benefit A nice feature of th= is design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the sa= me way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a= couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready= to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express = your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabu= lary offers a broad range of expression.
Emotional categories attitudinal categ= oriesrationale attitudinal categories emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting wit= h a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 ava= ilable VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion word= s in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then= assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the = result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to e= xpress very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. @@ -1028,44 +1028,44 @@ abstinence re'e spiritual secular sacrilegious re'e ro'u ro'o ro'i= r= o'e ro'a Using these, we were able to assign=20 - o'u to mark a scale of what we might call=20 + o'u to mark a scale of what we might call=20 =20 generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed,= satisfied, you express comfort with=20 - o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to = indicate how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to tu= rn this scale into six separate ones, should you wish. + o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate= how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this = scale into six separate ones, should you wish. =20 mental discomfort= example physical distressexample stressexample embarrassmentexample spiritual disc= omfortexample sexual discomfortexampl= e at= titudinal categoriesexample of effect For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as= =20 =20 - .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label=20 + .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label= =20 stress in English are expressed in Lojban with=20 - .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be expressed= with=20 - .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if you sa= y it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't = know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults= can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 + .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be exp= ressed with=20 + .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if = you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you = don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most = adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 =20 - o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 - o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goer who = has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building. + o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 + o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goe= r who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building. Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categoriz= e it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible = without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotio= ns within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physic= al comfort or vice versa. .eiro'u Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each= of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emot= ional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'= ll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojb= an possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that prob= ably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=20 - .eiro'u, for example =E2=80=93 look it up). + .eiro'u, for example =E2=80=93 look it up= ). =20 ro'anai= example attitudinalsstand-alone categories attitudi= nalscategories with nai attitudinalsc= ategories with scale markers You can use scale mark= ers and=20 - nai on these six category words, and you can al= so use category words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 + nai on these six category words, and you can also use c= ategory words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentrate could be expressed simply as= =20 - ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in som= e non-specific way,=20 + ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-sp= ecific way,=20 =20 - ro'anai will express it. + ro'anai will express it. =20 attitudinal categ= oriesmnemonic for There is a m= nemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms ab= out. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down= your body in sequence. ro'a hands above head social ro'e @@ -1112,22 +1112,22 @@ le'o aggressive passive defensive vu'e [vrude] - virtue (zabna) - sin (mabla= ) + virtue (zabna) + sin (mabla) se'i [sevzi] self-orientation other-orientation ri'e [zifre] @@ -1155,46 +1155,46 @@ [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emoti= onal pictures you can build: =20 ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 - ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate conde= scension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 + ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate condescension= or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as be= ing below (for=20 - ga'i) or above (for=20 + ga'i) or above (for=20 =20 - ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position.= Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is s= o marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the se= ntence, as with=20 + ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social pos= ition. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, wh= o is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in = the sentence, as with=20 =20 - doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a stateme= nt addressed to a social superior. + doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a s= tatement addressed to a social superior. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1"/> ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani =20 You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.<= /gloss> I would be honored if you would enter my residence. imperativesattitude Note that imperatives in Lo= jban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with=20 =20 - ga'icu'i and=20 - ga'inai: + ga'icu'i and=20 + ga'inai: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d2"/> ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house= . Come on in to my place. @@ -1204,65 +1204,65 @@ ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani =20 You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.= You! Get inside! Since=20 - ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker= and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to=20 + ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the= referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to=20 =20 - mi, unless the speaker is using=20 - mi to refer to a group (as in English=20 + mi, unless the speaker is using=20 + mi to refer to a group (as in English=20 we), or a past or future version of himself with a diff= erent rank. It is also possible to attach=20 - ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it express= es the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to: + ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the s= peaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d4"/> ga'i le xarju pu citka =20 [High-rank!] the pig [past] eats The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice). ga'icai When used without being attached to any bridi,=20 - ga'i expresses the speaker's superiority to thi= ngs in general, which may represent an absolute social rank:=20 + ga'i expresses the speaker's superiority to things in g= eneral, which may represent an absolute social rank:=20 =20 - ga'icai is an appropriate opening word for an e= mperor's address from the throne. + ga'icai is an appropriate opening word fo= r an emperor's address from the throne. =20 le'o The cmavo=20 - le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We= seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but = perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to e= xpress these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on b= y their coach using=20 + le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom = overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps = in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express t= hese feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their = coach using=20 =20 =20 - ro'ole'o.=20 - le'o is also useful in threats as an alternativ= e to=20 + ro'ole'o.=20 + le'o is also useful in threats as an alternative to=20 =20 - o'onai, which expresses anger. + o'onai, which expresses anger. =20 vu'e sinfulexample virtueexample= righteous indignationexample The cmavo=20 - vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. = An excess of almost any emotion is usually somewhat=20 + vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. An exces= s of almost any emotion is usually somewhat=20 =20 =20 sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings =E2=80=93 what we call ri= ghteous indignation might be=20 =20 =20 =20 - o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lac= k of guilt:=20 - .u'unai. + o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct fr= om lack of guilt:=20 + .u'unai. se'i The cmavo=20 - se'i expresses the difference between selfishne= ss and generosity, for example (in combination with=20 + se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and g= enerosity, for example (in combination with=20 =20 .au): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5"/> .ause'i [desire] [self] I want it! @@ -1275,83 +1275,83 @@ .ause'inai [desire] [other] I want you to have it! In both cases, the English=20 it is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi.=20 and=20 are pure expressions of att= itude. Analogously,=20 - .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas=20 - .uuse'inai is pity for someone else. + .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas=20 + .uuse'inai is pity for someone else. =20 ri'e The modifier=20 - ri'e indicates emotional release versus emotion= al control.=20 + ri'e indicates emotional release versus emotional contr= ol.=20 =20 I will not let him know how angry I am, you say to your= self before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d7"/> .o'onai ri'enai =20 [anger] [control] On the other hand,=20 - ri'e can be used by itself to signal an emotion= al outburst. + ri'e can be used by itself to signal an emotional outbu= rst. =20 fu'i The cmavo=20 - fu'i may express a reason for feeling the way w= e do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more em= otionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference b= etween the mental discomfort mentioned in=20 + fu'i may express a reason for feeling the way we do, as= opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionall= y determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between t= he mental discomfort mentioned in=20 =20 =20 when it is felt on an easy test= , as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you = could use=20 - .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the assistanc= e in your comfort. + .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the ass= istance in your comfort. be'u The cmavo=20 - be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the e= motion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, so= mething you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more o= r less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo=20 + be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the emotion i= t modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, something = you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more or less t= he attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo=20 =20 - mo'a,=20 + mo'a,=20 =20 - rau, and=20 + rau, and=20 =20 - du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discu= ssed in=20 + du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in= =20 =20 ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8"/> .uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!] large mealexample might be something you say af= ter a large meal which you enjoyed. =20 Like all modifiers,=20 - be'u can be used alone: + be'u can be used alone: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d9"/> le cukta be'u cu zvati ma =20 The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?] Where's the book? =E2=80=93 I need it! se'a Lastly, the modifier=20 - se'a shows whether the feeling is associated wi= th self-sufficiency or with dependence on others. + se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-= sufficiency or with dependence on others. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d10"/> .e'ese'a [I can!] [self-sufficient!] I can do it all by myself! @@ -1361,21 +1361,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d11"/> .e'ese'anai [I can!] [dependent] I can do it if you help me. from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss = of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the=20 - .e'e in=20 + e'e in=20 =20 and=20 , leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d12"/> .e'enaise'a [I can't!] [self-sufficient] @@ -1395,40 +1395,40 @@ attitudinalscomplexity Some of the emotional ex= pressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumsta= nces. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one p= erson uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unam= biguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most p= robably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speaker= s, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions= (if not cliches) of emotion.
Compound indicators indicatorsmeaning when compounded indicatorsgrammar fo= r compounding The grammar of indicators is quite si= mple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any ord= er, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; th= us the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, alt= hough the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every = possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning. ge'e attitudinal in= dicatorunspecified attitudinal indicatorsconventions of interpretation unspecified emotion Wi= thin a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation wh= ich amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is= presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an= =20 unspecified emotion word,=20 =20 - ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to ex= press a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a = previous but distinct emotional expression.) + ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a = modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous= but distinct emotional expression.) =20 unspecified level= of emotion unstated emotion For example,=20 - .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the = scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or wit= h something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intens= ity. But=20 - .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspeci= fied level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a wea= k level. A rough English equivalent of=20 + .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value o= n the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener = or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of = intensity. But=20 + .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an u= nspecified level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at= a weak level. A rough English equivalent of=20 =20 - .ie ge'eru'e might be=20 + .ie ge'eru'e might be=20 I agree, but ... where the=20 but is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always ex= pressed in English by English attitudinals.) attitudinal indic= atorsplacement of scale in A s= cale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the sca= le word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can hav= e its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expre= ssible. For example,=20 - .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling midway b= etween pain (=20 + .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling mi= dway between pain (=20 .oi) and pleasure (=20 - .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 - ro'u) in nature. + .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 + ro'u) in nature. =20 attitudinalsplacement in sentences with "nai" attitudinal indicat= orsplacement of "nai" in The cmavo=20 - nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the l= anguage: it always negates exactly one word =E2=80=93 the preceding one. Of= all the words used in indicator constructs,=20 - nai is the only one with any meaning outside th= e indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator = cmavo and its=20 - nai negator, the=20 - nai will end up negating the last word of the i= ndicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example= , + nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language:= it always negates exactly one word =E2=80=93 the preceding one. Of all the= words used in indicator constructs,=20 + nai is the only one with any meaning outside the indica= tor system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo an= d its=20 + nai negator, the=20 + nai will end up negating the last word of the indicator= . The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d1"/> mi .e .ui nai do I and [Yay!] [Not!] you means=20 @@ -1437,53 +1437,53 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d2"/> mi .e nai .ui do I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal=20 - nai expresses a=20 + nai expresses a=20 scalar negation, a concept explained in=20 ; since every attitudinal w= ord implies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 - nai on each should be obvious. + nai on each should be obvious. attitudinalsgrammar of internal compounding attitudinalsinternal grammarcomplete Thu= s, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part= optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it o= bviously would affect meaning. attitudinal - nai + nai intensity-word - nai + nai modifier - nai + nai intensity-word - nai + nai (possiblyrepeated) - ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, function= s as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, the= n in the 2nd or greater position, either=20 + ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an = attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the= 2nd or greater position, either=20 =20 - ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any m= odifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal. + ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers= from modifying the previous attitudinal. =20
The uses of indicators su<= /indexterm> sa= si attitudinalsexternal grammar attitudinalsgrammar of= placement in bridi The behavior of indicators in t= he=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 =20 - si,=20 - sa, and=20 - su and some, though not all, kinds of quotation= s. The details of such interactions are discussed in=20 + si,=20 + sa, and=20 + su and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The d= etails of such interactions are discussed in=20 . zo<= /indexterm> A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicat= or may, except in those few situations (as in=20 - zo quotation, explained in=20 + zo quotation, explained in=20 ) where compound cmavo may = not be used. attitudinalsat beginning of text At the beginni= ng of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: suc= h a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't tur= n off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place i= n an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately t= o its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning t= he object or concept to which the word refers. attitudinalsaffecting whole grammatical structures If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo = which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertain= s to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discu= ssed in=20 , for explicitly marking = the range of words to which an indicator applies. attitudinalsreferent uncertainty More details a= bout the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specializ= ed cmavo, are given in=20 . It is worth mentioning that rea= l-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope = rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a m= inimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotio= nal expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide = a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive l= evel. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicato= r has some uncertainty. multiple indicato= rs For example, in cases of multiple indicators expre= ssed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It i= s possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude abou= t the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common = referent. For example, in =20 @@ -1516,34 +1516,34 @@ </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>bu'o</cmavo> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"sai">start emotion</attitudinal-scale> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"cu'i">continue emotion</attitudinal-sc= ale> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"nai">end emotion</attitudinal-scale> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para>You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sen= tence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be= true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more = logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>pei</primary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>attitudinal que= stions</primary></indexterm> The word=20 - <jbophrase>pei</jbophrase> is therefore reserved for attitude question= s. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 + <valsi>pei</valsi> is therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked= by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 <quote>How are you?</quote> coupled with=20 <quote>How do you feel?</quote> (which has a slightly different range = of usage).</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>attitudinal answe= rs</primary><secondary>plausibility</secondary></indexterm> When asked in t= he context of discourse,=20 - <jbophrase>pei</jbophrase> acts like other Lojban question words =E2= =80=93 it requests the respondent to=20 + <valsi>pei</valsi> acts like other Lojban question words =E2=80=93 it = requests the respondent to=20 <quote>fill in the blank</quote>, in this case with an appropriate att= itudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression.= As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irr= elevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the = questioner. (A=20 =20 =20 - <jbophrase>ge'e</jbophrase>, however, is always in order =E2=80=93 you= are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 + <valsi>ge'e</valsi>, however, is always in order =E2=80=93 you are not= required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 =20 - <jbophrase>.i'inai</jbophrase>, which is privacy as the reverse of con= viviality.)</para> + <oldjbophrase>.i'inai</oldjbophrase>, which is privacy as the reverse = of conviviality.)</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>attitudinal quest= ions</primary><secondary>asking intensity</secondary></indexterm> Most ofte= n, however, the asker will use=20 - <jbophrase>pei</jbophrase> as a place holder for an intensity marker. = (As a result,=20 - <jbophrase>pei</jbophrase> is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o = UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no differ= ence between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idioma= tic usages in natural languages:</para> + <valsi>pei</valsi> as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a re= sult,=20 + <valsi>pei</valsi> is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would= have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference bet= ween UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usag= es in natural languages:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qfXT" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d1"/> .iepei [agreement] [question] Do you agree? @@ -1584,21 +1584,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d5"/> .e'apei [permission] [question] Please, Mommy! Can I?? attitudinal quest= ionsasking about specific attitude Additionally, when=20 - pei is used at the beginning of an indicator co= nstruct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of th= e respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain): + pei is used at the beginning of an indicator construct,= it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respon= dent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d6"/> pei.o'u =20 [question] [comfort] Are you comfortable? @@ -1618,29 +1618,29 @@ pei.o'usai [question] [comfort] [strong] Are you again healthy? =20 .uuse'inai dai<= /primary> sympat= hyexample empathyexample<= /indexterm> attitudesempathy contrasted with sympathy attitudinalsattributing emotion to others Empathy, which is no= t really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator=20 - dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, whic= h is=20 + dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 - .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a story= , you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a b= ridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also m= ake use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 + .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a= story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course ma= ke a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can = also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 =20 - dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal= to someone else =E2=80=93 exactly whom, must be determined from context. Y= ou can also use=20 + dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else =E2=80=93 exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can a= lso use=20 =20 - dai conversationally when you empathize, or fee= l someone else's emotion as if it were your own: + dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someon= e else's emotion as if it were your own: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d9"/> .oiro'odai [Pain!] [physical] [empathy] =20 Ouch, that must have hurt! @@ -1655,33 +1655,33 @@ le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean= -floor. =20 Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank. ship sankexample suggesting that the ship felt = fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker= 's pity for it. =20 attitudinalsnon-speaker attitudes attitudinalsexceptio= ns Both=20 - pei and=20 - dai represent exceptions to the normal rule tha= t attitudinals reflect the speaker's attitude. + pei and=20 + dai represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitu= dinals reflect the speaker's attitude. =20 bu'onai bu'o attitude= sceasing attitudesbeginning attitudescontinuing attitudinalscontours attitudesexpressing changes in Finally, we = often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has no= t changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore,=20 - .ui .ui .ui is not the same as=20 - .uicai, but simply means that we are continuing= to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, continui= ng to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal conto= ur cmavo=20 - bu'o. + .ui .ui .ui is not the same as=20 + .uicai, but simply means that we are cont= inuing to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, co= ntinuing to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal= contour cmavo=20 + bu'o. =20 When attached to an attitudinal,=20 - bu'o means that you are starting to have that a= ttitude,=20 + bu'o means that you are starting to have that attitude,= =20 =20 - bu'ocu'i that you are continuing to have it, an= d=20 - bu'onai that you are ceasing to have it. Some e= xamples: + bu'ocu'i that you are continuing to have = it, and=20 + bu'onai that you are ceasing to have it. = Some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d11"/> .o'onai bu'o =20 =20 [Anger!] [start emotion] @@ -1786,200 +1786,200 @@ evidentialsscales evidentialsgrammar Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o U= I, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them ar= e not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scales= . =20 =20 =20 evidentialsrhetorical flavor evidentialsindisputable= bridi indisputable bridi A bridi with an evidential in i= t becomes=20 indisputable, in the sense that the speaker is saying= =20 how it is with him or her, which is beyond argument. Cl= aims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly sub= ject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive,= or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discours= e that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than di= scourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogue= s or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices. =20 =20 evidentialsplacement in bridi Evidentials are m= ost often placed at the beginning of sentences, and are often attached to t= he=20 - .i that separates sentences in connected discou= rse. It is in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in whi= ch it is placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly = affect the claim made by the main bridi. + i that separates sentences in connected discourse. It i= s in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is = placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect th= e claim made by the main bridi. ja'o deductionexample thusexample A bridi marked by=20 - ja'o is a conclusion by the speaker based on ot= her (stated or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of= =20 - ja'o are=20 + ja'o is a conclusion by the speaker based on other (sta= ted or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of=20 + ja'o are=20 thus and=20 therefore. ca'e pronouncement<= /primary>example husband and wifeexample A bridi marked by=20 - ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In ad= dition to definitions of words,=20 + ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In addition t= o definitions of words,=20 =20 - ca'e is also appropriate in what are called per= formatives, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An En= glish example is=20 + ca'e is also appropriate in what are called performativ= es, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English ex= ample is=20 =20 I now pronounce you husband and wife, where the very ac= t of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban= translation might be: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d1"/> ca'e le re do cu simxu speni =20 [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses. ba'anai ba'acu'= i = ba'a e= xperiencedexample rememberedexample antic= ipatedexample evidentialsba'a scale The three scale positions of=20 - ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that i= t is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus=20 + ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is bas= ed on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus=20 =20 =20 - ba'a means that the statement represents a futu= re event as anticipated by the speaker;=20 + ba'a means that the statement represents a future event= as anticipated by the speaker;=20 =20 =20 =20 - ba'acu'i, a present event as experienced by the= speaker;=20 + ba'acu'i, a present event as experienced = by the speaker;=20 =20 =20 - ba'anai, a past event as remembered by the spea= ker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of p= ast to future. + ba'anai, a past event as remembered by th= e speaker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instea= d of past to future. =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d2"/> ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu =20 [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain. My leg hurts. su'a inductionexample evidentialsja'o contrasted with su= 'a e= videntialssu'a contrasted with ja'o A bridi marked by=20 - su'a is a generalization by the speaker based o= n other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between= =20 - su'a and=20 - ja'o is that=20 - ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deducti= on (not necessarily rigorous), whereas=20 + su'a is a generalization by the speaker based on other = (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between=20 + su'a and=20 + ja'o is that=20 + ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not = necessarily rigorous), whereas=20 =20 - su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern= recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). + su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern recogni= tion from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). =20 su'anai abductionexample The opposite point of th= e scale,=20 - su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing specif= ic conclusions from general premises or patterns. + su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing = specific conclusions from general premises or patterns. =20 =20 discursivessu'a as This cmavo can also function= as a discursive (see=20 ), in which case=20 - su'a means=20 + su'a means=20 abstractly or=20 in general, and=20 - su'anai means=20 + su'anai means=20 =20 concretely or=20 in particular. ti'e hearsayexample A bridi marked by=20 - ti'e is relayed information from some source ot= her than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the informatio= n was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equ= ally good example of=20 + ti'e is relayed information from some source other than= the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was re= layed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally goo= d example of=20 =20 - ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the = content. + ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.= =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d3"/> ti'e la .uengas cu zergau =20 [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. I hear that Wenga is a crook. ka'u cultural knowl= edgeexample mythexample= A bridi marked by=20 - ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cu= ltural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements= should be agreed on by a community of people =E2=80=93 you cannot just mak= e up your own cultural context =E2=80=93 although=20 + ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural c= ontext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should = be agreed on by a community of people =E2=80=93 you cannot just make up you= r own cultural context =E2=80=93 although=20 =20 objectivity in the sense of actual correspondence with = the facts is certainly not required. ka'u se'o dreamexample revelationexample evidentials= ka'u contrasted with se'o evidentialsse'o contr= asted with ka'u On the other hand,=20 - se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by t= he speaker as a result of an internal experience not directly available to = others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, = the line between=20 + se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speak= er as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, = such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line= between=20 =20 =20 - ka'u and=20 - se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent. + ka'u and=20 + se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent. za'a observationexample observation evidentialcontrasted= with observative observativecontrasted with observation = evidential A bridi marked by=20 - za'a is based on perception or direct observati= on by the speaker. This use of=20 + za'a is based on perception or direct observation by th= e speaker. This use of=20 =20 =20 observe is not connected with the Lojban=20 observative, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The= latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclu= sion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view. =20 =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d4"/> za'a do tatpi =20 [I observe!] You are-tired. I see you are tired. pe'ipei pe'i opinion<= /primary>example A bridi marked by=20 - pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form=20 + pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form=20 =20 =20 - pe'ipei is common, meaning=20 + pe'ipei is common, meaning=20 =20 Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be=20 =20 - peipe'i, in accordance with the distinction exp= lained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since=20 - pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real di= fference between the two orders.) + peipe'i, in accordance with the distincti= on explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since=20 + pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference= between the two orders.) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d5"/> pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo =20 [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed. In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. =20 e'u= ru'a assumptionexample Carthage destroyedexample e'ucompared with ru'a ru'acompared with e'u A bridi marked by=20 - ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This= is similar to one possible use of=20 + ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is simi= lar to one possible use of=20 =20 - .e'u. + e'u. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d6"/> ru'a doi livinston. =20 Dr. Livingstone, I presume? (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) =20 ju'apei ju'a basisexample Livingstonexample Finally, the evidential=20 - ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis = for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's state= ment is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 + ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a st= atement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is = not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 =20 =20 - ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at al= l, but in question form it can be useful:=20 + ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but i= n question form it can be useful:=20 =20 - ju'apei means=20 + ju'apei means=20 =20 What is the basis for your statement? and serves as an = evidential, as distinct from emotional, question. =20
Discursives discourseexpressing utterance relation to utteranceexp= ressing relation to discourse discursivesdefinition The term=20 discursive is used for those members of selma'o UI that= provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utt= erance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular= bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that=20 I also came, we would have to say=20 I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional in= stance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence, whic= h is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are wor= ds or phrases like=20 however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. discursivesas metalinguistic claims attitudinalscontra= sted with discursives discursivescontrasted with attitudin= als Discursives are not attitudinals: they express = no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic cl= aims that reference the sentence or text they are found in. discursivesplacement in sentence Discursives ar= e most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the=20 - .i that separates sentences in running discours= e, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it = seems necessary or useful. + i that separates sentences in running discourse, but ca= n (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems nec= essary or useful. discursives for c= onsecutive discourse The discursives discussed in thi= s section are given in groups, roughly organized by function. First, the=20 consecutive discourse group: ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast ji'a @@ -1995,34 +1995,34 @@ mi'u [mintu] ditto po'o the only relevant case go'i po'o mi'u si'a= j= i'a ku'i tooexample butexample<= /indexterm> ditto<= secondary>example go'icontrasted with mi'u mi'ucontrasted with go'i discursives for consecutive discoursecontrasted These five discursives are mutuall= y exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The f= irst four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,=20 - ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argume= nt. The second,=20 + ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argument. The = second,=20 =20 - ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The= third,=20 + ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The third,= =20 =20 - si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, e= numerating an additional example. The fourth,=20 + si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerati= ng an additional example. The fourth,=20 =20 - mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argu= ment, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is = being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 + mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, an= d can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being re= peated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 =20 - go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 + go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 ), which is a non-discursive= version of=20 ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous= bridi. =20 onlyexample Lastly,=20 - po'o is used when there is no other comparable = case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 + po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, an= d thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 =20 only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1"/> mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi =20 I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose. @@ -2057,57 +2057,57 @@ mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o =20 I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). hit noseexample hit cousinexample po'oplacement in sentence Note that=20 only can go before or after what it modifies in English= , but=20 - po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward.<= /para> + po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward. =20 Next, the=20 commentary on words group: va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words ta'u [tanru] expanding a tanru making a tanru =20 ta'u va'i discursives= expressing how things are said= discursivesword-level The discursives=20 - va'i and=20 - ta'u operate at the level of words, rather than= discourse proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An a= lternative English expression for=20 + va'i and=20 + ta'u operate at the level of words, rather than discour= se proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternati= ve English expression for=20 =20 - va'i is=20 + va'i is=20 rephrasing; for=20 - va'inai,=20 + va'inai,=20 =20 repeating. Also compare=20 - va'i with=20 - ke'u, discussed below. + va'i with=20 + ke'u, discussed below. =20 ta'unai tanruexplicitly defining tanruexplicating tanruexpanding The cmavo=20 - ta'u is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expre= sses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semanticall= y ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be re= moved by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, = often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. = The discursive=20 + ta'u is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the= particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambigu= ous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by= expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often in= volving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The disc= ursive=20 =20 - ta'u marks the transition from the use of a bri= ef but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discu= rsive=20 + ta'u marks the transition from the use of a brief but p= ossibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive=20 =20 - ta'unai marks a transition in the reverse direc= tion. + ta'unai marks a transition in the reverse= direction. =20 Next, the=20 commentary on discourse group: li'a [klina] clearly obviously obscurely @@ -2165,62 +2165,62 @@ =20 je'u [jetnu] truly falsely zo'o ge'u pa'e sa'u= d= o'a to'u sa'e <= primary>zo'o ba'u li'a discoursegesture markers discourse<= secondary>tone of voice markers discoursecommentary on discurs= ivesdiscourse commentary This = group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of the discourse, s= o as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that listeners often fai= l to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or miss an exagg= eration, or try to read more into a statement than the speaker intends to p= ut there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the necessary cue, bu= t the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse is often simpl= y clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo may seem fussy= to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that=20 =20 - zo'o, for example, is the equivalent of smiling= while you speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like=20 + zo'o, for example, is the equivalent of smiling while y= ou speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like=20 =20 What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny. sa'enai A few additional English equivalents: for=20 - sa'enai,=20 + sa'enai,=20 =20 roughly speaking or=20 approximately speaking; for=20 - sa'unai,=20 + sa'unai,=20 furthermore; for=20 - to'u,=20 + to'u,=20 =20 in short or=20 skipping details; for=20 - do'a,=20 + do'a,=20 =20 broadly construed; for=20 - do'anai (as you might expect),=20 + do'anai (as you might expect),=20 narrowly construed. pa'enai pa'e The cmavo=20 - pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that o= ne is being fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas=20 + pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is be= ing fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas=20 =20 - pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in favor o= f one party. + pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in f= avor of one party. =20 .ianai zo'o ironyexample sarcasmexample ironyexpressing sarcasmexpressing T= he scale of=20 - je'u and=20 - je'unai is a little different from the others i= n the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth =E2=80=93 or= at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal it fr= om us. So under what circumstances would=20 - je'unai be used, or=20 - je'u be useful? For one thing,=20 - je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentenc= e that is a truth of logic, like=20 + je'u and=20 + je'unai is a little different from the ot= hers in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth =E2=80= =93 or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal= it from us. So under what circumstances would=20 + je'unai be used, or=20 + je'u be useful? For one thing,=20 + je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that i= s a truth of logic, like=20 All cats are cats. Its counterpart=20 - je'unai then serves to mark a logical contradic= tion. In addition,=20 - je'unai can be used to express one kind of sarc= asm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but a= ctually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of iro= ny can be marked with=20 + je'unai then serves to mark a logical con= tradiction. In addition,=20 + je'unai can be used to express one kind o= f sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says,= but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms = of irony can be marked with=20 =20 =20 =20 - zo'o (humor) or=20 + zo'o (humor) or=20 =20 - .ianai (disbelief). + .ianai (disbelief). =20 su'a When used as a discursive,=20 - su'a (see=20 + su'a (see=20 ) belongs to this group. Next, the=20 knowledge group: ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not @@ -2231,21 +2231,21 @@ probably improbably la'a ju'o knowledge d= iscursivescompared with propositional attitudes propositio= nal attitudescompared with knowledge discursives speaker's= state of knowledge discursivesknowledge knowledge discursives These two discursives describe the speaker's state of = knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the = propositional attitudes of=20 =20 =20 , as they create a h= ypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and labe= l our bridi with=20 =20 =20 - ju'o; but it may be false all the same. + ju'o; but it may be false all the same. =20 Next, the=20 discourse management group: ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point @@ -2276,69 +2276,69 @@ da'i supposing in fact da'i ke'u zu'u mu'a= r= a'u ta'o flow of discoursemanaging with discursives discursives fo= r managing discourse flow discursivesdiscourse management This final group is used to perform what may be calle= d=20 managing the discourse: providing reference points to h= elp the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next. ta'onao Other English equivalents of=20 - ta'onai are=20 + ta'onai are=20 anyway,=20 anyhow,=20 in any case,=20 in any event,=20 as I was saying, and=20 continuing. ra'uscale of importance importance of pointscale with = ra'u The scale of=20 - ra'u has to do with the importance of the point= being, or about to be, expressed:=20 + ra'u has to do with the importance of the point being, = or about to be, expressed:=20 =20 - ra'u is the most important point,=20 + ra'u is the most important point,=20 =20 - ra'ucu'i is a point of equal importance, and=20 - ra'unai is a lesser point. Other English equiva= lents of=20 - ra'u are=20 + ra'ucu'i is a point of equal importance, = and=20 + ra'unai is a lesser point. Other English = equivalents of=20 + ra'u are=20 =20 above all and=20 primarily. ke'unai va'inai= v= a'i ke= 'ucontrasted with va'i va'icontrasted= with ke'u The cmavo=20 - ke'u is very similar to=20 + ke'u is very similar to=20 =20 - va'i, although=20 - ke'unai and=20 + va'i, although=20 + ke'unai and=20 =20 - va'inai are quite different. Both=20 + va'inai are quite different. Both=20 =20 - ke'u and=20 + ke'u and=20 =20 - va'i indicate that the same idea is going to be= expressed using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Usi= ng=20 - ke'u emphasizes that the content is the same; u= sing=20 + va'i indicate that the same idea is going to be express= ed using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using=20 + ke'u emphasizes that the content is the same; using=20 =20 - va'i emphasizes that the words are different. T= herefore,=20 - ke'unai shows that the content is new (and ther= efore the words are also);=20 + va'i emphasizes that the words are different. Therefore= ,=20 + ke'unai shows that the content is new (an= d therefore the words are also);=20 =20 - va'inai shows that the words are the same (and = therefore so is the content). One English equivalent of=20 + va'inai shows that the words are the same= (and therefore so is the content). One English equivalent of=20 =20 - ke'unai is=20 + ke'unai is=20 =20 furthermore. ifexpressing real world ifexpressing hypothetical worl= d hy= pothetical world point of view real world point of view The= discursive=20 - da'i marks the discourse as possibly taking a n= on-real-world viewpoint (=20 + da'i marks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-= world viewpoint (=20 =20 Supposing that,=20 By hypothesis), whereas=20 - da'inai insists on the real-world point of view= (=20 + da'inai insists on the real-world point o= f view (=20 In fact,=20 In truth,=20 According to the facts). A common use of=20 - da'i is to distinguish between: + da'i is to distinguish between: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5"/> ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'= u ri pazvau If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know= she is pregnant. =20 @@ -2411,167 +2411,167 @@ bi'u new information old information ge'e non-specific indicator ki'a huh?= example confusion about what was said confusionmetali= nguistic The cmavo=20 - ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellan= eous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion abou= t what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (wh= ich is=20 - .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning= of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti.= One of the uses of English=20 + ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellaneous ind= icators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what h= as been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is= =20 + .uanai). The confusion may be about the m= eaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a = sumti. One of the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 - ki'a: + ki'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1"/> mi nelci le ctuca .i le ki'a ctuca I like the teacher Which teacher? Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the= sumti=20 - le ctuca, and so echoes back the sumti with the= confusion marker. + le ctuca, and so echoes back the sumti wi= th the confusion marker. jo'a na'i invalid spe= echmarking as error with na'i = error markingmetalinguistic The metalinguistic negation cm= avo=20 =20 - na'i and its opposite=20 - jo'a are explained in full in=20 + na'i and its opposite=20 + jo'a are explained in full in=20 =20 . In general,=20 - na'i indicates that there is something wrong wi= th a piece of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption,= or something else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate d= ue to the marked word or construct. + na'i indicates that there is something wrong with a pie= ce of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or some= thing else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to th= e marked word or construct. valid speechmarking as error with jo'a Similarl= y,=20 - jo'a marks something which looks wrong but is i= n fact correct. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for = two reasons:=20 + jo'a marks something which looks wrong but is in fact c= orrect. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reas= ons:=20 =20 - na'inai means the same as=20 - jo'a, but would be too confusing as an affirmat= ion;=20 + na'inai means the same as=20 + jo'a, but would be too confusing as an affirmation;=20 =20 - jo'anai means the same as=20 - na'i, but is too long to serve as a convenient = metalinguistic negator. + jo'anai means the same as=20 + na'i, but is too long to serve as a convenient metaling= uistic negator. =20 li'o partial quotat= ion fr= agmentary text The next two cmavo are used to assist = in quoting texts written or spoken by others. It is often the case that we = wish to quote only part of a text, or to supply additional material either = by way of commentary or to make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo= =20 =20 - li'o serves the former function. It indicates t= hat words were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation mu= st be grammatical, however, as=20 + li'o serves the former function. It indicates that word= s were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation must be gr= ammatical, however, as=20 =20 - li'o does not serve any grammatical function. I= t cannot, for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or su= pply the missing tail of a description sumti:=20 + li'o does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot= , for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the= missing tail of a description sumti:=20 =20 - le li'o in isolation is not gra= mmatical. + le li'o in isolation is n= ot grammatical. =20 to'i sei sa'a sa'ainteraction with to'i sa'ainteraction with= sei sa'ainteraction with li'o editorial insertionwith "sa'a The cmavo=20 - sa'a indicates in a quotation that the marked w= ord or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial,= narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a=20 + sa'a indicates in a quotation that the marked word or c= onstruct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial, narrati= ve, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a=20 =20 - li'o should appear in the form=20 + li'o should appear in the form=20 =20 - li'osa'a, since the=20 - li'o was not part of the original quotation. In= practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalingu= istic expressions, such as=20 + li'osa'a, since the=20 + li'o was not part of the original quotation. In practic= e, this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic ex= pressions, such as=20 =20 - sei (of selma'o SEI) or=20 - to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except = where confusion might result. + sei (of selma'o SEI) or=20 + to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where co= nfusion might result. sa'aeditorial insertion of text already containing sa'a editorial insertion= of text already containing sa'a In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more in= stances of=20 - sa'a, they can be changed to=20 + sa'a, they can be changed to=20 =20 - sa'asa'a. + sa'asa'a. xu<= /indexterm> questionswith "xu" truth questions yes/no questions The cmavo=20 - xu marks truth questions, which are discussed i= n detail in=20 + xu marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail= in=20 . In general,=20 - xu may be translated=20 + xu may be translated=20 Is it true that ... ? and questions whether the attache= d bridi is true. When=20 - xu is attached to a specific word or construct,= it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct. + xu is attached to a specific word or construct, it dire= cts the focus of the question to that word or construct. pau= questionsmarking in advance Lojban question w= ords, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of = the question. Placing the cmavo=20 - pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the liste= ner realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning = of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. = The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. + pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener real= ize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of writt= en Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The list= ener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. =20 paunai questionsrhetorical rhetorical question pauplacement in= sentence Although=20 - pau is grammatical in any location (like all in= dicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bri= di. Its scalar opposite,=20 + pau is grammatical in any location (like all indicators= ), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bridi. Its = scalar opposite,=20 =20 - paunai, signals that a bridi is not really a qu= estion despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical quest= ion: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 + paunai, signals that a bridi is not reall= y a question despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical= question: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 =20 =20 . pe'a blue= as sadexample figurative speech The cmavo=20 - pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, ind= icating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than lit= erally: + pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating = that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:<= /para> =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d2"/> mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani =20 I see the blue [figurative] house. I see the=20 blue house. Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some ot= her sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of=20 - pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference:= =20 + pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference:=20 =20 - blanu in=20 + blanu in=20 could mean=20 sad (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> pe'anai literally The negated form,=20 - pe'anai, indicates that what has been said is t= o be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language i= ntuition is to be ignored. + pe'anai, indicates that what has been sai= d is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-lang= uage intuition is to be ignored. =20 heartburnexample culturally dependent lujvo figurative lujvo= place structure figurative lujvo lujvoplace structure of figurat= ive lujvo Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 - pe'a has a rafsi, namely=20 + pe'a has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 pev. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (cultural= ly dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the= place structure of the components. Thus=20 - risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a place stru= cture like: + risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a plac= e structure like: x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 whereas=20 - pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figurative,= might have the place structure: + pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figur= ative, might have the place structure: x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either=20 - risna or=20 - jelca. + risna or=20 + jelca. bi'unai bi'u anexample aexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">theexampl= e a/= ancontrasted with the thecontrasted w= ith a/an The uses of=20 - bi'u and=20 + bi'u and=20 =20 - bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of the En= glish articles=20 + bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of = the English articles=20 =20 =20 the and=20 a/an. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with= =20 I saw a man who .... Later in the story, the same man w= ill be referred to with the phrase=20 the man. Lojban does not use its articles in the same w= ay: both=20 =20 a man and=20 the man would be translated=20 - le nanmu, since the speaker has in mind a speci= fic man. However, the first use might be marked=20 - le bi'u nanmu, to indicate that this is a new m= an, not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged=20 + le nanmu, since the speaker has in mind a= specific man. However, the first use might be marked=20 + le bi'u nanmu, to indicate that this is a= new man, not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged= =20 =20 - le bi'unai nanmu. + le bi'unai nanmu. =20 Most of the time, the distinction between=20 - bi'u and=20 + bi'u and=20 =20 - bi'unai need not be made, as the listener can i= nfer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still= later in the story,=20 + bi'unai need not be made, as the listener= can infer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to= still later in the story,=20 =20 - le bi'u nanmu would clearly show that this man = was different from the previous one. + le bi'u nanmu would clearly show that thi= s man was different from the previous one. =20 ge'e attitudeavoidance of expression Finally, the= indicator=20 - ge'e has been discussed in=20 + ge'e has been discussed in=20 =20 and=20 . It is used to = express an attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid e= xpressing any attitude. Another use for=20 - ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's fe= eling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o = CAI:=20 + ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's feeling on= a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o CAI:=20 =20 - .iige'e means roughly=20 + .iige'e means roughly=20 I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not. kau= indirect questi= on FIXME: TAG SPOT kau indirect question This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 . It marks the word it i= s attached to as the focus of an indirect question: @@ -2586,82 +2586,82 @@ I know who goes to the store. =20
Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 - la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a= name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators =E2= =80=93 in fact, discursives =E2=80=93 but the need to tie them to names and= other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o= UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 + la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name us= ed to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators =E2=80=93 in = fact, discursives =E2=80=93 but the need to tie them to names and other des= criptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But l= ike the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 - nai to get the opposite part of the scale. + nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 - nai too often vital to interpretation of a prot= ocol signal, as explained later in this section. + nai too often vital to interpretation of a protocol sig= nal, as explained later in this section. =20 do'u DOhU selma= 'o voc= ativesgrammar overview The gra= mmar of vocatives is explained in=20 ; but in brief, a vocative = may be followed by a name (without=20 - la), a description (without=20 - le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or noth= ing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elid= able terminator,=20 - do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never re= quired unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vo= cative. + la), a description (without=20 + le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at a= ll (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable ter= minator,=20 + do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required u= nless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.<= /para> =20 vocativesand definition of "you" youdefining= Using any vocative except=20 - mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the m= eaning of the pro-sumti=20 - do, as the whole point of vocatives is to speci= fy the listener, or at any rate the desired listener =E2=80=93 even if the = desired listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 + mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the meaning o= f the pro-sumti=20 + do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the l= istener, or at any rate the desired listener =E2=80=93 even if the desired = listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speaker and=20 listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the ap= propriate terms would be=20 writer and=20 reader. vocativesnotation convention symbol "X" In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol = X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of th= e listener. DOI selma'o doi= doieffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of doi The cmavo=20 - doi is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the= cmavo of selma'o COI, explained below,=20 - doi can precede a name directly without an inte= rvening pause. It is not considered a scale, and=20 - doinai is not grammatical. In g= eneral,=20 - doi needs no translation in English (we just us= e names by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles= we sometimes say=20 + doi is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the cmavo o= f selma'o COI, explained below,=20 + doi can precede a name directly without an intervening = pause. It is not considered a scale, and=20 + doinai is not grammatical= . In general,=20 + doi needs no translation in English (we just use names = by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we some= times say=20 Oh X, which is equivalent to=20 - doi). One may attach an attitudinal to=20 - doi to express various English vocatives. For e= xample,=20 - doi .io means=20 + doi). One may attach an attitudinal to=20 + doi to express various English vocatives. For example,= =20 + doi .io means=20 Sir/Madam!, whereas=20 - doi .ionai means=20 + doi .ionai means=20 =20 You there!. COI selma'oeffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of vocatives of COI All members of selma'o= COI require a pause when used immediately before a name, in order to preve= nt the name from absorbing the COI word. This is unlike selma'o DOI and LA,= which do not require pauses because the syllables of these cmavo are not p= ermitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. When calling out to someone, this= is fairly natural, anyway.=20 Hey! John! is thus a better translation of=20 - ju'i .djan. than=20 + ju'i .djan. than=20 =20 Hey John!. No pause is needed if the vocative reference= is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal,=20 - ju'i lobypli. + ju'i lobypli. =20 (Alternatively,=20 - doi can be inserted between the COI cmavo and t= he name, making a pause unnecessary:=20 - coi doi djan.) + doi can be inserted between the COI cmavo and the name,= making a pause unnecessary:=20 + coi doi djan.) coi greetings coi<= /indexterm>=20 Hello, X;=20 Greetings, X; indicates a greeting to the listene= r. co'o partings co'o= =20 Good-bye, X; indicates parting from immediate com= pany by either the speaker or the listener.=20 - coico'o means=20 + coico'o means=20 greeting in passing. ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us @@ -2671,99 +2671,99 @@ nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise nu'e= =20 I promise, X; indicates a promise to the listener= . In some contexts,=20 - nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other = formal declaration. + nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other formal d= eclaration. ta'a [tavla] interruption ta'e= =20 I interrupt, X,=20 I desire the floor, X; a vocative expression to (= possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. = This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude inte= rruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate r= esponse to an interruption might be=20 - re'i (or=20 - re'inai to ignore the interruption). + re'i (or=20 + re'inai to ignore the interruption)= . pe'u [cpedu] request pe'u= e'ocontrasted with pe'u pe'ucontrasted with e'o=20 Please, X; indicates a request to the listener. I= t is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of=20 - .e'o with a specific recipient being addr= essed. On the other hand,=20 - .e'o may be used when there is no specifi= c listener, but merely a=20 + e'o with a specific recipient being addressed. On= the other hand,=20 + e'o may be used when there is no specific listene= r, but merely a=20 sense of petition floating in the air, as it were= . ki'e [ckire] appreciation gratitude disappreciation ingratitude fi'i= je'e ki'e thank you= example politenessyou're welcome politene= ssthank you and you're welcome= =20 Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude= toward the listener. The usual response is=20 - je'e, but=20 - fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: se= e the explanation of=20 - fi'i. + je'e, but=20 + fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: see the ex= planation of=20 + fi'i. fi'i [friti] welcome offering unwelcome inhospitality fi'i= hospitalityexample you're welcomeje'e contrasted wit= h fi'i you're welcomefi'i contrasted with je'e= =20 At your service, X;=20 Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (pos= sibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note tha= t=20 - fi'i is=20 + fi'i is=20 not the equivalent of American English=20 You're welcome as a mechanical response to=20 Thank you; that is=20 - je'e, as noted below. + je'e, as noted below. be'e [benji] request to send be'e= telephone conve= rsationhello=20 Request to send to X; indicates that the speaker = wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is list= ening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conv= ersant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is=20 Hello? Can I speak to X?. re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready re'i= =20 Ready to receive, X; indicates that the speaker i= s attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used in= stead of=20 - mi'e to respond when called to the teleph= one. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing = to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated= =20 + mi'e to respond when called to the telephone. The= negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk = when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated=20 Hold on! or=20 Just a minute. mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow @@ -2774,115 +2774,115 @@ je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt je'e= roger= example politenessyou're welcome=20 Roger, X!,=20 I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt= of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure = to receive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 - ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents = of=20 - je'e and=20 - je'enai are the grunt typically written= =20 + ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of=20 + je'e and=20 + je'enai are the grunt typically wri= tten=20 uh-huh and=20 What?/Excuse me?.=20 - je'e is also used to mean=20 + je'e is also used to mean=20 You're welcome when that is a response to=20 Thank you. vi'o will comply will not comply vi'o= vi'o<= secondary>contrasted with je'e je'econtrasted with vi'o=20 Wilco, X,=20 I understand and will comply. Similar to=20 - je'e but signals an intention (similar to= =20 + je'e but signals an intention (similar to=20 .ai) to comply with the other speaker's r= equest. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 Agreed!, although=20 .ie carries some of the same meaning. The= negative form indicates that the message was received but that you will no= t comply: a very colloquial version is=20 No way!. ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed ke'o= ki'a<= secondary>compared to ke'o ke'ocompared to ki'a=20 What did you say, X?; a request for repetition or= clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vo= cative equivalent of=20 - ki'a, and is related to=20 - je'enai. The negative form may be rendere= d=20 + ki'a, and is related to=20 + je'enai. The negative form may be r= endered=20 Okay, already; I get the point! fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done fe'o= =20 Over and out, X; indicates completion of statemen= t(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to termin= ate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already = been identified (as in memos). The negative form means=20 Wait, hold it, we're not done! and differs from= =20 - mu'onai in that it means more exchanges a= re to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. + mu'onai in that it means more excha= nges are to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. fa'o<= secondary>contrasted with fe'o fe'ocontrasted with fa'o Do not confuse=20 - fe'o with=20 - fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, ex= tra-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 - fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conver= sation and then go on speaking to the others. + fe'o with=20 + fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-gram= matical signal that a text is complete. One may say=20 + fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conversation a= nd then go on speaking to the others. mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification mi'e= meexplicitly specifying mi'econtrasted with other me= mbers of COI = introduce oneself=20 And I am X; a generalized self-vocative. Although= grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI,=20 - mi'e is quite different semantically. In = particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or = description) follows=20 - mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefor= e, using=20 - mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sum= ti=20 - mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, = to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone. + mi'e is quite different semantically. In particul= ar, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or descript= ion) follows=20 + mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using= =20 + mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti=20 + mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close= letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone. =20 re'imi'e fe'omi= 'e mi'= eeffect of ordering multiple COI COI selma'oordering multiple with mi'e closingsletter This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:=20 - fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing at the= end of a letter;=20 + fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing = at the end of a letter;=20 =20 - re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in delay= ed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As l= ong as the=20 + re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in= delayed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call= . As long as the=20 =20 - mi'e comes last, the following name is that of = the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of th= e listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a singl= e vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever = one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may = appear. + mi'e comes last, the following name is that of the spea= ker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listen= er. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocati= ve expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one voca= tive expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear.<= /para> mi'enai The negative form denies an identity which someone else ha= s attributed to you;=20 - mi'enai .djan. means that you are saying you ar= e not John. + mi'enai .djan. means that you are saying = you are not John. =20 ta'apei protocolusing vocatives protocolcomputer commun= ications using COI protocolparliamentary using COI Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations w= hich are drawn from radio use:=20 roger,=20 =20 wilco,=20 over and out. This form of translation does not mean th= at Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural = languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in speci= fic domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Loj= ban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener ma= y not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protoc= ol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compu= ter communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the = protocol question=20 =20 - ta'apei would mean=20 + ta'apei would mean=20 =20 Will the speaker yield?
A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 =20 - sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sente= nce. + sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each= sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1"/> la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar. Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar. @@ -3146,21 +3146,21 @@
Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 - sei, explained in=20 + sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic comm= ents that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly =E2=80=93 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity marke= rs. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious l= evel. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of= new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify wi= th those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.<= /para> =20 =20 Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions =E2=80=93 words that cannot be de= fined with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will ver= y quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evol= ve into a true system of emotions. emotionsresearch using indicators emotionsrecording us= ing indicators There are several theories as to the= nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more abou= t ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an = accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for= expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of = human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They = also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recor= ding emotions. emotionscultural bias of expression The full li= st of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks t= he language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are = important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias =E2=80=93 if a cul= ture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than o= thers, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. I= f a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them.<= /para> Sapir-Whorf effec= tsand emotional indicators Per= haps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emo= tions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than = others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference= from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have = devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may b= e the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the= type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools i= n existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having = such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf e= ffect will occur and will be recognized. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index cf72d85..ecac656 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -289,69 +289,69 @@ Mary went to the window and ... =20 window<= secondary>example where the last word could be foll= owed by=20 the door, a noun phrase, or by=20 saw the horses, a sentence with subject omitted, or by= =20 John went to the door, a full sentence, or by one of a = variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate = such grammatical looseness. JA selma'o GIhA= selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o logical connectivesselma'oenumerated Instead, there are a total = of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, a= nd JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vow= els, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel i= s the entire cmavo. logical connectiv= escmavoformat for each selma'o Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 A is=20 - a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with= =20 + a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with=20 A, which is a truth function, = or=20 - a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for= =20 + a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for=20 E in selma'o GIhA is=20 - gi'e, and the cmavo for=20 + gi'e, and the cmavo for=20 U in selma'o GA is=20 - gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo = easier to learn. + gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo easier t= o learn. compound logical = connectivescomponents Obviousl= y, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in= =20 . Therefore, compo= und cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: e= ach has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, an= d may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo=20 - se,=20 - na, or=20 - nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logi= cal connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained = in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relate= s to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar. + se,=20 + na, or=20 + nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical conn= ection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the f= ollowing sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its= other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar. JA selma'o A se= lma'o = jekdefinition ekdefinition -ek<= secondary>in name for logical connectives compound logical connectivesnaming convention For convenience, each= of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated b= y a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final=20 -A of the selma'o name to=20 -ek; the reasons for using=20 -ek are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Projec= t. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those base= d on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventi= onal to use=20 eks as the plural of=20 =20 ek.) When the term=20 logical connective is used in this chapter, it refers t= o one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo. I selma'o JA se= lma'o = ijekdefinition Why does the ti= tle of this section refer to=20 six types when there are only five selma'o? A jek may b= e preceded by=20 - .i, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two s= entences. The compound produced by=20 - .i followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is= useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel t= o eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks. + i, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences.= The compound produced by=20 + i followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful t= o think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, je= ks, geks, giheks, and guheks. =20 =20 I selma'o JOI s= elma'o GI selma'o ijoikas name for compound cmavo<= /indexterm> joigik= as name for compound cmavo joikas name for comp= ound cmavo gikas name for compound cmavo There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not log= ical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be intro= duced later. =20 =20
Logical connection of bridi I selma'o JA se= lma'o = bridilogical connective for <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">ijek logical connectivesconnecting bridi Now we are ready to= express=20 in Lojban! The kind of logi= cal connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them log= ically is an ijek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d1"/> la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-a-woman. Here we have two separate Lojban bridi,=20 - la djan. nanmu and=20 - la djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connected by= =20 - .ija, the ijek for the truth function=20 + la djan. nanmu and=20 + la djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connec= ted by=20 + .ija, the ijek for the truth function=20 A. The=20 - .i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dea= ling with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say: + i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing with= separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d2"/> la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man and James is-a-woman. @@ -368,25 +368,25 @@ la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman. bridilogical connection with negation To obtain= the other truth tables listed in=20 =20 , we need to know how to negate= the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate the= m directly by inserting=20 - na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us= to place the negation within the connective itself. + na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to plac= e the negation within the connective itself. I selma'o JA se= lma'o To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix= =20 - na to the JA cmavo but after the=20 - .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, s= uffix=20 - -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negat= ing word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bri= di being negated. + na to the JA cmavo but after the=20 + i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix=20 + -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the= negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to t= he bridi being negated. So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires=20 =20 O with either of the two bridi= negated (not both), we can say either: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d5"/> la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. @@ -460,37 +460,37 @@ la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> sein logical connective to exchange sentences = The following example illustrates the use of=20 - se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. T= he normal use of=20 - se is to (in effect) transpose places of a brid= i, as explained in=20 + se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The norma= l use of=20 + se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as ex= plained in=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11"/> la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 - na and=20 - se are present, which is legal but never necess= ary,=20 - na would come before=20 - se. + na and=20 + se are present, which is legal but never necessary,=20 + na would come before=20 + se. JA selma'o I se= lma'o = ijekssyntax of The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is: .i [na] [se] JA [nai] where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
Forethought bridi connection =20 =20 @@ -526,30 +526,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d3"/> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). GI selma'o GA s= elma'o=20 - ga is the cmavo which represents the=20 + ga is the cmavo which represents the=20 A truth function in selma'o GA= . The word=20 - gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitute= s its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having = any content of its own. The English translation of=20 - ga ... gi is=20 + gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its ow= n selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any cont= ent of its own. The English translation of=20 + ga ... gi is=20 either ... or, but in the English form the truth functi= on is specified both by the word=20 either and by the word=20 or: not so in Lojban. I selma'o iregarding forethought bridi connection= forethought bridi connectio= nas grammatically one sentence= Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not have any= =20 =20 - .i in them. The forethought construct binds up = the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned. + i in them. The forethought construct binds up the two b= ridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned. Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d4"/> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -561,51 +561,51 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5"/> gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman= . It is worth emphasizing that=20 does not assert that James = is (or is not) a woman. The=20 - gu which indicates that=20 - la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is unfor= tunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected. + gu which indicates that=20 + la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is= unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected. Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expre= ssed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as=20 if ... then ...: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d6"/> ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is not a man, or James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. GA selma'o gana= i nai<= /primary>placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted w= ith forethought naiplacement in forethought bridi connecti= on contrasted with afterthought Note the placement = of the=20 - nai in=20 + nai in=20 . When added to afterthought= selma'o such as JA, a following=20 - nai negates the second bridi, to which it is ad= jacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following=20 - nai negates the first bridi instead. + nai negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. = Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following=20 + nai negates the first bridi instead. logical connectiv= esnegated first sentence as a potential problem for un= derstanding Why does English insist on forethought = in the translation of=20 ? Possibly because it would = be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (w= hich, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which= involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic= understanding, when expressed using afterthought. if =E2=80=A6 then= logical connectives contrasted with other translations= It must be reiterated here that not every use of E= nglish=20 if ... then is properly translated by=20 =20 - .inaja or=20 - ganai ... gi; anything with implications of tim= e needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in= =20 + .inaja or=20 + ganai ... gi; anything with implications = of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discus= sed in=20 . Causal sentences like=20 If you feed the pig, then it will grow are not logical = connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using=20 =20 - rinka as the selbri joining two event abstracti= ons, thus: + rinka as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thu= s: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7"/> le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of= (it will grow). @@ -618,37 +618,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/> gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. GI selma'o gina= i How can the second bridi be negated? By adding=20 - -nai to the=20 - gi. + -nai to the=20 + gi. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d9"/> go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman. Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. GI selma'o gikdefinition A compound cmavo based o= n=20 - gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 + gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 =20 - gi itself and=20 - ginai. + gi itself and=20 + ginai. Further examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d10"/> ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman. @@ -663,21 +663,21 @@ GA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= G= A selma'o <= primary>ganai <= primary>gekssyntax of The synt= ax of geks is: [se] GA [nai] nai= GI selma'o<= /primary> gi= giks<= /primary>syntax of and of giks (which ar= e not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought conn= ection) is: =20 =20 =20 - gi [nai] + gi [nai]
sumti connection =20 bridi logical con= nectioncompared with sumti logical connections sumti logic= al connectioncompared with bridi logical connections sumti= logical connectionrationale for sumti logical connection<= /primary> Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible= logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that t= wo bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d1"/> @@ -732,37 +732,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d5"/> ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. A selma'o se writin= g conventionin eks na writing conventionin eks Of course, eks include all the same patte= rns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When=20 - na or=20 - se is part of an ek, a special writing conventi= on is invoked, as in the following example: + na or=20 + se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is in= voked, as in the following example: A selma'o na.a<= /primary> FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6"/> la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci John only if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market only if Alice does. Note the period in=20 - na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and the= refore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all = connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must = still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the=20 - na and=20 - a would tend to run together. + na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, a= nd therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to writ= e all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause= must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the=20 + na and=20 + a would tend to run together.
More than two propositions logical connectiv= esmore than 2 sentences So far= we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. Ho= w about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is= yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions. logical connectiv= esassociative Of the four prim= itive truth functions=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U, all but=20 O have the same truth values n= o matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,<= /para> @@ -858,161 +858,161 @@ is not equivalent to=20 , but is instead a valid tra= nslation into Lojban, using forethought, of=20 .
Grouping of afterthought connectives BO selma'o bo boin logical connectives logical connectionw= ith boprecedence logical connectivesg= rouping with bo There are several ways in Lojban to= render=20 using afterthought only. Th= e simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 - bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several func= tions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short sc= ope. In particular, if=20 - bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a gra= mmatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping = rule. Connections marked with=20 - bo are interpreted before connections not so ma= rked.=20 + bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in= Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In = particular, if=20 + bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatical= ly distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Co= nnections marked with=20 + bo are interpreted before connections not so marked.=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d1"/> mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la= meris. I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary. The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the L= ojban marks far more clearly: the=20 I like Martha and=20 I like Mary sentences are joined by=20 - .ija first, before the result is joined to=20 + .ija first, before the result is joined t= o=20 I like John by=20 - .ije. + .ije. =20 Eks can have=20 - bo attached in exactly the same way, so that=20 + bo attached in exactly the same way, so that=20 is equivalent in meaning to= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d2"/> mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris. bo and forethough= t connectives <= primary>forethought connectives and bo Forethought co= nnectives, however, never can be suffixed with=20 - bo, for every use of forethought connectives cl= early indicates the intended pattern of grouping. + bo, for every use of forethought connectives clearly in= dicates the intended pattern of grouping. =20 What happens if=20 - bo is used on both connectives, giving them the= same high precedence, as in=20 + bo is used on both connectives, giving them the same hi= gh precedence, as in=20 ? <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d3"/> mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris. BO selma'o logical = connectivesright-grouping with bo bor= ight-grouping Does this wind up meaning the same as= =20 and=20 ? Not at all. A second rule = relating to=20 - bo is that where several=20 - bo-marked connectives are used in succession, t= he normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. A= s a result,=20 + bo is that where several=20 + bo-marked connectives are used in succession, the norma= l Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a resu= lt,=20 =20 in fact means the same as= =20 and=20 . This rule may be occasiona= lly exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in writi= ng intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives mark= ed with=20 - bo should be avoided. + bo should be avoided. KEhE selma'o<= /primary> KE= selma'o TUhU selma'o TUhE selma'o ke'e ke tu'u tu'e complex logical connectives<= secondary>grouping with parentheses logical connectiongrou= ping strategies for complex cases contrasted complex logical connectiongrouping strategies contrasted The use= of=20 - bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connectio= ns of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations o= f=20 + bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of mo= re than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of=20 and=20 , parentheses were used to c= larify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two s= ets of them actually.=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discu= ssed later. (=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e are also used in other roles in the langua= ge, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: + tu'e and=20 + tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discussed lat= er. (=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e are also used in other roles in the language, but = always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d4"/> I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. bo<= /indexterm> BO selma'o complex= logical connectivesgrouping with bo where the semantics tells us that the instances of=20 and are meant to have higher precedence than that of=20 if. If we wish to express=20 in afterthought, we can say= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d5"/> mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo d= o prami mi I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. marking two of the ijeks with=20 - bo for high precedence. (The first=20 - bo is not strictly necessary, because of the le= ft-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.) + bo for high precedence. (The first=20 + bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-group= ing rule, and is shown here in brackets.) complex logical c= onnectivesgrouping with parentheses But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d6"/> tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u .ijanai tu'e mi prami = do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] ( I kiss you and you kiss me ) if ( I love you and you love= me ). where the=20 - tu'e ... tu'u pairs set off the structure. The = cmavo=20 - tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second = occurrence in=20 + tu'e ... tu'u pairs set off the structure= . The cmavo=20 + tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second occurren= ce in=20 is bracketed, because all t= erminators may be elided at the end of a text. In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parent= heses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought materia= l may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these t= wo advantages apply to=20 - bo grouping. In general, afterthought construct= ions trade generality for simplicity. + bo grouping. In general, afterthought constructions tra= de generality for simplicity. Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of=20 - tu'e ... tu'u parentheses may actually be left = off altogether, producing: + tu'e ... tu'u parentheses may actually be= left off altogether, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d7"/> mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do= prami mi [tu'u] I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me = ). What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d8"/> I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and t= he office. KE selma'o ke sumtibeginning with "ke" <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">logical connectionof sumtirestriction on ke logical connectionof sumtigrouping with parentheses Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to=20 , would seem to be the right= approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not beg= in with=20 - ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omi= tted, producing=20 + ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, pr= oducing=20 , which is instead parallel = to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d9"/> mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke= 'e] I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the = office ). KE selma'o ke ke in s= umti groupingwhere allowed If = sumti were allowed to begin with=20 - ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 - ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after= a logical connective. This rule does not apply to=20 - tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 + ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 + ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 + tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. German rich manexample Now we have enough facil= ities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 I am German, rich, and a man =E2=80=93 or else none of these. The following paraphrase has the correct meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10"/> [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo = mi nanmu [tu'u] @@ -1049,39 +1049,39 @@ mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. GIhA selma'o<= /primary> gi= 'e com= pound bridilogical connection of bridi-taildefinition gihekdefinition A= s=20 indicates, giheks are used = in afterthought to create compound bridi;=20 =20 =20 - gi'e is the gihek corresponding to=20 + gi'e is the gihek corresponding to=20 and. The actual phrases=20 - klama le zarci and=20 - nelci la djan. that the gihek connects are know= n as=20 + klama le zarci and=20 + nelci la djan. that the gihek connects ar= e known as=20 bridi-tails, because they represent (in this use) the= =20 tail end of a bridi, including the selbri and any follo= wing sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d3"/> mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci I am-rich and go-to the market. In=20 , the first bridi-tail is=20 - ricfu, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-ta= il is=20 - klama le zarci, a selbri with one following sum= ti. + ricfu, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is=20 + klama le zarci, a selbri with one followi= ng sumti. compound bridimore than one sumti in common Sup= pose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d4"/> mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu do I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from= -you. @@ -1091,90 +1091,90 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d5"/> fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units. tail-termsdefinition logical connectivesbridi-tail con= nection where the=20 - fi does not have an exact English translation b= ecause it merely places=20 - do in the third place of both=20 - lebna and=20 - dunda. However, a form that preserves natural s= umti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also = allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as = tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of= =20 + fi does not have an exact English translation because i= t merely places=20 + do in the third place of both=20 + lebna and=20 + dunda. However, a form that preserves natural sumti ord= er also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow su= mti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-ter= ms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of=20 therefore is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d6"/> mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from yo= u. VAU selma'o vau= bridi= -tailseliding vau in compound bridi with more than one sum= ti in commonwith vau The=20 - vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bri= di-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable= =20 - vau, but only in connection with compound bridi= is it ever necessary to express this=20 + vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail = from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable=20 + vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it e= ver necessary to express this=20 =20 - vau. Thus: + vau. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d7"/> mi klama le zarci [vau] I go-to the market. has a single elided=20 - vau, and=20 + vau, and=20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d8"/> mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau] where the double=20 - vau at the end of=20 + vau at the end of=20 terminates both the right-h= and bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms. logical connectiv= esobservative sentence connection A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete senten= ces, the Lojban observative: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d9"/> klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. logical connectio= nof observativesrelation of firs= t places Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi un= derlying=20 , this compound bridi does n= ot necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the pr= esence of an explicit x1 (other than=20 =20 - zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can forc= e the goer and the walker to be identical. + zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can force the go= er and the walker to be identical. relation of first= places in logical connection of observativesrationale= A strong argument for this convention is provided = by analysis of the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d10"/> klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from= -Rome. If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi = were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), = the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the = same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York = is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting=20 - da, meaning roughly=20 + da, meaning roughly=20 something, into the x1 place cures the problem: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d11"/> da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom= . Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix and is-a-goer = to-New York from-Rome. @@ -1182,47 +1182,47 @@ =20 =20 [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.
Multiple compound bridi =20 compound bridimultiple with bo Giheks can be co= mbined with=20 - bo in the same way as eks: + bo in the same way as eks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1"/> mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris= . I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ). compound bridimultiple with ke=E2=80=A6ke'e is = equivalent in meaning to=20 and=20 . Likewise,=20 - ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after giheks:<= /para> + ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after gi= heks: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2"/> mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le cku= le gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e] I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, or walk-to the = school and walk-to the office. KEhE selma'o<= /primary> ke= logic= al connectionof bridi-tailsrestr= iction on ke <= primary>multiple compound bridirestriction on ke is the gihek version of=20 . The same rule about using= =20 - ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a connec= tive applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 + ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a = connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails= in=20 cannot be explicitly groupe= d; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them. compound bridiseparate tail-terms for bridi-tails Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its = own set of tail-terms: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3"/> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan. = .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the boo= k to John or I take the book from John. @@ -1234,30 +1234,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d4"/> mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau = la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book t= o/from John. The literal English translation in=20 is almost unintelligible, b= ut the Lojban is perfectly grammatical.=20 - mi fills the x1 place of all three selbri;=20 - lo rupnu is the x2 of=20 - dejni, whereas=20 - le cukta is a tail-term shared between=20 - dunda and=20 - lebna;=20 - la djan. is a tail-term shared by=20 - dejni and by=20 - dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater clari= ty is probably achieved by moving=20 - la djan. to the beginning of the sentence, as i= n=20 + mi fills the x1 place of all three selbri;=20 + lo rupnu is the x2 of=20 + dejni, whereas=20 + le cukta is a tail-term shared between=20 + dunda and=20 + lebna;=20 + la djan. is a tail-term shared by=20 + dejni and by=20 + dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater= clarity is probably achieved by moving=20 + la djan. to the beginning of the sentence= , as in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d5"/> fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna va= u le cukta To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give = or take the book. @@ -1278,21 +1278,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d7"/> mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan. I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like Joh= n. negating a foreth= ought-connected bridi-tail pair negating a forethought-connected sentence pair The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated a= s a whole by prefixing=20 - na: + na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d8"/> mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani [False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house. compound bridiseparate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails= Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the eq= uivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought= equivalent of=20 @@ -1339,26 +1339,26 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d1"/> I go to the market from the office and to the house from the s= chool. =20 PEhE selma'o<= /primary> pe= 'e CEhE selma'o ce'e logical connectiontermsets termsetformation termdefinition T= he Lojban version of=20 requires two termsets joine= d by a logical connective. A=20 term is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense o= r modal tag such as=20 - pu or=20 - bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linkin= g terms together by inserting the cmavo=20 - ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Fu= rthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the = cmavo=20 - pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the = combination of=20 + pu or=20 + bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms = together by inserting the cmavo=20 + ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermor= e, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo=20 + pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combinat= ion of=20 =20 - pe'e and a jek as a=20 + pe'e and a jek as a=20 =20 pehejek, I suppose.) to the market fro= m the office FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2"/> mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je le zdani ce'e le ckul= e I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-th= e house [plus] from-the school. @@ -1394,70 +1394,70 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d5"/> mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office= . unequal termset c= onnectioncompared with compound bridi connection with = unequal separate bridi-tails So=20 - le briju is your origin but my destination, and= thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of=20 - klama simultaneously! This is legal because eve= n though there is only one selbri,=20 - klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed h= ere. In addition,=20 - mi in=20 + le briju is your origin but my destinatio= n, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of=20 + klama simultaneously! This is legal because even though= there is only one selbri,=20 + klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In = addition,=20 + mi in=20 is serving as a termset con= taining only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with = tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d6"/> mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office. means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the= office;=20 =20 - le briju is the x3 place of=20 - klama and the x2 place of=20 - dzukla. + le briju is the x3 place of=20 + klama and the x2 place of=20 + dzukla. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i forethought termsetslogical connection of logic= al connectionof forethought termsets Forethought termsets also exist, and use=20 - nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning an= d=20 - nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) t= o signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they si= mply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termse= t, use a gek, with the gek just after the=20 - nu'i, and an extra=20 - nu'u just before the gik: + nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and=20 + nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal= the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit= side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a= gek, with the gek just after the=20 + nu'i, and an extra=20 + nu'u just before the gik: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d7"/> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule = [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [jo= int] and to-the house from-the school [end termset]. Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 - nu'i is used. + nu'i is used. The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 , , and .
Logical connection within tanru logical connectiv= es in tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical connec= tive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is pos= sible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru = that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 - blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a= blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is b= oth blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 - blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 - blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within t= he tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 + blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything tha= t is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least= , is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 + blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 + blanu je bolci, using a jek connective wi= thin the tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were always = prefixed by=20 - pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Her= e is a pair of examples: + pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d1"/> ti blanu zdani This is-a-blue type-of house. @@ -1526,46 +1526,46 @@ la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blu= e team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make s= uch logical manipulations impossible. =20 BO selma'o bo logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= bo It suffices to note here, then, a few purely gra= mmatical points about tanru logical connection.=20 =20 - bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the = same rules: + bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rul= es: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8"/> la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi =20 Terry is rich and ( male or female ). KE selma'o ke logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= ke=20 The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 - ke both before and after a logical connective:<= /para> + ke both before and after a logical connective: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9"/> la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi= [ke'e] Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female). where the first=20 - ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogether by t= he rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the las= t instance of=20 - ke'e may be elided. + ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogethe= r by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, t= he last instance of=20 + ke'e may be elided. JA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= n= a jeks= syntax of The syntax of jeks i= s: [na] [se] JA [nai] parallel to eks and giheks. =20 GUhA selma'o<= /primary> guhek<= /primary>definition forethought tanru connection Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead.= Guheks have exactly the same form as geks: =20 =20 GUhA selma'o<= /primary> na= i = se guh= ekssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1625,63 +1625,63 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d14"/> mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu I see a man and woman. But=20 means that you see one thin= g which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A=20 - nanmu je ninmu is a manwoman, a presumably non-= existent creature who is both a=20 - nanmu and a=20 - ninmu. + nanmu je ninmu is a manwoman, a presumabl= y non-existent creature who is both a=20 + nanmu and a=20 + ninmu.
Truth questions and connective questions =20 So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. truth questionssimple The simplest kind of ques= tion is of the type=20 Is it true that ... where some statement follows. This = type is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1"/> Is it true that Fido is a dog? Is Fido a dog? UI selma'o xu Note the two formulations. English truth questions can= always be formed by prefixing=20 Is is true that to the beginning of a statement; there = is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its = subject.=20 Is Fido a dog? is the truth question corresponding to= =20 Fido is a dog. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is t= o prefix the cmavo=20 - xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement: + xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d2"/> xu la faidon. gerku Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog? and=20 are equivalent in meaning.<= /para> truth questionsanswering "no" truth questionsanswering "yes" truth questionsas yes-or-no que= stions A truth question can be answered=20 yes or=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of= the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 - go'i and of saying=20 + go'i and of saying=20 no is=20 - nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explaine= d in=20 + nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are ex= plained in=20 =20 .) In answer to=20 , the possible answers are:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3"/> go'i Fido is a dog. @@ -1709,33 +1709,33 @@ Superficially,=20 seems like a truth question= with the underlying statement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d6"/> Fido is a dog or a cat. By translating=20 into Lojban and prefixing= =20 - xu to signal a truth question, we get: + xu to signal a truth question, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d7"/> xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)? Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate= answer would be=20 - go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answ= er would be=20 - nago'i. + go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would= be=20 + nago'i. =20 But that is not what an English-speaker who utters=20 is asking! The true signifi= cance of=20 is that the speaker desires= to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presu= pposed that only one is true). questionsconnection Lojban has an elegant mecha= nism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in = English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lo= jban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done b= y using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the log= ical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table: ge'i =20 GA @@ -1761,23 +1761,23 @@ JA tanru connective question ji A sumti connective question A selma'o JA se= lma'o GUhA selma'o GIhA selma'o GA selma'o ji je'i gu'i gi'i ge'i connective question cmavodeparture from regularity of (This l= ist unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for= logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of t= he cmavo ending in=20 - -i which is not used for a truth function, but= =20 - gi and=20 - .i were not available, and different cmavo had = to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-conn= ective cmavo assignments.) + -i which is not used for a truth function= , but=20 + gi and=20 + i were not available, and different cmavo had to be cho= sen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cm= avo assignments.) connective questi= onsanswering One correct trans= lation of=20 employs a question gihek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8"/> la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu =20 Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat? @@ -1818,39 +1818,39 @@ nagi'o gi'onai Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which)= . is correct but uncooperativ= e. afterthought conn= ectivesas complete grammatical utterance connectivesas complete grammatical utterance As= usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the q= uestion. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is gramma= tical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it = to connect. The answer=20 - gi'e, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat,= is impossible in the real world, but for: + gi'e, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impo= ssible in the real world, but for: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d13"/> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function= ?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? =20 coffee or teaexample the answer=20 - .e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plau= sible, if not necessarily polite. + e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if= not necessarily polite. afterthought conn= ectioncontrasted with forethought for grammatical utte= rances forethought connectioncontrasted with afterthought = for grammatical utterances forethought connectivesas ungra= mmatical utterance connectivesas ungrammatical utterance The forethought questions=20 - ge'i and=20 + ge'i and=20 =20 - gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity fo= rbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers =E2=80=93 they= sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 + gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers =E2=80=93 they sound l= ike the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 =20 =20 is the forethought version = of=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14"/> do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi gi loi tcati @@ -1877,42 +1877,42 @@ do cadzu gi'i bajra =20 You walk [or?] run? connective questi= on answerscontrasted with other languages<= /indexterm> However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply = to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. if coffeebring teaexample = Abraham Lincolnexample imperativesand truth truthin imperative sentences bridi connectionuse of imperative= s in bridi connectionuse of truth questions in= Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of = sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the conve= ntion that a truth question is true if the answer is=20 =20 =20 yes and false if the answer is=20 - no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involv= ing the special pro-sumti=20 - ko, which means=20 + no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the = special pro-sumti=20 + ko, which means=20 you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the= command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may= be translated thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d17"/> ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati g= i ko bevri loi ckafi mi If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, an= d if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me. If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me = coffee. UI selma'o ku'i= andcompared with but butcompared with and<= /secondary> In logical terms, however,=20 but is the same as=20 and; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 but is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sente= nce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive = cmavo=20 - ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 + ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 =20 , to the logical=20 - .ije.) + .ije.)
Non-logical connectives andas non-logical connective Way back in=20 , the point was ma= de that not every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 =20 and of: @@ -1923,166 +1923,166 @@ carried pianoexample massjoining elements into a Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that Joh= n carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d2"/> John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano. JOI selma'o joi= which would mean that each of them carried the piano= by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomeno= n as a=20 mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 - joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or mor= e components into a mass: + joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more compon= ents into a mass: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d3"/> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. =20 components contra= sted with massin properties of= mass contrasted with compon= entsin properties of supervisingas a = contribution to mass action=20 covers the case mentioned, = where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all= the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because= the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can l= ead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then J= ohn-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in=20 =20 . JA selma'o A se= lma'o JOI selma'o non-logical connectionin tanrudistinguishing from connection of sumti non-logical connection= of sumtidistinguishing from connection in = tanru joi grammarcontrasted with jeks joi grammarcontrasted with eks non-logical connectionand elida= bility of terminators Grammatically,=20 - joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) o= r between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid = for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: + joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or betwee= n two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in t= he form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: LE selma'o KU s= elma'o le ku terminatorseliding ku in non-logical connections FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4"/> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. The cmavo=20 - ku is the elidable terminator for=20 - le, which can almost always be elided, but not = in this case. If the first=20 - ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules wou= ld see=20 - le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru comp= onent is to follow; since the second=20 - le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error r= esults. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek s= ignals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguousl= y. + ku is the elidable terminator for=20 + le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 + ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see= =20 + le nanmu joi and assume that another tanr= u component is to follow; since the second=20 + le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. = No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a= following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. JOI selma'o joikdefinition Single or compound cma= vo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the n= ames for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect= bridi-tails. blue and redexample mixed withexample tanru connectionconnotation of non-logical In tanr= u,=20 - joi has the connotation=20 + joi has the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5"/> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball. This is a blue and red ball. =20 Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly = blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue so= mething has to be to count as=20 wholly blue is an unsettled question, though. A=20 - blanu zdani may be so even though not every par= t of it is blue.) + blanu zdani may be so even though not eve= ry part of it is blue.) There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used i= n the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as y= et in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those = definitions are shown in the following table: - A joi B + A joi B the mass with components A and B - A ce B + A ce B the set with elements A and B - A ce'o B + A ce'o B the sequence with elements A and B in order - A sece'o B + A sece'o B the sequence with elements B and A in order - A jo'u B + A jo'u B A and B considered jointly - A fa'u B + A fa'u B A and B respectively - A sefa'u B + A sefa'u B B and A respectively - A jo'e B + A jo'e B the union of sets A and B - A ku'a B + A ku'a B the intersection of sets A and B - A pi'u B + A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B - A sepi'u B + A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A JOI selma'o se<= /primary> se= pi'u pi'u ku'a = jo'e sefa'u fa'u jo'u sece'o ce'o ce joi JOI selma'o joiksuse of &= quot;se" in seas grammatical in JOI compounds The cmavo=20 - se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but onl= y useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joi= ks: + se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful= with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6"/> mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. choose fromexample masscontrasted with set in distribu= tion of properties setcontrasted with mass in distribution= of properties setas specified by members The x3 place of=20 - cuxna is a set from which the choice is being m= ade. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its memb= ers. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its m= embers' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), b= ut the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain = set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositi= onal logic is quite enough for one chapter! + cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A s= et is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unl= ike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' = properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the r= ats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theo= ry (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional log= ic is quite enough for one chapter! =20 ce<= /indexterm> setby listing members with ce In=20 we specify that set by list= ing the members with=20 - ce joining them. + ce joining them. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d7"/> ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan. =20 This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John. This is a list of you, me, and John. listexample setcontrasted with ordered sequence masscontrasted with ordered sequence ordered sequencecontrasted with mass ordered sequencecontrasted with= set ordered sequenceby listing members sequenceas an abstract list listas a physical object sequencecontrasted with list listcontrasted wit= h sequence The x2 place of=20 - liste is a sequence of the things which are men= tioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 - lo liste means a physical object such as a groc= ery list: a purely abstract list is=20 - lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sumti con= nected by=20 - ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped t= ogether in a set or a mass. + liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned i= n the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 + lo liste means a physical object such as = a grocery list: a purely abstract list is=20 + lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sum= ti connected by=20 + ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together = in a set or a mass. =20 jo'u jo'u= result of connection with jo'ucontrasted with c= e'o = jo'ucontrasted with ce jo'ucontrasted= with joi individuals into setby non-logical connection indivi= duals into massby non-logical connection non-logical conne= ctionof individuals into set = non-logical connectionof individuals into mass So=20 - joi,=20 - ce, and=20 - ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected = are taken to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a se= t, or a sequence respectively. The cmavo=20 + joi,=20 + ce, and=20 + ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are take= n to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a = sequence respectively. The cmavo=20 =20 - jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern= : the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals = =E2=80=93 but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James an= d George are brothers is: + jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the su= mti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals =E2=80= =93 but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and Geor= ge are brothers is: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8"/> la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. James is-the-brother-of George. @@ -2094,68 +2094,68 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d9"/> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna James and George is-a-brother. since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brothe= r and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the=20 - .e is changed to=20 - jo'u, however, the meaning of=20 + e is changed to=20 + jo'u, however, the meaning of=20 =20 is preserved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d10"/> la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna =20 James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.= =20 The tanru=20 - remei bruna is not strictly necessary in this s= entence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and Ge= orge are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, w= e could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of=20 + remei bruna is not strictly necessary in = this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James = and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternativ= ely, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of=20 =20 - remei is a mass with two components, leading to= : + remei is a mass with two components, lead= ing to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d11"/> la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome. joi= where=20 - joi is used to create the necessary mass. + joi is used to create the necessary mass. fa'u respectivelyexample respectivelyspecifying with fa'= u co= nnectionnon-distributed Likewi= se,=20 - fa'u can be used to put two individuals togethe= r where order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 - fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: + fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where = order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 + fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d12"/> la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas. James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-or= der-with Martha. James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively. .econtrasted with fa'u fa'ucontrasted with .e Here the information carried by the English adverb=20 respectively, namely that James loves Mary and George l= oves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of=20 - fa'u. If both uses of=20 - fa'u were to be changed to=20 - .e, we would get: + fa'u. If both uses of=20 + fa'u were to be changed to=20 + e, we would get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d13"/> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas. James and George love Mary and Martha. which can be transformed to four bridi: @@ -2190,25 +2190,25 @@ la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi James and-respectively George love two sisters. which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, = though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.
More about non-logical connectives pi'u ku'a jo'e cross-pr= oductof sets intersectionof sets unionof sets set operations The final three= JOI cmavo,=20 - jo'e,=20 + jo'e,=20 =20 - ku'a, and=20 + ku'a, and=20 =20 - pi'u, are probably only useful when talking exp= licitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually cal= led=20 + pi'u, are probably only useful when talking explicitly = about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called=20 =20 union,=20 =20 intersection, and=20 =20 cross product (also known as=20 =20 Cartesian product). The union of two sets is a set cont= aining all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets= is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross produ= ct of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered= pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single ele= ment from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following= examples will help: =20 =20 @@ -2252,48 +2252,48 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d4"/> lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small. The following example uses=20 - se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of two el= ements: + se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of = two elements: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d5"/> la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas. = cu prami se remei James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha are-= lover type-of-pairs. andcontrasted with cross-product cross-productcontrast= ed with and <= primary>econtrasted with pi'u = pi'ucon= trasted with .e means that each of the pairs James/= Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefo= re it is similar in meaning to=20 ; however, that example spea= ks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa. JOI selma'o non-log= ical connectivesgrouping joiksgroupin= g Joiks may be combined with=20 - bo or with=20 - ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows= grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in comp= lete parallelism with logical connections: + bo or with=20 + ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows groupin= g of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete par= allelism with logical connections: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d6"/> mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass = type-of-two-set asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . termsetsnon-logical connection of non-logical connectionof termsets Non-logical connection is permitted a= t the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumt= i or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place s= tructure of=20 =20 - casnu is: + casnu is: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: discuss in langua= geexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7"/> @@ -2322,67 +2322,67 @@ la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u b= ai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u] John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-lan= guage Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George. John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, = respectively. associates speaking in Lojb= an with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not = know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compul= sion. =20 JOI selma'o I s= elma'o sequence of eventsexpressing non-time-related sequenc= es i= ce'ocontrasted with .ibabo sentencesc= onnecting non-logically non-logical connectivessentence ijoik<= /primary>definition Joiks may be prefixe= d with=20 - .i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logica= lly connect sentences. The ijoik=20 + i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically conne= ct sentences. The ijoik=20 =20 - .ice'o indicates that the event of the second b= ridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relation= ship (which is handled with a tense): + .ice'o indicates that the event of the se= cond bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time re= lationship (which is handled with a tense): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d10"/> mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci l= e karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u =20 I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the = quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the = dog. ) List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o list of things to doexample<= /indexterm> to-do listexample tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on listsuse of tu'e/tu'u in=20 represents a list of things= to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a= sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the = dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u as general brackets around the whole list.= This is related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is= related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 , because= there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase=20 - mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The brackets= effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 - di'e, which means=20 + mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The br= ackets effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 + di'e, which means=20 =20 the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 - .ijoi is used to connect sentences that represe= nt the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equiva= lent of=20 + .ijoi is used to connect sentences that r= epresent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban = equivalent of=20 Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned= would join the events=20 Fran hit her head and=20 Fran fell out of the boat with=20 - .ijoi. + .ijoi. nai= scalar negation= of non-logical connective non-logical connectiveseffect of = nai on joikseffect of nai on naieffect on= joiks The following=20 - nai, if present, does not negate either of the = things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (l= ogical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation: + nai, if present, does not negate either of the things t= o be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical o= r non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d11"/> mi jo'unai do cu remei I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome The result of=20 - mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not a mass= , therefore=20 + mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not = a mass, therefore=20 =20 - jo'u is not applicable;=20 + jo'u is not applicable;=20 =20 - joi would be the correct connective. + joi would be the correct connective. connective answer= snon-logical connective questionsnon= -logical There is no joik question cmavo as such; h= owever, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logic= al connective question, as in the following exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d12"/> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [what connectiv= e?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? =20 @@ -2391,109 +2391,109 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d13"/> joi Mixed-mass-and. Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together). - ughexample coffee mixed with teaexample Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.) + ughexample coffee mixed with teaexample Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)=
Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</ti= tle> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</prim= ary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI= selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><prima= ry>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as endpoints</secondary></indext= erm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives= </primary><secondary>intervals</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the n= on-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-connectives"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-continued"/>, there are three oth= er connectives which can appear in joiks:=20 - <jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase>, and=20 - <jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo = are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. T= he cmavo=20 + <valsi>bi'i</valsi>,=20 + <valsi>bi'o</valsi>, and=20 + <valsi>mi'i</valsi>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used= to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo= =20 =20 - <jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> is correct if the endpoints are independen= t of order, whereas=20 - <jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase> or=20 - <jbophrase>sebi'o</jbophrase> are used when order matters.</para> + <valsi>bi'i</valsi> is correct if the endpoints are independent of ord= er, whereas=20 + <valsi>bi'o</valsi> or=20 + <oldjbophrase>sebi'o</oldjbophrase> are used when order matters.</para= > =20 <para>An example of=20 - <jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> in sumti connection:</para> + <valsi>bi'i</valsi> in sumti connection:</para> =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-sHhA"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1"/> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20 bi'i between Dresde= n and Frankfurtexample non-logical connectivesun-ordered intervals In=20 , it is all the same whether= I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresd= en, so=20 =20 - bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. Th= e sumti=20 - la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into the x2= place of=20 - sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the int= erval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing o= n the whole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 - sanli specifies a surface which is typically la= rger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) + bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti= =20 + la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into = the x2 place of=20 + sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval sp= ecifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the wh= ole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 + sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in = extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2"/> mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac. I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. bi'o from one to tw= o o'clockexample non-logical connectivesordered intervals In=20 , on the other hand, it is e= ssential that=20 - la pacac. comes before=20 - la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-= hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval,= the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. + la pacac. comes before=20 + la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (= or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an int= erval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to: sebi'o FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3"/> mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac. =20 I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] Fi= rst-hour. English cannot readily express=20 - sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by re= versing the two sumti. + sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood= by reversing the two sumti. =20 mi'i intervalsexpressed as center and distance Th= e third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 - mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a differe= nt viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. F= or example: + mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a different viewp= oint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For examp= le: =20 bomb destroyed fi= fty milesexample FIXME: TAG SP= OT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4"/> le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno =20 The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose di= stance, or radius, is fifty miles. GAhO selma'o<= /primary> ke= 'i ga'o = endpointsinclusion in interval= intervalinclusion of endpoints intervalopen intervalclosed <= primary>open interval closed interval In=20 , is it possible that I am s= tanding in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o B= IhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or= excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo=20 - ga'o and=20 - ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the s= tatus of the endpoints:=20 - ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 - ke'i that it is excluded: + ga'o and=20 + ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of= the endpoints:=20 + ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 + ke'i that it is excluded: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d5"/> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both= . =20 @@ -2524,58 +2524,58 @@ mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both= . =20 between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO selma'ogramm= ar of As these examples should make clear, the GAhO= cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically a= djacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and= the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have ju= st one GAhO. ke'ietymology of ga'oetymology of (Etymologically,=20 - ga'o is derived from=20 - ganlo, which means=20 + ga'o is derived from=20 + ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 - ke'i from=20 - kalri, which means=20 + ke'i from=20 + kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI selma'ogrammar of BIhI joiks are grammatic= al anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijo= iks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses. =20 intervalseffect of nai on naieffect on intervals negated i= ntervalsmeaning of Negated int= ervals, marked with a=20 - -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an inte= rval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respe= ct to some understood scale): + -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate a= n interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with= respect to some understood scale): except from 10 to= 12example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. =20 You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. =20 The complete syntax of joiks is: GAhO selma'o<= /primary> BI= hI selma'o = JOI selma'o nai se joikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO JOI selma'o GI = selma'o gi joigikdefinition intervalsforethou= ght Notice that the colloquial English translations= of=20 - bi'i and=20 - bi'o have forethought form:=20 + bi'i and=20 + bi'o have forethought form:=20 between ... and for=20 - bi'i, and=20 + bi'i, and=20 from ... to for=20 - bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives ca= n be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the fo= rethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by= suffixing=20 + bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be exp= ressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethough= t logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixi= ng=20 =20 - gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally ca= lled a=20 - joigik; the syntax of joigiks is any of: + gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a= =20 + joigik; the syntax of joigiks is any of:<= /para> =20 =20 GAhO selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o <= primary>BIhI selma'o GI selma'o nai se joigikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI joigiks= connection types Joigiks may be used to = non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.<= /para> in forethought becomes: carry the pianoexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -2583,23 +2583,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. =20 The first=20 - gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 + gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 =20 - gi is the regular gik that separates the two th= ings being connected in all forethought forms. + gi is the regular gik that separates the two things bei= ng connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed in foretho= ught as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11"/> mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). @@ -2610,25 +2610,25 @@
Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso mathematical expr= essionsconnectives in non-logical connectionin mathematical expressions logical connectionin ma= thematical expressions Lojban has a separate gramma= r embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expression= s (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 =20 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are o= perands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. JOI selma'o GUh= A selma'o <= primary>JA selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o BO selma'o bo connecting operatorswith bo in connective boin joiks for operators boin jeks for operators guheksconnecting oper= ators jeksconnecting operators operatorsc= onnecting operandsconnecting geksconnecti= ng operands <= primary>eksconnecting operands= Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with ge= ks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterth= ought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components.= (However, jeks and joiks with=20 =20 - bo are not allowed for operators.) This paralle= lism is no accident. + bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is = no accident. ke'e ke bo BO selma= 'o KE selma'o operatorsanalogue of tanru in connecting operatorswith ke in connective connecting operandswith ke in connective connecting operandswith bo in conn= ective In addition, eks with=20 - bo and with=20 - ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically = connected operands, and=20 - ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operat= ors. + bo and with=20 + ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logi= cally connected operands, and=20 + ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logic= ally connected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the = operators. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 , and contain many= mekso features not explained in this chapter. exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci @@ -2644,23 +2644,23 @@ vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. ve'o Note that the mekso in=20 and=20 are being used as quantifie= rs. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed i= n=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The= right parenthesis mark,=20 - ve'o, is an elidable terminator. + vei and=20 + ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right p= arenthesis mark,=20 + ve'o, is an elidable terminator. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d3"/> li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4. 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. @@ -2672,64 +2672,64 @@ li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. ke'i ga'o bi'i mathemat= ical intervals Non-logical connection with joiks or j= oigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use fo= r this construct is to connect operands with=20 =20 - bi'i to create mathematical intervals: + bi'i to create mathematical intervals: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d5"/> li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one =20 ce'o zero to oneexample compound subscript You can also= combine two operands with=20 - ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, t= o make a compound subscript: + ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6"/> xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 x sub (=20 b sequence=20 d) xb,d boi= x{bd}example Note that t= he=20 - boi in=20 + boi in=20 is not elidable, because th= e=20 - xi subscript needs something to attach to. + xi subscript needs something to attach to.
Tenses, modals, and logical connection PU selma'o The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the= logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simulta= neously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interacti= on with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of th= is chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of sel= ma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 - pu,=20 - ca, and=20 - ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the p= resent, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state = the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb= tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is= before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is= generally a=20 - le nu abstraction; see=20 + pu,=20 + ca, and=20 + ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, = and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time= when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses)= ; preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before,= simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is general= ly a=20 + le nu abstraction; see=20 ). logically connect= ed tensesdefinition logical connectioninteraction with tenses The two types of interacti= on between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses an= d tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be use= d between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in te= nse: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1"/> la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru @@ -2784,149 +2784,149 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.<= /gloss> fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 .) However, the tense informati= on =E2=80=93 that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of= my buying food =E2=80=93 can be added to the logical connective as follows= . The=20 - .ije is replaced by=20 - .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 - ba is inserted between=20 - .ije and=20 - bo: + .ije is replaced by=20 + .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 + ba is inserted between=20 + .ije and=20 + bo: ba<= /indexterm> .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja =20 I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-o= f food. Here the=20 - pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the tim= e of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The=20 - ba relates the two items to one another: the se= cond item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omittin= g the=20 - bo; if it were omitted, the=20 - ba and the second=20 - pu would run together to form a compound tense= =20 + pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of bot= h actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The=20 + ba relates the two items to one another: the second ite= m is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the=20 + bo; if it were omitted, the=20 + ba and the second=20 + pu would run together to form a compound tense=20 =20 =20 =20 - bapu applying to the second bridi-tail only. + bapu applying to the second bridi-tail on= ly. BO selma'o A se= lma'o = tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6bo= Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is p= ermitted only in the following situations: Between an ek (or joik) and=20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7"/> la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market. John and Alice go to the market simultaneously. KE selma'o JOI = selma'o KE selma'o A selma'o simultaneouslyexample tensed logical co= nnectivesin joik=E2=80=A6ke <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6ke Between an ek (or= joik) and=20 - ke, as in: + ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d8"/> mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the schoo= l ). I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the sch= ool. BO selma'o GIhA= selma'o and earlierexample tensed logical connectives= in gihek=E2=80=A6bo Between a gihek and= =20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d9"/> mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/t= o you. I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) f= rom you. KE selma'o GIhA= selma'o and then tensed logical connectivesin gihek=E2=80=A6ke Between a gihek and=20 - ke, as in: + ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d10"/> mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. BO selma'o I se= lma'o JA selma'o = and simultaneouslyexample tensed logical connecti= vesin ijoik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6bo Between an ijek (or = ijoik) and=20 =20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu =20 I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. TUhE selma'o<= /primary> I = selma'o JOI selma'o JA selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connec= tivesin ijoik=E2=80=A6tu'e tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6tu'e Between an ije= k (or ijoik) and=20 =20 - tu'e, as in: + tu'e, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. BO selma'o JA s= elma'o JOI selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connectivesin joik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin jek=E2=80=A6bo And finally, between a jek (or= joik) and=20 - bo, as in: + bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d13"/> mi mikce jebabo ricfu I-am-a doctor and [later] rich I am a doctor and future rich person. tu'e ke bo TUhE sel= ma'o KE selma'o BO selma'o doctor and then richexample tu'econtrasted with bo for tensed logical connection bocontrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection ke= contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bocontras= ted with ke for tensed logical connection As can be= seen from=20 and=20 , the choice between=20 - bo and=20 - ke (or=20 - tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two thin= gs to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of cours= e neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information mus= t always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 - bo,=20 - ke, or=20 - tu'e that requires the use of one of these grou= ping cmavo in=20 + bo and=20 + ke (or=20 + tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be= connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neithe= r would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always= be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 + bo,=20 + ke, or=20 + tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cma= vo in=20 and=20 through=20 . mathematical expr= essionstensed connection in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed connectivesin mathematical expressions tensed non-logical connectivesforethought tensed logical connectivesforethought= for= ethought connectiveswith tense= tensed non-logical connecti= ves no= n-logical connectivesincluding tense Non-logical connectives with=20 - bo and=20 - ke can include tense information in exactly the= same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except = as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. = Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in t= heir logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti = and tanru components respectively: + bo and=20 + ke can include tense information in exactly the same wa= y as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted= below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathemat= ical operands and operators can also include tense information in their log= ical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanr= u components respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d14"/> vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room. Three and, later, four students were in the room. @@ -2989,22 +2989,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4"/> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi j= invi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=20 - jinvi requires some sort of evidence, real or f= ancied, unlike=20 - krici). + jinvi requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, = unlike=20 + krici).
Constructs and appropriate connectives connectivestable by constructs connected The fo= llowing table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically o= r non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required fo= r both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) = indicates that tensed connection is permitted. A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not po= ssible. @@ -3083,22 +3083,22 @@ joik -
Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives logical connectiv= estable by truth function value truth functions<= secondary>table of logical connectives The followin= g table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or co= mpound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connec= tive. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example,=20 - se.a means the same as=20 - a, and could be used instead.) + se.a means the same as=20 + a, and could be used instead.) @@ -3106,189 +3106,189 @@ ek jek gihek gek-gik guhek-gik TTTF - .a - ja - gi'a - ga-gi - gu'a-gi + a + ja + gi'a + ga-gi + gu'a-gi TTFT - .anai - janai - gi'anai - ga-ginai - gu'a-ginai + .anai + janai + gi'anai + ga-ginai + gu'a-ginai TTFF - .u - ju - gi'u - gu-gi - gu'u-gi + u + ju + gi'u + gu-gi + gu'u-gi TFTT - na.a - naja - nagi'a - ganai-gi - gu'anai-gi + na.a + naja + nagi'a + ganai-gi + gu'anai-gi TFTF - se.u - seju - segi'u - segu-gi - segu'u-gi + se.u + seju + segi'u + segu-gi + segu'u-gi TFFT - .o - jo - gi'o - go-gi - gu'o-gi + o + jo + gi'o + go-gi + gu'o-gi TFFF - .e - je - gi'e - ge-gi - gu'e-gi + e + je + gi'e + ge-gi + gu'e-gi FTTT - na.anai - najanai - nagi'anai - ganai-ginai - gu'anai-ginai + na.anai + najanai + nagi'anai + ganai-ginai + gu'anai-ginai FTTF - .onai - jonai - gi'onai - go-ginai - gu'o-ginai + .onai + jonai + gi'onai + go-ginai + gu'o-ginai FTFT - se.unai - sejunai - segi'unai - segu-ginai - segu'u-ginai + se.unai + sejunai + segi'unai + segu-ginai + segu'u-ginai FTFF - .enai - jenai - gi'enai - ge-ginai - gu'e-ginai + .enai + jenai + gi'enai + ge-ginai + gu'e-ginai FFTT - na.u - naju - nagi'u - gunai-gi - gu'unai-gi + na.u + naju + nagi'u + gunai-gi + gu'unai-gi FFTF - na.e - naje - nagi'e - genai-gi - gu'enai-gi + na.e + naje + nagi'e + genai-gi + gu'enai-gi FFFT - na.enai - najenai - nagi'enai - genai-ginai - gu'enai-ginai + na.enai + najenai + nagi'enai + genai-ginai + gu'enai-ginai Note: ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, exce= pt for the prefixed - .i. + i.
Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives non-logical conne= ctivessyntax rules summary logical connectivessyntax rules summary The full set of rules= for inserting=20 - na,=20 - se, and=20 - nai into any connective is: + na,=20 + se, and=20 + nai into any connective is: Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks): =20 Negate first construct: Place=20 - na before the connective cmavo (but after t= he=20 - .i of an ijek). + na before the connective cmavo (but after the=20 + i of an ijek). Negate second construct: Place=20 - nai after the connective cmavo. + nai after the connective cmavo. Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo (after=20 - na if any). + se before the connective cmavo (after=20 + na if any). Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks): =20 Negate first construct: Place=20 - nai after the connective cmavo. + nai after the connective cmavo. Negate second construct: Place=20 - nai after the=20 - gi. + nai after the=20 + gi. Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo. + se before the connective cmavo. Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks): =20 Negate connection: Place=20 - nai after the connective cmavo (but before = the=20 - gi of a joigik). + nai after the connective cmavo (but before the=20 + gi of a joigik). =20 Exchange constructs: Place=20 - se before the connective cmavo. + se before the connective cmavo.
Locations of other tables : a table explaini= ng the meaning of each truth function in English. : a table relating the truth fu= nctions to the four basic vowels. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 82e78ee..7600931 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -116,22 +116,22 @@ is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d2"/> No, I didn't go to the store. The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo= =20 - na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affir= mative form of the bridi (but after the=20 - cu, if there is one): + na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative f= orm of the bridi (but after the=20 + cu, if there is one): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d3"/> mi klama le zarci I go-to the store. when negated becomes: @@ -139,21 +139,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d4"/> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. Note that we have used a special convention to show in the Engli= sh that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word=20 not, because this highlights the naturalness of putting= the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to l= earn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with= =20 - na and natural language negation with=20 + na and natural language negation with=20 not. In English, the word=20 not can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an Engl= ish predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,=20 not may indicate either contradictory negation or anoth= er form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi neg= ation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always = a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole br= idi. =20 Because of the ambiguity of English=20 not, we will use=20 [false] in the translation of Lojban examples to remind= the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more = examples of bridi negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d5"/> @@ -181,31 +181,31 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>ti na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo> <gloss>This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me).</gl= oss> <en>This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.</en> =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's i= nternal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, es= pecially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo= =20 =20 =20 - <jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, and=20 - <jbophrase>di</jbophrase> of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 + <valsi>da</valsi>,=20 + <valsi>de</valsi>, and=20 + <valsi>di</valsi> of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers"/>) in the bridi, you can indeed = translate Lojban=20 - <jbophrase>na</jbophrase> as=20 + <valsi>na</valsi> as=20 <quote>not</quote> (or=20 <quote>isn't</quote> or=20 <quote>doesn't</quote>, as appropriate).</para> <para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para> <para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 - <jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. For example:</para> + <valsi>na</valsi>. For example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-WU9u"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d8"/> mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the= event-of dancing). It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the c= ase that I am going to the dance. I am not happy about not going to the dance. @@ -230,25 +230,25 @@ mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the Fr= ench-country). I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France. The claim of=20 could apply to anyone excep= t a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the desc= ription is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations = in colloquial English. =20 Negation with=20 - na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just = part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put=20 - na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar current= ly does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate construc= ts involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation whe= re you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru = form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept= separate from other forms of negation. + na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of = a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put=20 + na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does = not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs invol= ving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you m= ight want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. Th= is grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separat= e from other forms of negation. =20 The grammar of=20 - na allows multiple adjacent negations, which ca= ncel out, as in normal logic: + na allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out= , as in normal logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d11"/> ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to = me). =20 @@ -256,34 +256,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d12"/> ti barda prenu co melbi mi This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me). When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with= =20 - na is permitted in two positions: before or aft= er the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined= , but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses= /modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it = remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: + na is permitted in two positions: before or after the t= ag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but th= is is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals = and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains = to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d13"/> mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci =20 I habitually go to the market. mean the same thing with=20 - na before the=20 - ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; w= e'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to ea= ch other. + na before the=20 + ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let= future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other= . =20 A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d14"/> I do not go to the market because the car is broken. as: @@ -327,21 +327,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18"/> The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) w= as aided by my uncle the Senator. It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 -nar- has been reserved for=20 - na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure= that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negat= ion described in=20 + na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that yo= u intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation desc= ribed in=20 , which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.
Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> The chair is not brown. @@ -498,22 +498,22 @@ im-. Just which form and permissible values are implied= by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept = which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English resul= ts from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixe= s. In the examples of=20 , we will translate the general case o= f scalar negation using the general formula=20 other than when a phrase is scalar-negated, and=20 non- when a single word is scalar-negated.
selbri and tanru negation All the scalar negations illustrated in=20 are expressed in Lojban us= ing the cmavo=20 - na'e (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of= =20 - na'e is as a prefix to the selbri: + na'e (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of=20 + na'e is as a prefix to the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d1"/> mi klama le zarci I go to the market. @@ -524,44 +524,44 @@ mi na'e klama le zarci I non-go to the market. Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being use= d in=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is=20 - na'e. But what exactly does=20 - na'e negate? Does the negation include only the= gismu=20 - klama, which is the entire selbri in this case,= or does it include the=20 - le zarci as well? In Lojban, the answer is unam= biguously=20 + na'e. But what exactly does=20 + na'e negate? Does the negation include only the gismu= =20 + klama, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does= it include the=20 + le zarci as well? In Lojban, the answer i= s unambiguously=20 only the gismu. The cmavo=20 - na'e always applies only to what follows it. + na'e always applies only to what follows it. looks as if it were paralle= l to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d3"/> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the market. but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation usin= g=20 - na denies the truth of a relationship, but a se= lbri negation with=20 - na'e asserts that a relationship exists other t= han that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in th= e statement. The grammar allotted to=20 - na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar = negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we e= xplain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of=20 - na'e is determined. + na denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri neg= ation with=20 + na'e asserts that a relationship exists other than that= stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statem= ent. The grammar allotted to=20 + na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar negation= s in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain t= he scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of=20 + na'e is determined. In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before com= bining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-= selbri-scope negation, for which we can use=20 - na'e as well. The positive sentence + na'e as well. The positive sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d4"/> mi cadzu klama le zarci I walking-ly go to the market. can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are: @@ -577,72 +577,72 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d6"/> mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market. These negations show the default scope of=20 - na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla i= n a tanru.=20 + na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanr= u.=20 =20 says that I am going to the= market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, the= re are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one =E2= =80=93 see=20 for a discussion of tanru meaning).= In neither=20 nor=20 does the=20 - na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sente= nces contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumt= i, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a rel= ationship. This is clearer in=20 + na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sentences con= tain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they = also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationshi= p. This is clearer in=20 , which says that I am going= , but in a non-walking manner. In=20 , we have claimed that the r= elationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is = not one of=20 going to (perhaps we are walking around the market, or = walking-in-place while at the market). The=20 scale, or actually the=20 set, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything whic= h plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interp= reted in the same way that answers to a=20 - mo question must be plausible =E2=80=93 the res= ult must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values app= ropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to= the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally = vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who us= es selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a= different relationship. + mo question must be plausible =E2=80=93 the result must= not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate= to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the con= text.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, w= hile still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbr= i negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a differe= nt relationship. We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than= a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as= exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given= twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the=20 - na'e): + na'e): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d7"/> mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market. This negation uses the same=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e delimiters (the=20 - ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri)= that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. Th= e=20 - ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that th= e negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti pl= ace-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti th= emselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by=20 - na'e. + ke and=20 + ke'e delimiters (the=20 + ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that ar= e used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The=20 + ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negati= on does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-stru= cture is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves= are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by=20 + na'e. Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d8"/> mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market. In=20 , only the=20 - sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is= indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly. + sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the spea= ker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly. Negations made with=20 - na'e or=20 - na'eke also include within their scope any sumt= i attached to the brivla or tanru with=20 - be or=20 - bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of= the brivla or tanru: + na'e or=20 + na'eke also include within their scope an= y sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with=20 + be or=20 + bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of the bri= vla or tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d9"/> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the mark= et. Note that=20 @@ -663,67 +663,67 @@ mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e] mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]) I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms). The translations show that the negation in=20 is more restricted in scope= ; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=20 - mi). + mi). Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be= unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of=20 - na'e as an operator. Grouping with=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is i= ts advantage.=20 - na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Inter= nal binding of tanru, with=20 - bo, is not as tightly bound as=20 - na'e.=20 - co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope th= at is longer than all other tanru constructs. + na'e as an operator. Grouping with=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advan= tage.=20 + na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Internal bind= ing of tanru, with=20 + bo, is not as tightly bound as=20 + na'e.=20 + co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is lo= nger than all other tanru constructs. =20 In short,=20 - na'e and=20 - na'eke define a type of negation, which is shor= ter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri= . The result of=20 - na'e negation remains an assertion of some spec= ific truth and not merely a denial of another claim. + na'e and=20 + na'eke define a type of negation, which i= s shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a = selbri. The result of=20 + na'e negation remains an assertion of some specific tru= th and not merely a denial of another claim. The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafs= i=20 -nal-, representing=20 - na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, fo= rms an exact parallel to the English usage of=20 - non-. Turning a series of related negations int= o lujvo gives: + na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an e= xact parallel to the English usage of=20 + non-. Turning a series of related negatio= ns into lujvo gives: - nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory ne= gation of the tagged bridi. Thus=20 - punai as a tense inflection means=20 + nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation o= f the tagged bridi. Thus=20 + punai as a tense inflection means=20 not-in-the-past, or=20 not-previously, without making any implication about an= y other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result, <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d1"/> mi na pu klama le zarci I [false] [past] go-to the store. I didn't go to the store. @@ -1066,90 +1066,90 @@ mi punai klama le zarci I [past-not] go-to the store. I didn't go to the store. mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference = of emphasis. Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical c= onnectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses a= nd modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus=20 - punai je ca means the same thing as=20 - pu naje ca. + punai je ca means the same thing as=20 + pu naje ca. As a special case, a=20 - -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selm= a'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 + -nai attached to the interval modifiers o= f selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 ) signals a scalar negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d3"/> mi paroinai dansu le bisli I [once] [not] dance-on the ice means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 is very different from the = English use of=20 not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 never =E2=80=93 that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 - nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in= =20 + nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in=20 , most indicators have an i= mplicit scale, and=20 - nai changes the indicator to refer to the oppos= ite end of the scale. Thus=20 - .uinai expresses unhappiness, and=20 - .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambivalence,= which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 - .iecu'i). + nai changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end = of the scale. Thus=20 + .uinai expresses unhappiness, and=20 + .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambiva= lence, which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 + .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 =20 =20 - co'o could be expressed as=20 - coinai. However, this is not generally done. + co'o could be expressed as=20 + coinai. However, this is not generally do= ne. Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called proto= col situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversatio= ns, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protoco= l words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as= might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on= =20 =20 - nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 - je'enai (=20 + nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 + je'enai (=20 I didn't get that). Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 =20 =20 - nai, he or she can presume it is a negative ack= nowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 + nai, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledge= ment and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 provides more detail on th= is topic. The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 - su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 - su'u jenai ni just as=20 - punai je ca corresponds to=20 - pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logica= lly connected abstractors will be: see=20 + su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 + su'u jenai ni just as=20 + punai je ca corresponds to=20 + pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use = logically connected abstractors will be: see=20 . A=20 - nai attached to a non-logical connective (of se= lma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false u= nder the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-= logical connectives are discussed in=20 + nai attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JO= I or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the= specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical = connectives are discussed in=20 .
Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 - xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of= a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. + xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sente= nce, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1"/> xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom. Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and = Rome.) You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've disc= ussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each a= nswer). The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent = to the expanded sentence with the=20 =20 - na immediately after the=20 - cu (and before any tense/modal): + na immediately after the=20 + cu (and before any tense/modal): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d2"/> na go'i [false] [repeat previous] No. @@ -1158,21 +1158,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d3"/> la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome. It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome. The respondent can change the tense, putting the=20 - na in either before or after the new tense: + na in either before or after the new tense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d4"/> na ba go'i [false] [future] [repeat previous] meaning @@ -1204,50 +1204,50 @@ la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom. John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome. We stated in=20 that sentences like=20 and=20 appear to be semantically i= dentical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found. You can also use a scalar negation with=20 - na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to puttin= g a=20 - na'eke immediately after any tense: + na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a=20 + na'eke immediately after any tense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d8"/> na'e go'i other-than [repeat previous] which means <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d9"/> la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom. John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.<= /gloss> He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e would have been essential if the selbri ha= d been a tanru. + ke and=20 + ke'e would have been essential if the selbri had been a= tanru.
Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 - ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 - je'a), each of which would supplant the corresp= onding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the= positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion= . Assuming the same context as in=20 + ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 + je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding n= egator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positiv= e in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assumi= ng the same context as in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1"/> xu na go'i Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]? @@ -1265,66 +1265,66 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d3"/> go'i [repeat previous] A plain=20 - go'i does not mean=20 + go'i does not mean=20 Yes it is; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous= statement unmodified, including any negators present; and=20 actually states that it is = false that John went to both Paris and Rome. When considering: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d4"/> na go'i [false] [repeat previous] as a response to a negative question like=20 , Lojban designers had to ch= oose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. D= oes=20 create a double negative in= the sentence by adding a new=20 - na to the one already there (forming a double n= egative and hence a positive statement), or does the=20 - na replace the previous one, leaving the senten= ce unchanged? + na to the one already there (forming a double negative = and hence a positive statement), or does the=20 + na replace the previous one, leaving the sentence uncha= nged? It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way =E2=80=93 Russian= , Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative questio= n as positive. =20 The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can= also replace the=20 - na in the context, giving: + na in the context, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5"/> ja'a go'i (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) - ja'a can replace=20 - na in a similar manner wherever the latter is u= sed: + ja'a can replace=20 + na in a similar manner wherever the latter is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d6"/> mi ja'a klama le zarci I indeed go to the store. - je'a can replace=20 - na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scal= ar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. I= n the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: + je'a can replace=20 + na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negat= ion does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the ab= sence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7"/> ta je'a melbi that is-indeed beautiful.
@@ -1441,85 +1441,85 @@ Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep. (non-contradictory correction) The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended. Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples t= hat we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't= claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, = due to some error in the statement,=20 true and=20 false don't really apply. Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement inten= ding a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way = (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of = our logical negation schemes using=20 - na,=20 - na'e and kin. The cmavo=20 - na'i is assigned this function. If it is presen= t in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the sta= tement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluat= ion of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive a= nd negative statements. + na,=20 + na'e and kin. The cmavo=20 + na'i is assigned this function. If it is present in a s= tatement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement i= s incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of t= he logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negat= ive statements. Since=20 - na'i is not a logical operator, multiple occurr= ences of=20 - na'i need not be assumed to cancel each other. = Indeed, we can use the position of=20 - na'i to indicate metalinguistically what is inc= orrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, = we give=20 - na'i the grammar of UI. The inclusion of=20 + na'i is not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of= =20 + na'i need not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, = we can use the position of=20 + na'i to indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, = preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give= =20 + na'i the grammar of UI. The inclusion of=20 =20 - na'i anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-asse= rtion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value. + na'i anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, a= nd suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value. Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic e= rrors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked b= y devising analogies to these examples: Existential failure can be marked by attaching=20 - na'i to the descriptor=20 - lo or the=20 - poi in a=20 - da poi-form sumti. (See + na'i to the descriptor=20 + lo or the=20 + poi in a=20 + da poi-form sumti. (See and=20 for details on these con= structions.) Remember that if a=20 - le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent refer= ent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 the appr= opriate response is then=20 - ki'a, asking for clarification. + le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you= may not understand what the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 the appropriate = response is then=20 + ki'a, asking for clarification. Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposit= ion is overt; if not, one can insert a=20 mock presupposition to question with the sumti tcita (s= elma'o BAI) word=20 - ji'u;=20 - ji'uku thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed= assumption, and=20 - ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that somethi= ng is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 + ji'u;=20 + ji'uku thus explicitly refers to an unexp= ressed assumption, and=20 + ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that s= omething is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 .) Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 - le'a has meaning=20 + le'a has meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 - ci'u has meaning=20 + ci'u has meaning=20 =20 on scale X, and=20 - ci'e, based on=20 - ciste, can be used to talk about universes of d= iscourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 + ci'e, based on=20 + ciste, can be used to talk about universes of discourse= defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 .=20 - kai and=20 - la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other qua= lity and quantity errors. + kai and=20 + la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other quality and= quantity errors. =20 We have to make particular note of potential problems in the are= as of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the rel= ationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It = is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is = colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,=20 - blanu (=20 + blanu (=20 blue) is not explicitly defined as a=20 - skari (=20 + skari (=20 color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite= of=20 good is=20 bad. This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmaticall= y, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write = dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some= of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these a= ssumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break dow= n (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation= , however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a= presumably obvious scale or category assumption. =20 Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by mar= king the offending word or phrase with=20 - na'i (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). I= n this sense,=20 - na'i becomes equivalent to the English metaling= uistic marker=20 + na'i (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this s= ense,=20 + na'i becomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic m= arker=20 [sic]. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quote= s or=20 - sa'a-marked corrections to avoid repeating a tr= uly unparsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/t= ext. See=20 + sa'a-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unpa= rsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See= =20 =20 for explanations of these usag= es. In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 - na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors hav= e been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References = to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma= 'o GOhA.=20 - na'i at the beginning of a statement merely say= s that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.= + na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been m= ade, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previ= ous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA.= =20 + na'i at the beginning of a statement merely says that s= omething is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity. =20 In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression. =20 Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 =20 - xu question (see=20 + xu question (see=20 ).=20 - na'i will be used when something about the ques= tioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 + na'i will be used when something about the questioned s= tatement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 Have you stopped beating your wife?: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15"/> xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-= spouse? @@ -1532,37 +1532,37 @@ na'i go'i The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d17"/> go'i na'i - The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in = some way. + The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way= . One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, b= y explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguis= tically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d18"/> go'i ji'una'iku Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 - jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use= for=20 + jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 =20 - jo'a might be to affirm that a particular const= ruction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another us= age would be to disagree with =E2=80=93 by overriding =E2=80=93 a responden= t's metalinguistic negation. + jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction,= though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage woul= d be to disagree with =E2=80=93 by overriding =E2=80=93 a respondent's meta= linguistic negation. =20
Summary =E2=80=93 Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now= Answered? <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1"/> na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 987b3d1..edb9b13 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -63,21 +63,21 @@ some/no/any/everyone and=20 some/no/any/everything), but they obey rules which can = often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot b= e translated into Lojban without distortion: the name=20 Nobody would have to be represented by a Lojban name, w= hich would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this = is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversation= alists to affirm=20 =20 Nobody walks slower than the Messenger and=20 Nobody walks faster than the Messenger and both be tell= ing the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, o= r everyone walks at exactly the same speed.) logicresolving ambiguities of "nobody" This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct an= d consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There ar= e no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it disc= usses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to re= solve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However,= we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although = readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojba= n guise. logiclimits of Although Lojban is called a logi= cal language, not every feature of it is=20 =20 logical. In particular, the use of=20 - le is incompatible with logical reasoning based= on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: y= ou cannot conclude from my statement that + le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the = description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you canno= t conclude from my statement that <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d6"/> mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. I see the man/men. @@ -100,22 +100,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d2"/> [zo'e] viska mi Something-unspecified sees me. zo'e somethingunspecified definite with "zo'e" zo'eas a translation for "something" The= cmavo=20 - zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (i= ndeed, even=20 - zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as exp= lained in=20 + zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, e= ven=20 + zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as explained i= n=20 ) and the listener must fi= ll in the correct value from context. In other words,=20 means=20 You-know-what sees me. However,=20 is just as likely to assert= simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translat= ion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3"/> @@ -124,45 +124,45 @@ da<= /indexterm> zo'econtrasted with da dacontrasted with zo'e existential= claimsdefinition daas a translation = for "something"=20 does not presuppose that th= e listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that t= here is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called=20 existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or =E2=80=93 in= principle =E2=80=93 an inanimate object. We will see in=20 =20 =20 how to represent such re= strictions.) ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u log= ical variablesnotation convention variableslogical prenexsyntax of prenexexpla= nation=20 has a two-part structure: t= here is the part=20 - da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part=20 - da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban = bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sum= ti followed by the cmavo=20 - zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sum= ti will consist of one or more of the cmavo=20 - da,=20 - de, and=20 - di (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal tr= anslations as=20 + da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part= =20 + da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any L= ojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number = of sumti followed by the cmavo=20 + zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will = consist of one or more of the cmavo=20 + da,=20 + de, and=20 + di (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translatio= ns as=20 X,=20 Y, and=20 Z respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbol= ic logic, these cmavo are called=20 variables. Here is an example of a prenex with two variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d4"/> da de zo'u da prami de There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y. Somebody loves somebody. somebody loves so= mebodyexample logical variableseffect= of using multiple different somebodycontrasted with someb= ody else In=20 , the literal interpretation= of the two variables=20 - da and=20 - de as=20 + da and=20 + de as=20 there-is-an-X and=20 there-is-a-Y tells us that there are two things which s= tand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case tha= t the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself;= nothing in the Lojban version of=20 rules out that interpretati= on, which is why the colloquial translation does not say=20 Somebody loves somebody else. The things referred to by= different variables may be different or the same. (We use=20 somebody here rather than=20 something for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usua= lly persons, though the Lojban does not say so.) logical variables= with multiple appearances in bridi It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once i= n the main bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d5"/> @@ -170,23 +170,23 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>da zo'u da prami da</jbo> =20 <gloss>There-is-an-X such that X loves X</gloss> <en>Somebody loves himself/herself.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>somebody loves se= lf</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>da prami de</primary><secondary>contrasted with = da prami da</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><= primary>da prami da</primary><secondary>contrasted with da prami de</second= ary></indexterm> What=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-wBYE"/> claims is fundamentally dif= ferent from what=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-t4qI"/> claims, because=20 - <jbophrase>da prami da</jbophrase> is not structurally the same as=20 + <oldjbophrase>da prami da</oldjbophrase> is not structurally the same = as=20 =20 - <jbophrase>da prami de</jbophrase>. However,</para> + <oldjbophrase>da prami de</oldjbophrase>. However,</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-3QV5"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d6"/> de zo'u de prami de There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y logical variables= effect of global substitution = means exactly the same thing as=20 @@ -196,21 +196,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d7"/> da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me Somebody's dog sees me somebody's dogexample is perfectly correct even= though the=20 - da is used only in a possessive construction. (= Possessives are explained in=20 + da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessi= ves are explained in=20 .) logical variables= when not in main bridi It is v= ery peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable no= t to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8"/> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. =20 @@ -237,49 +237,49 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2"/> ro da zo'u da viska mi For-every X : X sees me. ro da ro everythingexpressing with "ro da" When the variable cmavo=20 - da is preceded by=20 - ro, the combination means=20 + da is preceded by=20 + ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 will bring them withi= n a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 - ro da for=20 + ro da for=20 everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: everything loves = everythingexample FIXME: TAG S= POT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3"/> ro da ro de zo'u da prami de For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y. Everything loves everything. Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so=20 does not mean=20 Everything loves everything else. Furthermore, because = the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, s= o we cannot use=20 everyone or=20 everybody in the translation. universalmixed claim with existential existentialmixed= claim with universal mixed claimdefinition Note that=20 - ro appears before both=20 - da and=20 - de. If=20 - ro is omitted before either variable, we get a = mixed claim, partly existential like those of=20 + ro appears before both=20 + da and=20 + de. If=20 + ro is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed cl= aim, partly existential like those of=20 =20 , partly universal. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d4"/> ro da de zo'u da viska de For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y. Everything sees something. @@ -302,37 +302,37 @@ , on the other hand, says th= at there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (incl= uding itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds= of silliness. =20 There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 =20 anybody/anything rather than=20 everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference whic= h of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle o= ne which is explained in=20 .
Restricted claims:=20 - <jbophrase>da poi</jbophrase> + da poi restricted claims= definition universal claimsrestrictin= g The universal claims of=20 =20 are not only false but ab= surd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-triv= ial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over = the distinction between=20 everything and=20 everybody and the other pairs ending in=20 -thing and=20 -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. vau= ku'o da poi poi= exist= ential claimsrestricting relative clausesuse in restricting existential claims In Lojban= , a variable=20 - da,=20 - de, or=20 - di may be followed by a=20 - poi relative clause in order to restrict the ra= nge of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described i= n detail in=20 + da,=20 + de, or=20 + di may be followed by a=20 + poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of t= hings that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail= in=20 , but the kind we will nee= d at present consist of=20 - poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) t= erminated with=20 - ku'o or=20 - vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the= difference between + poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminate= d with=20 + ku'o or=20 + vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the differe= nce between <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d1"/> da zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X : X sees Jim. Something sees Jim. @@ -342,25 +342,25 @@ da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim. Someone sees Jim. somethingcontrasted with someone In=20 , the variable=20 - da can refer to any object whatever; there are = no restrictions on it. In=20 + da can refer to any object whatever; there are no restr= ictions on it. In=20 ,=20 - da is restricted by the=20 - poi prenu relative clause to persons only, and = so=20 - da poi prenu translates as=20 + da is restricted by the=20 + poi prenu relative clause to persons only= , and so=20 + da poi prenu translates as=20 someone. (The difference between=20 someone and=20 somebody is a matter of English style, with no real cou= nterpart in Lojban.) If=20 is true, then=20 must be true, but not neces= sarily vice versa. universal claims<= /primary>restricting relative clausesuse in res= tricting universal claims Universal claims benefit = even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d3"/> @@ -405,22 +405,22 @@ da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Some dog breathes. =20
Dropping the prenex prenex<= secondary>considerations for dropping It isn't real= ly necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on= the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenex= es at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables app= ear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the = prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 - ro or=20 - poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred= to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thu= s,=20 + ro or=20 + poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the = first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 becomes just: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d1"/> da viska mi There-is-an-X-which sees me. Something sees me. @@ -445,30 +445,30 @@ ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog:= Y bites X. The prenex of=20 is like that of=20 (but with relative clauses)= : it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to= some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi par= t, the=20 - de appears before the=20 - da. Therefore, the true translation is + de appears before the=20 + da. Therefore, the true translation is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d4"/> Every person is bitten by some dog (or other). If we tried to omit the prenex and move the=20 - ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi= , we would get: + ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we wou= ld get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d5"/> de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person Some dog bites everyone. @@ -489,93 +489,93 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6"/> ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-do= g. using the conversion operator=20 - se (explained in=20 + se (explained in=20 ) to change the selbri=20 - batci (=20 + batci (=20 bites) into=20 - se batci (=20 + se batci (=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the corresponding stra= tegy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained= =20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 =20 =20 - se; one must be careful to preserve the order o= f the variables. + se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the va= riables. poi= ro poi<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables ro<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables logical varia= bleswith poiin multiple appearan= ces l= ogical variableswith roin multip= le appearances If a variable occurs more than once, = then any=20 - ro or=20 - poi decorations are moved only to the first occ= urrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, + ro or=20 + poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence = of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7"/> di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for= -use-against-Z by-Z This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself. weapon against se= lfexample (in which=20 - di is used rather than=20 - da just for variety) loses its prenex as follow= s: + di is used rather than=20 + da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8"/> ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-pe= rson by-Z. prenex<= secondary>dropping for terseness As the examples in= this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression o= ften even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguou= s language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are= observed.
Variables with generalized quantifiers PA selma'o quantifi= erswith logical variables So f= ar, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo= =20 - ro in front. Now=20 - ro is a Lojban number, and means=20 + ro in front. Now=20 + ro is a Lojban number, and means=20 all; thus=20 - ro prenu means=20 + ro prenu means=20 =20 all persons, just as=20 =20 - re prenu means=20 + re prenu means=20 two persons. In fact, unadorned=20 - da is also taken to have an implicit number in = front of it, namely=20 - su'o, which means=20 + da is also taken to have an implicit number in front of= it, namely=20 + su'o, which means=20 at least one. Why is this? Consider=20 again, this time with an ex= plicit=20 - su'o: + su'o: su'o something sees= meexample somethingexpressing using = "su'o" FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1"/> su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. Something sees me. From this version of=20 , we understand the speaker'= s claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them s= ees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,=20 , says that of all the thing= s that exist, every one of them can see the speaker. =20 numbers= on logical variables Any other number ca= n be used instead of=20 - ro or=20 - su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims = like: + ro or=20 + su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d2"/> re da zo'u da viska mi For-two-Xes : X sees me. Two things see me. @@ -584,25 +584,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d3"/> su'ore da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me. which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the spea= ker, but not otherwise. We note the=20 - su'o here meaning=20 + su'o here meaning=20 at least;=20 - su'o by itself is short for=20 - su'opa where=20 - pa means=20 + su'o by itself is short for=20 + su'opa where=20 + pa means=20 one, as is explained in=20 . prenex<= secondary>removing when numeric quantifiers present= The prenex may be removed from=20 and=20 as from the others, leading= to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d4"/> @@ -616,36 +616,36 @@ su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 . ro prenu all person= sexample restricted variablecompared = with indefinite description indefinite descriptioncompared= with restricted variable indefinite descriptiondefinition= Now we can explain the constructions=20 - ro prenu for=20 + ro prenu for=20 =20 all persons and=20 =20 - re prenu for=20 + re prenu for=20 two persons which were casually mentioned at the beginn= ing of this Section. In fact,=20 - ro prenu, a so-called=20 + ro prenu, a so-called=20 =20 indefinite description, is shorthand for=20 =20 =20 - ro DA poi prenu, where=20 + ro DA poi prenu, where=20 DA represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been us= ed yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of=20 - da,=20 - de, and=20 - di have been used up, it does not matter, for t= here are ways of getting more variables, discussed in=20 + da,=20 + de, and=20 + di have been used up, it does not matter, for there are= ways of getting more variables, discussed in=20 .) So in fact <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d6"/> re prenu cu viska mi Two persons see me. @@ -667,23 +667,23 @@ re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me. order of variable= sin moving to prenex Note that= when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached= relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same ord= er in the prenex as in the bridi proper.
Grouping of quantifiers distribution of q= uantified sumti indefinite sumtimultiple in sentence Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expre= ssions neither of which is=20 - ro or=20 - su'o (remembering that=20 - su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier i= s given): + ro or=20 + su'o (remembering that=20 + su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given)= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1"/> ci gerku cu batci re nanmu Three dogs bite two men. dogs biteexample three dogs bite two menexample multiple i= ndefinite sumtimeaning indefinite sumtimeaning when multiple in sentence The question ra= ised by=20 @@ -693,22 +693,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d2"/> ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men. (Note that we need separate variables=20 - da and=20 - de, because of the rule that says each indefini= te description gets a variable never used before or since.) + da and=20 + de, because of the rule that says each indefinite descr= iption gets a variable never used before or since.) =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d3"/> ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da batci de For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X = bites Y. @@ -721,60 +721,60 @@ re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X b= ites Y for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly tw= o, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The d= istinction is called a=20 scope distinction: in=20 ,=20 - ci gerku is said to have wider scope than=20 - re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in the pren= ex. In=20 + ci gerku is said to have wider scope than= =20 + re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in th= e prenex. In=20 the reverse is true. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i CEhE selma'o ce'e termseteffect on scope of mul= tiple indefinite sumti multiple indefinite sumti scopein t= ermset multiple indefinite sumtiexpressing with equal scop= e The solution is to use a termset, which is a grou= p of terms either joined by=20 - ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or el= se surrounded by=20 - nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 - nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (whic= h are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are group= ed into a termset are understood to have equal scope: + ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surro= unded by=20 + nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 + nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are ei= ther sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into = a termset are understood to have equal scope: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d5"/> ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci Three dogs [plus] two men, bite. which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 - nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this cas= e can be freely elided. + nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be= freely elided. roeffect of order when multiple in sentence indefinite sumticompared to sumti with lo sumti with locompared to i= ndefinite sumti quantified sumtidifferent types contrasted= for scope for distribution What about descriptors,= like=20 - ci lo gerku,=20 - le nanmu or=20 - re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in term= sets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 - lo case which functions like the case without a= descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 - le nanmu means=20 - ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 + ci lo gerku,=20 + le nanmu or=20 + re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped i= n termsets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 + lo case which functions like the case without a descrip= tor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 + le nanmu means=20 + ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 . Two sumti with=20 - ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: + ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6"/> [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men. means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 - le other than=20 - ro, the problems of this section reappear. + le other than=20 + ro, the problems of this section reappear.
The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence anyone who goeswalksexample anyas= a translation problem FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d1"/> @@ -788,22 +788,22 @@ ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field. Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field. everyonecontrasted with anyone in assumption of existence anyone<= secondary>contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence anyas a restricted universal claim But there is= a subtle difference between=20 and=20 .=20 tells us that, in fact, the= re are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A s= umti of the type=20 - ro da poi klama requires that there are things = which=20 - klama: Lojban universal claims always imply the= corresponding existential claims as well.=20 + ro da poi klama requires that there are t= hings which=20 + klama: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresp= onding existential claims as well.=20 =20 =20 =20 , on the other hand, does no= t require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, = conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she wal= ks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban = translation of=20 =20 =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d3"/> @@ -841,21 +841,21 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-fAo5"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d6"/> da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I ne= ed X. What to do? Well, the x2 place of=20 - nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an= object, and in fact=20 + nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an object,= and in fact=20 can also be paraphrased as:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d7"/> mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau ti I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-= than this-one. @@ -877,21 +877,21 @@ da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : I need the event-of my possessing X. existential varia= blein main bridi contrasted with in abstraction existentia= l variablein abstraction contrasted with in main bridi= But what are the implications of=20 and=20 ? The main difference is tha= t in=20 , the=20 - da is said to exist in the real world of the ou= ter bridi; but in=20 + da is said to exist in the real world of the outer brid= i; but in=20 =20 , the existence is only with= in the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to= pass. So=20 means <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d10"/> There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need anyexpressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi which is what=20 @@ -904,61 +904,61 @@ Negation boundaries "there is a = Y"expressionnotation conven= tion This section, as well as=20 through=20 , are in effect a continuatio= n of=20 , introducing features of Lojban n= egation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the exa= mples below,=20 there is a Y and the like must be understood as=20 =20 there is at least one Y, possibly more. bridi negationtwo forms of As explained in=20 , the negation of a bridi is= usually accomplished by inserting=20 - na at the beginning of the selbri: + na at the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1"/> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. I don't go to the store. naku na The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the c= ompound cmavo=20 - naku in the prenex, which is identified and com= pounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban gram= mar,=20 - naku is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,= =20 - naku means precisely the same thing as the logi= cian's=20 + naku in the prenex, which is identified a= nd compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojba= n grammar,=20 + naku is then treated like a sumti. In a p= renex,=20 + naku means precisely the same thing as th= e logician's=20 it is not the case that in a similar English context. (= Outside of a prenex,=20 - naku is also grammatically treated as a single = entity =E2=80=93 the equivalent of a sumti =E2=80=93 but does not have this= exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in=20 + naku is also grammatically treated as a s= ingle entity =E2=80=93 the equivalent of a sumti =E2=80=93 but does not hav= e this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in=20 .) external bridi ne= gationcompared to internal bridi negation<= /indexterm> internal bridi n= egationcompared to external bridi negation= internal bridi = negationdefinition external bridi negationdefinition bridi negationna before selbri compared to= naku in prenex bridi negationnaku in prenex compared to n= a before selbri To represent a bridi negation using= a prenex, remove the=20 - na from before the selbri and place=20 - naku at the left end of the prenex. This form i= s called=20 + na from before the selbri and place=20 + naku at the left end of the prenex. This = form is called=20 external bridi negation, as opposed to=20 =20 =20 internal bridi negation using=20 =20 - na. The prenex version of=20 + na. The prenex version of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d2"/> naku zo'u la djan. klama It is not the case that: John comes. It is false that: John comes. negation in prene= xeffects of position However,= =20 - naku can appear at other points in the prenex a= s well. Compare + naku can appear at other points in the pr= enex as well. Compare <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d3"/> naku de zo'u de zutse It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits. It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits. It is false that something sits. Nothing sits. @@ -1023,22 +1023,22 @@ It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X love= s Y. =20 It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved= by everybody. There isn't any one thing that everybody loves. the negation of=20 . inversion of quan= tifiersdefinition inversion of quantifiersin moving negation boundary negation boundaryeffect= of moving The rules of formal logic require that, = to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must=20 invert any quantifier that the negation boundary passes= across. Inverting a quantifier means that any=20 - ro (all) is changed to=20 - su'o (at least one) and vice versa. Thus,=20 + ro (all) is changed to=20 + su'o (at least one) and vice versa. Thus,=20 and=20 can be restated as, respect= ively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d9"/> su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X lov= es Y. =20 @@ -1075,23 +1075,23 @@ rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X l= oves Y. For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it. inversion of quan= tifiers on passing negation boundaryrationale for Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformati= on preserves the meanings of=20 and=20 . negation boundary= and zero zerorelation to negation bou= ndary The quantifier=20 - no (meaning=20 + no (meaning=20 zero of) also involves a negation boundary. To transfor= m a bridi containing a variable quantified with=20 - no, we must first expand it. Consider + no, we must first expand it. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d13"/> noda rode zo'u da prami de =20 There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y. Nobody loves everything. @@ -1103,26 +1103,26 @@ naku noda rode zo'u da prami de =20 It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves = Y. It is false that there is nobody who loves everything. naku su'odaas expansion of noda nodaexpanding to naku = su'oda "no" quantifierexpanding expanding "no&q= uot; quantifier We can simplify=20 by transforming the prenex.= To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the=20 - no quantifier. Thus=20 + no quantifier. Thus=20 for no x means the same thing as=20 it is false for some x, and the corresponding Lojban=20 - noda can be replaced by=20 + noda can be replaced by=20 =20 - naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we get:<= /para> + naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we= get: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d15"/> naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de =20 =20 @@ -1158,77 +1158,77 @@ A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapt= er, we will make use of the logical connectives=20 and and=20 or (where=20 or really means=20 and/or,=20 either or both). The following simplified recipes expla= in how to make some logical connectives: logical conne= ctivesrecipessimplified for logi= c chapter discussion To logically connect two Lojban= sumti with=20 and, put them both in the bridi and separate them w= ith the cmavo=20 - .e. + e. To logically connect two Lojban bridi with=20 and, replace the regular separator cmavo=20 - .i with the compound cmavo=20 - .ije. + i with the compound cmavo=20 + .ije. To logically connect two Lojban sumti with=20 or, put them both in the bridi and separate them wi= th the cmavo=20 - .a. + a. To logically connect two Lojban bridi with=20 or, replace the regular separator cmavo=20 - .i with the compound cmavo=20 - .ija. + i with the compound cmavo=20 + .ija. More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one = may place=20 =20 - na before=20 - .e or=20 - .a, or between=20 - .i and=20 - je or=20 - ja; likewise, one may place=20 - nai at the end of a connective. Both=20 - na and=20 - nai have negative effects on the sumti or bridi= being connected. Specifically,=20 - na negates the first or left-hand sumti or brid= i, and=20 - nai negates the second or right-hand one. + na before=20 + e or=20 + a, or between=20 + i and=20 + je or=20 + ja; likewise, one may place=20 + nai at the end of a connective. Both=20 + na and=20 + nai have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being c= onnected. Specifically,=20 + na negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and= =20 + nai negates the second or right-hand one. Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentenc= e can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and join= ing the sentences by a logical connective beginning with=20 - .i. Thus the following sentence: + i. Thus the following sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d1"/> mi .e do klama ti I and you come here. can be expanded to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d2"/> mi klama ti .ije do klama ti I come here, and, you come here. The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical conn= ective, with any valid combination of=20 - na or=20 - nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under= such a transformation. + na or=20 + nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a = transformation. Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence= forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does= negation mean between sentences? negation between = sentencesmeaning of bridi negationcom= pared with negation between sentences negation between sentencescompared with bridi negation The mystery is e= asily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corres= ponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the pre= nex. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d3"/> mi .enai do prami roda I, and not you, love everything. @@ -1247,65 +1247,65 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d5"/> roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the = same) it. quantifier scope<= /primary>in multiple connected sentences= By the rules of predicate logic, the=20 - ro quantifier on=20 - da has scope over both sentences. That is, once= you've picked a value for=20 - da for the first sentence, it stays the same fo= r both sentences. (The=20 - da continues with the same fixed value until a = new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.) + ro quantifier on=20 + da has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've = picked a value for=20 + da for the first sentence, it stays the same for both s= entences. (The=20 + da continues with the same fixed value until a new para= graph or a new prenex resets the meaning.) =20 Thus the following example has the indicated translation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d6"/> su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false = that: you love that (same) thing. There is something that I love that you don't. prenex manipulati= onrules If you remember only t= wo rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong: =20 prenex manipu= lationmoving naku past bound variable Within a prenex, whenever you move=20 - naku past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc= .), you must invert the quantifier. + naku past a bound variable (da, de, d= i, etc.), you must invert the quantifier. prenex manipu= lationexporting na from left of prenex prenex manipulation= importing na from selbri A=20 - na before the selbri is always transformed = into a=20 - naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, an= d vice versa. + na before the selbri is always transformed into a= =20 + naku at the left-hand end of the pren= ex, and vice versa.
Using=20 - <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> outside a prenex + naku outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence some do not go to= schoolexample FIXME: TAG SPOT= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1"/> Some children do not go to school. We cannot express this directly with=20 - na; the apparently obvious translation + na; the apparently obvious translation <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d2"/> su'oda poi verba na klama su'ode poi ckule At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-= one Y which-are school(s). when converted to the external negation form produces: @@ -1313,43 +1313,43 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d3"/> naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is false that some which are children go-to some which a= re schools. All children don't go to some school (not just some children).= contradictory neg= ationusing naku before selbri = nakuout= side of prenex negationform for emulating natural language= negation Lojban provides a negation form which mor= e closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting=20 - naku before the selbri, instead of a=20 - na.=20 - naku is clearly a contradictory negation, given= its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using=20 - naku,=20 + naku before the selbri, instead of a=20 + na.=20 + naku is clearly a contradictory negation,= given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using=20 + naku,=20 can be expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d4"/> su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.= Some children don't go to a school. nakucompared with sumti in grammar Although it = is not technically a sumti,=20 - naku can be used in most of the places where a = sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment. + naku can be used in most of the places wh= ere a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to naku quantifierseffect of moving naku nakueffect on moving quanti= fiers nakuas creating a negation boundary When you use=20 - naku within a bridi, you are explicitly creatin= g a negation boundary. As explained in=20 + naku within a bridi, you are explicitly c= reating a negation boundary. As explained in=20 , when a prenex negatio= n boundary expressed by=20 - naku moves past a quantifier, the quantifier ha= s to be inverted. The same is true for=20 - naku in the bridi proper. We can move=20 - naku to any place in the sentence where a sumti= can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus= , the following are equivalent to=20 + naku moves past a quantifier, the quantif= ier has to be inverted. The same is true for=20 + naku in the bridi proper. We can move=20 + naku to any place in the sentence where a= sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses= . Thus, the following are equivalent to=20 (no good English translatio= ns exist): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d5"/> su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku For some children, for every school, they don't go to it. @@ -1366,78 +1366,78 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d7"/> naku roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is false that all children go to some school(s). In=20 , we moved the negation boun= dary rightward across the quantifier of=20 - de, forcing us to invert it. In=20 + de, forcing us to invert it. In=20 we moved the negation bound= ary across the quantifier of=20 - da, forcing us to invert it instead.=20 + da, forcing us to invert it instead.=20 merely switched the selbri = and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to fixed negation The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that t= he quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert t= he selbri of=20 and rearrange the sumti to = produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d8"/> su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child. naku negationrationale for considering an advanced technique naku negation = boundaryeffect on conversion with se conversion with seeffect of naku negation boundary on or rather,=20 means something completely = different from=20 . Conversion with=20 - se under=20 - naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti a= re treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. = Thus, internal negation with=20 - naku is considered an advanced technique, used = to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages. + se under=20 + naku negation is not symmetric; not all s= umti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conver= sion. Thus, internal negation with=20 + naku is considered an advanced technique,= used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages. It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverte= d in a sentence.=20 is identical in meaning to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d9"/> su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule Some children don't go-to some school. indefinite sumti<= /primary>as implicit quantification but = in=20 , the bound variables=20 - da and=20 - de have been hidden. + da and=20 + de have been hidden. exporting negatio= n to prenex"naku" contrasted with internal b= ridi negation exporting negation to prenexinternal bridi n= egation contrasted with "naku" It is triv= ial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with=20 =20 - na to the prenex, as we saw in=20 + na to the prenex, as we saw in=20 ; you just move it to t= he left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 =20 - naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. = The rules for exporting=20 - naku require that you export all of the quantif= ied variables (implicit or explicit) along with=20 - naku, and you must export them from left to rig= ht, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 + naku to the prenex because of the quantif= iers. The rules for exporting=20 + naku require that you export all of the q= uantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with=20 + naku, and you must export them from left = to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 goes into prenex form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d10"/> su'oda poi verba ku'o naku su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de<= /jbo> For some X which is a child, it is not the case that there = is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. =20 We can now move the=20 - naku to the left end of the prenex, getting a c= ontradictory negation that can be expressed with=20 - na: + naku to the left end of the prenex, getti= ng a contradictory negation that can be expressed with=20 + na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d11"/> naku roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de It is not the case that for all X's which are children, the= re is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. =20 @@ -1457,105 +1457,105 @@ ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule All children [false] go-to some school(s). conversion of sen= tence with quantified variablestechnique As noted in=20 , a sentence with two differ= ent quantified variables, such as=20 , cannot always be converted= with=20 - se without first exporting the quantified varia= bles. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be con= verted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: + se without first exporting the quantified variables. Wh= en the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, = but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14"/> roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da It is not the case that for all X's which are children, the= re is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. =20 multiple quantifi= cationeffect on selbri placement among sumti selbri placem= ent among sumtieffect of multiple quantification on While you can't freely convert with=20 - se when you have two quantified variables in a = sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as = long as the order isn't changed. If you use=20 - na negation in such a sentence, nothing special= need be done. If you use=20 - naku negation, then quantified variables that c= ross the negation boundary must be inverted. + se when you have two quantified variables in a sentence= , you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as = the order isn't changed. If you use=20 + na negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be= done. If you use=20 + naku negation, then quantified variables = that cross the negation boundary must be inverted. negation manipula= tion"na" contrasted with "naku" in= difficulty of negation manipulation"naku" contr= asted with "na" in difficulty of Clearly,= if all of Lojban negation was built on=20 - naku negation instead of=20 - na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban wou= ld be as difficult as in natural languages. In=20 + naku negation instead of=20 + na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as= difficult as in natural languages. In=20 , for example, we'll discuss = DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connecti= on is moved across a negation boundary. nakuin linked sumti places Since=20 - naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be plac= ed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including=20 - be and=20 - bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, an= d we recommend avoiding such constructs. + naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can b= e placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including=20 + be and=20 + bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we rec= ommend avoiding such constructs. double negationand naku nakumultiple in sentence You can put multiple=20 - nakus in a sentence, each forming a separate ne= gation boundary. Two adjacent=20 - nakus in a bridi are a double negative and canc= el out: + nakus in a sentence, each forming a separ= ate negation boundary. Two adjacent=20 + nakus in a bridi are a double negative an= d cancel out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d15"/> mi naku naku le zarci cu klama Other expressions using two=20 - naku s may or may not cancel out. If there is n= o quantified variable between them, then the=20 - naku s cancel. + naku s may or may not cancel out. If ther= e is no quantified variable between them, then the=20 + naku s cancel. Negation with internal=20 - naku is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical ma= nipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating= . + naku is clumsy and non-intuitive for logi= cal manipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emu= lating.
Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law negations with lo= gical connectiveseffects on expansion of sentence logical = connectives within negationeffects of expansion on DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective b= etween terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires = a change in the connective. Thus (where=20 p and=20 q stand for terms or sentences)=20 not (p or q) is identical to=20 not p and not q, and=20 not (p and q) is identical to=20 not p or not q. The corresponding changes for the other= two basic Lojban connectives are:=20 not (p equivalent to q) is identical to=20 not p exclusive-or not q, and=20 not (p whether-or-not q) is identical to both=20 not p whether-or-not q and=20 not p whether-or-not not q. In any Lojban sentence havi= ng one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction fro= m these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in=20 .) The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by= modifying the basic connectives with=20 - nai,=20 - na and=20 - se can be derived directly from these rules; mo= dify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above= identities, and then, apply each=20 - nai,=20 - na and=20 - se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel= any double negatives that result. + nai,=20 + na and=20 + se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the= basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identit= ies, and then, apply each=20 + nai,=20 + na and=20 + se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any dou= ble negatives that result. =20 =20 DeMorgan's Lawand moving a logical connective relative to "naku&qu= ot; = DeMorgan's Lawand distributing a negation<= /indexterm> distributing a n= egation When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we = wish to=20 distribute a negation over a logical connective; and, f= or internal=20 - naku negation, whenever a logical connective mo= ves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation =E2=80=93 when it crosses a n= egation boundary. + naku negation, whenever a logical connect= ive moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation =E2=80=93 when it cross= es a negation boundary. nai= gi ge ga DeMorgan's L= awsample applications Let us a= pply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of f= orethought logical connectives, which are explained in=20 =20 . It suffices = to know that=20 - ga and=20 - gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or brid= i, mean=20 + ga and=20 + gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean= =20 either and=20 or respectively, and that=20 - ge and=20 - gi used similarly mean=20 + ge and=20 + gi used similarly mean=20 both and=20 and. Furthermore,=20 - ga,=20 - ge, and=20 - gi can all be suffixed with=20 - nai to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.<= /para> + ga,=20 + ge, and=20 + gi can all be suffixed with=20 + nai to negate the bridi or sumti that follows. naku zo'u na bridi ne= gationand DeMorgan's Law bridi negationand negation boundary naku zo'uand negation boundary naand negation boundary We have defin= ed=20 - na and=20 - naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and extern= al bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary alway= s remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negat= ion between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMor= gan's Law to be applied.=20 + na and=20 + naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and = external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary= always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing= negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires= DeMorgan's Law to be applied.=20 =20 =20 =20 and=20 are exactly equivalent: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d1"/> @@ -1579,25 +1579,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3"/> ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and Jo= hn, to-Rome, [false] goes. The=20 - ga and=20 - gi, meaning=20 + ga and=20 + gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 - ge and=20 - gi, meaning=20 + ge and=20 + gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. DeMorgan's Lawand bridi-tail logical connection= bridi-tail logical connecti= onand DeMorgan's Law Here is a= nother example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical co= nnection (explained in=20 =20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4"/> la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla @@ -1608,26 +1608,26 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d5"/> la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla Jane to-the market either [false] walks or [false] runs. Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs). (Placing=20 - le zarci before the selbri makes sure that it i= s properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise,= it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.) + le zarci before the selbri makes sure tha= t it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Othe= rwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.) transformations w= ith logical connectivessteps I= t is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from=20 to=20 , that you become familiar w= ith expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the s= entences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation c= orrect by the following steps. By moving its=20 - na to the beginning of the prenex as a=20 - naku,=20 + na to the beginning of the prenex as a=20 + naku,=20 becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d6"/> naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs)= . @@ -1659,21 +1659,21 @@ ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci c= u bajrykla If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false= ] runs. If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run. which then condenses down to=20 . DeMorgan's Lawand internal naku negations internal naku negations= and DeMorgan's Law DeMorgan's Law must a= lso be applied to internal=20 - naku negations: + naku negations: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d10"/> ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la djan. (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John. @@ -1686,70 +1686,70 @@ That=20 and=20 mean the same should become= evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the= Lojban and prove that they are the same.
selbri variables =20 bu'i bu'e bu'a GOhA= selma'o selbri logical variables logical variablesfor selbri In addition to the variables=20 - da,=20 - de, and=20 - di that we have seen so far, which function as = sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables= =20 - bu'a,=20 - bu'e, and=20 + da,=20 + de, and=20 + di that we have seen so far, which function as sumti an= d belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables=20 + bu'a,=20 + bu'e, and=20 =20 - bu'i which function as selbri and belong to sel= ma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which = are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themsel= ves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation w= ill represent=20 + bu'i which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOh= A. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are abou= t the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We = will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will repr= esent=20 =20 =20 =20 - bu'a,=20 - bu'e and=20 + bu'a,=20 + bu'e and=20 =20 - bu'i with F, G, and H respectively. + bu'i with F, G, and H respectively. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d1"/> su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. There's some relationship between Jim and John. =20 some relationship= example selbri variablesprenex form a= s indefinite description The translations of=20 show how unidiomatic selbri= variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 =20 need to be totally reworded= in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it = is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 - su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 - bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only = sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 - su'o bu'a is technically a sumti =E2=80=93 in f= act, it is an indefinite description like=20 + su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 + bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because= only sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 + su'o bu'a is technically a sumti =E2=80= =93 in fact, it is an indefinite description like=20 =20 =20 - re nanmu, since=20 - bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla li= ke=20 - nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involvi= ng the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex. + re nanmu, since=20 + bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like=20 + nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involving the b= u'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex. selbri variables<= /primary>form when not in prenex When th= e prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d2"/> la djim. bu'a la djan. Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John. selbri variables<= /primary>quantified As a result, if the = number before the variable is anything but=20 - su'o, the prenex is required: + su'o, the prenex is required: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d3"/> ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-= John. Every relationship exists between Jim and John. @@ -1768,61 +1768,61 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1"/> ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. What does=20 mean? The appearance of=20 - ci da quantifies=20 - da as referring to three things, which are rest= ricted by the relative clause to be cats. When=20 - re da appears later, it refers to two of those = three things =E2=80=93 there is no saying which ones. Further uses of=20 - da alone, if there were any, would refer once m= ore to the three cats, so the requantification of=20 - da is purely local. + ci da quantifies=20 + da as referring to three things, which are restricted b= y the relative clause to be cats. When=20 + re da appears later, it refers to two of = those three things =E2=80=93 there is no saying which ones. Further uses of= =20 + da alone, if there were any, would refer once more to t= he three cats, so the requantification of=20 + da is purely local. prenex scopein abstractions prenex scopein relative cl= auses prenex scopein embedded bridi prenex scopeinformal prenex scopefor sentences joined by .i prenex = scopefor sentences joined by ijeks In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to = following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 ) such as the=20 - .ije in=20 + .ije in=20 . Theoretically, a bare=20 - .i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informal= ly, however, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 - .i, as if it were an=20 - .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such= as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause,= as explained in=20 + i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, howev= er, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 + i, as if it were an=20 + .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded brid= i such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the c= lause, as explained in=20 . A prenex preceding=20 - tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persists unti= l the=20 - tu'u, which may be many sentences or even parag= raphs later. + tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persist= s until the=20 + tu'u, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs la= ter. subscriptsuse with logical variables logical variables= creating more by subscripting If the variables=20 - da,=20 - de, and=20 - di (or the selbri variables=20 + da,=20 + de, and=20 + di (or the selbri variables=20 =20 - bu'a,=20 - bu'e, and=20 + bu'a,=20 + bu'e, and=20 =20 - bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a= particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of th= em. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo= counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full = in=20 + bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particu= lar problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each= possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts = as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in=20 =20 , but in general consist= of the cmavo=20 - xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or= more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expres= sion enclosed in parentheses. + xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more le= rfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enc= losed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2"/> ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them. The=20 - pa da in=20 + pa da in=20 does not specify the number= of things to which=20 - da refers, as the preceding=20 - ci da does. Instead, it selects one of them for= use in this sumti only. The number of referents of=20 - da remains three, but a single one (there is no= way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader. + da refers, as the preceding=20 + ci da does. Instead, it selects one of th= em for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of=20 + da remains three, but a single one (there is no way of = knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.
Conclusion logic and Lojban<= /primary>more aspects This chapter is in= complete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully underst= and nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban = realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logi= c speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someo= ne who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope = to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication,= those that are not). =20
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 2edf2a3..42feba9 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -12,158 +12,158 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1"/> There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 e in this sentence. fourteen "e&= quot;s lerfudefinition (Don't forget= the one within quotation marks.) Using the word=20 letteral avoids confusion with=20 letter, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly= , there is a Lojban gismu for=20 letteral, namely=20 - lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest o= f this chapter. + lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest of this c= hapter. alphabetLatin used for Lojban Latinalphabet of Lojban= Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English do= es, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, eve= ryone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold: =20 alphabetwords for letters inrationale<= /indexterm> First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to a= nd represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in Engl= ish and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphab= et to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in= spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalent= s of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow. =20 =20 alphabetswords for non-Lojban lettersrationale Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in w= riting English. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: E= nglish-speakers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled=20 phi as=20 fye, whereas=20 fee would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-= speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban= , in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that= can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other w= riting systems. Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti =E2=80=93 the equiv= alent of English pronouns. =20 letter<= secondary>contrasted with word for the letter lerfu wordco= ntrasted with lerfu lerfucontrasted with lerfu word In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tenden= cy to use the word=20 - lerfu for both the letterals themselves and for= the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will= be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term=20 + lerfu for both the letterals themselves and for the Loj= ban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruth= lessly suppressed, and the term=20 lerfu word will invariably be used for the latter. The = Lojban equivalent would be=20 - lerfu valsi or=20 - lervla. + lerfu valsi or=20 + lervla.
A to Z in Lojban, plus one lerfu wordsLojban coverage requirement The firs= t requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must= represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for Englis= h are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 doubleyou and=20 w is strictly historical in nature;=20 aitch represents=20 h but has no clear relationship to it at all; and=20 z has two distinct lerfu words,=20 zee and=20 zed, depending on the dialect of English in question. BY selma'o lerfu wo= rdfor "'" lerfu wordsfor co= nsonants lerfu wordsfor vowels lerfu wordsformation rules All of Lojban's basic lerfu words = are made by one of three rules: to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add=20 - bu; + bu; to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add=20 y; the lerfu word for=20 ' is=20 - .y'y. + .y'y. lerfu wordstable of Lojban Therefore, the follo= wing table represents the basic Lojban alphabet: - '.y'y= . + '.= y'y. - a.abu= + a.= abu - bby.<= /jbophrase> + bb= y. - ccy.<= /jbophrase> + cc= y. - ddy.<= /jbophrase> + dd= y. - e.ebu= + e.= ebu - ffy.<= /jbophrase> + ff= y. - ggy.<= /jbophrase> + gg= y. - i.ibu= + i.= ibu - jjy.<= /jbophrase> + jj= y. - kky.<= /jbophrase> + kk= y. - lly.<= /jbophrase> + ll= y. - mmy.<= /jbophrase> + mm= y. - nny.<= /jbophrase> + nn= y. - o.obu= + o.= obu - ppy.<= /jbophrase> + pp= y. - rry.<= /jbophrase> + rr= y. - ssy.<= /jbophrase> + ss= y. - tty.<= /jbophrase> + tt= y. - u.ubu= + u.= ubu - vvy.<= /jbophrase> + vv= y. - xxy.<= /jbophrase> + xx= y. - y.ybu= + y.= ybu - zzy.<= /jbophrase> + zz= y. BU selma'o bu bueffect on preceding word lerfu wordscompos= ed of compound cmavo lerfu wordscomposed of single cmavo lerfu= wordsvowel words contrasted with consonant words lerfu wo= rdsconsonant words contrasted with vowel words lerfu words= for vowelspause requirement before There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerf= u words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 ' lerfu words are two syllables and must be prece= ded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident= from the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 - by and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY,= as is=20 - .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand,= are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 - bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All = of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sent= ence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when= =20 - bu follows. + by and its like are single cmavo of selma= 'o BY, as is=20 + .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other= hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 + bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the v= owel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sep= arator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 + bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1"/> ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu t a @@ -205,21 +205,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. mi cy. claxu I lerfu-=20 c without I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter=20 c. without a pause after=20 - cy would be interpreted as:<= /para> + cy would be interprete= d as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4"/> micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor. @@ -239,53 +239,53 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .iVAN. the name=20 Ivan in Russian/Slavic pronunciation. to'a ga'e caseupper/lower specification lower-caselerfu wo= rd for upper-caselerfu word for It= would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one= for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo=20 =20 =20 - ga'e and=20 + ga'e and=20 =20 - to'a representing upper case and lower case res= pectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely= BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them. + to'a representing upper case and lower case respectivel= y. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and= they may be freely interspersed with them. =20 ga'e lower-case wor= deffect on following lerfu words The effect of=20 - ga'e is to change the interpretation of all ler= fu words following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurre= nce of=20 + ga'e is to change the interpretation of all lerfu words= following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurrence of= =20 =20 =20 - to'a causes the interpretation to revert to low= er case. Thus,=20 + to'a causes the interpretation to revert to lower case.= Thus,=20 =20 - ga'e .abu means not=20 + ga'e .abu means not=20 =20 a but=20 A, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d2"/> .ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a =20 =20 i [upper] V A N [lower] The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called=20 shift words. shift wordscope How long does a shift word last= ? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the= end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is onl= y in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found. LAU selma'o shiftsingle-lettergrammar of= shift wordfor single letter It is often conve= nient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo=20 - tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose.= A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equiv= alent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 + tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU c= mavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: t= he combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 for details.) chemical elements= use of single-letter shift for= A likely use of=20 - tau is in the internationally standardized symb= ols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a s= ingle upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case l= erfu: + tau is in the internationally standardized symbols for = the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single up= per-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu: =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3"/> @@ -299,129 +299,129 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. tau sy. .ibu [single shift] S i Si (chemical symbol for silicon) single-letter shi= ftas toggle If a shift to uppe= r-case is in effect when=20 =20 - tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only= to lower case, reversing its usual effect. + tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lowe= r case, reversing its usual effect.
The universal=20 - <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> + bu lerfu word set ex= tensionwith bu bufor extension of ler= fu word set So far we have seen=20 - bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce v= owel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 - bu. In developing the lerfu word system, howeve= r, it proved to be useful to allow=20 - bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in or= der to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. + bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel ler= fu words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 + bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it pr= oved to be useful to allow=20 + bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to a= llow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. fa'o su sa si lo'u la'o= z= oi zo zei za'e ba'e fa'ointeraction with bu = suinter= action with bu sainteraction with bu siin= teraction with bu lo'uinteraction with bu la'ointeraction with bu zoiinteraction with bu zointeraction with bu zeiinteraction with bu za'einteraction with bu ba'einteraction with bu= bu<= /primary>interaction with ba'e buand compound c= mavo bugrammar of Formally,=20 - bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. C= ompound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 - ba'e,=20 - za'e,=20 - =20 - zei,=20 - zo,=20 - zoi,=20 - la'o,=20 - lo'u,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su, and=20 - fa'o may not have=20 - =20 - bu attached, because they are interpreted befor= e=20 - bu detection is done; in particular, + bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound = cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 + ba'e,=20 + za'e,=20 + =20 + zei,=20 + zo,=20 + zoi,=20 + la'o,=20 + lo'u,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su, and=20 + fa'o may not have=20 + =20 + bu attached, because they are interpreted before=20 + bu detection is done; in particular, <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e4d1"/> zo bu the word=20 bu bubu word "bu&= quot; = namespause requirement in lerfu words bueffect of multiple is needed when discussing=20 - bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 - bu to itself, but more than one=20 - bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 - .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not d= efined, but it is presumably different from=20 - .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmav= o, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 - bu are treated grammatically as if they were cm= avo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always n= ecessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene m= ay absorb preceding or following words. + bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 + bu to itself, but more than one=20 + bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 + .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is= not defined, but it is presumably different from=20 + .abu.) It does not matter if the word is = a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 + bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belo= nging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary= to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absor= b preceding or following words. happy faceexample smiley faceexample logogramswords for smiley faceword for unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 - bu to words has been used primarily to make nam= es for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Loj= ban name for the=20 + bu to words has been used primarily to make names for v= arious logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name= for the=20 =20 =20 happy face is=20 =20 - .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 + .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 .ui that means=20 happiness. Likewise, the=20 =20 smiley face, written=20 =20 :-) and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is= called=20 - zo'obu The existence of these names does not me= an that you should insert=20 - .uibu into running Lojban text to indicate that= you are happy, or=20 - zo'obu when something is funny; instead, use th= e appropriate attitudinal directly. + zo'obu The existence of these names does = not mean that you should insert=20 + .uibu into running Lojban text to indicat= e that you are happy, or=20 + zo'obu when something is funny; instead, = use the appropriate attitudinal directly. ampersandexample ampersand characterword for "&&q= uot;word for Likewise,=20 - joibu represents the ampersand character,=20 + joibu represents the ampersand character,= =20 =20 =20 &, based on the cmavo=20 - joi meaning=20 + joi meaning=20 mixed and. Many more such lerfu words will probably be = invented in future. "<= secondary>"word for "."word for syllable breakword for = pausewor= d for syllable breaksymbol for pausesymbo= l for The=20 . and=20 , characters used in Lojbanic writing to represen= t pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words= =20 =20 - denpa bu (literally,=20 + denpa bu (literally,=20 pause bu) and=20 - slaka bu (literally,=20 + slaka bu (literally,=20 syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 - denpa and=20 - slaka are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 - denpabu would be a fu'ivla (= word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 - denPAbu. No pause is require= d between=20 - denpa (or=20 - slaka) and=20 - bu, though. + denpa and=20 + slaka are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 + denpabu would be a fu'= ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 + denPAbu. No pause is r= equired between=20 + denpa (or=20 + slaka) and=20 + bu, though.
Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of c= ultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of a= s many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in writt= en text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need = a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 - bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 + bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 - .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 + .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has= been made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 - bu. Note that the pause after=20 - .alfas. is still needed. + bu. Note that the pause after=20 + .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu w= ord with=20 - bu attached. The following assignments have bee= n made: + bu attached. The following assignments have been made:<= /para> - .y'y.buh + .y'y.buh= - ky.buq<= /listitem> + ky.buq - vy.buw<= /listitem> + vy.buw quackexample As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1"/> @@ -435,73 +435,73 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. letters= symbol contrasted with sound for spelling letterssound contrasted with symbol for spelling Note th= at the fact that the letter=20 c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the = Lojban letter=20 c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word = and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban= and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters. =20 A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: - ty.bu=C3=BE (t= horn) + ty.bu=C3= =BE (thorn) - dy.bu=C3=B0 (e= dh) + dy.bu=C3= =B0 (edh) However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thin= g, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with=20 - bu added they become even longer: the worst-cas= e Greek lerfu word would be=20 - .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two manda= tory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have se= parate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to ch= oose? + bu added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek = lerfu word would be=20 + .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two= mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages h= ave separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban= to choose? letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with language-shi= ft la= nguage shiftchoice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart langua= ge shifteffect on following words language shift= rationale for lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-word + bu, drawback The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to thos= e introduced in=20 . After the appearance of such a= shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the le= rfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for ex= ample, the lerfu word=20 =20 - ty would represent not Latin=20 + ty would represent not Latin=20 t but Greek=20 tau. Why=20 tau? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterp= art of=20 t within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would = be all right to map=20 - ty. to=20 + ty. to=20 phi or even=20 omega, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extr= emely hard to remember. buinteraction with language shift language shiftintera= ction with bu Where no obvious closest counterpart = exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu m= ay simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back= on a=20 - bu form. Since a=20 - bu form may mean different things in different = alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 - bu forms are in use. + bu form. Since a=20 + bu form may mean different things in different alphabet= s, it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 + bu forms are in use. Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o= BY: - lo'aLatin/Roma= n/Lojban alphabet + lo'aLatin/Roman/Lojban= alphabet =20 =20 =20 - ge'oGreek alph= abet + ge'oGreek alphabet =20 - je'oHebrew alp= habet + je'oHebrew alphabet =20 - jo'oArabic alp= habet + jo'oArabic alphabet =20 - ru'oCyrillic a= lphabet + ru'oCyrillic alphabet<= /para> =20 LAU selma'o zai= langu= age shiftbased on name + bu <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">language shiftcompound language shiftformation of shift alphabet na= me C= yrillic alphabetlanguage shift word for Arabic alphabetlanguage shift word for Hebrew alphabetl= anguage shift word for Greek alphabetlanguage shift word f= or L= atin alphabetlanguage shift word for The cmavo=20 - zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift wo= rds to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo w= ould typically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 + zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to s= till other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typ= ically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 =20 - bu suffixed: + bu suffixed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2"/> zai .devanagar. bu =20 Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet =20 @@ -534,21 +534,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 =20 Japanese hiragana= example hiraganaexample Japanese katakana= example katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not bee= n standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need f= or them. (Note the=20 . characters marking leading and following pauses= .) LAU selma'o ce'= a bold= example italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsfor font facespecifying for letters fontspecifying for letters In addition, there may be multiple visible representat= ions within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwr= iting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 =20 font and face distinctions are also represented by shif= t words, indicated with the cmavo=20 =20 - ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:<= /para> + ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5"/> ce'a .xelveticas. bu =20 Helvetica font =20 @@ -571,25 +571,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. ce'a .pavrel. bu =20 12-point font size =20 BY selma'o na'a= font<= /primary>example 12-pointexample handwritingexample Helvetica fontexample lo'acontrasted with na'a na'acontrasted with lo'a canceling= letter shifts = shift wordscanceling effect The cmavo=20 - na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word = cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lowe= r-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 + na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: = it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case L= ojban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 =20 =20 =20 - lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentia= lly leaving font and case shifts in place. + lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leav= ing font and case shifts in place. =20 =20 =20 Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of pr= oposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.
Accent marks and compound lerfu words tildea diacritical mark cedillaa diacritical mark circumfl= exa diacritical mark umlauta diacriti= cal mark accent marka diacritical mark lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation of diacritical marks on= diac= ritical marksas lerfu Many lan= guages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the= lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels,= called (in English)=20 =20 =20 @@ -599,98 +599,98 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 umlaut; a mark which looks the same is also used in Fre= nch, but with a different name and meaning. =20 diacritical marks= problem of position These mark= s may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojba= n. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words m= ust be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representi= ng the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer p= rograms that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent ma= rk before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often prono= unced afterwards (for example, in German=20 =20 a umlaut is preferred to=20 =20 umlaut a). =20 FOI selma'o TEI= selma'o foi = tei diacritical marksspecifying with tei=E2=80=A6fo= i Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Eithe= r it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in= question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo=20 - tei (of selma'o TEI) and=20 - foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo = are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them= , and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word= =20 + tei (of selma'o TEI) and=20 + foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are alwa= ys used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and th= e whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word=20 =C3=A9t=C3=A9, with acute accent marks on both=20 =20 e lerfu, could be spelled as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e6d1"/> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi (=20 e acute )=20 t ( acute=20 e) ete accent markexample diacritical marksorder of specificati= on within tei=E2=80=A6foi and it does not matter wh= ether=20 - akut. bu appears before or after=20 - .ebu; the=20 - tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the acute = accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precis= ion represented by=20 + akut. bu appears before or after=20 + .ebu; the=20 + tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the = acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of = precision represented by=20 would rarely be required: i= t might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for e= xact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French. diacritical marks= problem with multiple on one lerfu This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent ma= rk on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which = accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to r= epresent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the = word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolv= ed by further conventions not yet established. =20 =20 Spanish chexample Spanish llexample compound lettersnative languagerepresenting as distinc= t letters accented lettersconsidered as distinct from unacc= ented diacritical marksconsidered as forming distinct lett= ers Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consi= der certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented = equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the print= ed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters o= r not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (= like=20 ll and=20 ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may = be represented by enclosing the combination in=20 - tei ... foi. + tei ... foi. lerfu wordsforming new for non-Lojban letters using bu In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible= to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally o= r well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 ll or Croatian=20 lj could be called=20 - libu, but that usage would not necessarily be u= niversally understood. + libu, but that usage would not necessaril= y be universally understood. contains a table = of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks. =20
Punctuation marks LAU selma'o lau= laueffect on following lerfu word = punctuation lerfu wordsmechanism for creating Lojban does n= ot have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really= a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks ex= tensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation mar= ks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo=20 =20 - lau of selma'o LAU.=20 + lau of selma'o LAU.=20 =20 - lau must always be followed by a BY word; the i= nterpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark.= Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 + lau must always be followed by a BY word; the interpret= ation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typical= ly, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 =20 - bu suffix. + bu suffix. punctuation lerfu= wordsrationale for lau Why is= =20 - lau necessary at all? Why not just use a=20 + lau necessary at all? Why not just use a=20 =20 - bu-marked word and announce that it is always t= o be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The= =20 - bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is= easy for Lojban users to make up=20 - bu words without bothering to explain what they= mean. Using the=20 - lau cmavo flags at least the most important of = such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly = the same argument applies to the use of=20 + bu-marked word and announce that it is always to be int= erpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The=20 + bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy fo= r Lojban users to make up=20 + bu words without bothering to explain what they mean. U= sing the=20 + lau cmavo flags at least the most important of such non= ce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same= argument applies to the use of=20 =20 - zai to signal an alphabet shift or=20 + zai to signal an alphabet shift or=20 =20 - ce'a to signal a font shift.) + ce'a to signal a font shift.) =20 =20 punctuation lerfu= wordsinteraction with different alphabet systems Since different alphabets require different punctuation= marks, the interpretation of a=20 =20 - lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the curren= t alphabet shift and the current font shift. + lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphab= et shift and the current font shift. =20 =20
What about Chinese characters? =20 =20 =20 Amharic writing syllaba= rieslerfu word representation = hiraganacontrasted with kanji kanjicontrasted with alphabets and = syllabaries <= primary>Chinese characterscontrasted with alphabets an= d syllabaries Chinese characters (=20 =20 =20 =20 han=20 4 zi=20 4 in Chinese,=20 - kanji in Japanese) represent an entirely differ= ent approach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such a= s Japanese hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of = the spoken language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single ele= ments of meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spo= ken Chinese. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese charac= ters that can exist, and many thousands are in regular use. + kanji in Japanese) represent an entirely different appr= oach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japane= se hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spok= en language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of= meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chin= ese. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters tha= t can exist, and many thousands are in regular use. It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift word= s, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there ar= e various possible ways around the problem. romaji<= secondary>as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words= pinyinas a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words kanjirepresenting based on romaji spelling Chinese charactersrepresenting based on pinyin spelling = First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet representatio= ns, known as=20 pinyin for Chinese and=20 =20 romaji for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the w= ord=20 =20 han=20 4 zi=20 4 is conventionally written with tw= o characters, but it may be spelled out as: @@ -704,21 +704,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. a n 4 z i 4 han^{4}zi^{4} lerfu wor= ds with numeric digitsgrammar considerations numeric digit= s in lerfu wordsgrammar considerations The cmavo=20 - vo is the Lojban digit=20 + vo is the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 =20 . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2"/> @@ -736,49 +736,49 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <quote>s</quote> <quote>h</quote> <quote>i</quote> </en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Mitsubishi</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-i= mported"><primary>kanji</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</= secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>Chine= se characters</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</secondary>= </indexterm> Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu= words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there ar= e about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about = 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character = with a=20 =20 =20 =20 - <jbophrase>tei</jbophrase>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of wri= ting (which is standardized for each character), and a=20 - <jbophrase>foi</jbophrase>. No one has as yet attempted this project.<= /para> + <valsi>tei</valsi>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 + <valsi>foi</valsi>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-lerfu-pro-sumti"> <title>lerfu words as pro-sumti lerfu stringdefinition So far, lerfu words have= only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several ot= her grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single l= erfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term=20 =20 lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 - ko'a,=20 - ko'e, and so on: + ko'a,=20 + ko'e, and so on: A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1"/> .abu prami by. A loves B =20 In=20 ,=20 - .abu and=20 - by. represent specific sumti, but which sumti t= hey represent must be inferred from context. + .abu and=20 + by. represent specific sumti, but which s= umti they represent must be inferred from context. goi= lerfu stringas pro-sumti assigned by goi Alte= rnatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by=20 - goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: + goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d2"/> le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house. @@ -804,84 +804,84 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. =20 =20 SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban. Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 - ru'o.abupyky instead. + ru'o.abupyky instead. lerfu stringsas pro-sumtifor multiple sumti separ= ated by boi What about A gives BCexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5"/> .abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C BOI selma'o boi= boieliding from lerfu strings Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 =20 - by. cy. is a single lerfu string, although writ= ten as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretatio= n is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need= to introduce the elidable terminator=20 + by. cy. is a single lerfu string, althoug= h written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpr= etation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, w= e need to introduce the elidable terminator=20 =20 - boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to ter= minate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two = of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 - boi is to attach a free modifier =E2=80=93 subs= cript, parenthesis, or what have you =E2=80=93 to a lerfu string.) The corr= ect version is: + boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate l= erfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these= appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 + boi is to attach a free modifier =E2=80=93 subscript, p= arenthesis, or what have you =E2=80=93 to a lerfu string.) The correct vers= ion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6"/> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C =20 A gives B to Cexample where the two occurrences= of=20 - boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining= occurrence is not. Likewise: + boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurre= nce is not. Likewise: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7"/> xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. =20 X loves everybody. pro-sumtilerfu stringsinteraction with quantifier= s and boi boirequired between pro-sumti lerfu string and qu= antifier requires the first=20 - boi to separate the lerfu string=20 - xy. from the digit string=20 + boi to separate the lerfu string=20 + xy. from the digit string=20 =20 - ro. + ro.
References to lerfu pro-sumtilerfu stringeffect on reference to lerfu= itself lerfureference to The rules= of=20 make it impossible to use = unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1"/> .abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 - .abu refers to. The solution to this problem ma= kes use of the cmavo=20 - me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string = into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 - me'o is a special case of its mathematical use,= which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than= for its value. + .abu refers to. The solution to this prob= lem makes use of the cmavo=20 + me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 + me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. "a" is = letteralexample FIXME: TAG SPO= T <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/> me'o .abu cu lerfu The-expression=20 a is-a-letteral. @@ -899,44 +899,44 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. This sentence contains four=20 e s. Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is = not a literal one =E2=80=93 but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 - lu ... li'u instead of=20 - me'o, producing: + lu ... li'u instead of=20 + me'o, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4"/> lu .abu li'u cu lerfu [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. (The single-word quote=20 - zo cannot be used, because=20 - .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 + zo cannot be used, because=20 + .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, because it says:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5"/> The word=20 - .abu is a letteral + .abu is a letteral word "abu&qu= ot;example which is not the ca= se; rather, the thing symbolized by the word=20 - .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be: + .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6"/> la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu =20 The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. @@ -958,39 +958,39 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. li .abu du li by. su'i cy. the-number a equals the-number b plus c a =3D b + c function name= lerfu string as lerfu stringas functi= on name A lerfu string as function name (preceded b= y=20 =20 - ma'o of selma'o MAhO): + ma'o of selma'o MAhO): function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2"/> li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x =20 y =3D f(x) Note the=20 - boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 - fy and=20 - xy. + boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 + fy and=20 + xy. selbrilerfu string as lerfu stringas selbri A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o = MOI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d3"/> @@ -1012,56 +1012,56 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. ny.mai Nthly =20 Nthlyexample subscriptslerfu string as= lerfu stringas subscript A lerfu string as su= bscript (preceded by=20 - xi of selma'o XI): + xi of selma'o XI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d5"/> xy. xi ky. x sub k x sub kexample quantifierlerfu string as lerfu string<= /primary>as quantifier A lerfu string as= quantifier (enclosed in=20 - vei ... ve'o parentheses): + vei ... ve'o parentheses): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6"/> vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu (=20 n) persons vei= n peopleexample lerfu stringsas quantifiersavoiding interaction with sumti quantified The parentheses are required because=20 - ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti,=20 - ny. and=20 - lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expressi= on other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantif= ier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 - ve'o, can usually be elided. + ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti,= =20 + ny. and=20 + lo prenu. In general, any mathematical ex= pression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a q= uantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 + ve'o, can usually be elided. lerfu juxtapositi= on interpretationcontrasted with mathematical interpre= tation lerfu stringinterpretationcon= trasted with mathematical interpretation All the exa= mples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in= accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu st= ring would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojba= n,=20 =20 - .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication=20 + .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication=20 =20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c but is the variable=20 abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employ= ed that made the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the val= ues of the variables=20 a,=20 b, and=20 c multiplied together.) lerfu shift scope= exception for mathematical texts mathematical textseffect on lerfu shift scope There is = a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathem= atical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical= expressions, and vice versa. =20
@@ -1096,136 +1096,136 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la s= ykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 NYCexample SQLexample NATOexample IBMexample CIAexample DNAex= ample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final conson= ant There is no fixed convention for assigning the = final consonant. In=20 , the last consonant of the = lerfu string has been replicated into final position. buomitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words acronyms names based on l= erfu wordsomitting bu Some com= pression can be done by leaving out=20 - bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 - .y.bu, wherein the=20 - bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compre= ssion is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without i= ntroducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause: + bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 + .y.bu, wherein the=20 + bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is= moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introduci= ng an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2"/> la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. = .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 In=20 , the final consonant=20 m stands for=20 - merko, indicating the source culture of these a= cronyms. + merko, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.= =20 "z" ins= tead of "'"in acronyms names based on lerfu = words acronyms names based on lerfu wordsusing "z&quo= t; instead of "'" in Another approach, wh= ich some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions= of the language that did not have a=20 ' character, is to use the consonant=20 z instead of=20 ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3"/> la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. = .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 me<= /indexterm> acronymsas lerfu strings using "me" = lerfu stringsas acronyms using "me" One more alt= ernative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed = with=20 - me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: + me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4"/> la me dy ny. .abu that-named what-pertains-to=20 d n a This works because=20 - la, the cmavo that normally introduces names us= ed as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predi= cate is a (meaningful) name: + la, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as su= mti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is = a (meaningful) name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d5"/> la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bear writes. Bear is a writer. does not of course refer = to a bear (=20 - le cribe or=20 - lo cribe) but to something else, probably a p= erson, named=20 + le cribe or=20 + lo cribe) but to something else, probab= ly a person, named=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 - me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can be used= as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the i= ndividual lerfu words. + me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can b= e used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between= the individual lerfu words. =20
Computerized character codes =20 BY selma'o se'e= lette= r encoding schemesapplication to lerfu words character enc= oding schemesapplication to lerfu words lerfu wordsusing computer encoding schemes with se'e charactersdefinition character codesdefinition Since the first application of computers to non-numerical inform= ation, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called=20 character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punct= uation marks (collectively called=20 =20 =20 characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 =20 =20 - se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventiona= lly followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, = and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized char= acter set: + se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally foll= owed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the = whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character se= t: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d1"/> me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII for-the= -mass-of American currency-units. The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars. =20 =20 $ represents American dollars. =20 $ American dollars ASCIIapplication to lerfu words Understa= nding=20 depends on knowing the valu= e in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the=20 =20 $ character. Therefore, the=20 - se'e convention is only intelligible to those w= ho know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular= character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cu= ltural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with acc= ess to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. + se'e convention is only intelligible to those who know = the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular charact= er, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural n= eutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to d= escriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. =20 peace symbol Unicode As another example, the Unicode character set (also kno= wn as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted = trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a= Lojbanist may say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d2"/> me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of bein= g-at-peace se'eand number base convention When a=20 - se'e string appears in running discourse, some = metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or som= e other base, and which character set is in use. + se'e string appears in running discourse, some metaling= uistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other = base, and which character set is in use. =20
List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo bu BU makes previous word into a lerfu word @@ -1315,22 +1315,22 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. start compound lerfu word foi FOI end compound lerfu word LAU selma'ogrammar of following BY cmavo lerfu word cmavolist of auxiliary Note that LAU cmavo must be fo= llowed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where=20 equivalent means: either any Lojban word followed by=20 - bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel)= , or a=20 - tei ... foi compound cmavo. + bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 + tei ... foi compound cmavo.
Proposed lerfu words =E2=80=93 introduction lerfu wordslist of proposednotation convention The following sections contain tables of proposed lerf= u words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu sy= stem. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabe= t name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-b= ased lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the sys= tem based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. proposed lerfu wo= rdsas working basis These tabl= es are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban= community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other = and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual u= sage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. P= robably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down= into a final, conventional form. =20 For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alph= abet lerfu).
@@ -1338,705 +1338,705 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet =20 alpha - .alfas. bu - .abu + .alfas. bu + .abu =20 beta - .betas. bu - by + .betas. bu + by gamma - .gamas. bu - gy + .gamas. bu + gy delta - .deltas. bu - dy + .deltas. bu + dy epsilon - .Epsilon. bu - .ebu + .Epsilon. bu + .ebu zeta - .zetas. bu - zy + .zetas. bu + zy eta - .etas. bu - .e'ebu + .etas. bu + .e'ebu theta - .tetas. bu - ty. bu + .tetas. bu + ty. bu iota - .iotas. bu - .ibu + .iotas. bu + .ibu kappa - .kapas. bu - ky + .kapas. bu + ky lambda - .lymdas. bu - ly + .lymdas. bu + ly mu - .mus. bu - my + .mus. bu + my nu - .nus. bu - ny + .nus. bu + ny xi - .ksis. bu - ksis. bu + .ksis. bu + ksis. bu omicron - .Omikron. bu - .obu + .Omikron. bu + .obu pi - .pis. bu - py + .pis. bu + py rho - .ros. bu - ry + .ros. bu + ry sigma - .sigmas. bu - sy + .sigmas. bu + sy tau - .taus. bu - ty + .taus. bu + ty upsilon - .Upsilon. bu - .ubu + .Upsilon. bu + .ubu phi - .fis. bu - py. bu + .fis. bu + py. bu chi - .xis. bu - ky. bu + .xis. bu + ky. bu psi - .psis. bu - psis. bu + .psis. bu + psis. bu omega - .omegas. bu - .o'obu + .omegas. bu + .o'obu rough - .dasei,as. bu - .y'y + .dasei,as. bu + .y'y smooth - .psiles. bu - xutla bu + .psiles. bu + xutla bu
Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet =20 Cyrillic alphabet= proposed lerfu words for lerfu wordsp= roposed for Cyrillic alphabet The second column in = this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church = Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages req= uire more letters which can be devised as needed. a - .azys. bu - .abu + .azys. bu + .abu b - .bukys. bu - by + .bukys. bu + by v - .vedis. bu - vy + .vedis. bu + vy g - .glagolis. bu - gy + .glagolis. bu + gy d - .dobros. bu - dy + .dobros. bu + dy e - .iestys. bu - .ebu + .iestys. bu + .ebu zh - .jivet. bu - jy + .jivet. bu + jy z - .zemlias. bu - zy + .zemlias. bu + zy i - .ije,is. bu - .ibu + .ije,is. bu + .ibu short i - .itord. bu - .itord. bu + .itord. bu + .itord. bu k - .kakos. bu - ky + .kakos. bu + ky l - .liudi,ies. bu - ly + .liudi,ies. bu + ly m - .myslites. bu - my + .myslites. bu + my n - .naciys. bu - ny + .naciys. bu + ny o - .onys. bu - .obu + .onys. bu + .obu p - .pokois. bu - py + .pokois. bu + py r - .riytsis. bu - ry + .riytsis. bu + ry s - .slovos. bu - sy + .slovos. bu + sy t - .tyvriydos. bu - ty + .tyvriydos. bu + ty u - .ukys. bu - .ubu + .ukys. bu + .ubu f - .friytys. bu - fy + .friytys. bu + fy kh - .xerys. bu - xy + .xerys. bu + xy ts - .tsis. bu - tsys. bu + .tsis. bu + tsys. bu ch - .tcriyviys. bu - tcys. bu + .tcriyviys. bu + tcys. bu sh - .cas. bu - cy + .cas. bu + cy shch - .ctas. bu - ctcys. bu + .ctas. bu + ctcys. bu hard sign - .ier. bu - jdari bu + .ier. bu + jdari bu yeri - .ierys. bu - .y.bu + .ierys. bu + .y.bu soft sign - .ieriys. bu - ranti bu + .ieriys. bu + ranti bu reversed e - .ecarn. bu - .ecarn. bu + .ecarn. bu + .ecarn. bu yu - .ius. bu - .iubu + .ius. bu + .iubu ya - .ias. bu - .iabu + .ias. bu + .iabu
Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet =20 aleph - .alef. bu - .alef. bu + .alef. bu + .alef. bu bet - .bet. bu - by + .bet. bu + by gimel - .gimel. bu - gy + .gimel. bu + gy daled - .daled. bu - dy + .daled. bu + dy he - .xex. bu - .y'y + .xex. bu + .y'y vav - .vav. bu - vy + .vav. bu + vy zayin - .zai,in. bu - zy + .zai,in. bu + zy =20 khet - .xet. bu - xy. bu + .xet. bu + xy. bu tet - .tet. bu - ty. bu + .tet. bu + ty. bu yud - .iud. bu - .iud. bu + .iud. bu + .iud. bu kaf - .kaf. bu - ky + .kaf. bu + ky lamed - .LYmed. bu - ly + .LYmed. bu + ly mem - .mem. bu - my + .mem. bu + my nun - .nun. bu - ny + .nun. bu + ny samekh - .samex. bu - samex. bu + .samex. bu + samex. bu ayin - .ai,in. bu - .ai,in bu + .ai,in. bu + .ai,in bu pe - .pex. bu - py + .pex. bu + py tzadi - .tsadik. bu - tsadik. bu + .tsadik. bu + tsadik. bu quf - .kuf. bu - ky. bu + .kuf. bu + ky. bu resh - .rec. bu - ry + .rec. bu + ry shin - .cin. bu - cy + .cin. bu + cy sin - .sin. bu - sy + .sin. bu + sy taf - .taf. bu - ty. + .taf. bu + ty. dagesh - .daGEC. bu - daGEC. bu + .daGEC. bu + daGEC. bu hiriq - .xirik. bu - .ibu + .xirik. bu + .ibu tzeirekh - .tseirex. bu - .eibu + .tseirex. bu + .eibu segol - .seGOL. bu - .ebu + .seGOL. bu + .ebu qubbutz - .kubuts. bu - .ubu + .kubuts. bu + .ubu qamatz - .kamats. bu - .abu + .kamats. bu + .abu patach - .patax. bu - .a'abu + .patax. bu + .a'abu sheva - .cyVAS. bu - .y.bu + .cyVAS. bu + .y.bu kholem - .xolem. bu - .obu + .xolem. bu + .obu shuruq - .curuk. bu - .u'ubu + .curuk. bu + .u'ubu
Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters= =20 =20 multiple letters<= /primary>proposed lerfu words for diacritic marksproposed lerfu words for accent marksproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for multiple letters= lerfu wordsproposed for diacritic marks lerfu wordsp= roposed for accent marks This list is intended to b= e suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish=20 dark l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.<= /para> acute - .akut. bu or .prity= gal. bu [pritu galtu] + .akut. bu or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu]= grave - .grav. bu or .zulga= l. bu [zunle galtu] + .grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu] circumflex - .cirkumfleks. bu or = .midgal. bu [midju galtu] + .cirkumfleks. bu or .midgal. bu [midju galtu] tilde - .tildes. bu + .tildes. bu =20 macron - .makron. bu + .makron. bu =20 breve - .brevis. bu + .brevis. bu over-dot - .gapmoc. bu [gapru mokca] + .gapmoc. bu [gapru<= /valsi> mokca] =20 umlaut/trema - .relmoc. bu [re mokca] + .relmoc. bu [re mokca] =20 over-ring - .gapyjin. bu [gapru djine] + .gapyjin. bu [gapru= djine] =20 cedilla - .seDIlys. bu + .seDIlys. bu =20 double-acute - .re'akut. bu [re akut.] + .re'akut. bu [re akut.] ogonek - .ogoniek. bu + .ogoniek. bu hacek - .xatcek. bu + .xatcek. bu ligatured fi fi - tei fy. ibu foi + tei fy. ibu foi =20 Danish/Latin ae ae - tei .abu .ebu foi + tei .abu .ebu foi Dutch ij ij - tei .ibu jy. foi + tei .ibu jy. foi =20 German es-zed es-zed - tei sy. zy. foi + tei sy. zy. foi
Proposed lerfu words for radio communication =20 Phonetic Alphabet= proposed lerfu words for ICAO Phonetic Alphabet<= secondary>proposed lerfu words for noisy environmentspropo= sed lerfu words for radio communicationproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for radio communication lerfu words<= /primary>proposed for noisy environments= There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement= , as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy sit= uations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as th= e=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. =20 This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 - carlis. bu, not=20 - tcarlis. bu). + carlis. bu, not=20 + tcarlis. bu). Alfa - .alfas. bu + .alfas. bu =20 Bravo - .bravos. bu + .bravos. bu Charlie - .carlis. bu + .carlis. bu Delta - .deltas. bu + .deltas. bu Echo - .ekos. bu + .ekos. bu Foxtrot - .fokstrot. bu + .fokstrot. bu<= /listitem> Golf - .golf. bu + .golf. bu Hotel - .xoTEL. bu + .xoTEL. bu India - .indias. bu + .indias. bu Juliet - .juliet. bu + .juliet. bu Kilo - .kilos. bu + .kilos. bu Lima - .limas. bu + .limas. bu Mike - .maik. bu + .maik. bu November - .novembr. bu + .novembr. bu Oscar - .oskar. bu + .oskar. bu Papa - .paPAS. bu + .paPAS. bu Quebec - .keBEK. bu + .keBEK. bu Romeo - .romios. bu + .romios. bu Sierra - .sieras. bu + .sieras. bu Tango - .tangos. bu + .tangos. bu Uniform - .Uniform. bu + .Uniform. bu Victor - .viktas. bu + .viktas. bu Whiskey - .uiskis. bu + .uiskis. bu X-ray - .eksreis. bu + .eksreis. bu =20 Yankee - .iankis. bu + .iankis. bu Zulu - .zulus. bu + .zulus. bu
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 51b8c0a..ece8e14 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -128,21 +128,21 @@ 1234567890 one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20 123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 - no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo fro= m 1 to 5 end in the vowels=20 + no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5= end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewis= e end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i, and=20 o respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin wit= h the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments= . =20 @@ -190,51 +190,51 @@ =20 =20 ki'o PA comma between digits =20 ni'u mau negative num= bersexpressing positive numbersexplic= it expression signed numbersexpressing A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 - ma'u and=20 - ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs= as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For ex= ample: + ma'u and=20 + ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs as dist= inct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1"/> ni'u pa negative-sign 1 -1 pa<= /indexterm> -1example signs on numbersgrammar Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are atta= ched. It is also possible to use=20 - ma'u and=20 - ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of t= hese numbers is explained in=20 + ma'u and=20 + ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these num= bers is explained in=20 . decimal pointas numerical punctuation punctuationin nu= mbers numerical punctuation Various numerical punctuation= marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following exa= mples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2"/> ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five 3.1415 pi<= /indexterm> 3.1415= example decimal pointeffect of different notati= ons (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a= period in the symbolic version of=20 ;=20 - pi is still the Lojban representation for the d= ecimal point.) + pi is still the Lojban representation for the decimal p= oint.) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d3"/> re fi'u ze =20 two fraction seven 2/7 @@ -260,21 +260,21 @@ pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze =20 point three five repeating one four two eight five seven .35142857142857... ra'e repeating deci= malsmarking start of repeating portion repeating decimals<= /primary>expressing with numerical punctuation Note that the=20 - ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating po= rtion=20 + ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating portion=20 =20 142857 begins. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d6"/> ci mu ce'i =20 three five percent @@ -288,40 +288,40 @@ pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze =20 one comma two three four comma five six seven 1,234,567 ki'o ce'i commas in n= umberseffect of other notation conventions= commas in numbe= rsas numerical punctuation percentas = numerical punctuation (In some cultures, spaces are= used in the symbolic representation of=20 ;=20 - ki'o is still the Lojban representation.) + ki'o is still the Lojban representation.) =20 commas in numbers= with elided digits It is also = possible to have less than three digits between successive=20 - ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have= been elided: + ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been el= ided: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d8"/> pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo =20 one comma two three comma four 1,023,004 In the same way,=20 - ki'o can be used after=20 + ki'o can be used after=20 =20 - pi to divide fractions into groups of three: + pi to divide fractions into groups of three: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d9"/> pi ki'o re re =20 point comma two two .022 @@ -386,40 +386,40 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d2"/> ci ka'o re 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i) ka'o ci'i infinityexample ka'oas special number compared w= ith as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 - ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 + ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 =20 i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d3"/> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> ci'i no infinity zero =E2=84=B50<= /mathphrase> (a transfinite cardinal) =20 The special numbers=20 - pai and=20 - te'o are mathematically important, which is why= they are given their own cmavo: + pai and=20 + te'o are mathematically important, which is why they ar= e given their own cmavo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d4"/> pai pi, = =CF=80 @@ -513,111 +513,111 @@ li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two. 1 + 1 =3D 2 dugrammar of mathematical equalityexpressing=20 , a mekso sentence, is a reg= ular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features.=20 - du is the predicate meaning=20 + du is the predicate meaning=20 x1 is mathematically equal to x2. It is a cmavo for con= ciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathe= matical contexts,=20 - du means=20 + du means=20 x1 is identical with x2 or=20 x1 is the same object as x2. li<= /indexterm> numbersusing for quantification contrasted with talking about numberstalking about contrasted with using for quantification number a= rticleexplanation of use thefor talki= ng about numbers themselves articlenumber The cmavo=20 - li is the number article. It is required whenev= er a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers t= o quantify things. For example: + li is the number article. It is required whenever a sen= tence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quanti= fy things. For example: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d2"/> le ci prenu the three persons requires no=20 - li article, because the=20 + li article, because the=20 =20 - ci is being used to specify the number of=20 - prenu. However, the sentence + ci is being used to specify the number of=20 + prenu. However, the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3"/> levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. This fly has a mass of 3 grams. 3 grams= example units of measurementexpressing measurements= expressing requires=20 - li because=20 - ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is = the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for = units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as t= he first place and a number as the second place. Using=20 + li because=20 + ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way = in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of= length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first= place and a number as the second place. Using=20 =20 - li for=20 - le in=20 + li for=20 + le in=20 would produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4"/> li ci prenu The-number 3 is-a-person. which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i add= ition operatorcontrasted with positive sign positive sign<= /primary>contrasted with addition operator additiona mathematical operator mathematical operators The cm= avo=20 - su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed= of mathematical operators, and means=20 + su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of math= ematical operators, and means=20 =20 addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 - ma'u which means the positive sign as an indica= tion of a positive number: + ma'u which means the positive sign as an indication of = a positive number: =20 +1 + -1 =3D 0example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5"/> li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. +1 + -1 =3D 0 Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of=20 - du: + du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d6"/> li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three= . 5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3 conversion into s= umti from mekso conversion of mekso into sumti lias converter of m= ekso into sumti general sumticontrasted with operands operands= contrasted with general sumti = VUhU operands operators of VUhUgrammar of operands duwith complex mekso= on both sides Why don't we say=20 - li mu su'i li pa rather than just=20 - li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU operator= s connect mekso operands (numbers, in=20 + li mu su'i li pa rather than just=20 + li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU op= erators connect mekso operands (numbers, in=20 ), not general sumti.=20 =20 - li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumt= i, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 + li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which= then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 , filling the places of a br= idi precedencemathematical default operator left-right groupingas Lojban default operator precedencein Lojban defaul= t ca= lculator mathematicsas default in Lojban By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathema= tics: there is no notion of=20 =20 operator precedence. Consider the following example, wh= ere=20 =20 - pi'i means=20 + pi'i means=20 times, the multiplication operator: =20 pi'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d7"/> li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two= -three. @@ -635,82 +635,82 @@ li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu The-number three plus four times five equals the-number thr= ee-five. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35 default operator = precedencecontrasted with mekso goal Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 =C3=97= 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simp= licity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of m= athematics. What can be done? operator preceden= ceeffect of pragmatic convention operator precedenceand mathematical notation mathematical notationand operator precedence There are three solutio= ns, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution i= s to ignore the problem. People will say=20 - li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, becaus= e the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deep= ly ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores sema= ntics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in t= his one area. + li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, = because the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is to= o deeply ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignore= s semantics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate synta= x in this one area. =20 operator preceden= ce in other languages operator precedencerationale for defau= lt left-grouping (Why not hard-wire the precedences= into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentiall= y because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of p= recedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13= levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. Fo= r Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired prece= dence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets = where the conventions are different.) operator preceden= cegeneralized explicit specification The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the preceden= ce of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be ex= plained in=20 . BIhE selma'o<= /primary> bi= 'e bi'= eeffect on following operator = operator precedencescope modification with bi'e The third = solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with = the cmavo=20 - bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automaticall= y of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, + bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of hig= her precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9"/> li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci =20 The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a=20 - bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multip= le=20 + bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple=20 =20 - bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allo= wed. + bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allowed. =20 ve'o vei parenthesis<= /primary>mathematical operator precedencespec= ifying by parenthesis In addition, of course, Lojba= n has the mathematical parentheses=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o, which can be used just like their written= equivalents=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o, which can be used just like their written equival= ents=20 ( and=20 ) to group expressions in any way desired: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10"/> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny.= [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 =20 The-number (n plus one) times (= n plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times- n plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n ny<= /indexterm> te'a (n + 1)(n + 1= ) =3D n^2 + 2n + 1example lerfu stringsinterpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation lerfu st= ringsin mathematical expressions There are several new usages in=20 :=20 - te'a means=20 + te'a means=20 =20 raised to the power, and we also see the use of the ler= fu word=20 - ny, representing the letter=20 + ny, representing the letter=20 n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ord= inary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu word= s (called a=20 lerfu string) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word,= in agreement with computer-science conventions;=20 abc is a single variable, not the equivalent of=20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c. (Of course, a local convention cou= ld state that the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values o= f the variables=20 a,=20 b, and=20 c multiplied together.) The explicit operator=20 - pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form wher= eas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 + pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form whereas mult= iplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 =20 - ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable ter= minator: the first use of it in=20 + ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator:= the first use of it in=20 is required, but the second= use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first= =20 =20 - bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not ne= cessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry wi= th the other one. + bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not necessary = to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the o= ther one. =20 =20
Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: boi BOI @@ -765,104 +765,104 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d1"/> li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.<= /gloss> sum(1,2,3) =3D 6 Note that the normally elidable number terminator=20 - boi is required after=20 - pa and=20 - re because otherwise the reading would be=20 - pareci=3D 123. It is not required after=20 - ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sak= e of symmetry. The only time=20 - boi is required is, as in=20 + boi is required after=20 + pa and=20 + re because otherwise the reading would be=20 + pareci=3D 123. It is not required after= =20 + ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sake of sym= metry. The only time=20 + boi is required is, as in=20 , when there are two consecu= tive numbers or lerfu strings. Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in=20 , three. How do we know how = many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban soluti= on is employed: an elidable terminator, namely=20 - ku'e. Here is an example: + ku'e. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2"/> li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 p plus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 z equals the-number=20 x. p + -n + z =3D x where we know that=20 - va'a is a forethought operator because there is= no operand preceding it. + va'a is a forethought operator because there is no oper= and preceding it. - va'a is the numerical negation operator, of s= elma'o VUhU. In contrast,=20 + va'a is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o V= UhU. In contrast,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but = only for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse= =20 - va'a and=20 - vu'u, which are operators, with=20 - ni'u, which is part of a number. + vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but only for= subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse=20 + va'a and=20 + vu'u, which are operators, with=20 + ni'u, which is part of a number. In=20 , the operator=20 - va'a and the terminator=20 - ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regul= ar parentheses=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the=20 - ku'e were omitted, the=20 - su'i zy would be swallowed up by the=20 - va'a forethought operator, which would then app= ear to have two operands,=20 - ny and=20 - su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethough= t expression. + va'a and the terminator=20 + ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regular paren= theses=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the=20 + ku'e were omitted, the=20 + su'i zy would be swallowed up by the=20 + va'a forethought operator, which would then appear to h= ave two operands,=20 + ny and=20 + su'i zy., where the latter is also a fore= thought expression. Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functiona= l notation. How do we represent=20 =20 z =3D f(x)? The answer is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d3"/> li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy. The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x. z =3D f(x) =20 Again, no parentheses are used. The construct=20 - ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, a= nd appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular= infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and some= times mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses t= o accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special f= lag=20 - ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The= cmavo=20 - xy. and=20 - zy. are variables, but=20 - fy. is an operator (a function) because=20 - ma'o marks it as such. The=20 - boi is required because otherwise the=20 - xy. would look like part of the operator name. = (The use of=20 - ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to a= ny mekso operand: see=20 + ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an opera= tor, and appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a r= egular infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions an= d sometimes mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban cho= oses to accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the spe= cial flag=20 + ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo= =20 + xy. and=20 + zy. are variables, but=20 + fy. is an operator (a function) because= =20 + ma'o marks it as such. The=20 + boi is required because otherwise the=20 + xy. would look like part of the operator = name. (The use of=20 + ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso= operand: see=20 .) When using forethought mekso, the optional marker=20 - pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. Th= is usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 + pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. This usage= can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 =20 - pe'o and=20 + pe'o and=20 =20 - ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 + ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 to=20 , respectively, with explici= t=20 - pe'o and=20 + pe'o and=20 =20 - ku'e: + ku'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d4"/> li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa =20 @@ -878,118 +878,118 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d6"/> li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e =20 Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands re= ally are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless par= enthesized with=20 =20 - vei and=20 - ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief because I for= got this rule.
Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 - du. What about inequalities such as=20 + du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1"/> li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5. Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: - du + du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ... - dunli + dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on prope= rty/quality/dimension/quantity x3 =20 =20 - mleca + mleca x1 is less than x2 - zmadu + zmadu x1 is greater than x2= - dubjavme'a - x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, = equal or less] + dubjavme'a + x1 is less than or equal to x2 [= du ja mleca, equal or less] - dubjavmau - x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equal or greater] + dubjavmau + x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equal or greater] - tamdu'i - x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shape-equal] + tamdu'i + x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shape-equal] =20 - turdu'i - x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stur= a dunli, structure-equal] + turdu'i + x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, structure-equal] =20 - cmima + cmima x1 is a member of set x2 - gripau - x1 is a subset of set x2 [gi= rzu pagbu, set-part] + gripau + x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu<= /valsi> pagbu, set-part] - na'ujbi - x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, number-near] + na'ujbi + x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, number-near] - terci'e + terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of s= ystem x3 Note the difference between=20 - dunli and=20 + dunli and=20 =20 - du;=20 - dunli has a third place that specifies the kind= of equality that is meant.=20 + du;=20 + dunli has a third place that specifies the kind of equa= lity that is meant.=20 =20 - du refers to actual identity, and can have any = number of places: + du refers to actual identity, and can have any number o= f places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2"/> py. du xy.boi zy. p is-identical-to=20 x z p =3D x =3D z =20 Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the=20 - du is not repeated. + du is not repeated. Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with=20 - na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indica= te that the relation is false: + na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that = the relation is false: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d3"/> li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5 @@ -1059,26 +1059,26 @@ too many mo'a =20 PA too few Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathemati= cal sense. For example, the cmavo=20 - ro means=20 + ro means=20 all or=20 each. This number does not have a definite value in the= abstract:=20 - li ro is undefined. But when used to count or q= uantify something, the parallel between=20 - ro and=20 - pa is clearer: + li ro is undefined. But when used to coun= t or quantify something, the parallel between=20 + ro and=20 + pa is clearer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d1"/> mi catlu pa prenu I look-at one person @@ -1089,32 +1089,32 @@ mi catlu ro prenu =20 I look-at all persons =20 might be true, whereas=20 is almost certainly false.<= /para> The cmavo=20 - so'a,=20 + so'a,=20 =20 - so'e,=20 + so'e,=20 =20 - so'i,=20 + so'i,=20 =20 - so'o, and=20 + so'o, and=20 =20 - so'u represent a set of indefinite numbers less= than=20 + so'u represent a set of indefinite numbers less than=20 =20 =20 - ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the ma= gnitude decreases: + ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude = decreases: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d3"/> mi catlu so'a prenu =20 I look-at almost-all persons =20 @@ -1156,56 +1156,56 @@ mi catlu so'u prenu =20 I look-at a-few persons The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space = for up to five indefinite numbers between=20 =20 - ro and=20 - no, with a built-in ordering. In particular,=20 - so'e does not mean=20 + ro and=20 + no, with a built-in ordering. In particular,=20 + so'e does not mean=20 =20 most in the sense of=20 a majority or=20 more than half. Each of these numbers, plus=20 - ro, may be prefixed with=20 - pi (the decimal point) in order to make a fract= ional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a = totality.=20 + ro, may be prefixed with=20 + pi (the decimal point) in order to make a fractional fo= rm which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality= .=20 =20 - piro therefore means=20 + piro therefore means=20 the whole of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d8"/> mi citka piro lei nanba I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread Similarly,=20 - piso'a means=20 + piso'a means=20 almost the whole of; and so on down to=20 - piso'u,=20 + piso'u,=20 a tiny part of. These numbers are particularly appropri= ate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as=20 shows. In addition to these cmavo, there is=20 - no'o, meaning=20 + no'o, meaning=20 =20 the typical value, and=20 =20 - pino'o, meaning=20 + pino'o, meaning=20 the typical portion: Sometimes=20 - no'o can be translated=20 + no'o can be translated=20 =20 the average value, but the average in question is not, = in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appro= priately represented by operators. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d9"/> mi catlu no'o prenu =20 I look-at a-typical-number-of persons @@ -1214,21 +1214,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d10"/> mi citka pino'o lei nanba I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread. da'a timesimplicit expression of timesexplicit expressio= n of=20 - da'a is a related cmavo meaning=20 + da'a is a related cmavo meaning=20 all but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d11"/> mi catlu da'a re prenu I look-at all-but two persons @@ -1239,46 +1239,46 @@ mi catlu da'a so'u prenu =20 I look-at all-but a-few persons is similar in meaning to= =20 . da'adefault number for If no number follows=20 - da'a, then=20 - pa is assumed;=20 - da'a by itself means=20 + da'a, then=20 + pa is assumed;=20 + da'a by itself means=20 all but one, or in ordinal contexts=20 all but the last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d13"/> ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu =20 All rats can eat all-but-one rats. All rats can eat all other rats. eat themselvesexample (The use of=20 - da'a means that=20 + da'a means that=20 does not require that all r= ats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot e= at, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictate= s that=20 =20 itself is, indeed, the=20 other rat.) ni'u ma'u ni'uwith elided number ma'uwith elided number<= /secondary> As mentioned in=20 ,=20 - ma'u and=20 - ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 + ma'u and=20 + ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive number and=20 some negative number respectively. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d14"/> li ci vu'u re du li ma'u the-number 3 =E2=88=92 2 =3D some-positive-number @@ -1295,53 +1295,53 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d16"/> mi ponse ma'u rupnu I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units. mo'a du'e rau indefinit= e valuessubjective subjective amounts= expressing All of the numbers discussed so far are = objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers (=20 - rairgugde,=20 + rairgugde,=20 superlative-states) in the world, then=20 - ro rairgugde means the same as=20 - xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however, to e= xpress subjective indefinite values. The cmavo=20 + ro rairgugde means the same as=20 + xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however= , to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo=20 =20 - rau (enough),=20 + rau (enough),=20 =20 - du'e (too many), and=20 + du'e (too many), and=20 =20 - mo'a (too few) are then appropriate: + mo'a (too few) are then appropriate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17"/> mi ponse rau rupnu =20 I possess enough currency-units. =20 pi<= /indexterm> enough currency<= /primary>example indefinite portionssubjective<= /secondary> subj= ective portionsexpressing Like= the=20 - so'a-series,=20 + so'a-series,=20 =20 - rau,=20 + rau,=20 =20 - du'e, and=20 + du'e, and=20 =20 - mo'a can be preceded by=20 + mo'a can be preceded by=20 =20 - pi; for example,=20 - pirau means=20 + pi; for example,=20 + pirau means=20 a sufficient part of. definite numbers<= /primary>combined with indefinite indefinite numberscombined with definite Another possibility is = that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. Thi= s usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the gi= ven context: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d18"/> mi viska le rore gerku I saw the all-of/two dogs. @@ -1392,51 +1392,51 @@ =20 za'u PA more than =20 ji'i ji'i= effect of placement approximate numbersexpressi= ng The cmavo=20 - ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to= indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of= a number, the whole number is approximate: + ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicat= e approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a numbe= r, the whole number is approximate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1"/> ji'i vo no approximation four zero approximately 40 =20 approximately 40<= /primary>example approximate numbersexpressing = some exactness of If=20 - ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the= digits following it are approximate: + ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits = following it are approximate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d2"/> vo no ji'i mu no four zero approximation five zero roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousand is exact, but the=20 fifty is approximate) rounded numbersexpressing truncation of numberexpressi= ng If=20 - ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicat= es that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed b= y a sign cmavo (=20 - ma'u or=20 - ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positi= ve or negative infinity respectively. + ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicates that = the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign= cmavo (=20 + ma'u or=20 + ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or ne= gative infinity respectively. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d3"/> re pi ze re ji'i two point seven two approximation 2.72 (rounded) @@ -1459,31 +1459,31 @@ re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u two point seven one approximation negative-sign 2.71 (rounded down) =20 rounded downexample rounded upexample ji'iwith elided number=20 through=20 are all approximations to= =20 - te'o (exponential e).=20 - ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case i= t means=20 + te'o (exponential e).=20 + ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case it means= =20 approximately the typical value in this context. =20 za'u me'i su'o su'e= inexa= ct numbers with bounds The four cmavo=20 - su'e,=20 + su'e,=20 =20 - su'o,=20 - me'i, and=20 + su'o,=20 + me'i, and=20 =20 - za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbe= rs with upper or lower bounds: + za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with = upper or lower bounds: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d6"/> mi catlu su'e re prenu =20 I look-at at-most two persons @@ -1515,47 +1515,47 @@ mi catlu za'u re prenu =20 I look-at more-than two persons exactly twoexample more thanexample less thanexample at leastexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">at mostex= ample pluralLojban equivalent of = exact numberexpressing at mostcontrasted with more thanat least, less than at leastcontrasted with more= thanless than, at most more thancont= rasted with less thanat least, at most less than= contrasted with more thanat least, at most= Each of these is a subtly different claim:=20 is true of two or any great= er number, whereas=20 requires three persons or m= ore. Likewise,=20 refers to zero, one, or two= ;=20 to zero or one. (Of course,= when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,=20 - me'i re can be any number less than 2, and like= wise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 + me'i re can be any number less than 2, an= d likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 =20 exactly 2, neither more nor less is just=20 - re. Note that=20 - su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of Englis= h plurals. + re. Note that=20 + su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of = English plurals. za'uwith elided number me'iwith elided number su'owith elided number su'ewith elided number If no number follows one of these cmavo,=20 - pa is understood: therefore, + pa is understood: therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d10"/> mi catlu su'o prenu I look-at at-least [one] person is a meaningful claim. pi<= /indexterm> inexact portions= with bounds Like the numbers in=20 , all of these cmavo may= be preceded by=20 - pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for pa= rt of a whole. For example,=20 - pisu'o means=20 + pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a = whole. For example,=20 + pisu'o means=20 =20 at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 - ro,=20 - su'o,=20 - piro, and=20 - pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as= they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of se= lma'o LA and LE, as explained in=20 + ro,=20 + su'o,=20 + piro, and=20 + pisu'o are particularly important in Lojb= an, as they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo= of selma'o LA and LE, as explained in=20 =20 . Descriptions in g= eneral are outside the scope of this chapter.
Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ju'u VUhU @@ -1594,32 +1594,32 @@ pi'e PA compound base point =20 =20 radixdecimal (see also base) In normal contexts= , Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) sy= stem. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particul= ar circumstances. octal systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) binary systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) basespecify= ing To specify a number in a particular base, the V= UhU operator=20 - ju'u is suitable: + ju'u is suitable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1"/> li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10. basechanging permanently baseassumed Here, the final=20 - pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is= the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a met= alinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been work= ed out.) + pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual;= so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by= a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet bee= n worked out.) hexadecimal syste= mspecifying numbers in (see also base) digitsrationale for having 16 Lojban has digits f= or representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer= applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the ba= se 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this= ambiguity is avoided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d2"/> li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748. =20 @@ -1627,76 +1627,76 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d3"/> li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567. ABC base 16example digits beyond 9word pattern Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 - au,=20 - ei,=20 - ai are used twice in the same order. The digits= for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit c= mavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 =E2=80=93 there was simply not = enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The c= mavo are also in alphabetical order. + au,=20 + ei,=20 + ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A t= o D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E = and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 =E2=80=93 there was simply not enough a= vailable cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are= also in alphabetical order. decimal pointin bases other than 10 base pointin bases= other than 10 The base point=20 =20 - pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base= 10: + pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4"/> li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. =20 VUhU selma'o<= /primary> F.8 ba= se 16example basenon-constant ju'ugrammar of Since=20 - ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is gram= matical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it = is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason f= or making=20 - ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a bas= e which is not a constant. + ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical = to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undef= ined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for makin= g=20 + ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which = is not a constant. pi'e hoursminutesseconds: example compound basedefinition compound baseseparator for base varying= for each digitseparator for T= here are some numerical values that require a=20 base that varies from digit to digit. For example, time= s represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 =20 digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 =20 - pi'e is used: + pi'e is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d5"/> ci pi'e rere pi'e vono 3:22:40 compound baseexpressing digits in Each digit se= quence separated by instances of=20 - pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the = number as a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by sp= ecial rules: + pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the number a= s a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by special ru= les: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d6"/> li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'= e rexa pi'e paci The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13. 3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13 Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the num= bers in=20 and=20 is hours, the second minute= s, and the third seconds. =20 base greater than= 16expressing numbers in Mayan mathematicsas a system with base larger than 16 The same = mechanism using=20 - pi'e can be used to express numbers which have = a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use dig= its from=20 + pi'e can be used to express numbers which have a base l= arger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from= =20 =20 - no to=20 - paso, each separated by=20 - pi'e: + no to=20 + paso, each separated by=20 + pi'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d7"/> li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443 base greater than= 16two digits contrasted with compound single-digits base = greater than 16compound single-digits contrasted with = two digits Carefully note the difference between: @@ -1714,34 +1714,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d9"/> pa pi'e no ju'u reno 1;0 base 20 which is equal to twenty. large-base decima= l fractionexpressing Both=20 - pi and=20 - pi'e can be used to express large-base fraction= s: + pi and=20 + pi'e can be used to express large-base fractions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d10"/> li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35. basevague=20 - pi'e is also used where the base of each digit = is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter: + pi'e is also used where the base of each digit is vague= , as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d11"/> dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. This is Sentence 10.11. @@ -1790,21 +1790,21 @@ =20 me'u MEhU terminator for ME MOI selma'o numeric= al selbrispecial Lojban posses= ses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kin= d of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number.= There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based= selbri with specific place structures. mei= cardinal selbri= definition cardinal selbriplace struc= ture The cmavo=20 - mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place st= ructure is: + mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure = is: =20 x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of whi= ch is/are x3 massexpressing relation with individuals forming masse= xpressing relation with set forming individualsexpressing = relation with mass formed individualsexpressing relation w= ith set formed setexpressing relation with individuals for= ming set setexpressing relation with mass formed from set<= /secondary> A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given n= umber of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which = make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenien= ce, not logical necessity. =20 Some examples: three ratsexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1826,21 +1826,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2"/> mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. In=20 ,=20 - mi refers to a mass,=20 + mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind expl= ained in=20 , a slightly different p= lace structure is required: individuals of se= texpressing measurement standard for indefinites setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites<= /indexterm> massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meiplace structure formed for objective indefinites = FIXME: TAG SPOT x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which= is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4. An example: @@ -1849,45 +1849,45 @@ lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. =20 The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. lo'i set of all rat= sexample rats in parkexample fewsomeexample lo'iwith elided quantifiers In=20 , the x2 and x3 places are v= acant, and the x4 place is filled by=20 - lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers are e= xplicitly given) means=20 + lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers= are explicitly given) means=20 the whole of the set of all those things which are rats= , or simply=20 the set of all rats. =20 manysomeexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d4"/> le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. =20 There are many rats in the park. In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 - se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the = new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that th= e rats are=20 + se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 i= s the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats a= re=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. =20 More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . moi= ordinal selbri<= /primary>definition ordinal selbriplace structu= re The cmavo=20 - moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure= is: + moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is: =20 x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5"/> @@ -1915,178 +1915,178 @@ mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence =20 I am enough-th in the movie line. =20 enough-thexample all-thexample= first ratexample=20 means, in the appropriate c= ontext, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I wi= ll get a seat for the movie. si'e portion selbri= place structure portion selbridefinit= ion The cmavo=20 - si'e creates portion selbri. The place structur= e is: + si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/> levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. This meal is one-third of my daily food. cu'o probability se= lbriplace structure probability selbridefinition <= primary>one-third of food The cmavo=20 - cu'o creates probability selbri. The place stru= cture is: + cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is= : =20 =20 event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 probability selbr= ivalues The number must be bet= ween 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9"/> le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability = .5. =20 va'e coin headsexample probability .5example= scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition<= /secondary> The cmavo=20 - va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structur= e is: + va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 unreduced fractio= nsuse in granular scales scalegranula= r contrasted with continuous If the scale is granul= ar rather than continuous, a form like=20 =20 - cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 i= s not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positio= ns is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here = is an example: + cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case,= 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six p= ositions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions.= Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d10"/> le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness. =20 This rose is very red. mo'a du'e rau scale of = rednessexample 8 out of tenexample scale = selbriplace structure effect from subjective numbers proba= bility selbriplace structure effect from subjective nu= mbers portion selbriplace structure effect from subjective= numbers ordinal selbriplace structure effect from subject= ive numbers <= primary>cardinal selbriplace structure effect from sub= jective numbers subjective numberseffect on place structur= e for scale selbri subjective numberseffect on place struc= ture for probability selbri subjective numberseffect on pl= ace structure for portion selbri subjective numberseffec= t on place structure for ordinal selbri subjective numbers= effect on place structure for cardinal selbri When = the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers=20 - rau,=20 + rau,=20 =20 - du'e, or=20 + du'e, or=20 =20 - mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additi= onal place is added for=20 + mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additional pla= ce is added for=20 =20 by standard. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d11"/> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-stan= dard me. There are too many rats in the park for me. =20 subjective number= srationale for effect on place structure too many ratsexample The extra place (which for= =20 - -mei is the x4 place labeled by=20 - fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag suc= h as=20 - ma'i because a specification of the standard fo= r judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like=20 + -mei is the x4 place labeled by=20 + fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as=20 + ma'i because a specification of the standard for judgme= nt is essential to the meaning of subjective words like=20 =20 enough. subjective number= sspecifying standard for standard for subjective numbersspecifying This place is not nor= mally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a numbe= r. Therefore,=20 - du'e ratcu means=20 + du'e ratcu means=20 =20 too many rats without specifying any standard. =20 lerfu stringswith numerical selbri numerical selbrispe= cialwith lerfu strings It is a= lso grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d12"/> ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. That is my nth rat. nth rat= example numerical selbrirestriction on numbers = used for numerical selbrigrammar M= ore complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the res= ulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expr= ession is required. me'u ME selma'o= m= e nume= rical selbrialternative to compensate for restriction = on numbers "me"effect of MOI on numerical selbricomplex numerical selbriuse of "me&q= uot; with The cmavo=20 - me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a= sumti into a selbri. A whole=20 - me construction can have a member of MOI added = to the end to create a complex mekso selbri: + me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti i= nto a selbri. A whole=20 + me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: (n+1)-th ratexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13"/> ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats. That is my (n+1)-th rat. Here the mekso=20 - ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 - li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with= =20 - me and=20 - me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 - me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 - pa and the=20 - moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combin= e them into the compound=20 - pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.= + ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 + li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with=20 + me and=20 + me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 + me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 + pa and the=20 + moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them i= nto the compound=20 + pamoi and reject the sentence as ungramma= tical. numerical selbri<= /primary>based on non-numerical sumti It= is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after=20 - me and before a member of MOI, producing strang= e results indeed: + me and before a member of MOI, producing strange result= s indeed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14"/> le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o<= /jbo> =20 The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-ste= reotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability. =20 I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. =20 PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u snowball's chanceexample boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 - boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MOI. As a result, the=20 - me'u in=20 + boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. A= s a result, the=20 + me'u in=20 could also be replaced by a= =20 - boi, which would serve the same function of pre= venting the=20 - pa and=20 - moi from joining into a compound. + boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 + pa and=20 + moi from joining into a compound.
Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xo =20 PA number question xo<= /indexterm> number questions= quest= ionsnumber The cmavo=20 - xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask ques= tions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills = the blank where the answer should go. (See=20 + xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions wh= ose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blan= k where the answer should go. (See=20 =20 for more on Lojban q= uestions.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1"/> li re su'i re du li xo =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what? @@ -2098,34 +2098,34 @@ le xomoi prenu cu darxi do The what-number-th person hit you? Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? =20 questionsdigit digit questions police lineup=20 - xo can also be combined with other digits to as= k questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could = be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge: + xo can also be combined with other digits to ask questi= ons whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very = useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d3"/> li remu pi'i xa du li paxono The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 number questions<= /primary>answers to numbersas grammatically com= plete utterances to which the correct reply would b= e=20 - mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as = grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 - xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for c= ounting off physical objects one by one.) + mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammati= cal Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 + xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting = off physical objects one by one.) =20
Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xi XI subscript @@ -2137,22 +2137,22 @@ li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> =20 x3 =3D x1 + x<= subscript>2 XI selma'o xi x-sub-3= example subscriptsinternal grammar of= Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 - xi (of selma'o XI).=20 - xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string,= or a general mekso expression in parentheses: + xi (of selma'o XI).=20 + xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a ge= neral mekso expression in parentheses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2"/> xy.boixino x0 @@ -2167,25 +2167,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d4"/> xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] x(n+1) free modifierseffects on elidability of terminators subscriptseffects on elidability of terminators subscripts on lerfu wordseffect on elidability of boi Note that= subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a= =20 - boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, o= f which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence= of an otherwise elidable terminator. + boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which = subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an o= therwise elidable terminator. superscripts subscripts= before main expression There i= s no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as expone= nts) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression= . If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these pur= poses. =20 boi= sub-subscripts<= /primary> subscr= iptsmultiple as sub-subscript = subscriptsterminator for The elidable terminator for a sub= script is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely=20 - boi. By convention, a subscript following anoth= er subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript: + boi. By convention, a subscript following another subsc= ript is taken to be a sub-subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d5"/> xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo xb4 See=20 @@ -2212,75 +2212,75 @@ gei VUhU exponential notation =20 ge'a tu'o The infix operators presented so far have always had exact= ly two operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has be= en required. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even= though it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair o= f tricks: the null operand=20 =20 - tu'o and the null operator=20 + tu'o and the null operator=20 =20 =20 - ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too = few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we w= anted to express the numerical negation operator=20 + ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few oper= ands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to= express the numerical negation operator=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - va'a in infix form. We would use: + va'a in infix form. We would use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1"/> li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny. =20 =20 The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero= minus n. -n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n operandstoo few for infix operation null operandfor in= fix operations with too few operands tu'ofor infix operati= ons with too few operands The=20 - tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a= left operand for the infix use of=20 + tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left op= erand for the infix use of=20 =20 - va'a, even though semantically none is needed o= r wanted. + va'a, even though semantically none is needed or wanted= . gei= exponential not= ationwith gei scientific notationwith= gei geias a binary operator Findi= ng a suitable example of=20 - ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, an= d ternary operators are not common. The operator=20 - gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary u= se. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific = (also called=20 + ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternar= y operators are not common. The operator=20 + gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a= binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also ca= lled=20 exponential) notation. The first operand of=20 - gei is the exponent, and the second operand is = the mantissa or fraction: + gei is the exponent, and the second operand is the mant= issa or fraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2"/> li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number ei= ght scientific three. 300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10 3 ( 10^8example geirationale for order of places scientifi= c notationrationale for order of places Why are the arguments to=20 - gei in reverse order from the conventional symb= olic notation? So that=20 - gei can be used in forethought to allow easy sp= ecification of a large (or small) imprecise number: + gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic not= ation? So that=20 + gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specificat= ion of a large (or small) imprecise number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d3"/> gei reno (scientific) two-zero 10 10^20example floating point numbersexpressing exponential = notationwith base other than 10 geias= a ternary operator operandstoo many for infix operation null = operatorfor infix operations with too many operands ge'afor infix operations with too many operands<= /indexterm> Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common= exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 - gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the def= ault value. Most computers internally store so-called=20 + gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default val= ue. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (T= his has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integ= ers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating = point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here= is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4"/> papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 .1010 @@ -2309,42 +2309,42 @@ sa'i =20 VUhU matrix column combiner matrix<= secondary>definition vectordefinition A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix i= s a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vecto= rs, which are in turn built up out of operands. te'u JOhI selma= 'o jo'i = vector indicatorterminator for= vector= components of jo'iprecedence of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">vector indicator=20 - jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the ve= ctor indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but = has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather tha= n full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of = components;=20 + jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector ind= icator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very= high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full e= xpressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of componen= ts;=20 =20 - te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: + te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1"/> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i vob= oi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) ge'a sa'i pi'a matrixwith ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns matrixas combination of vectors matrix column operator <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">matrix row operator<= /indexterm> Vectors can be combined into matrices using either=20 - pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 + pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 =20 =20 - sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first com= bines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vect= ors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of ar= guments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 + sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first combines ve= ctors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors repr= esenting columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments:= additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 =20 =20 =20 - ge'a. + ge'a. magic squareexample Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix =20 816 @@ -2374,106 +2374,106 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d3"/> jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi = zeboi re =20 the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-ve= ctor (6 7 2) matricesuse of parentheses with vectorsuse of parenthe= ses with matricesuse as operands = vectorsu= se as operands inner product outer product The regular mekso op= erators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both= of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices= when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are = no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but = appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word o= r string prefixed by=20 - ma'o. + ma'o. xi<= /indexterm> subscriptsto form matrices of more than 2 dimensions matrixwith more than 2 dimensions Matrices of more = than two dimensions can be built up using either=20 - pi'a or=20 + pi'a or=20 =20 - sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering th= e dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 + sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimens= ion. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 =20 =20 - pi'a and=20 + pi'a and=20 =20 - sa'i. + sa'i. =20
Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section: fu'a =20 FUhA reverse Polish flag RPas abbreviation for reverse Polish notation S= o far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds = of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed= odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 f they appear as the usual functional notation. Now com= es a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complet= ely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses= of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation= of some programming languages.) =20 fu'a reverse Polish= notationterminator reverse Polish notationmarker = reverse Polish notationuse of parentheses in<= /secondary> reve= rse Polish notationdefinition = In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where = the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso o= f the kind explained in=20 .) The number of operands per o= perator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojba= n, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 - fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there = is no terminator. Here is a simple example: + fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no te= rminator. Here is a simple example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1"/> li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu =20 the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five. The operands are=20 - re and=20 - ci; the operator is=20 - su'i. + re and=20 + ci; the operator is=20 + su'i. Here is a more complex example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d2"/> li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa =20 the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), = plus equals the-number two-six Here the operands of the first=20 - pi'i are=20 - re and=20 - ci; the operands of the second=20 - pi'i are=20 - vo and=20 - mu (with=20 - boi inserted where needed), and the operands of= the=20 - su'i are=20 - reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and=20 - voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it is eas= y to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, i= t is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack= and doesn't get lost) to comprehend. + pi'i are=20 + re and=20 + ci; the operands of the second=20 + pi'i are=20 + vo and=20 + mu (with=20 + boi inserted where needed), and the operands of the=20 + su'i are=20 + reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and=20 + voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it = is easy to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other h= and, it is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental= stack and doesn't get lost) to comprehend. =20 =20 reverse Polish no= tationparentheses in operands of reverse Polish notationoperands of The operands of an R= P operator can be any legal mekso operand, including parenthesized mekso th= at can contain any valid syntax, whether more RP or something more conventi= onal. ge'a gei tu'o v= a'a ge'a tu'o reverse Polish notationwith too many operands reverse = Polish notationwith too few operands reverse Polish notati= onnumber of operands In Lojban= , RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operands. What about oper= ators which require only one operand, or more than two operands? The null o= perand=20 =20 - tu'o and the null operator=20 + tu'o and the null operator=20 =20 =20 - ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand o= perator like=20 - va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context= as=20 - tu'o va'a. The=20 + ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator = like=20 + va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context as=20 + tu'o va'a. The=20 =20 =20 - tu'o provides the second operand, which is sema= ntically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand v= ersion of=20 + tu'o provides the second operand, which is semantically= ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version o= f=20 =20 - gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 - ge'a gei, where the=20 + gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 + ge'a gei, where the=20 =20 - ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operand= s into a single operand. Here are some examples: + ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a= single operand. Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d3"/> li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals the-number (RP= !) two, null, negative-of. 3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2 @@ -2516,21 +2516,21 @@ lo'o LOhO terminator for LI =20 GA selma'o A se= lma'o = afterthought connectionof operators afterthought connectio= nof operands forethought connectiono= f operators <= primary>forethought connectionof operands<= /indexterm> operator connect= ionforethought operator connectionaft= erthought operand connectionforethought operand connectionafterthought As befits a logical l= anguage, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both= operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connective= s are provided in=20 =20 . Operands are connected in aft= erthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumt= i. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethoug= ht with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no ac= cident. KE selma'o BO s= elma'o connection of operatorsgrouping connection of operandsgrouping In addition, A+BO and A+= KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and=20 - ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the oper= ators. + ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logic= ally connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among th= e operators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. @@ -2542,41 +2542,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2"/> vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. parenthesesfor complex mekso used as quantifier= meksoc= omplex used as quantifier Note that the mekso here = are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a = simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This ru= le prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using=20 - li. + li. lo'o lo'o= effect of logical connective on elidability of logical connectioneffect on elidability of lo'o literminat= or for By the way,=20 - li has an elidable terminator,=20 - lo'o, which is needed when a=20 + li has an elidable terminator,=20 + lo'o, which is needed when a=20 =20 - li sumti is followed by a logical connective th= at could seem to be within the mekso. For example: + li sumti is followed by a logical connective that could= seem to be within the mekso. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d3"/> li re su'i re du li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu =20 The-number two plus two equals the-number four or else a no= n-known number. Omitting the=20 - lo'o would cause the parser to assume that anot= her operand followed the=20 + lo'o would cause the parser to assume that another oper= and followed the=20 =20 - .onai and reject=20 - lo as an invalid operand. + .onai and reject=20 + lo as an invalid operand. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d4"/> li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four. 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. @@ -2601,72 +2601,72 @@ =20 go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy= . su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei= by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i r= e bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number a-times-(x<= /quote> power two ) plus b-times- x plus c equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ t= he-negation-of( b ) plus or minus the-root-of (b-power-2 min= us four-times- a-times- c ) ] divided-by two-= times- a. Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then x = =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88= =92 4ac) 2a quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 - bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added = to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses c= annot be removed here in favor of simple=20 + bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group= the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be= removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 - fe'a and=20 - ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are pr= esent in the operand. Getting=20 + fe'a and=20 + ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in= the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 - bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence= rules be understood. + bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules b= e understood. =20 BIhI selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o non-logical connectionof operators non-logical connect= ionof operands Non-logical con= nection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between op= erators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with=20 - bi'o to create intervals: + bi'o to create intervals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7"/> li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one =20 mi'i Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginni= ng and end points can be expressed by=20 - mi'i: + mi'i: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8"/> li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu =20 the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5 closed intervalexpressed with mi'i open intervalexpres= sed with mi'i which expresses the same interval as= =20 . Note that the=20 - ga'o and=20 - ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although the= se are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the sam= e thing: + ga'o and=20 + ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are n= ow implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d9"/> li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5] connection of ope= randsprecedence over operator = Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another in= terval centered on the number. As=20 shows, non-logical (or logi= cal) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.<= /para> =20 subscriptsmultiple for same base word compound subscript You can also combine two operands with=20 - ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, t= o make a compound subscript: + ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d10"/> xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 @@ -2698,62 +2698,62 @@ MOhE sumti to operand te'u TEhU terminator for all three te'u mo'e= terminator for ni'eterminator for na'uterminator for One of the mekso design goal= s requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within = mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are th= ree relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator=20 - te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors m= arked with=20 - jo'i) + te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors marked wi= th=20 + jo'i) na'u operator deriv= ed from selbrieffect of selbri place structure on selbri p= lace structureeffect on operator formed by= conversion of s= elbri into operator operatorconverting selbri into selbriconverting into an operator The cmavo= =20 - na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In genera= l, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and = the other unfilled places specify the operands: + na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In general, the f= irst place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the othe= r unfilled places specify the operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d1"/> =20 li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i =20 The-number the-operator tangent (=CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-numbe= r infinity. =20 tan(=CF=80/2) =3D =E2=88=9E tan(pi/2) =3D inf= inityexample=20 - tanjo is the gismu for=20 + tanjo is the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 - na'u here makes it into an operator which is th= en used in forethought + na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used = in forethought ni'e formulaeexpressing based on pure dimensions = conversion of selbri into op= erand = operandconverting selbri into = selbric= onverting into an operand The cmavo=20 - ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 pla= ce of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 + ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of th= e selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 =20 - ni abstraction, since=20 - ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 - ni'e makes that number available as a mekso ope= rand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: + ni abstraction, since=20 + ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 + ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A = common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2"/> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e n= i condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume mo'e Length ( Width= ( Depth =3D Volumeexample dimensioned numbersexpressing conversion of sumti into operand operandconv= erting sumti into sumticonverting into an operand The cmavo=20 - mo'e operates similarly to=20 + mo'e operates similarly to=20 =20 - ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) = into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving= dimensioned numbers: + ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an = operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensi= oned numbers: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d3"/> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu =20 The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. @@ -2805,27 +2805,27 @@ =20 roi =20 ROI quantified tense So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with=20 - li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and = in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within = Lojban. + li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI a= nd ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.<= /para> me'o mathematical e= xpressionreferring to licontrasted wi= th me'o me'ocontrasted with li The= cmavo=20 - me'o has the same grammatical use as=20 - li but slightly different semantics.=20 - li means=20 + me'o has the same grammatical use as=20 + li but slightly different semantics.=20 + li means=20 the number which is the value of the mekso ..., whereas= =20 - me'o just means=20 + me'o just means=20 the mekso ... So it is true that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d1"/> li re su'i re du li vo The-number two plus two equals the-number four. 2 + 2 =3D 4 @@ -2837,47 +2837,47 @@ me'o re su'i re du me'o vo The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four. 2 + 2=3D4 me'orelation to li compared with la/zo relation= lirela= tion to me'o compared with la/zo relation since the= expressions=20 2 + 2 and=20 4 are not the same. The relationship between=20 - li and=20 - me'o is related to that between=20 - la djan., the person named John, and=20 - zo .djan., the name=20 + li and=20 + me'o is related to that between=20 + la djan., the person named John, and=20 + zo .djan., the name=20 John nu'a selbriplace structure of converted operator = conversion of operator into = selbri operatorconverting into selbri selbriconverting operator into The cmavo=20 - nu'a is the inverse of=20 - na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as= a normal selbri, with the place structure: + nu'a is the inverse of=20 + na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a norma= l selbri, with the place structure: x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ... for as many places as may be required. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d3"/> li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5. uses=20 - nu'a to make the operator=20 - va'a into a two-place bridi + nu'a to make the operator=20 + va'a into a two-place bridi nu'ause in answering operator questions na'uuse in ask= ing operator questions answersto operator questions questions<= /primary>operator Used together,=20 - nu'a and=20 - na'u make it possible to ask questions about me= kso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator quest= ion, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 + nu'a and=20 + na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso oper= ators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor= is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 , to which=20 is one correct answer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d4"/> li re na'u mo re du li vo The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four. 2 ? 2 =3D 4 @@ -2887,39 +2887,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d5"/> nu'a su'i plus In=20 ,=20 - na'u mo is an operator question, because=20 - mo is the selbri question cmavo and=20 - na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 + na'u mo is an operator question, because= =20 + mo is the selbri question cmavo and=20 + na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 makes the true answer=20 - su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance)= with the inverse cmavo=20 - nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 + su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with th= e inverse cmavo=20 + nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 into=20 produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d6"/> li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals th= e-number four. where the=20 - na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi= + na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful= bridi MAI selma'o mai= first= lyexample digit stringdefinition of secti= on numbering textsub-division numbering with -mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7"/> @@ -2960,62 +2960,62 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11"/> pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order) MAI selma'o mo'= o firs= tlyexample chapter numbering mo'ocontrasted= with mai maicontrasted with mo'o = textdiv= ision numbering with -mai The difference between=20 - mai and=20 - mo'o is that=20 - mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. = Each=20 - mo'o subdivision can then be divided into piece= s and internally numbered with=20 - mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojba= n, each section would be numbered with=20 - mo'o. (See=20 + mai and=20 + mo'o is that=20 + mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 + mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and in= ternally numbered with=20 + mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 + mo'o. (See=20 for more on these words= .) roi= once<= secondary>example tensenumerical A= numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with=20 =20 - roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding = to English=20 + roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 =20 once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . boi= numerical tense= seffect on use of boi boiexception be= fore ROI boiexception before MAI = MAI selma'oexception on use of boi before ROI selma'oexception on= use of boi before Note: the elidable terminator=20 - boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MAI or ROI. + boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or= ROI.
Explicit operator precedence =20 As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. SEI selma'o ti'= o The declaration is made in the form of a metalingui= stic comment using=20 =20 - ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 + ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 =20 - sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert= metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discou= rse which the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 - ti'o declaration has not been formally establis= hed, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and = then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-establis= hed scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators an= d existing operators. + sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalin= guistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse whic= h the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 + ti'o declaration has not been formally established, but= presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then giv= ing it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-established scal= e, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existi= ng operators. =20 operator preceden= ceplans for future In future, = we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declaratio= ns of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Origin= ally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have= the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence lev= els. Complex operators formed with=20 - na'u,=20 - ni'e, or=20 + na'u,=20 + ni'e, or=20 =20 - ma'o would remain at the standard low precedenc= e; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts.= It is probable that such a parser would have a set of=20 + ma'o would remain at the standard low precedence; decla= rations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is p= robable that such a parser would have a set of=20 commonly assumed precedences built into it (selectable = by a special=20 - ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical= intuition: times higher than plus, and so on. + ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical intuiti= on: times higher than plus, and so on. =20
Miscellany A few other points: se<= /indexterm> seuse with operators conversionof operator places=20 - se can be used to convert an operator as if it = were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: + se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a s= elbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1"/> li ci se vu'u vo du li pa The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one= . 3 subtracted from 4 equals 1. @@ -3038,23 +3038,23 @@ li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. =20 The sense in which=20 plus is the opposite of=20 minus is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one= ; negated operators are defined only loosely. bo<= /indexterm> lu'e la'e negationof operand symbolfor operand referentof operand=20 - la'e and=20 - lu'e can be used on operands with the usual sem= antics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a membe= r of selma'o NAhE followed by=20 - bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying= that some other operand would make the bridi true: + la'e and=20 + lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics t= o get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of sel= ma'o NAhE followed by=20 + bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that so= me other operand would make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d4"/> li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5. 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. @@ -3064,80 +3064,80 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d5"/> la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named Seven who attack that-named Thebes [past] are-men. The Seven Against Thebes were men. Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 - zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alt= ernative which cannot be misconstrued is: + zel. is connected with the number rafsi: = an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6"/> la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.= rafsiconventional meaning for frinu PA selma'omembers = with rafsi Certain other members of PA also have as= signed rafsi:=20 - so'a,=20 + so'a,=20 =20 - so'e,=20 + so'e,=20 =20 - so'i,=20 + so'i,=20 =20 - so'o,=20 + so'o,=20 =20 - so'u,=20 + so'u,=20 =20 - da'a,=20 - ro,=20 - su'e,=20 + da'a,=20 + ro,=20 + su'e,=20 =20 - su'o,=20 - pi, and=20 - ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo=20 + su'o,=20 + pi, and=20 + ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo=20 =20 - fi'u does not have a rafsi as such, it is close= ly related to the gismu=20 + fi'u does not have a rafsi as such, it is closely relat= ed to the gismu=20 =20 - frinu, meaning=20 + frinu, meaning=20 fraction; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you= can use any of the rafsi for=20 - frinu to indicate a fraction slash. + frinu to indicate a fraction slash. rafsiconventional meaning for cu'o A similar co= nvention is used for the cmavo=20 - cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related t= o=20 + cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to=20 =20 - cunso (probability); use a rafsi for=20 - cunso in order to create lujvo based on=20 - cu'o. The cmavo=20 + cunso (probability); use a rafsi for=20 + cunso in order to create lujvo based on=20 + cu'o. The cmavo=20 =20 - mei and=20 - moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fa= ct:=20 + mei and=20 + moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact:=20 mem/=20 mei and=20 mom/=20 moi respectively. ni'enu'a operandconverting from operator operatorconvert= ing into operand conversion of operator into operand algebra of functionsoperator and operand distinction in lambda calculusoperator and operand distinction in The grammar o= f mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators a= nd operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of funct= ions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the sam= e. An operator can be changed into an operand with=20 =20 =20 - ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a = matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand. + ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator i= nto a matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand. =20 te'u ma'o operatorconverting from operand operandconvertin= g into operator conversion of operand into operator To ch= ange an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 - ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing= a lerfu string such as=20 - fy. into an operator. In fact,=20 - ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, usin= g the elidable terminator=20 - te'u if necessary. + ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu= string such as=20 + fy. into an operator. In fact,=20 + ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, using the el= idable terminator=20 + te'u if necessary. ma'opotential ambiguity caveat There is a poten= tial semantic ambiguity in=20 - ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 - fy. is already in use as a variable: it comes t= o mean=20 + ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 + fy. is already in use as a variable: it c= omes to mean=20 the function whose value is always f. Ho= wever, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings a= s both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.<= /para>
Four score and seven: a mekso problem =20 Four score and se= venexample Gettysburg Addressexample<= /secondary> meks= oand literary translation Abra= ham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 =20 =20 Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 =20 @@ -3176,25 +3176,25 @@ li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze =20 the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven In=20 ,=20 - voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four things= each of which are groups of twenty; the=20 - mo'e and=20 + voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four = things each of which are groups of twenty; the=20 + mo'e and=20 =20 - te'u then make this sumti into a number in orde= r to allow it to be the operand of=20 - su'i. + te'u then make this sumti into a number in order to all= ow it to be the operand of=20 + su'i. base-20 arithmeti= cremnants of scoreas alternate base = for years Another approach is to think of=20 score as setting a representation base. There are remna= nts of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is= =20 =20 quatre-vingt-sept, literally=20 four-twenties-seven. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Ad= dress hard to translate into French!) If=20 =20 score is the representation base, then we have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d4"/> @@ -3222,43 +3222,43 @@ <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>BY</selmaho> <description>lerfu for variables and functions (see <xref linkend= =3D"section-math"/>)</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>FUhA</selmaho> <description>reverse-Polish flag</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho> - <description>includes <jbophrase>du</jbophrase> (mathematical equa= lity) and other non-mekso cmavo</description> + <description>includes <valsi>du</valsi> (mathematical equality) an= d other non-mekso cmavo</description> </cmavo-entry> =20 <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>JOhI</selmaho> <description>array flag</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>KUhE</selmaho> <description>elidable terminator for forethought mekso</descriptio= n> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>LI</selmaho> - <description>mekso articles (<jbophrase>li</jbophrase> and <jbophr= ase>me'o</jbophrase>)</description> + <description>mekso articles (<valsi>li</valsi> and <valsi>me'o</va= lsi>)</description> </cmavo-entry> =20 <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>MAhO</selmaho> <description>make operand into operator</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>MOI</selmaho> - <description>creates mekso selbri (<jbophrase>moi</jbophrase>, <jb= ophrase>mei</jbophrase>, <jbophrase>si'e</jbophrase>, and <jbophrase>cu'o</= jbophrase>, see <xref linkend=3D"section-mekso-selbri"/>)</description> + <description>creates mekso selbri (<valsi>moi</valsi>, <valsi>mei<= /valsi>, <valsi>si'e</valsi>, and <valsi>cu'o</valsi>, see <xref linkend=3D= "section-mekso-selbri"/>)</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>MOhE</selmaho> <description>make sumti into operand</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <selmaho>NAhU</selmaho> <description>make selbri into operator</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> @@ -3665,21 +3665,21 @@ <rafsi>moi</rafsi> <description role=3D"place-structure">x1 is the (n)th member of se= t x2 when ordered by rule x3 [by standard x4]</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>si'e</cmavo> <rafsi/> <!-- was: "rafsi: none" not "" --> <description role=3D"place-structure">x1 is an (n)th portion of ma= ss x2 [by standard x3]</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>cu'o</cmavo> - <rafsi>cu'o (borrowed from <jbophrase>cunso</jbophrase>; see <xref= linkend=3D"section-explicit-operator-precedence"/>)</rafsi> + <rafsi>cu'o (borrowed from <valsi>cunso</valsi>; see <xref linkend= =3D"section-explicit-operator-precedence"/>)</rafsi> <description role=3D"place-structure">event x1 has probability (n)= of occurring under conditions x2 [by standard x3]</description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>va'e</cmavo> <rafsi/> <!-- was: "rafsi: none" not "" --> <description role=3D"place-structure">x1 is at scale position (n) = on the scale x2 [by standard x3]</description> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> </section> </chapter> diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 960de5b..2438270 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -11,64 +11,64 @@ <cmavo-list> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>.i</cmavo> <selmaho>I</selmaho> <description>sentence separator</description> =20 </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</pr= imary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>audio-vi= sually isomorphic</primary></indexterm> Since Lojban is audio-visually isom= orphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of = a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period= serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling)= usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single sepa= rator: the cmavo=20 =20 - <jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> (of selma'o I):</para> + <valsi>i</valsi> (of selma'o I):</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-XKAG"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e2d1"/> mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice. sentencesseparator for joining The word=20 separator should be noted.=20 - .i is not normally used after the last sentence= nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammati= cal.=20 - .i signals a new sentence on the same topic, no= t necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences i= s left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal= , and the following sentence states something that happened after the previ= ous sentence. + i is not normally used after the last sentence nor befo= re the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical.=20 + i signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessa= rily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left va= gue, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the= following sentence states something that happened after the previous sente= nce. =20 Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is ca= pitalized, the cmavo=20 - .i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appr= opriate to place extra space before=20 - .i to make it stand out better for the reader. = In some styles of Lojban writing, every=20 - .i is placed at the beginning of a line, possib= ly leaving space at the end of the previous line. + i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate t= o place extra space before=20 + i to make it stand out better for the reader. In some s= tyles of Lojban writing, every=20 + i is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leavin= g space at the end of the previous line. An=20 - .i cmavo may or may not be used when the speake= r of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding = sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or no= t. + i cmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the = following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence,= depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not. An=20 - .i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or no= n-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both:= these constructs are explained in=20 + i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logical= connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these co= nstructs are explained in=20 ,=20 , and=20 . In all cases, the=20 - .i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals ca= n also be attached to an=20 - .i if they are meant to apply to the whole sent= ence: see=20 + i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals can also be= attached to an=20 + i if they are meant to apply to the whole sentence: see= =20 . BO selma'o bo sentenc= esclose grouping There exist a= pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentences closely together. I= f the=20 - .i (with or without connectives) is followed by= =20 - bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences bein= g separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connec= ted by=20 - .i alone. + i (with or without connectives) is followed by=20 + bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences being separa= ted are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connected by= =20 + i alone. TUhU selma'o<= /primary> TU= hE selma'o = tu'u tu'e titlespecifying with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by=20 - tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 - tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a sing= le unit. A common use of=20 - tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which c= ompose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from i= t by=20 - .i. Another use might be a set of directions, w= here each numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 - tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences= separated by=20 - .i. Grouping with=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-l= ogical connectives (see=20 + tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 + tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit.= A common use of=20 + tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences w= hich compose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated = from it by=20 + i. Another use might be a set of directions, where each= numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 + tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sen= tences separated by=20 + i. Grouping with=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-logical c= onnectives (see=20 ).
Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ni'o NIhO new topic @@ -80,69 +80,69 @@ =20 da'o =20 DAhO cancel cmavo assignments The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purpo= ses: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appeara= nce of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented= in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo=20 - ni'o and=20 - no'i, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two,=20 - ni'o is the more common. By convention, written= Lojban is broken into paragraphs just before any=20 - ni'o or=20 - no'i, but a very long passage on a single topic= might be paragraphed before an=20 - .i. On the other hand, it is conventional in En= glish to start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but t= his convention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, non= e of these conventions affect meaning in any way. + ni'o and=20 + no'i, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two,=20 + ni'o is the more common. By convention, written Lojban = is broken into paragraphs just before any=20 + ni'o or=20 + no'i, but a very long passage on a single topic might b= e paragraphed before an=20 + i. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to = start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this conve= ntion is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of thes= e conventions affect meaning in any way. NIhO selma'o<= /primary> ni= 'o par= agraphsseparator old topic A=20 - ni'o can take the place of an=20 - .i as a sentence separator, and in addition sig= nals a new topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of=20 + ni'o can take the place of an=20 + i as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a ne= w topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of=20 =20 - ni'o cmavo can appear consecutively and are equ= ivalent to a single one; semantically, a greater number of=20 - ni'o cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of t= opic. This feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics= , and sub-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both sp= oken and written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist be= tween=20 - ni'o in writing and in conversation. + ni'o cmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent = to a single one; semantically, a greater number of=20 + ni'o cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. Th= is feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and su= b-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and= written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between=20 + ni'o in writing and in conversation. DAhO selma'o<= /primary> da= 'o par= agraph separationwritten text = tensesc= ope effect of new paragraph indicatorsscope effect of new = paragraph pro-sumtiscope effect of new paragraph pro-bridiscope effect of new paragraph paragraphse= ffects on scope discursive indicator indicator scope In written= text, a single=20 - ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new su= bject, whereas=20 + ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, w= hereas=20 =20 - ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. In this= situation,=20 - ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitions of = all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explic= it cancelling is expressed by the cmavo=20 - da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free gramma= r of an indicator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 + ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. I= n this situation,=20 + ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitio= ns of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (= Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo=20 + da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an = indicator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 =20 - ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of selma'o= UI) or tense references, but=20 - ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change of to= pic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See=20 + ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of s= elma'o UI) or tense references, but=20 + ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change= of topic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See=20 for a discussion of indi= cator scope.) =20 paragraph separat= ionspoken text Arabian Nights In spo= ken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by = one, with=20 - ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient = to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book,= or in stories within stories such as=20 + ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient to cance= l pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in s= tories within stories such as=20 =20 The Arabian Nights, further levels may be expressed by = extending the=20 =20 - ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text= will begin with the number of=20 - ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale d= ivision which the text contains.=20 - ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each c= ontext of discourse: see=20 + ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text will be= gin with the number of=20 + ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale division = which the text contains.=20 + ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each context o= f discourse: see=20 . NIhO selma'o<= /primary> no= 'i pre= vious topic=20 - no'i is similar in effect to=20 - ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previou= s topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English= discursive phrases as=20 + no'i is similar in effect to=20 + ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previous topic.= In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English discurs= ive phrases as=20 =20 But getting back to the point .... By default, the topi= c resumed is that in effect before the last=20 - ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, = then=20 - no'i would resume the previous subtopic and=20 + ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, then=20 + no'i would resume the previous subtopic and=20 =20 - no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that=20 + no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that=20 =20 - no'i also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignmen= ts dropped at the previous=20 - ni'o. + no'i also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments dropp= ed at the previous=20 + ni'o. subscripted topic= s If a=20 - ni'o is subscripted, then a=20 - no'i with the same subscript is assumed to be a= continuation of it. A=20 - no'i may also have a negative subscript, which = would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the to= pic found thereby. + ni'o is subscripted, then a=20 + no'i with the same subscript is assumed to be a continu= ation of it. A=20 + no'i may also have a negative subscript, which would sp= ecify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic foun= d thereby.
Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section: zo'u ZOhU topic/comment separator @@ -170,21 +170,21 @@ As for this news, I knew it. I've heard this news already. ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u new= sexample The wide space in the= first two versions of=20 separate the topic (=20 this news) from the comment (=20 =20 I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 - zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sum= ti) from comment (a bridi): + zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from= comment (a bridi): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3"/> le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno The news : I [perfective] know. =20 @@ -221,95 +221,95 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d6"/> yu2 chi1 fish eat which is vague in exactly the same way. Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before= =20 - zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comm= ent sentences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 + zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sent= ences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 =20 =20 - zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a = bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion o= f quantifier logic in Lojban (see=20 + zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi co= ntaining quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quanti= fier logic in Lojban (see=20 ), but an example would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7"/> roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. Every person has a father. The string of sumti before=20 - zo'u (called the=20 + zo'u (called the=20 prenex: see=20 ) may contain both a topic and = bound variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d8"/> loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-= exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. As for fathers, every person has one. topic/commentmultiple sentence To specify a top= ic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in=20 - tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topic and = the=20 - zo'u directly in front. This is the exception t= o the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: + tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topi= c and the=20 + zo'u directly in front. This is the exception to the ru= le that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d9"/> loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u] The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want ) Money: if you have it, you want it. Note: In Lojban, you do not=20 want money; you=20 want to have money or something of the sort, as the x2 = place of=20 - djica demands an event. As a result, the straig= htforward rendering of=20 + djica demands an event. As a result, the straightforwar= d rendering of=20 without a topic is not: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d10"/> do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence. where=20 - ri means=20 - loi jdini and is interpreted as=20 + ri means=20 + loi jdini and is interpreted as=20 the mere existence of money, but rather: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d11"/> do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri You possess money only-if you desire something-about it. namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 =20 =20 are inherently vague, and t= his difference between=20 - ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) a= nd=20 - djica is ignored. See=20 + ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) and=20 + djica is ignored. See=20 for another topic/comment s= entence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subject in the English sense.
Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: xu @@ -381,48 +381,48 @@ pau =20 UI question premarker UI selma'o xu questio= nstruth Lojban questions are n= ot at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth question= s, of the form=20 Is it true that ..., and fill-in-the-blank questions. T= ruth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of = it specifically questioned, with the cmavo=20 - xu (of selma'o UI): + xu (of selma'o UI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1"/> xu do klama le zarci [True or false?] You go to the store Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store? (Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation mi= ght be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in=20 . questionsfill-in-the-blank Fill-in-the-blank qu= estions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not k= nown to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a va= riety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds= of blanks. KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ma= quest= ionssumti Where a sumti is not= known, a question may be formed with=20 - ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-su= mti: + ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d2"/> ma klama le zarci [What sumti?] goes-to the store Who is going to the store? Of course, the=20 - ma need not be in the x1 place: + ma need not be in the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d3"/> do klama ma You go-to [what sumti?] Where are you going? @@ -432,43 +432,43 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d4"/> le zarci The store. A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by its= elf constitute a bridi =E2=80=93 it does not claim anything, but merely com= pletes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi. questionsmultiple There can be two=20 - ma cmavo in a single question: + ma cmavo in a single question: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d5"/> ma klama ma Who goes where? and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in th= e two=20 - ma cmavo in order: + ma cmavo in order: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d6"/> mi le zarci I, to the store. JOI selma'o fa'= u An even more complex example, depending on the non-= logical connective=20 - fa'u (of selma'o JOI), which is like the Englis= h=20 + fa'u (of selma'o JOI), which is like the English=20 and ... respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d7"/> ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma Who and who goes where and where, respectively? @@ -481,41 +481,41 @@ la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju John, Marsha, the store, the office. =20 John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.<= /en> =20 (Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungrammatical r= esult, because=20 - * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is= ungrammatical Lojban: the first=20 - le zarci has to be closed with its proper termi= nator=20 - ku, for reasons explained in=20 + * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: the first=20 + le zarci has to be closed with its proper= terminator=20 + ku, for reasons explained in=20 . This effect is no= t important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied= in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. T= he exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately gramm= atical.) GOhA selma'o<= /primary> mo= quest= ionsselbri Questions to be ans= wered with a selbri are expressed with=20 - mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-brid= i: + mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d9"/> la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] What is Lojban? predicate answers= Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which = is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enor= mous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri= , or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override = those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a=20 =20 - mo question, make it part of a tanru. + mo question, make it part of a tanru. questionsnumber Questions about numbers are exp= ressed with=20 - xo of selma'o PA: + xo of selma'o PA: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d10"/> do viska xo prenu =20 You saw [what number?] persons. How many people did you see? @@ -525,127 +525,127 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d11"/> vomu Forty-five. Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 - ji of A,=20 - ge'i of GA,=20 + ji of A,=20 + ge'i of GA,=20 =20 - gi'i of GIhA,=20 + gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 - gu'i of GUhA, or=20 + gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 - je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, o= r ijoik as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik = as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 =20 =20 ; attitudes = (using=20 - pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an a= nswer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) = =E2=80=93 see=20 ; place structur= es (using=20 - fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an a= nswer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) = =E2=80=93 see=20 =20 ; tenses and modals (using=20 - cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cm= avo as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as a= n answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 - pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. = See=20 + pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See=20 =20 for details. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: linked argume= nts ut= terancesnon-bridi any number o= f sumti (with elidable terminator=20 - vau, see=20 + vau, see=20 ) an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see=20 ) a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parenthes= es (see=20 ) a bare=20 - na negator (to negate some previously expre= ssed bridi), or corresponding=20 - ja'a affirmer (see=20 + na negator (to negate some previously expressed bri= di), or corresponding=20 + ja'a affirmer (see=20 ) a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti= , see=20 ) a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, s= ee=20 ) linked arguments (beginning with=20 =20 - be or=20 - bei and attached to some previously express= ed selbri, often in a description, see=20 + be or=20 + bei and attached to some previously expressed selbr= i, often in a description, see=20 ) At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also per= mitted: one or more names (to indicate direct address without=20 =20 - doi, see=20 + doi, see=20 ) indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see=20 ) - nai (to vaguely negate something or other= , see=20 + nai (to vaguely negate something or other, see=20 ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.
Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xi XI subscript XI selma'o xi subscri= pting The cmavo=20 - xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (= a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can= be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the constr= uction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are usef= ul either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make mo= re refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder= of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be u= sed. + xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number= , a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be atta= ched to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (= or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful eithe= r to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refin= ed distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this= section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. Lojban gismu have at most five places: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1"/> mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the ca= r. Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change t= he order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags fo= r individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. C= onversion of=20 =20 , using=20 - xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:= + xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d2"/> le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the ho= use via-the road for-me. And reordering of the place structures might produce: @@ -654,36 +654,36 @@ fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klam= a Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the c= ar, go. to=20 all mean the same thing. = But consider the lujvo=20 - nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction op= erator=20 - nu to=20 - klama: + nunkla, formed by applying the abstract= ion operator=20 + nu to=20 + klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4"/> la'edi'u cu nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going = by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car. SE selma'o se FA selm= a'oafter 5th place SE selma'oafter 5t= h place subscriptsand sumti re-ordering=20 shows that=20 - nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 - klama plus a new one (placed first) for the eve= nt itself. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 + nunkla has six places: the five places of= =20 + klama plus a new one (placed first) for the event itsel= f. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5"/> le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'ed= i'u =20 The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence. @@ -694,26 +694,26 @@ fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u fi le zarci faxixa = le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going. to=20 also all mean the same th= ing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite = the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member o= f SE or FA could be substituted into=20 - sexixa and=20 - faxixa without change of meaning:=20 - vexixa means the same thing as=20 - sexixa. + sexixa and=20 + faxixa without change of meaning:=20 + vexixa means the same thing as=20 + sexixa. ko'a-seriesafter tenth da-seriesafter third subscriptsand pro-sumti Lojban provides two = groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo = are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bou= nd using=20 - goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are exis= tentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explaine= d more fully in=20 + goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentiall= y or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more f= ully in=20 .) There are ten ko'a-series cm= avo and 3 da-series cmavo available. da<= /indexterm> DA selma'o If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or = the da-series can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7"/> daxivo X sub 4 @@ -722,88 +722,88 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d8"/> ko'ixipaso something-3 sub 18 is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series= . This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequence= s of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that=20 - daxivo and=20 - dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti,= unlike the situation with=20 - sexixa and=20 - vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be = given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi=20 - broda,=20 - brode,=20 - brodi,=20 - brodo, and=20 - brodu. + daxivo and=20 + dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-= sumti, unlike the situation with=20 + sexixa and=20 + vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment c= an be given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi= =20 + broda,=20 + brode,=20 + brodi,=20 + brodo, and=20 + brodu. subscriptsmathematical Subscripts on lerfu word= s are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variabl= es: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d9"/> li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3 x1 =3D x2 + x<= subscript>3 and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since= lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantic= ally equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In=20 , note the required terminat= or=20 - boi after each=20 - xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript= to be attached without ambiguity.) + boi after each=20 + xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the sub= script to be attached without ambiguity.) subscriptsand names Names, which are similar to= pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the= same name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d10"/> la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire =20 John1 expresses I-am-not you<= /quote> to John2. subscriptsand tense Subscripts on tenses allow = talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same gen= eral cmavo. For example,=20 - puxipa could refer to one point in the past, an= d=20 - puxire a second point (earlier or later). + puxipa could refer to one point in the pa= st, and=20 + puxire a second point (earlier or later).= subscriptsand fuzzy truths You can place a subs= cript on the word=20 - ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to e= xpress so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (stateme= nts whose truth value is not merely=20 + ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express s= o-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whos= e truth value is not merely=20 true or=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 - jei: + jei: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d11"/> li pimu jei mi ganra The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad. However, by convention we can attach a subscript to=20 - ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to=20 - na if we change the amount): + ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to=20 + na if we change the amount): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d12"/> mi ja'a xipimu ganra I truly-sub-.5 am-broad subscriptsand paragraph separators Finally, as = mentioned in=20 ,=20 - ni'o and=20 - no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the st= art and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics ca= n be assigned to different subscripts. + ni'o and=20 + no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and = the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be ass= igned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.
Utterance ordinals: MAI =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mai MAI @@ -815,51 +815,51 @@ MAI higher order utterance ordinal =20 MAI selma'o mo'= o = mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to Englis= h=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 - mai or=20 - mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu stri= ng. Here are some examples: + mai or=20 + mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here= are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1"/> mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. =20 This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the ho= use: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for conve= nience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can = be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or = its meaning. =20 =20 Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:=20 - romai, for example, means=20 + romai, for example, means=20 all-thly or=20 lastly. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list an= d have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say=20 - ny.mai, or=20 + ny.mai, or=20 Nthly. =20 The difference between=20 - mai and=20 - mo'o is that=20 - mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;= =20 - mai was designed for lists of numbered items, w= hereas=20 - =20 - mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works= . If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section= with=20 - mo'o: this section would then be introduced wit= h=20 - zemo'o, or=20 + mai and=20 + mo'o is that=20 + mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;=20 + mai was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas= =20 + =20 + mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works. If thi= s chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with=20 + mo'o: this section would then be introduced with=20 + zemo'o, or=20 Section 7.
Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section: fu'e =20 FUhE @@ -913,63 +913,63 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d4"/> mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia I see (the blue house) [belief] I see what I believe to be a blue house. An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached t= o the preceding=20 - .i, expressed or understood: + i, expressed or understood: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d5"/> [.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani [belief] I see the blue house. I believe I see a blue house. or to an explicit=20 - vau placed at the end of a bridi. + vau placed at the end of a bridi. Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be= attached to=20 - ni'o or=20 - no'i. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text= applies to the whole text. + ni'o or=20 + no'i. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies= to the whole text. However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the= range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the b= oundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo=20 - fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and=20 + fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and=20 =20 - fu'o (of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope m= arkers. Placing=20 + fu'o (of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. = Placing=20 =20 - fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it = from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following wo= rds until further notice. The notice is given by=20 + fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from wha= t precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words unti= l further notice. The notice is given by=20 =20 - fu'o, which can appear anywhere and cancels all= in-force attitudinals. For example: + fu'o, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-forc= e attitudinals. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d6"/> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse =20 =20 I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. Here, only the=20 - blanu zdani portion of the three-part tanru=20 - blanu zdani ponse is marked as a belief of the = speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules f= or interpreting multi-part tanru:=20 - blanu zdani groups first because tanru group fr= om left to right unless overridden with=20 - ke or=20 - bo. + blanu zdani portion of the three-part tan= ru=20 + blanu zdani ponse is marked as a belief o= f the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the r= ules for interpreting multi-part tanru:=20 + blanu zdani groups first because tanru gr= oup from left to right unless overridden with=20 + ke or=20 + bo. Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudi= nals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active at= titudinals rather than superseding them.
Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: lu LU begin quotation @@ -999,117 +999,117 @@ mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u] I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote] I said,=20 I'm John. But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the= language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the cas= e, quotation deserves some elaboration. The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in=20 , uses the cmavo=20 - lu (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mar= k, and the cmavo=20 + lu (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and t= he cmavo=20 =20 - li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation= mark. The text between=20 - lu and=20 - li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If= the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmav= o=20 - li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but= it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text. + li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. T= he text between=20 + lu and=20 + li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quo= tation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo=20 + li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's al= most never possible to elide it except at the end of text. The cmavo=20 - lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and=20 - le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a q= uotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must= consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 + lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and=20 + le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation= that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist= of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 ), so that the=20 - le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need= not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmen= e. Quotation with=20 - lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojb= an for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in En= glish to mark such errors: + le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be = meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quota= tion with=20 + lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for t= eaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to= mark such errors: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2"/> lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical= -structure in Lojban. is grammatical even thoug= h the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 =20 - lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text wh= ich themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances: + lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which them= selves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3"/> lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu= selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u - [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [= unquote] : [quote] viska le [unquote] is-replaced-by= [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. + [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] viska le [unquote] is= -replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [u= nquote]. In the sentence=20 - le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 - viska le should be replaced by=20 - viska lo. + le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 + viska le should be replaced by=20 + viska lo. Note the topic-comment formulation (=20 =20 ) and the indicator applying= to the selbri only (=20 ). Neither=20 - viska le nor=20 - viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both = require=20 - lo'u quotation. + viska le nor=20 + viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and= both require=20 + lo'u quotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 - lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 - lo'u ... le'u is used: + lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 + lo'u ... le'u is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d4"/> la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u .iku'i ri jmive Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. However, = the-last-mentioned is-alive. Charlie says The woman is dead, but she is aliv= e. In=20 ,=20 - ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most rece= nt previous sumti, namely=20 - le ninmu. Compare: + ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previ= ous sumti, namely=20 + le ninmu. Compare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d5"/> la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u .iku'i ri jmive= - Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. - Charlie says le ninmu cu morsi, but he = is alive. + Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. + Charlie says le ninmu cu morsi, b= ut he is alive. In=20 ,=20 - ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged = sumti=20 - le ninmu, because=20 - le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted seque= nce of Lojban words. Instead,=20 + ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti=20 + le ninmu, because=20 + le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted= sequence of Lojban words. Instead,=20 =20 - ri ends up referring to the referent of the sum= ti=20 - la tcarlis., and so it is Charlie who is alive.= + ri ends up referring to the referent of the sumti=20 + la tcarlis., and so it is Charlie who is = alive. The metalinguistic erasers=20 =20 - si,=20 - sa, and=20 - su, discussed in=20 + si,=20 + sa, and=20 + su, discussed in=20 , do not operate in text between=20 - lo'u and=20 - le'u. Since the first=20 - le'u terminates a=20 - lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to = have a=20 - lo'u quotation within another=20 - lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a= =20 - le'u to occur within a=20 - lo'u ... le'u quotation by preceding it with th= e cmavo=20 - zo, discussed in=20 + lo'u and=20 + le'u. Since the first=20 + le'u terminates a=20 + lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to have a= =20 + lo'u quotation within another=20 + lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a=20 + le'u to occur within a=20 + lo'u ... le'u quotation by preceding it w= ith the cmavo=20 + zo, discussed in=20 . Note that=20 - le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is requi= red. + le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is required.
More on quotations: ZO, ZOI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: zo ZO quote single word @@ -1119,57 +1119,57 @@ non-Lojban quotation =20 la'o ZOI non-Lojban name The cmavo=20 - zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark f= or the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Amon= g other uses,=20 + zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the s= ingle following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other = uses,=20 =20 - zo allows a metalinguistic word to be reference= d without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphol= ogically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compoun= d cmavo are not permitted. For example: + zo allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced withou= t having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically= legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo = are not permitted. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d1"/> zo si cu lojbo valsi - si is a Lojbanic word. + si is a Lojbanic word. Since=20 - zo acts on a single word only, there is no corr= esponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 - zo, since the terminators for other kinds of qu= otation are rarely or never elidable. + zo acts on a single word only, there is no correspondin= g terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 + zo, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation = are rarely or never elidable. The cmavo=20 - zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for qu= oting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 + zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting no= n-Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 =20 - zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (calle= d the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, a= nd which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is c= ommon, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corres= ponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted: + zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word = (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pau= ses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. I= t is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which = corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d2"/> zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra John is a man is an English sentence. where=20 - gy stands for=20 - glico. Other popular choices of delimiting word= s are=20 - .kuot., a Lojban name which sounds like the Eng= lish word=20 + gy stands for=20 + glico. Other popular choices of delimiting words are=20 + .kuot., a Lojban name which sounds like t= he English word=20 quote, and the word=20 - zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban wor= d suggesting the topic of the quotation. + zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word sugges= ting the topic of the quotation. Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimitin= g word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimit= ing word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-v= isual isomorphism:=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is fine in speech but ungra= mmatical as written, whereas=20 is correct when written but= ungrammatical in speech. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d3"/> @@ -1184,66 +1184,66 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d4"/> mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai I know about the word which-is=20 gyrations. The text=20 - gy appears in the written word=20 + gy appears in the written word=20 gyrations, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by= =20 - jai appears in the spoken word=20 + jai appears in the spoken word=20 gyrations. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a= matter of good style. It should be noted particularly that=20 - zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, s= pecifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 - zoi quotation is the only way to quote things w= hich are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo res= pectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: + zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifica= lly CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 + zoi quotation is the only way to quote things which are= not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectivel= y, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d5"/> zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku sku is a rafsi of=20 - cusku. + cusku. (A minor note on interaction between=20 - lo'u ... le'u and=20 - zoi: The text between=20 - lo'u and=20 - le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fa= ct, non-Lojban material in the form of a=20 - zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the = word=20 - le'u is used either as the delimiting word for = the=20 - zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, = the outer=20 - lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. = Therefore,=20 - le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word i= n any=20 - zoi quotation.) + lo'u ... le'u and=20 + zoi: The text between=20 + lo'u and=20 + le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-= Lojban material in the form of a=20 + zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the word=20 + le'u is used either as the delimiting word for the=20 + zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, the oute= r=20 + lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefor= e,=20 + le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word in any=20 + zoi quotation.) Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the name= s of things: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d6"/> zo .bab. cmene la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob. In=20 ,=20 - zo .bab. is the word, whereas=20 - la bab. is the thing named by the word. The cma= vo=20 - la'e and=20 - lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth b= etween references and their referents: + zo .bab. is the word, whereas=20 + la bab. is the thing named by the word. T= he cmavo=20 + la'e and=20 + lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between r= eferences and their referents: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d7"/> zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word=20 Bob. @@ -1267,53 +1267,53 @@ la bab. cmene la bab. Bob is the name of Bob. and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlik= ely situation. People are not names. (In=20 through=20 , the name=20 - bab. was separated from a preceding=20 - zo by a pause, thus:=20 - zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause is th= at all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word othe= r than=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i (all of selma'o LA) and=20 - doi (of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other = cmavo that may precede a name: of these,=20 - zo is one of the most common.) + bab. was separated from a preceding=20 + zo by a pause, thus:=20 + zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause= is that all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding wor= d other than=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i (all of selma'o LA) and=20 + doi (of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other cmavo th= at may precede a name: of these,=20 + zo is one of the most common.) The cmavo=20 - la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentio= ned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a q= uotation. Instead,=20 - la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especiall= y the Linnaean binomial names (such as=20 + la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here= for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation= . Instead,=20 + la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Li= nnaean binomial names (such as=20 =20 Homo sapiens) which are the internationally standardize= d names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names whic= h can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such= as=20 =20 Goethe, can also appear in Lojban text with=20 =20 - la'o: + la'o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d10"/> la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly. =20 Goethe is a Homo sapiens. =20 Using=20 - la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, how= ever, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 + la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, ma= kes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 =20 - la'o might be=20 - la me zoi. + la'o might be=20 + la me zoi.
Contrastive emphasis: BAhE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ba'e BAhE emphasize next word @@ -1343,38 +1343,38 @@ George (represented in writing by=20 italics) indicates that I saw George rather than = someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only t= o help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate = syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that= many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word = order is rearranged, producing something like <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d3"/> It was George whom I saw. In Lojban, the cmavo=20 - ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word w= hich is to be emphasized: + ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is = to be emphasized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d4"/> mi viska la ba'e .djordj. I saw the-one-named [emphasis]=20 George. I saw George. Note the pause before the name=20 - djordj., which serves to separate it unambiguou= sly from the=20 - ba'e. Alternatively, the=20 - ba'e can be moved to a position before the=20 - la, which in effect emphasizes the whole constr= uct=20 - la djordj.: + djordj., which serves to separate it unam= biguously from the=20 + ba'e. Alternatively, the=20 + ba'e can be moved to a position before the=20 + la, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct=20 + la djordj.: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d5"/> mi viska ba'e la djordj. I saw [emphasis] the-one-named=20 George. I saw George. @@ -1394,38 +1394,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d7"/> mi ba'e viska la djordj. I saw (not heard or smelled) George. Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi c= an also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker= 's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri whe= n moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree. For completeness, the cmavo=20 - za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE.= It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for= the occasion): + za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It mark= s a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occ= asion): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d8"/> mi klama la za'e .albeinias. =20 I go-to so-called Albania =20 marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 =20 - la ckiipyris., reflecting the country's name in= Albanian. + la ckiipyris., reflecting the country's n= ame in Albanian. unabridged dictio= nary Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 - za'e indicates that the word has been made up o= n the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged d= ictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). + za'e indicates that the word has been made up on the sp= ot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionar= y (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). =20 =20
Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: to @@ -1442,72 +1442,72 @@ TOI close parenthesis sei SEI metalinguistic bridi marker TOI selma'o toi= T= O selma'o <= primary>to The cmavo=20 - to and=20 - toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parenthes= es, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within = the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, how= ever, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that = have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical r= emarks, but the reverse is not true. + to and=20 + toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for = inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the pare= ntheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, re= fer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have bee= n assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, = but the reverse is not true. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1"/> doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska= le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!)= you see the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. implicitly redefines=20 - do within the parentheses: the listener is ch= anged by=20 - doi frank. When the context sentence resumes, h= owever, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored. + do within the parentheses: the listener is changed by= =20 + doi frank. When the context sentence resu= mes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored. TO selma'o to'i= edito= rial commentary There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:= =20 - to'i. The difference between=20 - to and=20 - to'i is the difference between parentheses and = square brackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 + to'i. The difference between=20 + to and=20 + to'i is the difference between parentheses and square b= rackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 =20 - to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same spe= aker, whereas remarks within=20 - to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, pe= rhaps an editor: + to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the sa= me speaker, whereas remarks within=20 + to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone el= se, perhaps an editor: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d2"/> la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi l= i'u Frank expresses I love you [you =3D Jane] UI selma'o sa'a= edito= rial insertion = bracketed remark The=20 - sa'a suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o U= I) meaning=20 + sa'a suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o UI) meani= ng=20 =20 editorial insertion, and indicating that the marked wor= d or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of t= he quotation. It is required whenever the=20 =20 =20 =20 - to'i ... toi remark is physically within quotat= ion marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the conventi= on may be relaxed if no actual confusion results. + to'i ... toi remark is physically within = quotation marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the co= nvention may be relaxed if no actual confusion results. Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the p= revious word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents = of subscripts and other such so-called=20 free modifiers. Semantically, however, parenthetical re= marks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what fol= lows them. =20 SEI selma'o sei= metal= inguistic commentwith embedded discursive<= /indexterm> discursivesembedded embedded discursive The cmavo=20 - sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discurs= ive bridi. Comments added with=20 + sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive brid= i. Comments added with=20 =20 - sei are called=20 + sei are called=20 metalinguistic, because they are comments about the dis= course itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This s= ense of the term=20 metalinguistic is used throughout this chapter, and is = not to be confused with the sense=20 language for expressing other languages. When marked with=20 - sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded= in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do no= t have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: + sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in anot= her utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have c= mavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3"/> la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein. Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane. Using the happiness attitudinal,=20 @@ -1517,36 +1517,36 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4"/> la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. The grammar of the bridi following=20 - sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must e= ither precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 - be and=20 - bei: + sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either pr= ecede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 + be and=20 + bei: Susanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5"/> la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein. Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane. =20 This restriction allows the terminator cmavo=20 - se'u to almost always be elided. + se'u to almost always be elided. referenceand discursive utterances pro-sumtiand discur= sive utterances metalinguistic levels or reference metalinguistic levels Since a discursive utterance is working at a=20 higher level of abstraction than a non-discursive utter= ance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Sp= ecifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs= in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at=20 =20 higher metalinguistic levels in determining their refer= ent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguis= tic levels. For example, the English=20 =20 he said in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this p= urpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level tha= n the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of = the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be = at a higher level than the context. Lojban works differently from English in that the=20 he said can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojb= an, you can say: @@ -1592,30 +1592,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d9"/> lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci I go, John said,=20 to the store. Note the=20 - sa'a following each=20 + sa'a following each=20 =20 - sei, marking the=20 - sei and its attached bridi as an editorial inse= rt, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 - sa'a cmavo would probably be dropped. + sei, marking the=20 + sei and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not = part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 + sa'a cmavo would probably be dropped. =20 SEhU selma'o<= /primary> se= 'u The elidable terminator for=20 - sei is=20 - se'u (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, ex= cept to separate a selbri within the=20 - sei comment from an immediately following selbr= i (or component) outside the comment. + sei is=20 + se'u (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to = separate a selbri within the=20 + sei comment from an immediately following selbri (or co= mponent) outside the comment.
Erasure: SI, SA, SU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: si SI erase word @@ -1624,153 +1624,153 @@ SA erase phrase su SU erase discourse SI selma'o si erasure= word The cmavo=20 - si (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator= that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken: + si (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that er= ases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d1"/> ti gerku si mlatu This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat. means the same thing as=20 - ti mlatu. Multiple=20 - si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate nu= mber of words: + ti mlatu. Multiple=20 + si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of = words: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d2"/> ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house. erasure= zo In order to erase the word=20 - zo, it is necessary to use three=20 - si cmavo in a row: + zo, it is necessary to use three=20 + si cmavo in a row: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d3"/> zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the word=20 - si, er, er, Bob. + si, er, er, Bob. The first use of=20 - si does not erase anything, but completes the= =20 - zo quotation. Two more=20 - si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first= =20 - si and the=20 - zo. + si does not erase anything, but completes the=20 + zo quotation. Two more=20 + si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first=20 + si and the=20 + zo. Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with=20 - si: + si: erasure= names FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d4"/> mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton. I talk in-language that-named=20 and speranto, er, er, Esperanto. The Lojbanized spelling=20 - .esperanto breaks up, as a conse= quence of the Lojban morphology rules (see=20 + .esperanto breaks up, as a= consequence of the Lojban morphology rules (see=20 ) into two Lojban words, the cma= vo=20 - .e and the undefined fu'ivla=20 - speranto. Therefore, two=20 - si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,= =20 - .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 - la, but recognition of=20 - si is done before grammatical analysis. + e and the undefined fu'ivla=20 + speranto. Therefore, two=20 + si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,=20 + .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 + la, but recognition of=20 + si is done before grammatical analysis. erasure= quotes Even more messy is the result of = an incorrect=20 - zoi: + zoi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d5"/> mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan I express [foreign] [quote]=20 - gy [unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 + gy [unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 John. In=20 , the first=20 - fy is taken to be the delimiting word. The next= word must be different from the delimiting word, and=20 - gy., the Lojban name for the letter=20 + fy is taken to be the delimiting word. Th= e next word must be different from the delimiting word, and=20 + gy., the Lojban name for the letter=20 g, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting wo= rd must be repeated. For purposes of=20 - si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to = be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more=20 + si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a wor= d, so four words have been uttered, and four more=20 =20 - si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. S= imilarly, a stray=20 - lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 - fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation = and then erasing it all with three=20 - si cmavo. + si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. Similarly= , a stray=20 + lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 + fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quot= ation and then erasing it all with three=20 + si cmavo. What if less than the entire=20 - zo or=20 - zoi construct is erased? The result is somethin= g which has a loose=20 - zo or=20 - zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and wh= ich is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 - zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the= =20 - zo as well: + zo or=20 + zoi construct is erased? The result is something which = has a loose=20 + zo or=20 + zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and which is i= ncurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 + zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the=20 + zo as well: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d6"/> mi se cmene zo .djan. si si zo .djordj. I am-named-by the-word=20 John, er, er, the-word=20 George. The parser will reject=20 - zo .djan. si .djordj., because = in that context=20 - djordj. is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather tha= n a quoted word. + zo .djan. si .djordj., be= cause in that context=20 + djordj. is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rath= er than a quoted word. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 - si erasure. + si erasure. =20 SA selma'o sa erasure= multiple word precise erasures starting marker As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with=20 =20 - si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefor= e, the cmavo=20 - sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more= than one word. The cmavo following=20 - sa should be the starting marker of some gramma= tical construct. The effect of the=20 + si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the c= mavo=20 + sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than on= e word. The cmavo following=20 + sa should be the starting marker of some grammatical co= nstruct. The effect of the=20 =20 - sa is to erase back to and including the last s= tarting marker of the same kind. For example: + sa is to erase back to and including the last starting = marker of the same kind. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d7"/> mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan. I see the ... I say the-word John. Since the word following=20 - sa is=20 - .i, the sentence separator, its effect is to er= ase the preceding sentence. So=20 + sa is=20 + i, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the p= receding sentence. So=20 =20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d8"/> mi cusku zo .djan. @@ -1779,195 +1779,195 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d9"/> mi viska le blanu zdan. sa le xekri zdani I see the blue hou ... the black house. In=20 ,=20 - le blanu zdan. is ungrammatical, but clearly re= flects the speaker's original intention to say=20 - le blanu zdani. However, the=20 - zdani was cut off before the end and changed in= to a name. The entire ungrammatical=20 - le construct is erased and replaced by=20 - le xekri zdani. + le blanu zdan. is ungrammatical, but clea= rly reflects the speaker's original intention to say=20 + le blanu zdani. However, the=20 + zdani was cut off before the end and changed into a nam= e. The entire ungrammatical=20 + le construct is erased and replaced by=20 + le xekri zdani. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 - sa erasure. Getting=20 + sa erasure. Getting=20 =20 - sa right is even more difficult (for a computer= ) than getting=20 - si right, as the behavior of=20 - si is defined in terms of words rather than in = terms of grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are con= ceptually simpler entities. On the other hand,=20 - sa is generally easier for human beings, becaus= e the rules for using it correctly are less finicky. + sa right is even more difficult (for a computer) than g= etting=20 + si right, as the behavior of=20 + si is defined in terms of words rather than in terms of= grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptuall= y simpler entities. On the other hand,=20 + sa is generally easier for human beings, because the ru= les for using it correctly are less finicky. SU selma'o su erasure= total multiple speakers The cmavo=20 - su (of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguisti= c operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multi= ple speakers, then=20 + su (of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operat= or that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple spea= kers, then=20 =20 - su will only erase the remarks made by the one = who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 - susu is needed to eradicate a whole discussion = in conversation. + su will only erase the remarks made by the one who said= it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 + susu is needed to eradicate a whole discu= ssion in conversation. Note: The current machine parser does not implement either=20 - su or=20 - susu erasure. + su or=20 + susu erasure. =20
Hesitation: Y The following cmavo is discussed in this section: .y. Y hesitation noise =20 Y selma'o .y Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say= next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate i= n Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cm= avo=20 - .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the= English hesitation noise written=20 + .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sou= nd the English hesitation noise written=20 =20 uh (or=20 er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses = before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having not= hing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is= not significant in Lojban, the=20 y sound can be dragged out for as long as necessa= ry. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses ar= e respected. hesitation sound<= /primary> Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the = formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo.= Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if nec= essary, repeating) a word (=20 =20 =20 este in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning=20 that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism require= s a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - .y. has no grammatical significance: it can app= ear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word. + .y. has no grammatical significance: it c= an appear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a wo= rd.
No more to say: FAhO The following cmavo is discussed in this section: fa'o =20 FAhO end of text FAhO selma'o<= /primary> fa= 'o yie= lding the floor end of file computer interaction unconditional signal T= he cmavo=20 - fa'o (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted m= arker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indi= cate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor duri= ng a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser = takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted wit= h=20 + fa'o (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker fo= r the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the= end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a dis= cussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it= as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with=20 =20 =20 =20 - zo or with=20 - lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at= the end of subordinate texts quoted with=20 - lu ... li'u or parenthesized with=20 - to ... toi. + zo or with=20 + lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not u= sed at the end of subordinate texts quoted with=20 + lu ... li'u or parenthesized with=20 + to ... toi.
List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. - zo quotes the following word, no matter w= hat it is. + zo quotes the following word, no matter what it i= s. - si erases the preceding word unless it is= a=20 - zo. + si erases the preceding word unless it is a=20 + zo. - sa erases the preceding word and other wo= rds, unless the preceding word is a=20 - zo. + sa erases the preceding word and other words, unl= ess the preceding word is a=20 + zo. - su is the same as=20 - sa, but erases more words. + su is the same as=20 + sa, but erases more words. - lo'u quotes all following words up to a= =20 - le'u (but not a=20 - zo le'u). + lo'u quotes all following words up to a=20 + le'u (but not a=20 + zo le'u). - le'u is ungrammatical except at the end o= f a =E2=80=9Clo'u quotation. + le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of a =E2= =80=9Clo'u quotation. ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no ma= tter what it is, but using=20 - le'u may create difficulties. + le'u may create difficulties. - zei combines the preceding and the follow= ing word into a lujvo, but does not affect=20 - zo,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 - fa'o, and=20 + zei combines the preceding and the following word= into a lujvo, but does not affect=20 + zo,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + fa'o, and=20 =20 - zei. + zei. BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is=20 - si,=20 - sa, or=20 - su, or unless it is preceded by=20 - zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succ= ession. + si,=20 + sa, or=20 + su, or unless it is preceded by=20 + zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession. - bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu = word, except for=20 - zo,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 - fa'o,=20 + bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu word, ex= cept for=20 + zo,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + fa'o,=20 =20 - zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 - bu. Multiple=20 - bu cmavo may be used in succession. + zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 + bu. Multiple=20 + bu cmavo may be used in succession. UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for=20 - zo,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI,=20 - fa'o,=20 + zo,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su,=20 + lo'u, ZOI,=20 + fa'o,=20 =20 - zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 - bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succes= sion. A following=20 - nai is made part of the UI. + zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 + bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A = following=20 + nai is made part of the UI. - .y.,=20 - da'o,=20 + .y.,=20 + da'o,=20 =20 - fu'e, and=20 + fu'e, and=20 =20 - fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absor= b a following=20 + fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absorb a foll= owing=20 =20 - nai. + nai.
List of Elidable Terminators The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban.= The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that = starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kin= ds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cm= avo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo. diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 36a5d31..4ffe52b 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -30,24 +30,24 @@ =20 father to describe a static relationship in=20 , the verb=20 hits to describe an active relationship in=20 =20 , and the adjective=20 taller to describe an attributive relationship in=20 =20 . In Lojban we make no such = grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, = are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent th= e relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a=20 predication; in Lojban it is called a=20 - bridi, and the central part of speech is the=20 - selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus rela= ted as=20 + bridi, and the central part of speech is the=20 + selbri. Logicians refer to the things thu= s related as=20 arguments, while Lojbanists call them=20 - sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the = rest of the book. + sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of = the book. [svg version] @@ -81,25 +81,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d6"/> The book gives John Sam. seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 give has not changed. place structuredefinition of In Lojban, each se= lbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as it= s=20 place structure. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 - gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives= the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban = sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will= use to fill in the sumti places. + gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places. This book uses the Lojban terms=20 - bridi,=20 - sumti, and=20 - selbri, because it is best to come to understan= d them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words= , which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. + bridi,=20 + sumti, and=20 + selbri, because it is best to come to und= erstand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding= words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. underlinesexample double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chap= ter un= derscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notation conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this= chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) und= er each sumti, and a double underline (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to hel= p you to tell them apart.
Pronunciation pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 @@ -206,124 +206,124 @@ that far away, those far away zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant o= r obvious) Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. =20 pointing cmavoquick-tour version The cmavo=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at= , and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be poi= nted at. + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and sh= ould not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.= namesquick-tour version Names may also be used = as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word=20 - la: + la: - la meris. + la meris. the one/ones named Mary - la djan. + la djan. the one/ones named John Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 for more information.
Some words used to indicate selbri relations selbri list for q= uick tour Here is a short table of some words used as= Lojban selbri in this chapter: - vecnu + vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (bu= yer) for x4 (price) - tavla + tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) abo= ut x3 (topic) in language x4 - sutra + sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action= ) - blari'o + blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green= - melbi + melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (o= bserver) by standard x3 - cutci + cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made o= f x3 (material) - bajra + bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limb= s) in manner x4 (gait) - klama + klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from= x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation) - pluka + pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experien= cer) under conditions x3 =20 - gerku + gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2 - kurji + kurji x1 takes care of x2<= /entry> - kanro + kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2 =20 - stali + stali x1 stays/remains with x2 - zarci + zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (= products) operated by x3 (storekeeper) x1notation conventionquick-tour version Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the r= ole of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, = that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4,= and x5. words not in the = dictionary Like the table in=20 , this table is far from comple= te: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words t= o be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the exi= sting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between= Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; = in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words,= and=20 explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.
Some simple Lojban bridi bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 - tavla is + tavla is <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1"/> x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 where the=20 x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: @@ -355,21 +355,21 @@ <sumti glossary=3D"false">x1</sumti> <elidable>cu</elidable> <selbri>tavla</selbri>=20 <sumti glossary=3D"false">x2</sumti>=20 <sumti glossary=3D"false">x3</sumti>=20 <sumti glossary=3D"false">x4</sumti> </jbo> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>cu</primary><= secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lo= jban-word-imported"><primary>tavla</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>use of</secondary><te= rtiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"genera= l-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary><tertiar= y>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The word=20 - <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> serves as a separator between any preceding = sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples= .</para> + <valsi>cu</valsi> serves as a separator between any preceding sumti an= d the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-k02C"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> mi=20 tavla=20 do=20 zo'e=20 @@ -408,21 +408,21 @@ zo'e=20 tu=20 ti I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language. (=20 is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) zo'equick-tour version ellipsisquick-tour version<= /secondary> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo= =20 - zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted= , a process called=20 + zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a proc= ess called=20 ellipsis.=20 =20 and=20 may be expressed thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> @@ -445,21 +445,21 @@ tavla=20 mi=20 ta You talk to me about that thing (in some language). Note that=20 is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 =20 - zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi. + zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.
Variant bridi structure sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d1"/> @@ -549,21 +549,21 @@ sell. translates as stilted or poetic English I this thing to that buyer do sell. through=20 mean the same thing. Usuall= y, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for e= mphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Nat= ive speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) observativesquick-tour version If there are no = sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is e= quivalent to=20 - zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefor= e not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. + zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not gi= ven. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d4"/> ta =20 cu melbi @@ -600,32 +600,32 @@ It's beautiful! Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 =20 =20 Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in da= nger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear be= fore the selbri. =20 The word=20 - cu does not occur in an observative;=20 + cu does not occur in an observative;=20 =20 - cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti be= fore the selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 - cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selb= ri,=20 - cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 - cu which serve grammatical functions are called= =20 - cmavo in Lojban. + cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the= selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 + cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 + cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 + cu which serve grammatical functions are called=20 + cmavo in Lojban.
Varying the order of sumti SE selma'oquick-tour version sequick-tour vers= ion = sumti reorderingquick-tour version For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing on= e particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 - se, when placed before the last word of the sel= bri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So + se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> mi tavla do ti @@ -642,21 +642,21 @@ do se tavla mi ti You are talked to by me about this. te<= secondary>quick-tour version The cmavo=20 - te, when used in the same location, switches th= e meanings of the first and the third sumti places. + te, when used in the same location, switches the meanin= gs of the first and the third sumti places. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> mi tavla do ti @@ -674,63 +674,63 @@ ti te tavla do mi This is talked about to you by me. Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. xe<= secondary>quick-tour version vequick-tour version The cmavo=20 - ve and=20 - xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, an= d the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the orde= r of places are known as=20 + ve and=20 + xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fi= rst and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of pla= ces are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 - se,=20 - te,=20 - ve, and=20 - xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. + se,=20 + te,=20 + ve, and=20 + xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 for details. passive voice The effect is similar to what in English is called the= =20 passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 =20 =20 - le selbri [ku] (see=20 + le selbri [ku] (see=20 ).
The basic structure of longer utterances NIhO selma'o<= /primary>quick-tour version ni'oquick-tour = version <= primary>Iquick-tour version <= indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported">.iqui= ck-tour version People don't always say just one se= ntence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer = than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is = called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an u= tterance are separated by the cmavo=20 - ni'o and=20 - .i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothi= ng at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period= , question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators = prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken= for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence. + ni'o and=20 + i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all= ) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, questio= n mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent t= he sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a tr= ailing sumti of the previous sentence. =20 The cmavo=20 - ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different t= opics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of= the text may be indicated by multiple=20 - ni'o s, with perhaps=20 - ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,=20 - ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single=20 - ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a = single English paragraph. + ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of= discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the tex= t may be indicated by multiple=20 + ni'o s, with perhaps=20 + ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,= =20 + ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a sin= gle=20 + ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single E= nglish paragraph. The cmavo=20 - .i separates sentences. It is sometimes compoun= ded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentenc= e in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 - xu, discussed in=20 + i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with = words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the = context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 + xu, discussed in=20 , is one such word =E2=80= =93 it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When= more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 - .i even though she/he may be continuing on the = same topic. + i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topi= c. It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 - .i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged = for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might mer= ely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good t= ranslation for=20 - .i is the=20 + i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxim= um clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be ad= ding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translatio= n for=20 + i is the=20 and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....
tanru tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 - tanru. For example, + tanru. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1"/> sutra tavla has the place structure @@ -790,42 +790,42 @@ jikca toldi social butterfly =20 =20 Lepidopteraexample butterflysocialexample social butterflyexample m= ust always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family=20 Lepidoptera. =20 tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 - klama: + klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> mi cu sutra klama la meris. I quickly-go to Mary. tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 - se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 - se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: + se klama as the final component of the ta= nru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 + se klama: the x1 place is the destination= , and the x2 place is the one who goes: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> mi cu sutra se klama @@ -858,21 +858,21 @@ to Mary. Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. has the place structure of=20 - tavla, but note the two distinct interpretation= s. + tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> la meris. cu @@ -928,24 +928,24 @@ is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.
Description sumti talker<= secondary>example descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, t= he listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a ta= lker other than=20 - mi. What I want to talk about would naturally f= it into the first place of=20 - tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator th= at pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called= a=20 + mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into = the first place of=20 + tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls= this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 - le tavla ku means=20 + le tavla ku means=20 the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> mi tavla @@ -958,28 +958,28 @@ means the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2"/> I talk to you about the talker where=20 the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. Similarly=20 - le sutra tavla ku is=20 + le sutra tavla ku is=20 the fast talker, and=20 =20 - le sutra te tavla ku is=20 + le sutra te tavla ku is=20 the fast subject of talk or=20 the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. In many cases the word=20 - ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never n= ecessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so: + ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary= in a description at the end of a sentence, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> mi tavla do le tavla @@ -990,28 +990,28 @@ you about-the talker means exactly the same thing as=20 . cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 The fast one is talking. The=20 obvious translation=20 - le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 + le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 =20 - cu, which so far has always been optional, in f= ront of the selbri. + cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of = the selbri. The word=20 - cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the = beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sum= ti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo lik= e=20 - se or=20 - te. Thus: + cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginnin= g of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It c= omes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like=20 + se or=20 + te. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> le sutra tavla The fast talker @@ -1072,35 +1072,35 @@ I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing. The sumti=20 - le vecnu contains the selbri=20 - vecnu, which has the=20 + le vecnu contains the selbri=20 + vecnu, which has the=20 seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to= describe a particular=20 seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she= probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speake= r has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 - le to mark=20 - blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is somethin= g blue-green. + le to mark=20 + blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is so= mething blue-green. It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 - ku in=20 + ku in=20 , and it is also safe to omi= t the=20 - cu. + cu.
Examples of brivla brivla<= secondary>types ofquick-tour version The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may = by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 - brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (ro= ot words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages)= . All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been= gismu or tanru built from gismu. + brivla. The three types of brivla are gis= mu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other lang= uages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri hav= e been gismu or tanru built from gismu. =20 gismuquick-tour version gismu: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d1"/> mi =20 cu @@ -1158,21 +1158,21 @@ djarspageti This is-spaghetti. =20 cmavo as selbriquick-tour version Some cmavo ma= y also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. = The most commonly used of these is=20 - go'i, which represents the main bridi of the pr= evious Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being= expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:<= /para> + go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous L= ojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being express= ed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d4"/> ta=20 cu go'i @@ -1180,22 +1180,22 @@ That too/same-as-last selbri. That (is spaghetti), too. =20
The sumti=20 - <jbophrase>di'u</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> + di'u and=20 + la'e di'u referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me. How do you know what=20 =20 this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> @@ -1252,30 +1252,30 @@ cu pluka mi This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is b= eautiful) pleases me. =20 la'edi'uquick-tour version di'uquick-tour vers= ion = pleases=20 uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 - la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more ofte= n than=20 + la'edi'u as a single word; it is used mor= e often than=20 =20 - di'u by itself. + di'u by itself.
Possession possessionquick-tour version=20 Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 . A simple means of expres= sing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of= an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specific= ally, between the=20 - le and the selbri of the description: + le and the selbri of the description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1"/> le mi gerku cu=20 sutra @@ -1289,45 +1289,45 @@ possession not ow= nershipquick-tour version In L= ojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may=20 possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it= actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the = same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intima= te relationships:=20 my arm doesn't mean=20 some arm I own but rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.
Vocatives and commands =20 DOI selma'oquick-tour version doiquick-tour ve= rsion vocativesquick-tour version = You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them b= y using=20 - doi followed by their name. The sentence + doi followed by their name. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1"/> doi djan. means=20 Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of= setting the value of=20 - do;=20 - do now refers to=20 + do;=20 + do now refers to=20 John until it is changed in some way in the conversatio= n. Note that=20 is not a bridi, but it is a= legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a=20 vocative phrase. =20 co'oquick-tour version coiquick-tour version Other cmavo can be used instead of=20 - doi in a vocative phrase, with a different sign= ificance. For example, the cmavo=20 + doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance= . For example, the cmavo=20 =20 - coi means=20 + coi means=20 hello and=20 - co'o means=20 + co'o means=20 good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow = one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phr= ases with=20 - doi do not need a pause before the name.) + doi do not need a pause before the name.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d2"/> coi. djan. Hello, John. @@ -1349,22 +1349,22 @@ do tavla You are-talking. you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a c= ommand in Lojban, substitute the word=20 - ko for=20 - do. The bridi + ko for=20 + do. The bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> ko tavla @@ -1378,38 +1378,38 @@ ko sutra Be fast! The=20 - ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can = occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that= are very unlike English commands: + ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur an= ywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are ver= y unlike English commands: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> mi tavla ko Be talked to by me. Let me talk to you. The cmavo=20 - ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and ca= n be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri: + ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be use= d as often as is appropriate for the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d8"/> ko kurji ko @@ -1433,22 +1433,22 @@ Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.
Questions questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 and in various other= chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kin= ds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. =20 =20 ma<= secondary>quick-tour version sumti questionsquick-tour ver= sion questionsquick-tour version T= he cmavo=20 - ma is used to create a sumti question: it indic= ates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at th= e location of the=20 - ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated= as=20 + ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates tha= t the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locati= on of the=20 + ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated as=20 Who? or=20 What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 When?,=20 Where?, and=20 Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d1"/> @@ -1471,86 +1471,86 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d2"/> la djan. John (is talking to you about me). Like=20 - ko,=20 - ma can occur in any position where a sumti is a= llowed, not just in the first position: + ko,=20 + ma can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, = not just in the first position: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d3"/> do cu tavla ma You talk to what/whom? A=20 - ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions = in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once. + ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one s= entence, in effect asking several questions at once. <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d4"/> ma cu =20 tavla ma What/Who talks to what/whom? separate question= squick-tour version The two se= parate=20 - ma positions ask two separate questions, and ca= n therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place. + ma positions ask two separate questions, and can theref= ore be answered with different values in each sumti place. =20 mo<= secondary>quick-tour version bridi questionsquick-tour ver= sion selbri questionsquick-tour version The cmavo=20 - mo is the selbri analogue of=20 - ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri = that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 - mo: + mo is the selbri analogue of=20 + ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that wou= ld be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 + mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d5"/> do cu mo You are-what/do-what? A=20 - mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbr= i might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 - mo is a very non-specific question. The respons= e to the question in=20 + mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might.= Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 + mo is a very non-specific question. The response to the= question in=20 could be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> mi cu melbi @@ -1566,44 +1566,44 @@ mi cu tavla I talk. speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 - mo requires some cooperation between the speake= r and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. I= f context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask t= he question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a t= anru (see=20 + mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and th= e respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If contex= t doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the quest= ion more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (se= e=20 ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 - mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 + mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 Yes or=20 No, such as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> Are you talking to me? Like all yes-or-no questions in English,=20 may be reformulated as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d9"/> Is it true that you are talking to me? xu<= secondary>quick-tour version In Lojban we have a wo= rd that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo= =20 - xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks wheth= er that bridi is true as stated. So + xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that = bridi is true as stated. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> xu =20 do tavla mi @@ -1613,25 +1613,25 @@ you are-talking to-me? is the Lojban translation of=20 . affirmative answe= rquick-tour version go'i with xuquick= -tour version The answer=20 Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without = the=20 - xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for do= ing this with the word=20 - go'i, mentioned in=20 + xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this= with the word=20 + go'i, mentioned in=20 . Instead of a negative answer,= the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be= done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 =20 - go'i as well. For example: + go'i as well. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d11"/> xu do kanro @@ -1661,22 +1661,22 @@ go'i I am healthy. =20 =20 (Note that=20 - do to the questioner is=20 - mi to the respondent.) + do to the questioner is=20 + mi to the respondent.) or <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d14"/> le tavla cu @@ -1696,23 +1696,23 @@ le tavla cu go'i The talker is healthy. =20 nago'iquick-tour version negative answerquick-to= ur version A general negative answer may be given b= y=20 =20 - na go'i.=20 - na may be placed before any selbri (but after t= he=20 - cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 + na go'i.=20 + na may be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 + cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 .
Indicators interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. =20 Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: =20 @@ -1861,25 +1861,25 @@ you stay. contrast evidentialsquick-tour version Another group of = indicators are called=20 evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 =20 =20 - za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 + za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 =20 - pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),= =20 + pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),=20 =20 - ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others= . Many American Indian languages use this kind of words. + ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many A= merican Indian languages use this kind of words. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d7"/> =20 pe'i do @@ -1963,45 +1963,45 @@ la djan. pu klama le zarci John [past] goes to-the store where the tag=20 - pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in th= e past. Similarly, + pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. = Similarly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d5"/> la djan. ca klama le zarci John [present] goes to-the store necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 - ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the = very beginning of the selbri, just after the=20 - cu, and they may make a=20 - cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed i= nto tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. = In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the ap= propriate tense is picked up from context. + ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beg= inning of the selbri, just after the=20 + cu, and they may make a=20 + cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanr= u. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojba= n, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriat= e tense is picked up from context. =20 space tensesquick-tour version Lojban also exte= nds the notion of=20 tense to refer not only to time but to space. The follo= wing example uses the tag=20 - vu to specify that the event it describes happe= ns far away from the speaker: + vu to specify that the event it describes happens far a= way from the speaker: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6"/> do vu vecnu zo'e @@ -2028,48 +2028,48 @@ The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.) Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 this or=20 that as adjectives, as in the following example, which = uses the tag=20 =20 - vi meaning=20 + vi meaning=20 nearby: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> le vi bajra ku cu tavla The nearby runner talks. This runner talks. Do not confuse the use of=20 - vi in=20 + vi in=20 with the cmavo=20 - ti, which also means=20 + ti, which also means=20 this, but in the sense of=20 this thing. sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 - ba is the tag for future time): + ba is the tag for future time): <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> le vi tavla ku cu ba klama diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index 7da5b2c..c92892a 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -9,43 +9,43 @@ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. =20 Step 1 =E2=80=93 Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with non-Lojban failures o= f fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text f= ile using Lojban's phonetic spelling rules. The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm. =20 Step 2 =E2=80=93 Filtering From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict: - If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) = is identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimite= d with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an ope= ning delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimit= er recurs=20 + If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) is ident= ified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a= pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening del= imiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recur= s=20 after a pause, as grammatically a single toke= n (labelled =20 in this grammar). There i= s no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the c= losing delimiter. - If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is= identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =20 + If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is identif= ied, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =20 , instead of lexing it by = its normal grammatical function. - If the Lojban word lo'u (selma'o LOhU= ) is identified, search for the closing delimiter le'u (selma'o LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the pre= vious two steps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the s= ingle token =20 + If the Lojban word lo'u (selma'o LOhU) is ide= ntified, search for the closing delimiter le'u (selma'o LEhU= ), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two steps.= The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token =20 . Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o cat= egory, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In= all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for eac= h word. - If the word si (selma'o SI) is identi= fied, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has be= en condensed into a single token by one of the above rules). + If the word si (selma'o SI) is identified, er= ase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been conde= nsed into a single token by one of the above rules). - If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what= follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may r= eceive further definition later.) + If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identified, er= ase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follows= attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive f= urther definition later.) - If the word su (selma'o SU) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first prece= ding token word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. How= ever, if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the = beginning of a speaker's discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a = speaker's discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two adjacent= uses of su are required to erase the entire convers= ation. + If the word su (selma'o SU) is identified, er= ase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding tok= en word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, if= speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginnin= g of a speaker's discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a speaker'= s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two adjacent uses of= su are required to erase the entire conversation. Step 3 =E2=80=93 Termination If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it. Step 4 =E2=80=93 Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed). Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where the= re may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRI= VLA. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 23497ba..ed72158 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -35,28 +35,28 @@ omitting the letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w. alphabetic order<= /primary> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII= coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetic= al order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban te= xt is facilitated. =20 =20 stress<= secondary>showing non-standard capital lettersuse of Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard = stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Th= us the English name=20 Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 - DJOsefin., pronounced=20 + DJOsefin., pronounced=20 ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 for an explanation of the = symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitaliz= e the vowel letter, in this case=20 =20 O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize t= he whole syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 =20 - se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names ar= e meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with a= s little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the re= gular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter= . + se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant = to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little= distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular ru= les of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.
Basic Phonetics bracketsuse in IPA notation phonetic alphabet IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (see = also IPA) Lojban pronunciations are defined using the= International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing= pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square= brackets: for example, the word=20 =20 cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 =20 [k=C3=A6t].=20 contains a brief expl= anation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest anal= ogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with = the technical terms used in describing speech sounds. =20 @@ -279,21 +279,21 @@ c,=20 j,=20 x). The English=20 c represents three different sounds,=20 [k] in=20 cat and=20 [s] in=20 cent, as well as the=20 [=CA=83] of=20 ocean. Similarly, English=20 - g can represent=20 + g can represent=20 [=C9=A1] as in=20 go,=20 [d=CA=92] as in=20 gentle, and=20 [=CA=92] as in the second "g" in=20 garage (in some pronunciations). English=20 s can be either=20 [s] as in=20 cats,=20 [z] as in=20 @@ -548,89 +548,89 @@ brlgan. [br=CC=A9l gan] or [brl=CC=A9 gan] is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. Earlexample syllab= ic consonantsfinal in word Syl= labic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the stan= dpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally req= uired to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. = An example is=20 =20 - rl., which is an approximation of the English n= ame=20 + rl., which is an approximation of the Eng= lish name=20 Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. =20 =20 syllabic consonan= tseffect on stress stresseffect of sy= llabic consonants on Syllables with syllabic conson= ants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syll= ables to stress (see=20 =20 ).
Vowel Pairs vowel pairsuse of apostrophe in apostropheuse in vowel= pairs vowel pairsdefinition of Lo= jban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate sy= llable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrop= he. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the=20 =20 [h] sound between (and not by a glottal = stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). =20 diphthongscontrasted with vowel pairs vowel pairscontr= asted with diphthongs All vowel combinations are pe= rmitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this inc= ludes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included= . vowel pairslist of The Lojban vowel pairs are:<= /para> =20 - a'a - a'e - a'i - a'o - a'u - a'y + a'a + a'e + a'i + a'o + a'u + a'y =20 =20 =20 - e'a - e'e - e'i - e'o - e'u - e'y + e'a + e'e + e'i + e'o + e'u + e'y =20 =20 =20 - i'a - i'e - i'i - i'o - i'u - i'y + i'a + i'e + i'i + i'o + i'u + i'y =20 - o'a - o'e - o'i - o'o - o'u - o'y + o'a + o'e + o'i + o'o + o'u + o'y =20 =20 - u'a - u'e - u'i - u'o - u'u - u'y + u'a + u'e + u'i + u'o + u'u + u'y =20 - y'a - y'e - y'i - y'o - y'u - y'y + y'a + y'e + y'i + y'o + y'u + y'y vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could app= ear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 =20 - .y'y. is so used =E2=80=93 it is the Lojban nam= e of the apostrophe letter (see=20 + .y'y. is so used =E2=80=93 it is the Lojb= an name of the apostrophe letter (see=20 ). vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> meiin. mei,in. @@ -768,21 +768,21 @@ djeimyz. [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 - djeimz., which contains a forbi= dden consonant pair. + djeimz., which contains a= forbidden consonant pair.
Initial Consonant Pairs consonant pairsinitial The set of consonant pai= rs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) = is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant= pairs described in=20 =20 . Even so, it is more than English= allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can= learn to pronounce. initial consonant= pairslist of There are just 4= 8 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows: @@ -1206,41 +1206,41 @@ stressed vowelcompared with stressed syllable = stressed syllablecompared with stressed vowel stressdefinition of<= /secondary> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one = syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel soun= d (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on= the vowel sound itself, the terms=20 stressed syllable and=20 stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 y or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 =20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penult= imate stress is=20 - da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 + da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables c= reated solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress =E2=80=93 primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowes= t level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for s= yllables containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 - brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on an= y syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the s= yllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban stru= ctural words (called=20 - cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none = at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just precedin= g a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run t= ogether. + brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed= on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed,= the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojba= n structural words (called=20 + cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> dikyjvo DI,ky,jvo (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 - ky is not counted in determining stress. The vo= wel=20 + ky is not counted in determining stress. = The vowel=20 y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Armstrong</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> .armstrong. .ARM,strong. @@ -1330,43 +1330,43 @@ e'u bridi e'u BRI,di E'u BRI,di e'U.BRI,di In=20 ,=20 - e'u is a cmavo and=20 - bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pron= unciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 - e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. T= he third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable = of the cmavo, requires that =E2=80=93 since the following word is a brivla = =E2=80=93 the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the followin= g two cases: + e'u is a cmavo and=20 + bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciatio= ns is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 + e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that =E2=80=93 since the following word is a brivla =E2=80= =93 the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two = cases: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14"/> le re nobli prenu le re NObli PREnu <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d15"/> le re no bliprenu le re no bliPREnu If the cmavo=20 - no in=20 + no in=20 were to be stressed, the ph= rase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 , which is unacceptable in L= ojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.
IPA For English Speakers IPA pronunciation= description television Received Pronunciation General American There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficu= lt to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every r= eader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or l= ess alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addit= ion, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) Eng= lish. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speaker= s of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local telev= ision sets. =20 =20 =20 @@ -1411,25 +1411,25 @@ a. The=20 a of GA=20 father. The sound=20 [a] is preferred because GA speake= rs often relax an unstressed=20 [=C9=91] into a schwa=20 [=C9=99], as in the usual pronunci= ations of=20 about and=20 sofa. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban= , English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use=20 [a] instead: the Lojban word for= =20 sofa is=20 - sfofa, pronounced=20 + sfofa, pronounced=20 [sfofa] or=20 [sfof=C9=91] but never=20 [sfof=C9=99] which would be the no= n-word=20 - sfofy. + sfofy. [=C3=A6] Not a Lojban sound. The=20 a of English=20 cat. @@ -1535,21 +1535,21 @@ i. Essentially like the English vowel of=20 pizza or=20 machine, although the English vowel is sometimes = pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban. [=C9=AA] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 =20 - i of English=20 + i of English=20 bit. [=C9=A8] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 =20 u of=20 just in some varieties of GA, those which make th= e word sound more or less like=20 @@ -1615,21 +1615,21 @@ m. As in English=20 catch 'em or=20 bottom. [n] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 n. As in English=20 - no,=20 + no,=20 honor, or=20 son. [n=CC=A9] The syllabic version of Lojban=20 n. As in English=20 button. @@ -1736,21 +1736,21 @@ [r=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=B9=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=BE=CC=A9],=20 [=CA=80=CC=A9] are syllabic versions of the above.=20 [=C9=B9=CC=A9] appears in the GA (= but not RP) pronunciation of=20 - bird. + bird. [s] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 s. As in English=20 so,=20 basin, or=20 yes. @@ -1981,57 +1981,57 @@ ia through=20 iu and=20 ua through=20 uu remain unchanged. - a'i,=20 + a'i,=20 =20 - e'i,=20 - o'i and=20 + e'i,=20 + o'i and=20 =20 - a'o become=20 + a'o become=20 =20 - a,i,= =20 - e,i,= =20 - o,i an= d=20 - a,o. + a,i,=20 + e,i,=20 + o,i and=20 + a,o. - i'a through=20 - i'u and=20 - u'a through=20 - u'u are changed to=20 + i'a through=20 + i'u and=20 + u'a through=20 + u'u are changed to=20 =20 ia through=20 iu and=20 ua through=20 uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudi= nals, but become=20 i,a through=20 i,u and=20 u,a through=20 u,u in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cm= avo. All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. =20 The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 - .i are capitalized, and irregular stress is mar= ked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stres= sed syllable. + i are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with = an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed sylla= ble. =20 =20 Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthograp= hy: =20 non-standard = orthographiescaveat It is not = standard, and has not been used. It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban pho= nology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a differe= nt written form. diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 5b26e8a..113db01 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -28,49 +28,49 @@ VV stringas a symbol for a double vowel VV = represents either a diphthong, one of the following: ai ei oi au or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vow= els, one of the following: - a'a - a'e - a'i - a'o - a'u + a'a + a'e + a'i + a'o + a'u =20 - e'a - e'e - e'i - e'o - e'u + e'a + e'e + e'i + e'o + e'u =20 - i'a - i'e - i'i - i'o - i'u + i'a + i'e + i'i + i'o + i'u =20 - o'a - o'e - o'i - o'o - o'u + o'a + o'e + o'i + o'o + o'u =20 - u'a - u'e - u'i - u'o - u'u + u'a + u'e + u'i + u'o + u'u apostropheas not a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic ras a consonant for morphological discussions= syllabic nas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic mas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic l<= secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions C stringas a symbol for a single consonant = C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one o= f b=20 c=20 d=20 f=20 @@ -131,21 +131,21 @@ come,=20 red,=20 doctor, and=20 freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 James,=20 Afghanistan, and=20 Pope John Paul II.
cmavo - punctuation marks= cmavo as Lojban equivalents <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">numberscm= avo as Lojban equivalents prepositionscmavo as Lojban equi= valents conjunctionscmavo as Lojban equivalents articlescmavo as Lojban equivalents structure words selma'odefinition = cmavodefinition The f= irst group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They ar= e the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often ha= ve no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics = of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of E= nglish articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks= . There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as selm= a'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The = various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 + punctuation marks= cmavo as Lojban equivalents <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">numberscm= avo as Lojban equivalents prepositionscmavo as Lojban equi= valents conjunctionscmavo as Lojban equivalents articlescmavo as Lojban equivalents structure words selma'odefinition = cmavodefinition The f= irst group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They ar= e the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often ha= ve no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics = of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of E= nglish articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks= . There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as s= elma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage= . The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 to=20 and summarized in=20 . cmavostructure of Standard cmavo occur in four = forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the variou= s forms: @@ -155,54 +155,54 @@ V-form .a .e .i .o .u CV-form - ba - ce - di - fo - gu + ba + ce + di + fo + gu VV-form .au .ei .ia - .o'u - .u'e + o'u + u'e CVV-form - ki'a - pei - mi'o - coi - cu'u + ki'a + pei + mi'o + coi + cu'u In addition, there is the cmavo=20 - .y. (remember that=20 + .y. (remember that=20 y is not a V), which must have pauses before and = after it. cmavolack of relation of form to grammatical use experimental cmavoforms for cmavofor experimental use cmavosimple A simple cmavo thus has the pro= perty of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant fol= lowed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a r= ow, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cma= vo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are=20 ZEI selma'olujvowith zei There is also a different way of building lujvo, or = rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo= . You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of = them with the special cmavo=20 - zei. Thus, + zei. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d12"/> bridi zei valsi cmavo without raf= simethod of including in lujvo= fu'ivlamethod of including in lujvo cmenemethod of including in = lujvo rafsilack ofeffect on forming = lujvo lujvofrom cmavo with no rafsi= is the exact equivalent of=20 - brivla (but not necessarily the same as the und= erlying tanru=20 - bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) = Using=20 - zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a ra= fsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: + brivla (but not necessarily the same as t= he underlying tanru=20 + bridi valsi, which could have other meani= ngs.) Using=20 + zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a c= mene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13"/> xy. zei kantu X ray @@ -1044,59 +1044,59 @@ tankShermanexample .cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank is particularly notew= orthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 - zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in = fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two c= omponents, but by adding a=20 - zei between=20 - by. and=20 - livgyterbilma to produce + zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is = not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two component= s, but by adding a=20 + zei between=20 + by. and=20 + livgyterbilma to produce <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17"/> na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because = its place structure can be built from that of=20 - bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo w= ithout a brivla must be constructed ad hoc. + bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a= brivla must be constructed ad hoc. cmavocontrasted with rafsi in usage rafsicontrasted wi= th cmavo in usage rafsicontrasted with words Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 - zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV ra= fsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion betw= een the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate= words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing s= eparate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only a= s parts of lujvo. + zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look= like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the = two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words o= r in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate = but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts = of lujvo.
fu'ivla lujvounsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon food= use of fu'ivla for specific animalsuse of fu'iv= la for specific plantsuse of fu'ivla for specific jargonuse of fu'ivla for specific termsuse of fu= 'ivla for concrete termsuse of fu'ivla for fu'ivlause of The use of tanru or lujvo is not al= ways appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.=20 =20 brie or=20 =20 cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow fie= ld (e.g.=20 =20 =20 quark,=20 =20 integral, or=20 =20 iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for= concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The= vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific= terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowe= d (actually=20 =20 copied) into Lojban from the original language. borrowingsStage 1 borrowingsusing foreign-language name= bor= rowingfour stages of There are= four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified= (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quot= ed with the cmavo=20 =20 - la'o (explained in full in=20 + la'o (explained in full in=20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1"/> me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. =20 @@ -1117,27 +1117,27 @@ =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 3 borrowings borrowingsStage 3 borrowing= sfu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowe= d must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then u= sually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to = ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart. borrowingsmost common form for fu'ivlauniqueness of me= aning in rafsias fu'ivla categorizer fu'ivla categorizer The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla= ; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other langua= ges would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assig= ned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to = have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common = kind of fu'ivla. =20 =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 4 borrowings borrowingsStage 4 borrowing= sfu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 for a proposal concerning St= age 4 fu'ivla.) fu'ivla= form of fu'ivlaconstruction of The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu= and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word = from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 - fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojban= ized =E2=80=93 the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalen= t and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Loj= ban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla: + fukpi valsi) from the other language and = Lojbanized =E2=80=93 the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equ= ivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitima= te Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla: fu'ivlainitial consonant cluster in fu'ivlarules f= or formation of must contain a consonant cluster in= the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the be= ginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longe= r cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a pe= rmissible initial consonant pair:=20 - spraile is acceptable, but not=20 - ktraile or=20 - trkaile; + spraile is acceptable, but not=20 + ktraile or=20 + trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; slinku'i test= definition must not be gismu o= r lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'i= vla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a l= ujvo (the so-called=20 slinku'i test, not discussed further in this book);= =20 @@ -1145,21 +1145,21 @@ y, although they may contain syllabic pronunc= iations of Lojban consonants; fu'ivlastress in like other brivla, are str= essed on the penultimate syllable. fu'ivla= consonant clusters in Note that consonan= t triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can= be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There i= s no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except = at the beginning. =20 =20 borrowingsStage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction fu'ivlacategorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of con= struction This is a fairly liberal definition and a= llows quite a lot of possibilities within=20 - fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easi= ly on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always = guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla req= uire running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and shou= ld be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all t= he considerations that apply. + fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be mad= e easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them a= lways guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'iv= la require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, an= d should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about= all the considerations that apply. fu'ivla= algorithm for constructing Here is a sim= ple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage = 3 fu'ivla: Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojb= an=20 y, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla. @@ -1197,147 +1197,147 @@ spaghetti from English or Italian =20 spageti Lojbanize cidj,r,spageti prefix long rafsi =20 dja,r,spageti prefix short rafsi where=20 cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 - cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 + cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 - cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with t= he short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: = in any event, it means the same thing. + cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form = with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relie= d on: in any event, it means the same thing. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/> Acer the scientific name of maple trees =20 =20 acer Lojbanize xaceru add initial consonant and final vowel tric,r,xaceru prefix rafsi ric,r,xaceru prefix short rafsi where=20 tric- and=20 ric- are rafsi for=20 - tricu, the gismu for=20 + tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 - saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tan= ru=20 - tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 - ricrxaceru and=20 - tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they woul= d surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. + saktrxaceru, or could be represented by t= he tanru=20 + tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 + ricrxaceru and=20 + tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but the= y would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>brie</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/> brie from French =20 bri Lojbanize cirl,r,bri prefix rafsi where=20 cirl- represents=20 - cirla (=20 + cirla (=20 cheese). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/> cobra =20 kobra Lojbanize sinc,r,kobra prefix rafsi where=20 sinc- represents=20 - since (=20 + since (=20 snake). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/> quark =20 kuark Lojbanize kuarka add final vowel sask,r,kuarka prefix rafsi allowable diphtho= ngsin gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla allowable= diphthongsin fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and luj= vo d= iphthongsin fu'ivla fu'ivladiphthongs= in where=20 sask- represents=20 - saske (=20 + saske (=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong= =20 ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but = may appear in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8"/> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 from Korean djamo Lojbanize lerf,r,djamo prefix rafsi ler,l,djamo prefix rafsi where=20 ler- represents=20 - lerfu (=20 + lerfu (=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 - spageti and=20 - kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 - xaceru looks like a compound cm= avo, and=20 - kobra like a gismu. + spageti and=20 + kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 + xaceru looks like a compo= und cmavo, and=20 + kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 - integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, do= es not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even = one with an English-speaking background; its source =E2=80=93 the English w= ord=20 + integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'iv= la, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener,= even one with an English-speaking background; its source =E2=80=93 the Eng= lish word=20 integral =E2=80=93 has various other specialized meanin= gs in other fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 - integrale almost certainly would eventually com= e to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English asso= ciates with=20 + integrale almost certainly would eventual= ly come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that Englis= h associates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 - cmacrntegrale, if the=20 + cmacrntegrale, if the=20 i of=20 - integrale is removed, or something like=20 - cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to= the beginning;=20 + integrale is removed, or something like= =20 + cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is ad= ded to the beginning;=20 cmac- is the rafsi for=20 - cmaci (=20 + cmaci (=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integral might be conveyed with=20 =20 - djinrnintegrale or=20 - tarmrnintegrale, where=20 - dinju and=20 - tarmi mean=20 + djinrnintegrale or=20 + tarmrnintegrale, where=20 + dinju and=20 + tarmi mean=20 building and=20 form respectively. Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, = shown with more than one rafsi prefix: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d9"/> bang,r,blgaria Bulgarian in language @@ -1392,21 +1392,21 @@ Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 Navajo is far more widely known than=20 =20 Dine'e.
cmene names in Lojban (= see also cmene) cmenedefinition namespurpos= e of cmenepurpose of Lojbanized na= mes, called=20 - cmene, are very much like their counterparts in= other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand fo= r them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in the= mselves, but do not necessarily do so. + cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. =20 namesrationale for lojbanizing cmenerationale for lojb= anizing cmeneand analyzability of speech stream namesexamples of cmeneexamples of Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attem= pts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modificatio= n. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzabl= e, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are L= ojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equ= ivalents: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1"/> djim. Jim @@ -1464,21 +1464,21 @@ kat,r,in. Catherine =20 syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable= , so=20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 - ka.) + ka.) <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/> katis. Cathy =20 @@ -1514,45 +1514,45 @@ djansmif. are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Smith. =20 namesauthority for cmeneauthority for The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing= the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how= they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name=20 Mary can thus be Lojbanized as=20 - meris.,=20 - maris.,=20 - meiris.,=20 - merix., or even=20 - marys.. The last alternative = is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to= someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need n= ot be an=20 + meris.,=20 + maris.,=20 + meiris.,=20 + merix., or even=20 + marys.. The last alter= native is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desir= able to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant= need not be an=20 s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant = at the end. namesrestrictions on form of cmenerestrictions on fo= rm of Names are not permitted to have the sequences= =20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is im= mediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the = fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by = one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cme= ne might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. Howe= ver, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply tha= t the word before the=20 - la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without p= ause, which is impossible. + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediatel= y preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact tha= t all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of t= hese words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might= break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, bre= ak-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the wo= rd before the=20 + la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, wh= ich is impossible. <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">Nederlandsexample Laplaceexample For exampl= e, the invalid name=20 - laplas. would look like the L= ojban words=20 - la plas., and=20 - ilanas. would be misunderstoo= d as=20 - .i la nas.. However,=20 + laplas. would look lik= e the Lojban words=20 + la plas., and=20 + ilanas. would be misun= derstood as=20 + .i la nas.. However,=20 NEderlants. cannot be mishea= rd as=20 NEder lants., because=20 NEder with no following paus= e is not a possible Lojban word. namesalternatives for restricted sequences in = cmenealt= ernatives for restricted sequences in There are clo= se alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizin= g names, such as=20 - ly,=20 - lei, and=20 - dai or=20 + ly,=20 + lei, and=20 + dai or=20 =20 - do'i, that do not cause these problems. + do'i, that do not cause these problems. cmenerules for namesrules for = Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristic= s: =20 cmeneconsonant clusters permitted in cmenefinal le= tter in They must end in one or more consonants. Th= ere are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene= , provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part= of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair. diphthongsspecific to cmene diphthongsspecific to = names uy diphthongin cmene iy diphthongin= cmene They may contain the letter y as a normal, n= on-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contai= n the two diphthongs=20 iy and=20 uy. @@ -1570,55 +1570,55 @@ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>One</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11"/> pav. the One - from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav<= /rafsi>, meaning one + from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav,= meaning one <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/> sol. the Sun - from the gismu solri, meaning sola= r, or actually pertaining to the Sun + from the gismu solri, meaning solar, or actually pertaining to the Sun <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13"/> ralj. Chief as a title - from the gismu ralju, meaning prin= cipal. + from the gismu ralju, meaning principal. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/> nol. Lord/Lady - from the gismu nobli, with rafsi n= ol, meaning noble. + from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning noble. cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. Add a final=20 s or=20 n (or some other consonant that sounds good) = if the name ends in a vowel. @@ -1629,52 +1629,52 @@ If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written L= ojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress= . Do not capitalize names otherwise. =20 =20 cmeneavoiding impermissible consonant clusters in If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel= between the consonants:=20 y is recommended. cmeneproscribed syllables in No cmene may h= ave the syllables=20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - doi in them, unless immediately preceded by= a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to = something else. Possible substitutions include=20 - ly,=20 - ly'i, and=20 - dai or=20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + doi in them, unless immediately preceded by a conso= nant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to somethin= g else. Possible substitutions include=20 + ly,=20 + ly'i, and=20 + dai or=20 =20 - do'i, respectively. + do'i, respectively. scientific names<= /primary>rules for Linnaean namesrules for There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the sci= entific names (technically known as=20 =20 Linnaean binomials after their inventor) which are inte= rnationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is = essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted= into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 =20 =20 - la'o, explained in=20 + la'o, explained in=20 . Using this cmavo makes th= e already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, = and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though in= complete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names= . They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other= words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 =20 =20 =20 back vowel in the following list refers to any of the l= etters=20 a,=20 o, or=20 u; the term=20 front vowel correspondingly refers to any of the letter= s=20 e,=20 i, or=20 y. Change double consonants other than=20 - cc to single consonants. + cc to single consonants. Change=20 cc before a front vowel to=20 kc, but otherwise to=20 k. Change=20 c before a back vowel and final=20 @@ -1776,121 +1776,121 @@ Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: English Mary - meris. or meiris. + meris. = or meiris. English Smith - smit. + smit. English Jones - djonz. + djonz.<= /entry> English John - djan. or jan. (American) or djon. or jon. (British) + djan. o= r jan. (American) or djon. or jon. (British) English Alice - .alis. + .alis. English Elise - .eLIS. + .eLIS. English Johnson - djansn. + djansn.= English William - .uiliam. or .uil,iam. + .uiliam. or .uil,iam. English Brown - braun. + braun.<= /entry> English Charles - tcarlz. + tcarlz.= French Charles - carl. + carl. French De Gaulle - dyGOL. + dyGOL.<= /entry> German Heinrich - xainrix. + xainrix. Spanish Joaquin - xuaKIN. + xuaKIN.= Russian Svetlana - sfietlanys. + sfietlanys. Russian Khrushchev - xrucTCOF. + xrucTCOF. Hindi Krishna - kricnas. + kricnas. Polish Lech Walesa - lex. va,uensas. + lex. va,uensas. Spanish Don Quixote - don. kicotes. or modern Spanish:= don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect: don. k= i'otes. + don. kicotes. or modern Sp= anish: don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes. Chinese Mao Zedong - maudzydyn. + maudzydyn. Japanese Fujiko - fudjikos. or <= jbophrase glossay=3D"false">fujikos. + fudjikos. or fujikos.
=20
Rules for inserting pauses pauses<= secondary>rules for Summarized in one place, here a= re the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words: @@ -1898,24 +1898,24 @@ pausebetween words pauseproscribed within words Any two words may have a pause between them; it is al= ways illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the w= ord into two words. pauseand consonant-final words consonant-final wordsnecessity for pause after Every word ending in a = consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmen= e. pauseand vowel-initial words vowel-initial wordsne= cessity for pause before Every word beginning with = a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, = or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants. pauseand cmene cmenerules for pause before Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immedi= ately preceding word is one of the cmavo=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i, or=20 - doi (which is why those strings are forbidd= en in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs. + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i, or=20 + doi (which is why those strings are forbidden in cm= ene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs. pauseand final-syllable stress final syllable stressrules for pause after stressfinal syllablerules for pause after If the last syllable o= f a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated = by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In = this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual st= ress (which already ends with a pause, of course). pauseand Cy-form cmavo cmavorules for pause after = Cy-form Cy-form cmavorules for pause after A cmavo of the form=20 Cy must be followed by a pause unless another=20 Cy-form cmavo follows. @@ -1931,21 +1931,21 @@ . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo =E2=80=93 the version which would be entered into a di= ctionary.) linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous =E2=80=93 it has several possible meanings. A lujv= o, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single= meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area o= f the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chos= en is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of= linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concep= t that seems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'euse to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeaning d= rift of You must also be aware of the possibility o= f some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for post= erity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is = in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a diff= erent place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily ba= d. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a mea= ning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dic= tionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 - za'e (explained in=20 + za'e (explained in=20 =20 ) before a newly coined lujvo to indic= ate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. =20 =20 =20 Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abst= raction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous= , the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop = some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then= use that tanru to make the lujvo. =20 =20 @@ -1976,40 +1976,40 @@ hyphens in lujvo<= /primary>proscribed where not required A= dd hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place= that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommende= d, for reasons discussed below. If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an=20 r-hyphen (or an=20 n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-= form. If there are exactly two words, then put an=20 r-hyphen (or an=20 n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first = rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,=20 - saicli requires no hyphen). Use an=20 + saicli requires no hyphen). Use an=20 r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen i= s=20 r, in which case use an=20 n-hyphen. Never use an=20 n-hyphen unless it is required. Put a=20 y-hyphen between the consonants of any imperm= issible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi. tosmabru test= Put a=20 y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form. Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi =E2=80=93= with the pattern=20 CVC ... CVC + X =E2=80=93 for=20 - tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long= rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant clu= ster, or is something which has caused a=20 + tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCC= V long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consona= nt cluster, or is something which has caused a=20 y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC= and itself by one of the above rules. The test is as follows: Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens. These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the tr= ial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word = will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. @@ -2146,141 +2146,141 @@ zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 = * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976
lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 - gerku zdani (=20 + gerku zdani (=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 =20 =20 doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 , using every possible rafsi.= The rafsi for=20 - gerku are: + gerku are: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 - zdani are: + zdani are: -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 -ger-,=20 -ge'u- and=20 -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 - gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 + gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 -zda- and=20 -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 - zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then: + zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then: ger-zda ger-zdani ge'u-zda ge'u-zdani gerk-zda gerk-zdani We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 =20 - ge cannot fall off the front, because the follo= wing word would begin with=20 + ge cannot fall off the front, because the following wor= d would begin with=20 rz, which is not a permissible initial conson= ant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 - gerzda and=20 - gerzdani. + gerzda and=20 + gerzdani. The third form,=20 ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even = though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consona= nt cluster in the first five letters. So=20 - ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. + ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. The fourth form,=20 - ge'u-zdani, however, requires a= n=20 + ge'u-zdani, however, requ= ires an=20 r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of t= he lujvo is=20 - ge'urzdani. + ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are= =20 =20 - gerkyzda and=20 - gerkyzdani respectively. + gerkyzda and=20 + gerkyzdani respectively. boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 - gerzda would win. Its L scor= e is 6, its A score is 0, its H score= is 0, its R score is 12, and its V s= core is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, = 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would pr= obably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 - gerzda. + gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H= score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of = 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo wo= uld probably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 + gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 - bloti klesi (=20 + bloti klesi (=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. The rafsi for=20 - bloti are=20 + bloti are=20 -lot-,=20 -blo-, and=20 -lo'i-; for=20 - klesi they are=20 + klesi they are=20 -kle- and=20 -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru: - lotkle - blokle - lo'ikle + lotkle + blokle + lo'ikle =20 - lotlei - blolei - lo'irlei + lotlei + blolei + lo'irlei Only=20 - lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusi= on with the cmavo sequence=20 - lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of = the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scor= ing algorithm produces the following results: + lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid c= onfusion with the cmavo sequence=20 + lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versio= ns of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, th= e scoring algorithm produces the following results: - lotkle + lotkle 5878 - blokle + blokle 5858 - lo'ikle + lo'ikle 6367 - lotlei + lotlei 5867 - blolei + blolei 5847 - lo'irlei + lo'irlei 7456 Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 - blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 - blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 - lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 - lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen. + blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny m= argin over=20 + blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only sl= ightly worse;=20 + lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe= , and=20 + lo'irlei because of having both apostroph= e and hyphen. Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 - logji bangu girzu, or=20 + logji bangu girzu, or=20 logical-language group in English. (=20 The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) The available rafsi are=20 -loj- and=20 -logj-;=20 -ban-,=20 -bau-, and=20 -bang-; and=20 -gri- and=20 -girzu, and (for name purposes only)=20 @@ -2316,98 +2316,98 @@ loj-ban-girz loj-bau-girz loj-bang-girz =20 logj-ban-girz logj-bau-girz logj-bang-girz<= /member> After hyphenation, we have: - lojbangri - lojbaugri - lojbangygri + lojbangri + lojbaugri + lojbangygri =20 - logjybangri - logjybaugri - logjybangygri + logjybangri + logjybaugri + logjybangygri =20 - lojbangirzu - lojbaugirzu - lojbangygirzu + lojbangirzu + lojbaugirzu + lojbangygirzu =20 - logjybangirzu - logjybaugirzu - logjybangygirzu + logjybangirzu + logjybaugirzu + logjybangygirzu =20 - lojbangir - lojbaugir - lojbangygir + lojbangir + lojbaugir + lojbangygir =20 - logjybangir - logjybaugir - logjybangygir + logjybangir + logjybaugir + logjybangygir =20 - lojbangirz - lojbaugirz - lojbangygirz + lojbangirz + lojbaugirz + lojbangygirz =20 - logjybangirz - logjybaugirz - logjybangygirz + logjybangirz + logjybaugirz + logjybangygirz <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 =20 - lojbangri and=20 - lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 - girzu, producing=20 - lojbangirz. + lojbangri and=20 + lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slig= htly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of = the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedd= ed in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 + girzu, producing=20 + lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 - nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 + nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 =20 - ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 + ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: nak-kem-cin-ctu =20 - nakykemcinctu + nakykemcinctu =20 nak-kem-cin-ctuca - nakykemcinctuca + nakykemcinctuca =20 nak-kem-cins-ctu - nakykemcinsyctu + nakykemcinsyctu =20 nak-kem-cins-ctuca - nakykemcinsyctuca + nakykemcinsyctuca =20 nakn-kem-cin-ctu - naknykemcinctu + naknykemcinctu =20 nakn-kem-cin-ctuca - naknykemcinctuca + naknykemcinctuca =20 nakn-kem-cins-ctu - naknykemcinsyctu + naknykemcinsyctu =20 nakn-kem-cins-ctuca - naknykemcinsyctuca + naknykemcinsyctuca gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 - nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 - cinse ctuca (which would be=20 - cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 + nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is pref= erred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better t= o just make a lujvo for=20 + cinse ctuca (which would be=20 + cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is r= arely important. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 - nakni cinctu (=20 + nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 - ke required for grouping need not be expressed.= + ke required for grouping need not be expressed.
The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chine= se, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed= gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: cons= onant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were si= mplified to just the fricative ( tc became=20 c,=20 dj became=20 @@ -2512,22 +2512,22 @@ z j, s gismusource-language weights for See for an example. The gismu form with the highest score usually became the act= ual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafs= i. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders = (for example, the gismu=20 - gismu should have been=20 - gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now). + gismu should have been=20 + gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now). The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as = follows: Chinese0.36 @@ -2573,529 +2573,529 @@ Arabic0.085 gismucoined gismuexceptions to gismu creation by a= lgorithm (English and Hindi switched places due to = demographic changes.) gismuLojban-specific Note that the stressed vow= el of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gi= smu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,=20 =20 - bradi,=20 - bredi,=20 - bridi, and=20 - brodi (but fortunately not=20 - brudi) are all existing gismu. + bradi,=20 + bredi,=20 + bridi, and=20 + brodi (but fortunately not=20 + brudi) are all existing gismu.
Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the letter=20 o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gis= mu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. - broda + broda 1st assignable predicate - brode + brode 2nd assignable predicate - brodi + brodi 3rd assignable predicate - brodo + brodo 4th assignable predicate - brodu + brodu 5th assignable predicate - cmavo - structure word (from cmalu valsi) + cmavo + structure word (from cmalu valsi) - lojbo - Lojbanic (from logji bangu)= + lojbo + Lojbanic (from logji bangu) - lujvo - compound word (from pluja valsi) + lujvo + compound word (from pluja valsi) - mekso + mekso Mathematical EXpression It is important to understand that even though=20 - cmavo,=20 - lojbo, and=20 - lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, t= hey are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gi= smu, both in grammar and in word formation. + cmavo,=20 + lojbo, and=20 + lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, they are = now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gismu, bot= h in grammar and in word formation. The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn fro= m the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for = concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recogniz= ed internationally. Small metric prefixes (values less than 1): - decti + decti .1/deci - centi + centi .01/centi - milti + milti .001/milli - mikri + mikri 10-6/micro - nanvi + nanvi 10-9/nano - picti + picti 10-12/pico - femti + femti 10-15/femto - xatsi + xatsi 10-18/atto - zepti + zepti 10-21/zepto - gocti + gocti 10-24/yocto Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1): - dekto + dekto 10/deka - xecto + xecto 100/hecto - kilto + kilto 1000/kilo - megdo + megdo 106/mega - gigdo + gigdo 109/giga - terto + terto 1012/tera - petso + petso 1015/peta - xexso + xexso 1018/exa - zetro + zetro 1021/zetta - gotro + gotro 1024/yotta gismucultural Other scientific or mathematical = terms: - delno + delno candela - kelvo + kelvo kelvin - molro + molro mole - radno + radno radian - sinso + sinso sine - stero + stero steradian - tanjo + tanjo tangent - xampo + xampo ampere gismufor Lojban source languages gismufor languages The gismu=20 - sinso and=20 - tanjo were only made non-algorithmically becaus= e they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all th= e dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are uni= ts in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were mad= e by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).<= /para> + sinso and=20 + tanjo were only made non-algorithmically because they w= ere identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictio= naries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in th= e international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the= ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese). Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, = but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the = multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words t= hat have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or langua= ges may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from it= s home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, w= hich uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of = usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be= based on the six major languages. The six Lojban source languages: =20 - jungo + jungo Chinese (from Zhong 1 guo 2) - glico + glico English - xindo + xindo Hindi - spano + spano Spanish - rusko + rusko Russian - xrabo + xrabo Arabic gismufor countries Seven other widely spoken la= nguages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't u= sed: - bengo + bengo Bengali - porto + porto Portuguese - baxso + baxso Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia - ponjo + ponjo Japanese (from Nippon) - dotco + dotco German (from Deutsch) - fraso + fraso French (from Fran=C3=A7ais<= /quote>) - xurdo + xurdo Urdu continentsgismu for gismugeographical (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing s= ystems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed voc= abulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights = were assigned for gismu-making purposes.) gismuethnic Countries with a large number of sp= eakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of large is dependent on the specific language): English: - merko + merko American - brito + brito British - skoto + skoto Scottish - sralo + sralo Australian - kadno + kadno Canadian Spanish: - gento + gento Argentinian - mexno + mexno Mexican Russian: - softo + softo Soviet/USSR - vukro + vukro Ukrainian Arabic: - filso + filso Palestinian - jerxo + jerxo Algerian - jordo + jordo Jordanian - libjo + libjo Libyan - lubno + lubno Lebanese - misro + misro Egyptian (from Mizraim)<= /entry> - morko + morko Moroccan - rakso + rakso Iraqi - sadjo + sadjo Saudi - sirxo + sirxo Syrian Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia: - bindo + bindo Indonesian - meljo + meljo Malaysian Portuguese: - brazo + brazo Brazilian Urdu: - kisto + kisto Pakistani gismureligious The continents (and oceanic regi= ons) of the Earth: =20 - bemro - North American (from berti merko) + bemro + North American (from berti merko) - dzipo - Antarctican (from cadzu cipni) + dzipo + Antarctican (from cadzu cipni) - ketco + ketco South American (from Quechu= a) - friko + friko African - polno + polno Polynesian/Oceanic - ropno + ropno European - xazdo + xazdo Asiatic A few smaller but historically important cultures: - latmo + latmo Latin/Roman - srito + srito Sanskrit - xebro + xebro Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish - xelso + xelso Greek (from Hellas)= cultural wordsrafsi fu'ivla proposal for rafsi fu'ivla Major world religions: - budjo + budjo Buddhist - dadjo + dadjo Taoist - muslo + muslo Islamic/Moslem - xriso + xriso Christian fu'ivla= form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal CCVVCV fu'ivlaa= nd rafsi fu'ivla proposal A few terms that cover mu= ltiple groups of the above: - jegvo + jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) - semto + semto Semitic - slovo + slovo Slavic - xispo + xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)
rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controversi= al. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 - zei mechanism was devised instead.) + zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/> tci'ile Chilean @@ -3118,14 +3118,14 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d3"/> tci'ilykemcantutra which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo u= nder this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigne= d to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo= . The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called= =20 - rafsi fu'ivla, since they are distinguished fro= m other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is= workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might becom= e standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals= , foodstuffs, and other things. + rafsi fu'ivla, since they are distinguish= ed from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this propo= sal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might= become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, a= nimals, foodstuffs, and other things. =20
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 6275b38..3698b23 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -114,47 +114,47 @@ quick runnerexample mi sutra bajra I quick run I quickly run./I run quickly. Note that=20 - pelnimre is a lujvo for=20 + pelnimre is a lujvo for=20 lemon; it is derived from the gismu=20 - pelxu, yellow, and=20 - nimre, citrus. Note also that=20 - sutra can mean=20 + pelxu, yellow, and=20 + nimre, citrus. Note also that=20 + sutra can mean=20 fast/quick or=20 quickly depending on its use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d4"/> mi sutra I am-fast/quick shows=20 - sutra used to translate an adjective, whereas i= n=20 + sutra used to translate an adjective, whereas in=20 it is translating an adverb= . (Another correct translation of=20 , however, would be=20 I am a quick runner.) tertau<= secondary>definition of seltaudefinition of There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru,= derived from the place structure of the word=20 - tanru. The first component is called the=20 - seltau, and the second component is called the= =20 - tertau. + tanru. The first component is called the=20 + seltau, and the second component is calle= d the=20 + tertau. tertau<= secondary>effect on meaning of tanru tanruprimary meaning = of The most important rule for use in interpreting = tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A=20 - pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and only se= condarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alte= rnative translation of=20 + pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and o= nly secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, a= n alternative translation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d5"/> That is a lemon type of tree. This=20 type of relationship between the components of a tanru = is fundamental to the tanru concept. modifierseltau as seltaueffect on meaning of tanru We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning o= f the tertau: @@ -217,31 +217,31 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d10"/> do cmalu prenu You are-a-small person. are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between= =20 - barda and=20 - prenu is the same as that between=20 - cmalu and=20 - prenu.=20 + barda and=20 + prenu is the same as that between=20 + cmalu and=20 + prenu.=20 and=20 contain a partial listing = of some types of tanru, with examples. =20
Three-part tanru grouping with=20 - <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> + bo =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section: bo BO closest scope grouping tanru grouping<= /primary>three-part Consider the English= sentence: @@ -275,21 +275,21 @@ a school where girls are the teachers or=20 a school which is a girl (!). Likewise, we understand t= hat=20 little girl means=20 girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 girls' school to be taken as a unit, with=20 little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type = of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or=20 exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the d= istinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented. =20 Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explici= t words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 - bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed = between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojb= an translation of=20 + bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between = the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban trans= lation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4"/> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small girl [] school. @@ -297,34 +297,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d5"/> ta cmalu bo nixli ckule That is-a-small [] girl school. The=20 - bo is represented in the literal translation by= a hyphen because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the sam= e purpose:=20 + bo is represented in the literal translation by a hyphe= n because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpos= e:=20 a big dog-catcher would be quite different from a=20 big-dog catcher (presumably someone who catches only bi= g dogs). tanru nested with= in tanru Analysis of=20 and=20 reveals a tanru nested with= in a tanru. In=20 , the main tanru has a selta= u of=20 - cmalu and a tertau of=20 - nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru wi= th=20 - nixli as the seltau and=20 - ckule as the tertau. In=20 + cmalu and a tertau of=20 + nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a ta= nru with=20 + nixli as the seltau and=20 + ckule as the tertau. In=20 , on the other hand, the sel= tau is=20 - cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the te= rtau is=20 - ckule.=20 + cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas = the tertau is=20 + ckule.=20 This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all th= e more complex types of selbri that will be explained below. What about=20 ? What does it mean? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6"/> ta cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-small girl school. @@ -352,64 +352,64 @@ ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school. Because=20 type-of is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no= Lojban equivalent. Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert=20 - bo into a simple tanru: + bo into a simple tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d9"/> ta klama bo jubme That is-a-goer [] table. is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 , and is ambiguous in exactl= y the same ways. The cmavo=20 - bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: i= t says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru. + bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says n= othing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.
=20
Complex tanru grouping =20 tanru groupingcomplex If one element of a tanru= can be another tanru, why not both elements? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1"/> do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). You are a very large dog-catcher. In=20 , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 - mutce bo barda and tertau=20 - gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once ag= ain that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban = tanru: the sense in which the=20 + mutce bo barda and tertau=20 + gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing o= nce again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other L= ojban tanru: the sense in which the=20 dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 =20 to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g =E2=80=93 it first appeared in Quine's book=20 Word and Object (1960) =E2=80= =93 it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English= =20 pretty; it can mean=20 beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 very. Lojban=20 - melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it mean= s only=20 + melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/> ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of sc= hool. That is a school for girls who are beautifully small. @@ -440,71 +440,71 @@ ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of scho= ol)). That is a small school for girls which is beautiful. bofor right-grouping in tanru tanru groupingwith bo right= -grouping in tanruwith bo right-grouping ruledefinition of=20 uses a construction which h= as not been seen before:=20 - cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive u= ses of=20 - bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 - bo constructions is the opposite of the rule wh= en no=20 - bo is present at all: the last two are grouped = together. Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 + cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecu= tive uses of=20 + bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 + bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 + bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 =20 - bo in the language. Therefore, + bo in the language. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6"/> ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). means the same as=20 , not=20 . This rule may seem peculia= r at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 - bo is never necessary between the first two ele= ments of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 + bo is never necessary between the first two elements of= any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 through=20 could have=20 - bo inserted between=20 - melbi and=20 - cmalu with no change in meaning. + bo inserted between=20 + melbi and=20 + cmalu with no change in meaning.
=20
Complex tanru with=20 - <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> + ke and=20 + ke'e =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ke KE start grouping ke'e KEhE end grouping KEhE selma'o<= /primary> KE= selma'o ke'e ke tanru groupingwith ke = grouping parentheses There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed wi= th the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grou= ping parentheses cmavo,=20 =20 =20 - ke and=20 - ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respecti= vely). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken = to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Th= us,=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). A= ny portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a = single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 can be rewritten in any of = the following ways: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1"/> ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. @@ -520,72 +520,72 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3"/> ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ). Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 - ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a = like number of=20 - ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these = are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However= , the following is equivalent to=20 + ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num= ber of=20 + ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a wa= ste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the fo= llowing is equivalent to=20 and may be easier to unders= tand: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4"/> ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-o= f school. Likewise, a=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e version of=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e version of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5"/> ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).<= /gloss> The final=20 - ke'e is given in square brackets here to indica= te that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 + ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that = it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 =20 - ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 + ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6"/> ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). That is a beautiful school for small girls. is distinctly different i= n meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the=20 - ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-grouping ru= le is applied to=20 - cmalu nixli ckule. + ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-group= ing rule is applied to=20 + cmalu nixli ckule. tanru groupingwith ke and bo=20 It is perfectly all right to mix=20 - bo and=20 - ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For instance,= =20 + bo and=20 + ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For insta= nce,=20 , which in pure=20 - ke ... ke'e form is + ke ... ke'e form is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7"/> ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ). can equivalently be expressed as: @@ -652,21 +652,21 @@ barda xunre bo gerku big type-of (red type-of dog) adjective orderin= g much better. After all, the straightforward underst= anding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other = dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and = redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of En= glish adjective ordering prevent us from saying=20 =20 red big dog. je<= /indexterm> logical connecti= vesin tanru The Lojban approac= h to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 - je, which is one of the many equivalents of Eng= lish=20 + je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3"/> barda je xunre gerku (big and red) type-of dog @@ -675,24 +675,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4"/> xunre je barda gerku (red and big) type-of dog logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on tanru grouping is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples i= ndicate, joining two brivla with=20 - je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. Howeve= r, explicit grouping with=20 - bo or=20 - ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closely than= =20 - je does: + je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, expli= cit grouping with=20 + bo or=20 + ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closel= y than=20 + je does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5"/> barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog big yellowish-red dog @@ -705,39 +705,39 @@ barda je pelxu xunre gerku ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog biggish- and yellowish-red dog which again raises the question of=20 : what does=20 biggish-red mean? logical connectiv= es in tanruusefulness of Unlik= e=20 - bo and=20 - ke ... ke'e,=20 - je is useful as well as merely legal within sim= ple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:<= /para> + bo and=20 + ke ... ke'e,=20 + je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanr= u. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7"/> ta blanu je zdani that is-blue and is-a-house definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 - blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 - blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 - blanu je zdani has no such implication =E2=80= =93 the blueness of a=20 - blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= + blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 + blanu zdani refers to something which is = blue in the way that houses are blue;=20 + blanu je zdani has no such implication = =E2=80=93 the blueness of a=20 + blanu je zdani is independent of its hous= eness. With the addition of=20 - je, many more versions of=20 + je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 =20 for a complete lis= t. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8"/> @@ -776,21 +776,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12"/> That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 for further details. JA selma'o The logical connective=20 - je is only one of the fourteen logical connecti= ves that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: + je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/> le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). @@ -818,55 +818,55 @@ vajni ju pluka nuntavla (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing In=20 ,=20 - ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 - je but means=20 + ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 + je but means=20 or (more precisely,=20 and/or). Likewise,=20 - naja means=20 + naja means=20 only if in=20 ,=20 - jo means=20 + jo means=20 if and only if in=20 , and=20 - ju means=20 + ju means=20 whether or not in=20 . multiple logical = connectiveswithin tanru Now co= nsider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17"/> ricfu je blanu jabo crino rich and (blue or green) jabo tanru grouping= with JA+BOeffect on tanru grouping which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 - ja and=20 - bo between tanru components. The two cmavo comb= ine to form a compound whose meaning is that of=20 - ja but which groups more closely;=20 - jabo is to=20 + ja and=20 + bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to f= orm a compound whose meaning is that of=20 + ja but which groups more closely;=20 + jabo is to=20 =20 - ja as plain=20 - bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 - ja and=20 - jabo group less closely than= =20 + ja as plain=20 + bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 + ja and=20 + jabo group less closel= y than=20 =20 - bo does: + bo does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18"/> ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu rich and (blue or green - blue) rich and (blue or greenish-blue) @@ -875,21 +875,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19"/> ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] rich and (blue or green) non-logical conne= ctiveswithin tanru In addition= to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connec= tives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a we= ll-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 - joi, which is the kind of=20 + joi, which is the kind of=20 and that denotes a mixture: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20"/> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue and red) ball. =20 @@ -899,80 +899,80 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21"/> ti blanu xunre bolci This is a bluish-red ball which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 - xunre is the more important of the two componen= ts. On the other hand, + xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22"/> ti blanu je xunre bolci This is a (blue and red) ball =20 is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. =20 gi<= /indexterm> gu'e forethought l= ogical connectiveswithin tanru= Finally, just as English=20 and has the variant form=20 both ... and, so=20 - je between tanru components has the variant for= m=20 - gu'e ... gi, where=20 - gu'e is placed before the components and=20 - gi between them: + je between tanru components has the variant form=20 + gu'e ... gi, where=20 + gu'e is placed before the components and=20 + gi between them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23"/> gu'e barda gi xunre gerku (both big and red) type-of dog is equivalent in meaning to=20 . For each logical connectiv= e related to=20 - je, there is a corresponding connective related= to=20 - gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. + je, there is a corresponding connective related to=20 + gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. forethought logic= al connectives in tanrueffect on tanru grouping The portion of a=20 - gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 - gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the sel= bri resources including=20 - je logical connections. After the=20 - gi, logical connections are taken to be wider i= n scope than the=20 - gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same scope= as=20 - bo: + gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 + gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri reso= urces including=20 + je logical connections. After the=20 + gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 + gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same= scope as=20 + bo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24"/> gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu (both (big and red) and dog) or cat something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat leaves=20 - mlatu outside the=20 - gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of the=20 - gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to tw= o or more brivla connected with=20 - bo or=20 - ke ... ke'e. + mlatu outside the=20 + gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of th= e=20 + gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or mor= e brivla connected with=20 + bo or=20 + ke ... ke'e.
=20
- Linked sumti: <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">be-bei-be'o</jbophr= ase> + Linked sumti: <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">be-bei-be'o</old= jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: be BE linked sumti marker =20 bei @@ -983,81 +983,81 @@ be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator =20 The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 . One grammatical structure rel= ated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 , the place structure of the se= lbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu - mamta. What about more complex selbri? + mamta. What about more complex selbri? tanruplace structures of For tanru, the place s= tructure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place= structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of=20 - blanu zdani is that of=20 - zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the= x2 place is its occupants. + blanu zdani is that of=20 + zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 - blanu? Is there any way to get them into the ac= t? In fact,=20 - blanu has only one place, and this is merged, a= s it were, with the x1 place of=20 - zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that i= s being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 - blanu with=20 - xamgu, we get: + blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 + blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 + zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 + blanu with=20 + xamgu, we get: FIXME: TAG SPOT <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>good house</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/> ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. =20 This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. Since=20 - xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2,= the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 + xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 necessarily omits informati= on about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however= ! <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2"/> ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. This is a house that is good for you by my standards. BEhO selma'o<= /primary> be= 'o BEI selma'o bei BE selma'o be linked sumtiin tanru seltaufilling sumti places in Here, the gismu=20 - xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 - be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or m= ore sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place stru= cture, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting wit= h x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 - bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is = terminated by the elidable terminator=20 - be'o (of selma'o BEhO). + xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 + be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 + bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 + be'o (of selma'o BEhO). linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in:= <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/> ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o nixli be li mu be= i lo merko be'o bo ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci le mela nu,IORK. prenu le je= cta This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some = American-thing) school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems for-audience New-Yor= k persons with-operator the state. This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical scho= ol, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,= teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state. Here the three places of=20 - cmalu, the three of=20 - nixli, and the four of=20 - ckule are fully specified. Since the places of= =20 - ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, i= t was not necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 - ckule. It would have been legal to do so, howev= er: + cmalu, the three of=20 + nixli, and the four of=20 + ckule are fully specified. Since the places of=20 + ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was no= t necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 + ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4"/> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] I go (to-the market from-the house). means the same as @@ -1075,48 +1075,48 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/> melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) a school for girls which is both beautiful and small is simply that of=20 - ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is disc= ussed in=20 + ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 .) FA selma'o FA tags = and linked sumti linked sumti and FA tags It is possible to= precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags=20 =20 - fe,=20 - fi,=20 - fo, and=20 - fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 + fe,=20 + fi,=20 + fo, and=20 + fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly specify the= x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the= =20 - be is the x2 place and the other places follow = in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be ac= complished as follows: + be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7"/> ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. which is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Note that the order of=20 - be,=20 - bei, and=20 - be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 - fi tells us that=20 - mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the in= serted=20 - fe tells us that=20 - do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumt= i is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or = rhythm. + be,=20 + bei, and=20 + be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 + fi tells us that=20 + mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted= =20 + fe tells us that=20 + do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8"/> ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. This is a good house by my standards. =20 @@ -1143,23 +1143,23 @@ ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. That is a blue house, as I see it. See discussions in=20 of modals and in=20 of tenses for more explanations. be'oeffect of relative clauses on elidability of relative clauses= effect on elidability of be'o be'oelidability o= f el= idability of be'o The terminator=20 - be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the= selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will = attach to the last linked sumti unless=20 + be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 =20 - be'o is used, in which case it will attach to t= he outer description: + be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11"/> le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house. @@ -1167,56 +1167,56 @@ le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house (Relative clauses are explained in=20 .) be'oeffect of ku on elidability of kueffect on elidabi= lity of be'o In other cases, however,=20 - be'o cannot be elided if=20 - ku has also been elided: + be'o cannot be elided if=20 + ku has also been elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13"/> le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani the good (for the teacher) house requires either=20 - ku or=20 - be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of= =20 - be, the=20 - be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing= which occurrence of=20 - le the=20 - ku terminates (in fact the second one is correc= t). + ku or=20 + be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 + be, the=20 + be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which o= ccurrence of=20 + le the=20 + ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct).
=20
Inversion of tanru:=20 - <jbophrase>co</jbophrase> + co The following cmavo is discussed in this section: co CO tanru inversion marker =20 co<= /indexterm> tanru inversion<= /primary> The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modif= ier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk= of=20 blue houses, not of=20 houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 - co.=20 + co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the same thing= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1"/> ta blanu zdani That is-a-blue type-of-house. That is a blue house. @@ -1228,31 +1228,31 @@ ta zdani co blanu That is-a-house of-type blue. That is a blue house. seltau<= secondary>definition tertaudefinition tanru inversiondefinition This change is called=20 tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 =20 - co (=20 - zdani in=20 + co (=20 + zdani in=20 ) is the tertau, and the ele= ment following=20 - co (=20 - blanu) in=20 + co (=20 + blanu) in=20 ) is the seltau. place structure a= nd tanru inversion tanru inversion and place structure The = meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affe= cted by inversion: the place structure of=20 - zdani co blanu is still that of=20 - zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a= selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. In= stead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually f= ill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 + zdani co blanu is still that of=20 + zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 , we saw how to fill interior plac= es with=20 - be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 + be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 and=20 have the same meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3"/> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. I try to go to the market from the house. @@ -1268,74 +1268,74 @@ mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. =20 is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand. Note that in Lojban=20 trying to go is expressed using=20 - troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 + troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 trying to go is a=20 going type of trying, not a=20 trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going =E2=80=93 if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.= inverted tanrueffect on sumti after the selbri = inverted tanrueffect on sumti before the selbri unfilled places of inverted tanru Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru f= ill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordina= ry way. In=20 =20 ,=20 - mi fills the x1 place of=20 - troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 - troci. The other places of the selbri remain un= filled. The trailing sumti=20 - le zarci and=20 - le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite a= ppearances. + mi fills the x1 place of=20 + troci co klama, which is the x1 place of= =20 + troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 + le zarci and=20 + le zdani do not occupy selbri places, des= pite appearances. As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 ) for referring to individu= al sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 , because they are not reall= y=20 sumti of the bridi at all. tanru inversionwhere allowed tanru inversionin compl= ex tanru When inverting a more complex tanru, it is= possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The= only possible inversion of=20 , for instance, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5"/> ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. That's a girls' school which is small. tanru groupingeffect of tanru inversion on tanru inversioneffect on tanru grouping=20 Note that the=20 - bo of=20 + bo of=20 is optional in=20 , because=20 - co groups more loosely than any other cmavo use= d in tanru, including none at all. Not even=20 - ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a=20 - co: + co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 + ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a= =20 + co: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6"/> ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. That's a small school for girls which is beautiful. tanru inversionrule for removing In=20 , the=20 - ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 - co rather than at its usual place at the end of= the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removin= g=20 - co from any selbri: change=20 - A co B to=20 - ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti follo= wing the selbri must be transformed into=20 - be ... bei ... be'o form and attached following= B.) Therefore, + ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 + co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 + co from any selbri: change=20 + A co B to=20 + ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti= following the selbri must be transformed into=20 + be ... bei ... be'o form and attached fol= lowing B.) Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7"/> ckule co melbi nixli school of-type pretty girl school for beautiful girls @@ -1343,24 +1343,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8"/> ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule (pretty girl) school multiple tanru in= versioneffect on grouping tanru inversionmultiple Multiple=20 - co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating= multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 + co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multipl= e inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 =20 - bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret = such selbri, but all=20 - co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: + bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 + co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9"/> ckule co nixli co cmalu school of-type (girl of-type little) becomes formally @@ -1389,22 +1389,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12"/> mi klama co sutra I am-a-goer of-type quick I go quickly cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 - sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (= which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 - be: + sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 + be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13"/> mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. I go to the store quickly. @@ -1451,21 +1451,21 @@ kei KEI terminator for NU equivalents to br= ivla b= rivla equivalents So far we have only discussed brivl= a and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a f= ew other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to briv= la: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. = Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in=20 ,=20 , and=20 ; but for completeness these types ar= e mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in se= lbri. GOhA selma'o<= /primary> tanru<= /primary>with GOhA selbriwith GOhA<= /indexterm> GOhA selma'oas component in tanru GOhA selma'oas selb= ri The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) s= erve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; non= e of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is pro= bably=20 - go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the prev= ious bridi, or part of it. If I say: + go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1"/> la djan. klama le zarci John goes-to the market. go'i you may retort: @@ -1485,32 +1485,32 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3"/> la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier. because the whole bridi of=20 has been packaged up into t= he single word=20 - go'i and inserted into=20 + go'i and inserted into=20 . duas an exception within GOhA selma'o The excep= tional member of GOhA is=20 - du, which represents the relation of identity. = Its place structure is: + du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 . su'i nu'a tanrucontaining mathematical expressions = mathematical expressions in = tanru Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be = incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such= as=20 =20 - su'i, meaning=20 + su'i, meaning=20 plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 - nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place str= ucture is: + nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure i= s: x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to argume= nts x2, x3, etc. for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4"/> li vo nu'a su'i li re li re The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. @@ -1550,21 +1550,21 @@ la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. Anyi and Asun are two brothers. =20 =20 KEI selma'o NU = selma'o Preem Palverexample Finall= y, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstract= ion. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followe= d by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator=20 - kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions = are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramificat= ions are documented in=20 + kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 . A few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8"/> ti nu zdile kei kumfa This is-an-event-of amusement room. This is an amusement room. @@ -1578,37 +1578,37 @@ ti zdile kumfa This is-an-amuser room. which suggests the meaning=20 a room that amuses someone.
=20
- selbri based on sumti: <jbophrase>me</jbophrase> + selbri based on sumti: <valsi>me</valsi> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: me ME changes sumti to simple selbri me'u MEhU - terminator for me + terminator for me MEhU selma'o<= /primary> me= 'u ME selma'o me meplace structure of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">conversion of sumti into selbr= i sumt= i into selbri <= primary>selbri from sumti A sumti can be made into a = simple selbri by preceding it with=20 - me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the el= idable terminator=20 - me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri wit= h the place structure + me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable t= erminator=20 + me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pl= ace structure x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti] which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1"/> le ci nolraitru the three noblest-governors @@ -1642,22 +1642,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4"/> la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru Melchior is one of the three kings. ducompared with me in effect mecompared with du in e= ffect me/du equivalence If the sumti refers to a single o= bject, then the effect of=20 - me is much like that of=20 - du: + me is much like that of=20 + du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5"/> do du la djan. You are-identical-with the-one-called John.<= /gloss> You are John. @@ -1667,48 +1667,48 @@ do me la djan. You are-the-referent-of=20 the-one-called John. You are John. meused with names It is common to use=20 - me selbri, especially those based on name sumti= using=20 - la, as seltau. For example: + me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 + la, as seltau. For example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chrysler</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7"/> ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called Chrysler) car. =20 That is a Chrysler car. =20 logical connect= ivesrelative precedence with me'u me'urelative precedence with logical connectives elidability of me'u The elidable terminator=20 - me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely r= equired only if the=20 - me selbri is being used in an indefinite descri= ption (a type of sumti explained in=20 + me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 + me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 =20 =20 ), and if the indef= inite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 =20 =20 ) or a sumti logical conne= ctive (explained in=20 ). Without a=20 - me'u, the relative clause or logical connective= would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 - me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of se= ntences: + me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 + me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8"/> re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi Two of the group=20 the three kings and John are white. @@ -1716,56 +1716,56 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d9"/> re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi Two of the three kings, and John, are white. In=20 the=20 - me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and= the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white= : we cannot say which two. In=20 + me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the ind= efinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we can= not say which two. In=20 =20 =20 , though, the=20 - me selbri covers only the three kings: two of t= hem are said to be white, and so is John. + me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are = said to be white, and so is John. Finally, here is another example requiring=20 - me'u: + me'u: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d10"/> ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book. That is the kind of book you were talking about. There are other sentences where either=20 - me'u or some other elidable terminator must be = expressed: + me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expresse= d: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d11"/> le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating the Three Kings celebration =20 requires either=20 - ku or=20 - me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 - be'o in=20 + ku or=20 + me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 + be'o in=20 ) the=20 - me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired w= ith. + me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.
=20
Conversion of simple selbri xe<= /indexterm> ve= te se SE selma'= o plac= e structurere-ordering by conversion conversion<= secondary>definition tanru and conversion conversion and tanru = Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in= a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cma= vo of FA, as mentioned in=20 , and then rearranging the order i= n which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri i= nto a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1"/> @@ -1795,160 +1795,160 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/> la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. Alice walks to the market. To convert this sentence so that=20 - le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is= : + le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct = way is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4"/> le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice. kefor conversion of tanru conversion with `ke' The=20 - ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to = be converted by the=20 - se, which would otherwise convert only=20 - cadzu, leading to: + ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tan= ru to be converted by the=20 + se, which would otherwise convert only=20 + cadzu, leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5"/> le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice. whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 - cadzu klama is that of=20 - klama alone, is to convert only the latter: + cadzu klama is that of=20 + klama alone, is to convert only the latter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6"/> le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice. But the tanru in=20 may or may not have the sam= e meaning as that in=20 ; in particular, because=20 - cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion t= hat although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different = sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sens= e: + cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that alth= ough Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as= x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7"/> la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. tense conversion<= /primary>with jai jaifor modal conversion There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cm= avo=20 - jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a mod= al or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly= like conversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 + jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 .
=20
Scalar negation of selbri NAhE selma'o<= /primary> selbri= scalar negation of scalar negationeff= ect on selbri Negation is too large and complex a t= opic to explain fully in this chapter; see=20 . In brief, there are two main typ= es of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1"/> la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. kefor expanding scope of scalar negation meanin= g that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of w= alking there. But if the=20 - ke were omitted, the result would be: + ke were omitted, the result would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2"/> la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 - klama is not negated), but by a means other tha= n that of walking.=20 + klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 negates both=20 - cadzu and=20 - klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the = market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking wit= hout going, or going without walking, or neither. + cadzu and=20 + klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 may be used in place of brivl= a in any of these examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3"/> la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku Jones is non-1st speaker Jones is not the first speaker. Since only=20 - pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is t= hat he is some other kind of speaker. + pamoi is negated, an appropriate inferenc= e is that he is some other kind of speaker. negationcomplex examples complex negationexamples Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing = the interaction of scalar negation with=20 - bo grouping,=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti li= nked with=20 - be and=20 - bei: + bo grouping,=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 + be and=20 + bei: na'econtrasted with na'e ke FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4"/> mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.<= /en> In=20 ,=20 - na'e negates only=20 - sutra. Contrast=20 + na'e negates only=20 + sutra. Contrast=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5"/> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.<= /en> Now consider=20 and=20 , which are equivalent in me= aning, but use=20 - ke grouping and=20 - bo grouping respectively: + ke grouping and=20 + bo grouping respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6"/> mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci I (quickly =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. @@ -1956,21 +1956,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7"/> mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. However, if we place a=20 - na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 + na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 and=20 , we get different results:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8"/> mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quic= kly, and also slowly. @@ -1980,88 +1980,88 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d9"/> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my a= rms, and also slowly. The difference arises because the=20 - na'e in=20 + na'e in=20 negates the whole construct= ion from=20 - ke to=20 - ke'e, whereas in=20 + ke to=20 + ke'e, whereas in=20 it negates=20 - sutra alone. + sutra alone. perils of omittin= g terminators <= primary>omitting terminatorsperils of Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the ex= plicit=20 =20 - ke'e is left out in=20 + ke'e is left out in=20 , it is transformed into: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10"/> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking using my arms and slowly going to the market. And if both=20 - ke'e and=20 - be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier:= + ke'e and=20 + be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11"/> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, bot= h arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. In=20 , everything after=20 - be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is= that of=20 + be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 =20 - cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upo= n. It is less than clear what an=20 + cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 =20 - le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 - cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though g= rammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where = a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) + le zarci following the selbri falls into = the nonexistent x4 place of=20 + cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) na'ebefore gu'e Finally, it is also possible to= place=20 - na'e before a=20 - gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru construct= ion. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established. + na'e before a=20 + gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru con= struction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.
=20
Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1"/> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market. the cmavo=20 - pu specifies that the action of the speaker goi= ng to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full deta= il in=20 + pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are alternative ways= of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in=20 , behave in the same way as ten= ses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 - na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of= the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false wi= thout saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with th= e scalar negation of=20 + na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 . For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2"/> la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. @@ -2077,34 +2077,34 @@ mi na pu klama le zarci mi pu na klama le zarci It is false that I went to the market. I didn't go to the market. na<= /indexterm> bridi negationmultiple It is also possible to = have more than one=20 - na, in which case pairs of=20 - na cmavo cancel out: + na, in which case pairs of=20 + na cmavo cancel out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4"/> mi na na klama le zarci It is false that it is false that I go to the market. I go to the market. tense and namultiple na and tensemultiple<= /indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multipl= e=20 - na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subjec= t to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a c= ompound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 + na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 =20 =20 =20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5"/> mi na pu na ca klama le zarci @@ -2202,1540 +2202,1540 @@ Turkish Udm Udmurt Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. asymmetrical tanr= udefinition The tanru discusse= d in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order = of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,=20 =20 - junla dadysli, or=20 + junla dadysli, or=20 clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 - dadysli junla, or=20 + dadysli junla, or=20 pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 . asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-action + action The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the obje= ct of that action: - pinsi nunkilbra + pinsi nunkilbra pencil sharpener Hun - zgike nunctu + zgike nunctu music instruction Hun - mirli nunkalte + mirli nunkalte deer hunting Hun - finpe nunkalte + finpe nunkalte fish hunting Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba fishing - smacu terkavbu + smacu terkavbu mousetrap Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - zdani turni + zdani turni house ruler Kar host - zerle'a nunte'a + zerle'a nunte'a thief fear Skt fear of thieves - cevni zekri + cevni zekri god crime Skt offense against the gods - nunkilbra + nunkilbra sharpness-apparatus - nunctu + nunctu event-of-teaching - nunkalte + nunkalte event-of-hunting - terkavbu + terkavbu trap - zerle'a + zerle'a crime-taker - nunte'a + nunte'a event-of-fearing asymmetrical tanr= u typeselements-in-set + set T= he tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contain= ed in that set: - zdani lijgri + zdani lijgri house row - selci lamgri + selci lamgri cell block - karda mulgri + karda mulgri card pack Swe - rokci derxi + rokci derxi stone heap Swe - tadni girzu + tadni girzu student group Hun - remna girzu + remna girzu human-being group Qab =3D group of people - cpumi'i lijgri + cpumi'i lijgri tractor column Qab - cevni jenmi + cevni jenmi god army Skt - cevni prenu + cevni prenu god folk Skt - lijgri + lijgri line-group - lamgri + lamgri adjacent-group - mulgri + mulgri complete-group - cpumi'i + cpumi'i pull-machine asymmetrical tanr= u typesset + element-of-set Co= nversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in whic= h that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restr= icted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate fo= r elements in the given set. Note the opposition between=20 - zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 - linji zdani in this one, which shows why this k= ind of tanru is called=20 + zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 + linji zdani in this one, which shows why = this kind of tanru is called=20 asymmetrical. - carvi dirgo + carvi dirgo raindrop Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - linji zdani + linji zdani row house asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + component/detail The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of t= hat object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it i= s a detail of that whole and not some other. - junla dadysli + junla dadysli clock pendulum Hun - purdi vorme + purdi vorme garden door Qab - purdi bitmu + purdi bitmu garden wall Que - moklu skapi + moklu skapi mouth skin Imb =3D lips - nazbi kevna + nazbi kevna nose hole Imb =3D nostril - karce xislu + karce xislu automobile wheel Chi - jipci pimlu + jipci pimlu chicken feather Chi - vinji rebla + vinji rebla airplane tail Chi - dadysli + dadysli hang-oscillator asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic/detail + object Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important deta= il of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as= a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail. - pixra cukta + pixra cukta picture book - kerfa silka + kerfa silka hair silk Kar =3D velvet - plise tapla + plise tapla apple cake Tur - dadysli junla + dadysli junla pendulum clock Hun - dadysli + dadysli hang-oscillator asymmetrical tanr= u typesgeneral-class + sub-class The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau= specifies a sub-class of that class (a species): - ckunu tricu + ckunu tricu pine tree Hun,Tur,Hop asymmetrical tanr= u typespossessor + object The = tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the po= ssessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these c= ompounds have an explicit possessive element in them:=20 lion's mane,=20 child's foot,=20 noble's cow. - cinfo kerfa + cinfo kerfa lion mane Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab - verba jamfu + verba jamfu child foot Swe - nixli tuple + nixli tuple girl leg Swe - cinfo jamfu + cinfo jamfu lion foot Que - danlu skapi + danlu skapi animal skin Ewe - ralju zdani + ralju zdani chief house Ewe - jmive munje + jmive munje living world Skt - nobli bakni + nobli bakni noble cow Skt - nolraitru ralju + nolraitru ralju king chief Skt =3D emperor - nolraitru + nolraitru nobly-superlative-ruler asymmetrical tanr= u typesinhabitant + habitat Th= e tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant: - lanzu tumla + lanzu tumla family land asymmetrical tanr= u typeseffect + causative agent The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effe= ct of that cause: - kalselvi'i gapci + kalselvi'i gapci tear gas Hun - terbi'a jurme + terbi'a jurme disease germ Tur - fenki litki + fenki litki crazy liquid Hop =3D whisky - pinca litki + pinca litki urine liquid Hop =3D beer - kalselvi'i + kalselvi'i eye-excreted-thing - terbi'a + terbi'a disease asymmetrical tanr= u typescause + effect Converse= ly: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause. - djacu barna + djacu barna water mark Chi asymmetrical tanr= u typespurpose-of-instrument + instrument<= /indexterm> The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies th= e purpose of that instrument: - taxfu dadgreku + taxfu dadgreku garment rack Chi - tergu'i ti'otci + tergu'i ti'otci lamp shade Chi - xirma zdani + xirma zdani horse house Chi =3D stall - nuzba tanbo + nuzba tanbo news board Chi =3D bulletin board - dadgreku + dadgreku hang-frame - tergu'i + tergu'i source of illumination - ti'otci + ti'otci shadow-tool asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and= the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument i= s used: - cpina rokci + cpina rokci pepper stone Que =3D stone for grinding pepper - jamfu djacu + jamfu djacu foot water Skt =3D water for washing the feet - grana mudri + grana mudri post wood Skt =3D wood for making a post - moklu djacu + moklu djacu mouth water Hun =3D water for washing the mouth - lanme gerku + lanme gerku sheep dog dog for working sheep asymmetrical tanr= u typessource + product The te= rtau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the sou= rce of the product: - moklu djacu + moklu djacu mouth water Aba,Qab =3D saliva - ractu mapku + ractu mapku rabbit hat Rus - jipci sovda + jipci sovda chicken egg Chi - sikcurnu silka + sikcurnu silka silkworm silk Chi - mlatu kalci + mlatu kalci cat feces Chi - bifce lakse + bifce lakse bee wax Chi =3D beeswax - cribe rectu + cribe rectu bear meat Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - solxrula grasu + solxrula grasu sunflower oil Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - bifce jisra + bifce jisra bee juice Hop =3D honey - tatru litki + tatru litki breast liquid Hop =3D milk - kanla djacu + kanla djacu eye water Kor =3D tear - sikcurnu + sikcurnu silk-worm - solxrula + solxrula solar-flower asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + source Conver= sely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifie= s the product: - silna jinto + silna jinto salt well Chi - kolme terkakpa + kolme terkakpa coal mine Chi - ctile jinto + ctile jinto oil well Chi - terkakpa + terkakpa source of digging asymmetrical tanr= u typessource-material + object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material fro= m which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because th= e referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of materia= l, which is then overridden in the tanru. - rokci cinfo + rokci cinfo stone lion - snime nanmu + snime nanmu snow man Hun - kliti cipni + kliti cipni clay bird - blaci kanla + blaci kanla glass eye Hun - blaci kanla + blaci kanla glass eye Que =3D spectacles - solji sicni + solji sicni gold coin Tur - solji junla + solji junla gold watch Tur,Kor,Hun - solji djine + solji djine gold ring Udm,Aba,Que - rokci zdani + rokci zdani stone house Imb - mudri zdani + mudri zdani wood house Ewe =3D wooden house - rokci bitmu + rokci bitmu stone wall Ewe - solji carce + solji carce gold chariot Skt - mudri xarci + mudri xarci wood weapon Skt =3D wooden weapon - cmaro'i dargu + cmaro'i dargu pebble road Chi - sudysrasu cutci + sudysrasu cutci straw shoe Chi - cmaro'i + cmaro'i small-rock - sudysrasu + sudysrasu dry-grass Note: the two senses of=20 - blaci kanla can be discriminated as: + blaci kanla can be discriminated as: - blaci kanla bo tarmi + blaci kanla bo tarmi glass (eye shape) glass eye - blaci kanla bo sidju + blaci kanla bo sidju glass (eye helper) spectacles asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-measured + standard-object The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity= and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers t= o a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compo= unds of this form, as a rule. - tumla spisa + tumla spisa land piece Tur =3D piece of land - tcati kabri + tcati kabri tea cup Kor,Aba =3D cup of tea - nanba spisa + nanba spisa bread piece Kor =3D piece of bread - bukpu spisa + bukpu spisa cloth piece Udm,Aba =3D piece of cloth - djacu calkyguzme + djacu calkyguzme water calabash Ewe =3D calabash of water - calkyguzme + calkyguzme shell-fruit, calabash asymmetrical tanr= u typesoverriding-property + object-with-implicit-prop= erties The tertau specifies an object with certain = implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit propert= ies: - kensa bloti + kensa bloti spaceship - bakni verba + bakni verba cattle child Ewe =3D calf asymmetrical tanr= u typeswhole + part The seltau= specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is assoc= iated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau= which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau st= ands to its typical whole. - kosta degji + kosta degji coat finger Hun =3D coat sleeve - denci genja + denci genja tooth root Imb - tricu stedu + tricu stedu tree head Imb =3D treetop asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + producer The = tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifie= s the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referent= s from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product. - silka curnu + silka curnu silkworm Tur,Hun,Aba asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-giving-characteristic + other-object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifi= es another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole= refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property. - sonci manti + sonci manti soldier ant - ninmu bakni + ninmu bakni woman cattle Imb =3D cow - mamta degji + mamta degji mother finger Imb =3D thumb - cifnu degji + cifnu degji baby finger Imb =3D pinky - pacraistu zdani + pacraistu zdani hell house Skt - fagri dapma + fagri dapma fire curse Skt =3D curse destructive as fire - pacraistu + pacraistu evil-superlative-site asymmetrical tanr= u typessimilar-appearance-object + object<= /indexterm> As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance)= : the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.= - grutrceraso jbama + grutrceraso jbama cherry bomb - solji kerfa + solji kerfa gold hair Hun =3D golden hair - kanla djacu + kanla djacu eye water Kar =3D spring - bakni rokci + bakni rokci bull stone Mon =3D boulder - grutrceraso + grutrceraso fu'ivla for cherry based on Linnean= name asymmetrical tanr= u typestypical-place + object = The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically l= ocated in or at that place. - ckana boxfo + ckana boxfo bed sheet Chi - mrostu mojysu'a + mrostu mojysu'a tomb monument Chi =3D tombstone - jubme tergusni + jubme tergusni table lamp Chi - foldi smacu + foldi smacu field mouse Chi - briju ci'ajbu + briju ci'ajbu office desk Chi - rirxe xirma + rirxe xirma river horse Chi =3D hippopotamus - xamsi gerku + xamsi gerku sea dog Chi =3D seal - cagyce'u zdani + cagyce'u zdani village house Skt - mrostu + mrostu dead-site - mojysu'a + mojysu'a remember-structure - ci'ajbu + ci'ajbu write-table - cagyce'u + cagyce'u farm-community asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + place-sold Spe= cifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available= to the public. - cidja barja + cidja barja food bar Chi =3D restaurant - cukta barja + cukta barja book bar Chi =3D library asymmetrical tanr= u typeslocus-of-application + object The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau. - kanla velmikce + kanla velmikce eye medicine Chi - jgalu grasu + jgalu grasu nail oil Chi =3D nail polish - denci pesxu + denci pesxu tooth paste Chi - velmikce + velmikce treatment used by doctor asymmetrical tanr= u typesactivity + implement-used The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the se= ltau. - me la pinpan. bolci + me la pinpan. bolci Ping-Pong ball Chi asymmetrical tanr= u typesundesired-object + protection-object The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesira= ble features of the referent of the seltau. - carvi mapku + carvi mapku rain cap Chi - carvi taxfu + carvi taxfu rain garment Chi =3D raincoat - vindu firgai + vindu firgai poison mask Chi =3D gas mask - firgai + firgai face-cover asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + usual-container The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the refe= rent of the seltau. - cukta vasru + cukta vasru book vessel Chi =3D satchel - vanju kabri + vanju kabri wine cup Chi - spatrkoka lanka + spatrkoka lanka coca basket Que - rismi dakli + rismi dakli rice bag Ewe,Chi - tcati kabri + tcati kabri tea cup Chi - ladru botpi + ladru botpi milk bottle Chi - rismi patxu + rismi patxu rice pot Chi - festi lante + festi lante trash can Chi - bifce zdani + bifce zdani bee house Kor =3D beehive - cladakyxa'i zdani + cladakyxa'i zdani sword house Kor =3D sheath - manti zdani + manti zdani ant nest Gua =3D anthill - spatrkoka + spatrkoka fu'ivla for coca - cladakyxa'i + cladakyxa'i (long-knife)-weapon asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic-time + event The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by= the tertau. - vensa djedi + vensa djedi spring day Chi - crisa citsi + crisa citsi summer season Chi - cerni bumru + cerni bumru morning fog Chi - critu lunra + critu lunra autumn moon Chi - dunra nicte + dunra nicte winter night Chi - nicte ckule + nicte ckule night school Chi asymmetrical tanr= u typesenergy-source + powered= The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau. - dikca tergusni + dikca tergusni electric lamp Chi - ratni nejni + ratni nejni atom energy Chi - brife molki + brife molki windmill Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - tergusni + tergusni illumination-source asymmetrical tanr= u typesmiscellaneous Finally, = some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories. - ladru denci + ladru denci milk tooth Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab - kanla denci + kanla denci eye tooth It is clear that=20 tooth is being specified, and that=20 milk and=20 eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 - ladru and=20 - denci is something like=20 + ladru and=20 + denci is something like=20 tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 - kanla denci, the relationship is not only not p= resent on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all. + kanla denci, the relationship is not only= not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.<= /para>
Some types of symmetrical tanru =20 symmetrical tanru= This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where ord= er is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or= non-logical connective between the components. =20 symmetrical tanru= typesboth separately true The= tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru comp= onents. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru wher= e the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 =20 - je is appropriate: + je is appropriate: - cipnrstrigi pacru'i + cipnrstrigi pacru'i owl demon Skt - nolraitru prije + nolraitru prije royal sage Skt - remna nakni + remna nakni human-being male Qab =3D man - remna fetsi + remna fetsi human-being female Qab =3D woman - sonci tolvri + sonci tolvri soldier coward Que - panzi nanmu + panzi nanmu offspring man Ewe =3D son - panzi ninmu + panzi ninmu offspring woman Ewe =3D daughter - solji sicni + solji sicni gold coin Tur - solji junla + solji junla gold watch Tur,Kor,Hun - solji djine + solji djine gold ring Udm,Aba,Que - rokci zdani + rokci zdani stone house Imb - mudri zdani + mudri zdani wooden house Ewe - rokci bitmu + rokci bitmu stone wall Ewe - solji carce + solji carce gold chariot Skt - mudri xarci + mudri xarci wooden weapon Skt - zdani tcadu + zdani tcadu home town Chi - cipnrstrigi + cipnrstrigi fu'ivla for owl based on Linnean na= me - pacru'i + pacru'i evil-spirit - tolvri + tolvri opposite-of-brave symmetrical tanru= typesone or other true The ta= nru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru comp= onents. The connective=20 - ja is appropriate: + ja is appropriate: - nunji'a nunterji'a + nunji'a nunterji'a victory defeat Skt =3D victory or defeat - donri nicte + donri nicte day night Skt =3D day and night - lunra tarci + lunra tarci moon stars Skt =3D moon and stars - patfu mamta + patfu mamta father mother Imb,Kaz,Chi =3D parents - tuple birka + tuple birka leg arm Kaz =3D extremity - nuncti nunpinxe + nuncti nunpinxe eating drinking Udm =3D cuisine - bersa tixnu + bersa tixnu son daughter Chi =3D children - nunji'a + nunji'a event-of-winning - nunterji'a + nunterji'a event-of-losing - nuncti + nuncti event-of-eating - nunpinxe + nunpinxe event-of-drinking symmetrical tanru= typesusing more inclusive class Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by eith= er of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which = the components typify: - curnu jalra + curnu jalra worm beetle Mon =3D insect - jalra curnu + jalra curnu beetle worm Mon =3D insect - kabri palta + kabri palta cup plate Kaz =3D crockery - jipci gunse + jipci gunse hen goose Qab =3D housefowl - xrula tricu + xrula tricu flower tree Chi =3D vegetation symmetrical tanru= typesusing crucial/typical parts The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent o= f the tanru as a whole: - tumla vacri + tumla vacri land air Fin =3D world - moklu stedu + moklu stedu mouth head Aba =3D face - sudysrasu cunmi + sudysrasu cunmi hay millet Qab =3D agriculture - gugde ciste + gugde ciste state system Mon =3D politics - prenu so'imei + prenu so'imei people multitude Mon =3D masses - djacu dertu + djacu dertu water earth Chi =3D climate - sudysrasu + sudysrasu dry-grass - so'imei + so'imei manysome
<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pretty little gir= ls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The follo= wing examples show every possible grouping arrangement of=20 - <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 - <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> or=20 - <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> for grouping and=20 - <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> or=20 - <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">jebo</jbophrase> for logical connection.= Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English = phrase=20 + <oldjbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</oldjbophrase> using=20 + <valsi>bo</valsi> or=20 + <oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> for grouping and=20 + <valsi>je</valsi> or=20 + <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">jebo</oldjbophrase> for logical conne= ction. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the En= glish phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para> <para>Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linke= nd=3D"example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjog"/>= , <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend=3D"example-= random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-ra= ndom-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend= =3D"example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKmg"/>, = and <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively. <!-- was: Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here a= s Examples 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. --> The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping= pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of=20 - <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> at each possible site. Some of the examples = have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in groupi= ng mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> + <valsi>je</valsi> at each possible site. Some of the examples have mor= e than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mecha= nism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> <para>The logical connective=20 - <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> is associative: that is,=20 + <valsi>je</valsi> is associative: that is,=20 <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as=20 <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-i= d-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend=3D"exa= mple-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xr= ef linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. <!-- was: In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have= the same meaning --> Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 =20 - <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> were replaced by=20 - <jbophrase>naja</jbophrase> or=20 - <jbophrase>jo</jbophrase> or most of the other logical connectives, th= e meanings would become distinct.</para> + <valsi>je</valsi> were replaced by=20 + <oldjbophrase>naja</oldjbophrase> or=20 + <valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct.</para> <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive =E2=80=93 they repre= sent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.= </para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjzw" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/> melbi cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school school for girls who are beautifully small diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index d26b414..e8b5566 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -8,98 +8,98 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1"/> mi klama le zarci I go-to the market pro-sumticontrasted with description In=20 ,=20 - mi and=20 - le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that = these two sumti are not of the same kind:=20 - mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pro= noun) referring to the speaker, whereas=20 - le zarci is a description which refers to somet= hing described as being a market. + mi and=20 + le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see= that these two sumti are not of the same kind:=20 + mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) re= ferring to the speaker, whereas=20 + le zarci is a description which refers to= something described as being a market. sumtikinds of There are five kinds of simple su= mti provided by Lojban: =20 gadridefinition sumtidescriptions as descriptions like=20 - le zarci, which usually begin with a descri= ptor (called a=20 - gadri in Lojban) such as=20 + le zarci, which usually begin with a = descriptor (called a=20 + gadri in Lojban) such as=20 =20 - le; + le; sumtipro-sumti as pro-sumti, such as=20 - mi; + mi; sumtinames as names, such as=20 - la lojban., which usually begin with=20 - la; + la lojban., which usually begin with= =20 + la; sumtiquotations as quotations, which begin w= ith=20 - lu,=20 - le'u,=20 - zo, or=20 - zoi; + lu,=20 + le'u,=20 + zo, or=20 + zoi; sumtinumbers as pure numbers, which usually = begin with=20 - li. + li. Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/> e'osai ko sarji la lojban. Please support Lojban! exhibits=20 - ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 - la lojban., a name. + ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 + la lojban., a name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d3"/> mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu I express=20 Please! to-the reader. - le li'u lu =20 exhibits=20 - mi, a pro-sumti;=20 - lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 - le tcidu, a description. + mi, a pro-sumti;=20 + lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 + le tcidu, a description. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d4"/> ti mitre li ci This measures-in-meters the-number three. This is three meters long. - li =20 + li =20 exhibits=20 - ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 - li ci, a number. + ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 + li ci, a number. Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 ,=20 , and=20 respectively, so this chapter on= ly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 through=20 for these summaries.
The three basic description types descriptionstypes of The following cmavo are di= scussed in this section: @@ -132,30 +132,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1"/> le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market the market lecompared with English the The long gloss for= =20 - le is of course far too long to use most of the= time, and in fact=20 + le is of course far too long to use most of the time, a= nd in fact=20 =20 - le is quite close in meaning to English=20 + le is quite close in meaning to English=20 the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 the does not have. descriptionsimportance of selbri first place in= descriptorspurpose of The general purpose of all descript= ors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri be= longing to the description. Thus=20 - le zarci conveys something which might be found= in the x1 place of=20 - zarci, namely a market. + le zarci conveys something which might be= found in the x1 place of=20 + zarci, namely a market. leand truth of selbri leand specificity leimplications of The specific purpose of=20 - le is twofold. First, it indicates that the spe= aker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener = knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is m= erely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being= committed to the truth of that description. + le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2"/> le zarci cu barda One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as mark= ets is/are-big. The market is big. The markets are big. @@ -174,86 +174,86 @@ le nanmu cu ninmu One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as men<= /quote> are women. The man is a woman. The men are women. =20 lein false-to-fact descriptions=20 is not self-contradictory i= n Lojban, because=20 - le nanmu merely means something or other which,= for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it = really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to b= e a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observati= on.=20 + le nanmu merely means something or other = which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or n= ot it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assume= d to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer obs= ervation.=20 =20 is what I would say to poin= t out my observation to you. =20 descriptionsspecific specific descriptions In all des= criptions with=20 - le, the listener is presumed to either know wha= t I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will giv= e more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at th= e supposed man or men:=20 + le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 would then be perfectly int= elligible, since=20 - le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at= the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in t= he same direction. + le nanmu merely clarifies that I am point= ing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to li= e in the same direction. loimplications of descriptionsnon-specific<= /indexterm> non-specific des= criptions The second descriptor dealt with in this se= ction is=20 - lo. Unlike=20 - le,=20 - lo is nonspecific: + lo. Unlike=20 + le,=20 + lo is nonspecific: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4"/> lo zarci one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets a market some markets loand truth of selbri locontrasted with le in truth re= quirement lecontrasted with lo in truth requirement lecontrasted with lo in specificity locontraste= d with le in specificity Again, there are two collo= quial English translations. The effect of using=20 - lo in=20 + lo in=20 is to refer generally to on= e or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 - le zarci,=20 - lo zarci must refer to something which actually= is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi= whose selbri is=20 - zarci). Thus + le zarci,=20 + lo zarci must refer to something which ac= tually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful= bridi whose selbri is=20 + zarci). Thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5"/> lo nanmu cu ninmu Some man is a woman. Some men are women. must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 =20 true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 - lo refers to whatever individuals meet its desc= ription. + lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity lacompared = with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 - la, which indicates that the selbri which follo= ws it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a n= ame. Like=20 - le descriptions,=20 - la descriptions are implicitly restricted to th= ose I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 - la with its use before regular Lojbanized names= , which is discussed in=20 + la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 + le descriptions,=20 + la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 + la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 .) For example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/> la cribe pu finti le lisri The-one-named=20 bear [past] creates the story. Bear wrote the story. naming predicate In=20 ,=20 - la cribe refers to someone whose naming predica= te is=20 + la cribe refers to someone whose naming p= redicate is=20 =20 - cribe, i.e.=20 + cribe, i.e.=20 Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 Frank coincides with the English word=20 frank, meaning=20 honest, and so one way of translating=20 Frank ate some cheese into Lojban would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d7"/> @@ -290,22 +290,22 @@ lacontrasted with lo in implications=20 is about a specific bear or= bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or m= etaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 is about one or more of the= really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each o= f them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one = bear (or=20 bear) is meant. descriptions with= loteddy bear contrasted with real bear (The notion of a=20 really existing, objectively defined bear raises certai= n difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 real bear? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 =20 - le may communicate better than=20 - lo.) + le may communicate better than=20 + lo.) So while=20 could easily be true (there= is a real writer named=20 Greg Bear), and=20 could be true if the speake= r is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,=20 is certainly false. Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 and=20 respectively: @@ -322,29 +322,29 @@ lo remna pu finti le lisri A human being wrote the story. Some human beings wrote the story. locontrasted with le in implications lecontrasted with= lo in implications=20 says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 - le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to = that person.=20 + le remna is in effect a shorthand referen= ce to that person.=20 merely says that the author= is human. kuuses of = cueffect on elidability of ku kueffect of following selbri on elidability of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">kuas elid= able terminator for descriptions The elidable termi= nator for all descriptions is=20 - ku. It can almost always be omitted with no dan= ger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative claus= es, which are discussed in=20 + ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 , and in the case of a descript= ion immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explici= t=20 - cu before the selbri makes the=20 - ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses= of=20 - ku: in the compound negator=20 - naku (discussed in=20 + cu before the selbri makes the=20 + ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 + ku: in the compound negator=20 + naku (discussed in=20 ) and to terminate place-struct= ure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in= =20 and=20 ).
Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section: lei @@ -375,68 +375,68 @@ le prenu cu bevri le pipno One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= =20 The person(s) carry the piano. =20 (Of course the second=20 - le should really get the same translation as th= e first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 - le, the one preceding=20 - prenu. I will assume that there is only one pia= no under discussion.) + le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 + le, the one preceding=20 + prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>piano-moving</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2"/> lei prenu cu bevri le pipno The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carr= y the piano. =20 mass objectand logical reasoning mass objectproperties = of m= ultiple individual objectscontrasted with mass object<= /secondary> mass= objectcontrasted with multiple individual objects Here the same three persons are treated not as individ= uals, but as a so-called=20 mass entity, or just=20 mass. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 =20 - lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is = not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other pe= culiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only= the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to= say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because = some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. + lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appl= icable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarit= ies may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the com= ponent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say tha= t a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of = the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. laias mass counterpart of lai loias mass counterpart = of lo The descriptors=20 - loi and=20 - lai are analogous to=20 - lo and=20 - la respectively, but refer to masses either by = property (=20 - loi) or by name (=20 - lai). A classic example of=20 - loi use is: + loi and=20 + lai are analogous to=20 + lo and=20 + la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 + loi) or by name (=20 + lai). A classic example of=20 + loi use is: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/> loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa. loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 - lei and=20 - loi is that=20 - lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individu= als which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 - loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of al= l those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 + lei and=20 + loi is that=20 + lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific in= dividuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 + loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass= of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa =E2=80=93 they live in various zoos around th= e world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/> loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a @@ -457,49 +457,49 @@ loi matne cu ranti =20 Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. Butter is soft. mass objectas dependent on intention Of course, = some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 part-of implication of=20 - loi becomes once again useful. The reason this = mechanism works is that the English words like=20 + loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanis= m works is that the English words like=20 butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 - matne is=20 + matne is=20 =20 x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butter is translated as something like=20 a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) mass nameuse of The mass name descriptor=20 =20 =20 - lai is used in circumstances where we wish to t= alk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of t= hem. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thu= s the mass version of=20 + lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 , <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/> lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear [past] creates the nearby book. The Bears wrote this book. laicontrasted with la in implications lacontrasted with= lai in implications in a context where=20 - la cribe would be understood as plural, would m= ean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have wr= itten the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators= . Using=20 + la cribe would be understood as plural, w= ould mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might h= ave written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collabo= rators. Using=20 =20 - la instead of=20 - lai in=20 + la instead of=20 + lai in=20 would give the implication = that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.
Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section: le'i LE the set described as @@ -513,29 +513,29 @@ la'i LA the set of those named masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which =E2=80=93 the superset =E2=80=93 contains = all the elements of the other =E2=80=93 the subset). The set descriptors=20 =20 =20 =20 - le'i,=20 - lo'i and=20 - la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors= =20 - lei,=20 - loi, and=20 - lai except that normally we talk of the whole o= f a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 - lo,=20 - loi, and=20 - lo'i: + le'i,=20 + lo'i and=20 + la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 + lei,=20 + loi, and=20 + lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 + lo,=20 + loi, and=20 + lo'i: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/> lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. Some rats are brown. =20 @@ -558,40 +558,40 @@ lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. There are a lot of rats. The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge =E2=80=93 it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, si= nce some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set o= f rats brown =E2=80=93 brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets pos= sess. =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 - fadni is: + fadni is: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 am= ong the members of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 - fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense fo= r an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typic= al of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 - fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place mu= st be filled with a set: + fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 + fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/> mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20 Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical =E2=80=93 whether in language knowledge, or = age, or interests, or something else. If=20 - lo'i were changed to=20 - lo in=20 + lo'i were changed to=20 + lo in=20 , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.
Descriptors for typical objects =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: lo'e @@ -602,21 +602,21 @@ le'e LE the stereotypical =20 As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for discrimina= ting between=20 the lion who lives in Africa and=20 the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 - lo'e means=20 + lo'e means=20 the typical, as in <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/> lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. @@ -630,60 +630,60 @@ typical Englishmanexample lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England= . le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 - lo'e cinfo and=20 - lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical l= ion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lion= s. There is a similar relationship between=20 - le'e and=20 - le'i: + lo'e cinfo and=20 + lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typ= ical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set o= f lions. There is a similar relationship between=20 + le'e and=20 + le'i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/> le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. =20 Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. =20 stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 =20 - le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simpl= y suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather = than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may= disagree about what the features of=20 + le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 - lo'e cinfo and=20 - le'e cinfo may be very fine. + lo'e cinfo and=20 + le'e cinfo may be very fine. Furthermore, <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/> le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. =20 =20 is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. typical Smithexample name e= quivalent for typicalrationale for lack= of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 - lo'e and=20 - le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for = a=20 + lo'e and=20 + le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 typical George or a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. =20
Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ro @@ -692,32 +692,32 @@ su'o PA at least (one of) Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 =20 . For the purposes of this chapter, a= simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the sim= ple Lojban numbers=20 - pa,=20 - re,=20 - ci,=20 - vo, and=20 - mu, meaning=20 + pa,=20 + re,=20 + ci,=20 + vo, and=20 + mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it =E2=80=93 which one or two depends on th= e particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifie= rs later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 - piro and=20 - pisu'o, are explained in=20 + piro and=20 + pisu'o, are explained in=20 =20 .) Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1"/> do cadzu le bisli You walk-on the ice. @@ -729,22 +729,22 @@ re do cadzu le bisli Two-of you walk-on the ice. The difference between=20 and=20 is the presence of the expl= icit quantifier=20 - re in the latter example. Although=20 - re by itself means=20 + re in the latter example. Although=20 + re by itself means=20 two, when used as a quantifier it means=20 two-of. Out of the group of listeners (the number of wh= ich isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be=20 walkers on the ice. Implicitly, the others (if any) are= not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say=20 I own three shoes if in fact you own four shoes. Number= s need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.<= /para> (This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a numbe= r which is vague. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d3"/> @@ -764,80 +764,80 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4"/> ro do cadzu le bisli All-of you walk-on the ice. sumtias having implicit quantifiers quantifierswith su= mti turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This i= s a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be wa= lking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be= a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as=20 =20 - mi and=20 - mi'o and=20 - ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro= -sumti have a so-called=20 + mi and=20 + mi'o and=20 + ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti h= ave a so-called=20 =20 implicit quantifier of=20 - ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier= is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier= had been used. + ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier is give= n explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had bee= n used. =20 implicit quantifi= eron quotationsdiscussion of Not all sumti have=20 - ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Conside= r the quotation in: + ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the qu= otation in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5"/> mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. I say,=20 You walk on the ice. What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation=20 - lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 - ro. If=20 - ro were supplied explicitly, thus: + lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 + ro. If=20 + ro were supplied explicitly, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d6"/> mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. the meaning would be something like=20 I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 means that I express exactl= y one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, = as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least= once. The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 at least is=20 - su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 - su'o means=20 + su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 + su'o means=20 at least once. (See=20 for the use of=20 - su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the e= xplicitly quantified version of=20 + su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitl= y quantified version of=20 is implicit quantifi= erfor quotations quotationsimplicit q= uantifier for su'oas implicit quantifier for quotations FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d7"/> mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unqu= ote]. I say one or more instances of=20 You walk on the ice. I say=20 You walk on the ice. If an explicit ordinary number such as=20 - re were to appear, it would have to convey an e= xact expression, so + re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact exp= ression, so <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d8"/> mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss. @@ -846,38 +846,38 @@ Quantified descriptions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: piro PA the whole of quantificationbefore description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 - le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say = that exactly two of them are white as follows: + le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we ca= n say that exactly two of them are white as follows: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/> re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. Two of the dogs are white. inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= For example, the context of=20 supposedly told us that=20 - le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. = This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quant= ifier: + le gerku referred to some three specific = dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner= quantifier: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2"/> re le ci gerku cu blabi Two-of the three dogs are-white. Two of the three dogs are white. @@ -912,218 +912,218 @@ =20 - le: - ro le su'o + le: + ro le su'o all of the at-least-one described as - lo: - su'o lo ro + lo: + su'o lo ro at least one of all of those which really are - la: - ro la su'o + la: + ro la su'o all of the at least one named - lei: - pisu'o lei su'o + lei: + pisu'o lei su'o some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as<= /entry> - loi: - pisu'o loi ro + loi: + pisu'o loi ro some part of the mass of all those that really are - lai: - pisu'o lai su'o + lai: + pisu'o lai su'o some part of the mass of the at-least-one named - le'i: - piro le'i su'o + le'i: + piro le'i su'o the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as - lo'i: - piro lo'i ro + lo'i: + piro lo'i ro the whole of the set of all those that really are - la'i: - piro la'i su'o + la'i: + piro la'i su'o the whole of the set of the at-least-one named - le'e: - ro le'e su'o + le'e: + ro le'e su'o all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as - lo'e: - su'o lo'e ro + lo'e: + su'o lo'e ro at least one of the types of all those that really are<= /entry> le-series cmavoas encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for = quantification discussion le-series cmavodefinition la-series = descriptorscompared with le-series in implicit quantif= ication le-series descriptorscompared with la-series in im= plicit quantification When examined for the first t= ime, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few = regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors= =20 - la,=20 - lai, and=20 - la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descripto= rs=20 - le,=20 - lei,=20 - le'i, and=20 - le'e) always have corresponding implicit quanti= fiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of = this discussion:=20 + la,=20 + lai, and=20 + la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors=20 + le,=20 + lei,=20 + le'i, and=20 + le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, s= o we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this dis= cussion:=20 le-series cmavo will refer to both the le-series proper= and to the la-series. =20 le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 =20 - lo,=20 - loi,=20 - lo'i, and=20 - lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of= =20 - ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an imp= licit inner quantifier of=20 + lo,=20 + loi,=20 + lo'i, and=20 + lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 + ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in= ner quantifier of=20 =20 - su'o. + su'o. le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 but never less than one. massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 - piro, the whole of it. + piro, the whole of it. plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 - re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) + re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bit= s I have in mind.) pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 - pi? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal poin= t. Just as=20 + pi? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just = as=20 =20 - pimu means=20 + pimu means=20 .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five= tenths of a thing,=20 - piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness= =E2=80=93 the entirety =E2=80=93 of a thing. Similarly,=20 - pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at lea= st one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. + piro means a portion consisting of the al= l-ness =E2=80=93 the entirety =E2=80=93 of a thing. Similarly,=20 + pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of = at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. =20 portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 =20 - pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 + pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of= men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this su= bset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way = to say=20 half of the men; saying=20 - pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 - pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 - lu'a in=20 + pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portio= n of one of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 + pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you ne= ed to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 + lu'a in=20 =20 ). loimplicit outer quantifier for leimplicit outer quant= ifier for individual descriptorsdifferent implicit outer q= uantifiers among outer quantifiersrationale for difference= s in implicit quantifier on descriptors The case of= outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including=20 - le,=20 - lo,=20 - la, and the typical descriptors=20 - le'e and=20 - lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific ind= ividuals with=20 - le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in= mind, so=20 - ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, j= ust as it is appropriate for=20 - do. Reference to non-specific individuals with= =20 - lo, however, is typically to only some of the o= bjects which can be correctly described, and so=20 - su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, ju= st as for quotations. + le,=20 + lo,=20 + la, and the typical descriptors=20 + le'e and=20 + lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 + le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 + ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as i= t is appropriate for=20 + do. Reference to non-specific individuals with=20 + lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects w= hich can be correctly described, and so=20 + su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as fo= r quotations. locontrasted with le in implicit quantification= lecont= rasted with lo in implicit quantification From the = English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the fol= lowing example using=20 - le: + le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4"/> [ro] le ci gerku cu blabi [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white. and the corresponding form with=20 - lo: + lo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5"/> ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. Three dogs are white. looks very peculiar. Why is the number=20 - ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 + ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 and as an outer quantifier = in=20 ? The number of dogs is the = same in either case. The answer is that the=20 - ci in=20 + ci in=20 is part of the specificatio= n: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has = in mind. In=20 , however, the dogs referred= to by=20 - ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the o= uter quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot = tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too= little: in the case of=20 - le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 - ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted= group is white; in the case of=20 - lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says t= hat three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.= + ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist:= the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we c= annot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much = or too little: in the case of=20 + le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 + ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group i= s white; in the case of=20 + lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. lo-series descrip= tioncaution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-serie= s descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many= things exist which really fit the description. So examples like <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6"/> [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi =20 [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white are semantically anomalous;=20 claims that some dog (or do= gs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe! Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 - lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may = occasionally be useful. + lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasion= ally be useful. Note that the inner quantifier of=20 - le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 - le ci nanmu means=20 + le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 + le ci nanmu means=20 what I describe as three men, not=20 three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 - le description represents the speaker's viewpoi= nt rather than the objective way things are. + le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rathe= r than the objective way things are.
Indefinite descriptions descriptorsomission of loomission of By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor= =20 - lo, but never any other descriptor, from a desc= ription like that of=20 + lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 ; namely, one which has an e= xplicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1"/> ci gerku [ku] cu blabi Three dogs are white. indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 - ku may still be used. The name=20 + ku may still be used. The name=20 indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 =20 =20 - lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced int= o the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural = languages. + lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 - *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatica= l), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 - *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is als= o ungrammatical =E2=80=93=20 - re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 + *gerku cu blabi is ungram= matical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 + *reboi ci gerku cu blabi = is also ungrammatical =E2=80=93=20 + re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means= =20 23 dogs are white). Note:=20 also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 =20 =20 - su'o ci cutci; another version of that example = using an explicit=20 - lo would be: + su'o ci cutci; another version of that ex= ample using an explicit=20 + lo would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d2"/> mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes I own three (or more) shoes. @@ -1153,25 +1153,25 @@ le re do cu nanmu The two-of you are men. simply specifies that of = the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.=20 , which has the sumti-base= d description=20 =20 - le re do, says that of the two listeners, all= (the implicit outer quantifier=20 - ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifie= r=20 - re gives the number of individuals which the = inner sumti=20 + le re do, says that of the two listener= s, all (the implicit outer quantifier=20 + ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 + re gives the number of individuals which the inner su= mti=20 =20 - do refers to. + do refers to. Here is another group of examples: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three e= xamples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3"/> re le ci cribe cu bunre Two-of the three bears are-brown. =20 @@ -1191,21 +1191,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5"/> pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown. =20 sumti-based descri= ptions with leas increasing restricting to in-mind In each case,=20 - le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bea= rs) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.= =20 + le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleg= ed bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in m= ind.=20 says that two of them (whic= h two is not stated) are brown.=20 says that a specific pair o= f them are brown.=20 says that of a specific pai= r chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.
sumti qualifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: sumti qualifiers<= /primary>list of FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1266,23 +1266,23 @@ lu'u LUhU elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? BO selma'o lu'uas elidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifierselidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinterna= l syntax of <= primary>NAhE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and compo= und cmavo are called the=20 sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 =20 - bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix= a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may = need to add the elidable terminator=20 + bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti= qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to = add the elidable terminator=20 =20 - lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) + lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) =20 sumti qualifiers<= /primary>as short forms for common special cases Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 =20 The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: =20 unqualified sumti<= /primary>contrasted with qualified sumti= qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti FIXME: T= AG SPOT <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two exa= mples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> @@ -1292,59 +1292,59 @@ <jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo> <gloss>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>But=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-6W3v"/> doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 <quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 =20 <quote>The Red Pony</quote> are presumably written. (More precisely, w= here the words=20 =20 - <jbophrase>le xunre cmaxirma</jbophrase> are written =E2=80=93 but we = may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para> + <oldjbophrase>le xunre cmaxirma</oldjbophrase> are written =E2=80=93 b= ut we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para> <para>What you really want to say is:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-MSVK"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2"/> mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse = [unquote]. The x2 place of=20 - selsinxa (the x1 place of=20 - sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of= =20 - selsinxa (the x2 place of=20 - sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 + selsinxa (the x1 place of=20 + sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of=20 + selsinxa (the x2 place of=20 + sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 allows us to use a symbol (= namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namel= y the book itself). This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's use= ful to be able to say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3"/> mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] =20 =20 I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]= . - referent= referring to with la'e la'eeffect of on meanin= g de= referencing a pointerwith la'e= la'eas= short for le selsinxa be So= when=20 - la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symb= ol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In compu= ter jargon,=20 + referent= referring to with la'e la'eeffect of on meanin= g de= referencing a pointerwith la'e= la'eas= short for le selsinxa be So when=20 + la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it p= roduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jarg= on,=20 =20 - la'e dereferences a pointer.) + la'e dereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meaning The sumti qualifier=20 - lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be= prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring t= o a sign or symbol for the thing. For example, - lu'eas short for le sinxa be FIXME: TAG SPOT + lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, + lu'eas short for le sinxa be FIXME: TAG SPOT <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>title of book</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/> mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. I said the title of this book. @@ -1355,44 +1355,44 @@ mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. which is equivalent to=20 , but longer. sequence= contrasted with set vu'iuse for creating sequen= ce t= u'ause for forming abstractions vu'ie= ffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meaning lu'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of on meaning tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sum= ti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 - tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is ex= plained more fully in=20 + tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained = more fully in=20 . The triplet=20 - lu'a,=20 + lu'a,=20 =20 - lu'i, and=20 + lu'i, and=20 =20 - lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and mas= ses;=20 + lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 =20 - vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates= a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set o= f John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequ= ences are different.) Here are some examples: + vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6"/> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. I try (to open) the door. tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 - ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means= =20 + ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 . <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three e= xamples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/> lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu =20 @@ -1418,57 +1418,57 @@ mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentione= d is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a ma= ss. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 - bo are all concerned with negation, which is di= scussed in detail in=20 + bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: =20 - na'ebo FIXM= E: TAG SPOT + na'ebo F= IXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10"/> mi viska na'ebo le gerku =20 I see something-other-than the dog. This compound,=20 - na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation= sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of rep= eating, with modifications, something already referred to: + na'ebo, is the most common of the four ne= gation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context = of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to: =20 =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/> mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewa= rm food. =20 (In=20 , the sumti=20 - ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti ot= her than that referred to by=20 - ri. We cannot use=20 - ri here, because it would signify=20 - la djein., that being the most recent sumti ava= ilable to=20 - ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 + ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than= that referred to by=20 + ri. We cannot use=20 + ri here, because it would signify=20 + la djein., that being the most recent sum= ti available to=20 + ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 .)
The syntax of vocative phrases vocative phrases<= /primary>as a free modifier Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter becaus= e their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative = phrase is one of the so-called=20 =20 free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 =20 . They can be placed after many, = but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t= erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and= ends of sentences, and in many other places. DOI selma'o COI= selma'o vocative phrasepurpose of T= he purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or t= o indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative = phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explaine= d in more detail in=20 @@ -1490,69 +1490,69 @@ je'e =20 [acknowledgement] Uh-huh. Roger! vocative wordphrase following In these cases, t= he person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative = word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by=20 - doi, or else just=20 - doi by itself) can be followed by one of severa= l kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. Th= e most common case is a name: - coi FIXME: = TAG SPOT + doi, or else just=20 + doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds = of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most c= ommon case is a name: + coi FIXM= E: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3"/> coi. djan. Hello, John. A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 - doi instead of a pause: + doi instead of a pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4"/> coi doi djan. Hello, John. - doi means e= xactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using=20 - doi by itself is like just saying someone's nam= e to attract his or her attention: + doi mean= s exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using=20 + doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to att= ract his or her attention: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/> doi djan. John! vocative phraseimplicit descriptor on vocative phrasew= ith sumti without descriptor vocative phraseforms of In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking it= s descriptor, which is understood to be=20 - le: + le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6"/> coi xunre pastu nixli Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. Hello, girl with the red dress! vocative phraseexplicit quantifiers prohibited on vocative phrase= implicit quantifiers on The listener nee= d not really be a=20 - xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands h= erself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can ap= pear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the i= mplicit quantifiers=20 - su'o le ro are in effect.) + xunre pastu nixli, as long as she underst= ands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri = can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so= the implicit quantifiers=20 + su'o le ro are in effect.) Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7"/> co'o la bab. .e la noras. Goodbye, Bob and Nora. @@ -1572,21 +1572,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9"/> doi la djan. The-one-named John! DOhU selma'o<= /primary> vocati= ve phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the e= lidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 - do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed = except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi= . It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its= relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 + do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except w= hen a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may= also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relativ= e clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 =20 free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls =E2=80=93 see=20 =E2=80=93 metalinguistic comments = =E2=80=93 see=20 =E2=80=93 or reciprocals =E2= =80=93 see ) which must be properly separate= d. vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 and=20 mean the same thing: @@ -1607,40 +1607,40 @@ Come to me, John! As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 , make for more possibilit= ies.
Lojban names Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. name wordsrecognition of namestwo kinds of= First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually = called=20 - names when talking about Lojban. The naming pre= dicates of=20 + names when talking about Lojban. The nami= ng predicates of=20 are just ordinary predic= ates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is= a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be r= ecognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Som= e examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1"/> djan. meris. djein. .alis. John. Mary. Jane. Alice. (Note that=20 - .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, bec= ause all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. S= ee=20 + .alis. begins as well as ends with a paus= e, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pa= use. See=20 for more information.) nameswith LA descriptor namesin vocative phrase namesuses of Names of this kind have two= basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see=20 =20 ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - la'i, they form sumti which refer to the person= s or things known by the name. + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/> la djonz. klama le zarci Jones goes to-the store. The Joneses go to-the store. @@ -1649,41 +1649,41 @@ lai djonz. klama le zarci The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store. The Joneses go to the store. In=20 , the significance is that a= ll the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name=20 - djonz. are going to the store. In=20 + djonz. are going to the store. In=20 , the Joneses are massified,= and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 - djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person = need not use the name=20 - djonz. at all. + djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that p= erson need not use the name=20 + djonz. at all. LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 and=20 operate exactly like the si= milar uses of=20 - la and=20 - lai in=20 + la and=20 + lai in=20 and=20 respectively. The only diff= erence is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in = fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) a= nd of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be foll= owed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot. =20 LA selma'o doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word name-wordspause requirements before name-wordslimitatio= ns on There are certain limitations on the form of = name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequenc= es (or sound-sequences)=20 =20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - doi unless a consonant immediately precedes wit= hin the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i, or=20 - doi must be preceded by a pause instead: + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + doi unless a consonant immediately precedes within the = name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i, or=20 + doi must be preceded by a pause instead: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4"/> coi .djan. Hello, John. @@ -1692,370 +1692,370 @@ zo .djan. cmene mi The-word John is-the-name-of me. My name is John. In=20 and=20 ,=20 - .djan. appears with a pause before it as well a= s after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases= . These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stre= am. + .djan. appears with a pause before it as = well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special= cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general wor= d-stream. namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 - zo is always followed by a single word, which i= s quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each w= ith its terminating pause: + zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/> doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. =20 =20 name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 ). Thus=20 - djeimz. is not a valid version = of=20 + djeimz. is not a valid ve= rsion of=20 James (because=20 mz is invalid):=20 - djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 - la may be replaced by=20 - ly,=20 - lai by=20 - ly'i,=20 - doi by=20 - do'i or=20 - dai. Here are a few examples: + djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 + la may be replaced by=20 + ly,=20 + lai by=20 + ly'i,=20 + doi by=20 + do'i or=20 + dai. Here are a few examples: =20 =20 Doyle - *doi,l - do'il or dai,l + *doi,l + do'il or dai= ,l =20 - Lyra - *lairas - ly'iras + Lyra + *lairas + ly'iras - Lottie (American pronunciation)<= /entry> - *latis - LYtis. or lotis. + Lottie (American pronuncia= tion) + *latis + LYtis. or lo= tis. Doyleexample Lyraexample Lottieexample= namesu= sing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other languag= es or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more ra= fsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj- for=20 - logji (logical) and=20 + logji (logical) and=20 ban- for=20 - bangu (language) unite to form the name of this= language: + bangu (language) unite to form the name of this languag= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/> lojban. Lojban names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 =20 s or=20 n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. =20 names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 - la followed by a name is=20 - su'o, just as for=20 - la followed by a selbri. + la followed by a name is=20 + su'o, just as for=20 + la followed by a selbri.
Pro-sumti summary pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following e= xamples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the i= mplicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 - ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer = to other sumti, the=20 - ro signifies=20 + ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other= sumti, the=20 + ro signifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. personal pro-sumt= i Personal pro-sumti (=20 - mi,=20 - do,=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 + mi,=20 + do,=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 =20 - ma'a,=20 + ma'a,=20 =20 - do'o,=20 + do'o,=20 =20 - ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or bot= h, with or without third parties: + ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1"/> mi prami do I love you. personal pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The p= ersonal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing indi= viduals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 =20 - pisu'o rather than=20 + pisu'o rather than=20 =20 - ro: in particular,=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 + ro: in particular,=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 =20 - ma'a, and=20 + ma'a, and=20 =20 - do'o specifically represent mass combinations o= f the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and o= thers) that make them up. + do'o specifically represent mass combinations of the in= dividuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) t= hat make them up. =20 definable pro-sum= ti Definable pro-sumti (=20 - ko'a,=20 - ko'e,=20 - ko'i,=20 - ko'o,=20 - ko'u,=20 - fo'a,=20 - =20 - fo'e,=20 - fo'i,=20 - fo'o,=20 - fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explici= tly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 - goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 + ko'a,=20 + ko'e,=20 + ko'i,=20 + ko'o,=20 + ko'u,=20 + fo'a,=20 + =20 + fo'e,=20 + fo'i,=20 + fo'o,=20 + fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 + goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 defined-as. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2"/> le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. quantificational = pro-sumti Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 - da,=20 - de,=20 - di) are used as variables in bridi involving pr= edicate logic: + da,=20 + de,=20 + di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3"/> ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. All persons love a fish (each his/her own). quantificational = pro-sumtiimplicit quantification rules (This is not the same as=20 All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 =20 . Roughly speaking, the quantif= ier is=20 - su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first= used, and=20 - ro (all) thereafter. + su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, a= nd=20 + ro (all) thereafter. reflexive pro-sum= ti Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 - vo'a,=20 - vo'e,=20 - vo'i,=20 - vo'o,=20 - vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti fill= ing other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is = referred to twice: + vo'a,=20 + vo'e,=20 + vo'i,=20 + vo'o,=20 + vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4"/> le cribe cu batci vo'a The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. The bear bites itself. back-counting pro= -sumti Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 - ri,=20 - ra,=20 - ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti co= unted backwards from the pro-sumti: + ri,=20 + ra,=20 + ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5"/> mi klama la frankfurt. ri I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route). indefinite pro-su= mti Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 - zo'e,=20 - zu'i,=20 + zo'e,=20 + zu'i,=20 =20 - zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified:<= /para> + zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6"/> mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means= -unspecified. indefinite pro-su= mtiimplicit quantifier for The= implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It migh= t be=20 =20 - ro (all) or=20 - su'o (at least one) or conceivably even=20 - no (none), though=20 - no would require a very odd context indeed. + ro (all) or=20 + su'o (at least one) or conceivably even=20 + no (none), though=20 + no would require a very odd context indeed. demonstrative pro= -sumti Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 - ti,=20 - ta,=20 - tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, = or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: + ti,=20 + ta,=20 + tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7"/> ko muvgau ti ta tu You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-= that-further-away-place. Move this from there to over there! metalinguistic pr= o-sumti Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 - di'u,=20 - de'u,=20 + di'u,=20 + de'u,=20 =20 - da'u,=20 + da'u,=20 =20 - di'e,=20 + di'e,=20 =20 - de'e,=20 + de'e,=20 =20 - da'e,=20 + da'e,=20 =20 - dei,=20 - do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, ei= ther preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. + dei,=20 + do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d8"/> li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referen= t-of the-previous-utterance is-true. metalinguistic pr= o-sumtiimplicit quantifier for= The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 =20 - su'o (at least one), because they are considere= d analogous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which rea= lly are previous, current, or following utterances. + su'o (at least one), because they are considered analog= ous to=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances. relative pro-sumt= i The relative pro-sumti (=20 =20 - ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 + ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 for a discussion of relat= ive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.= <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9"/> mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. I see the cat(s) made of plastic. question pro-sumt= i The question pro-sumti (=20 =20 - ma) is used to ask questions which request the = listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: + ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10"/> do klama ma You go to-what-sumti? Where are you going? question pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The i= mplicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 =20 - su'o (at least one), because the listener is on= ly being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. + su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being= asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. definable pro-sum= tisequences of lerfu words as = In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) c= an also be used as definable pro-sumti. =20
Quotation summary quotationfour kinds There are four kinds of quo= tation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, n= on-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in . text quotationas internally grammatical text quotations= yntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 - lu and followed by=20 - li'u, and are an essential part of the surround= ing text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts. + lu and followed by=20 + li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/> mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. I say I'm John. word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. - le'u lo'u = FIXME: TAG SPOT + le'u = lo'u FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/> mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u - I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquo= te]. - I say li mi. + I say the-words [quote] li mi = [unquote]. + I say li mi. Note that the translation of=20 does not translate the Lojb= an words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they = are ungrammatical). single-word quota= tion Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban wor= d. Compound cmavo are not allowed. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3"/> mi cusku zo .ai I say the-word=20 - .ai. + ai. non-Lojban quotat= ion Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban o= r not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching= . A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before a= nd after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d4"/> mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot I say=20 I'm John. quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 - su'o (at least one), because quotations are ana= logous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are words or sequences of words. + su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous t= o=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words.
Number summary number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 - li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Loj= ban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple n= umber up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operato= rs, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 + li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/> li vo the-number four 4 @@ -2074,23 +2074,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3"/> li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy. the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c ax2 + bx + c number sumtiwith li contrasted with me'o number sumtiw= ith me'o contrasted with li LI selma'o me'o number sumtiwith me'o An alternative to=20 - li is=20 - me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions be= ginning with=20 - me'o refer to the actual expression, rather tha= n its value. Thus=20 + li is=20 + me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning = with=20 + me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 and=20 above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4"/> me'o vo the-expression four 4 @@ -2103,16 +2103,16 @@ me'o re su'i re the-expression two plus two 2+2 refer to different pieces of text. mathematical expr= essionsimplicit quantifier for= numbersimplicit quantifier for The implicit quantifier fo= r numbers and mathematical expressions is=20 =20 - su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 - li), this is a distinction without a difference= , as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 + su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 + li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears.
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 85a3d14..8047d26 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -26,23 +26,23 @@ John picked up a stick and shook a stick. does not imply that the t= wo sticks are necessarily the same, whereas=20 requires that they are. GOhA selma'o<= /primary> KO= hA selma'o pro-sumtiseries pro-sumticompare= d to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation pro-bridicompared = to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation pro-brididefinition<= /secondary> pro-= sumtidefinition pro-sumticompared to = pronouns in usage as abbreviations pronounscompared to pro= -sumti in usage as abbreviations In Lojban, we have= sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the h= ybrid term=20 =20 pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be=20 - sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo bel= onging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmav= o (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These ma= y be called=20 + sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cma= vo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group o= f cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. Th= ese may be called=20 pro-bridi or=20 - bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of = all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups= , known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-serie= s, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of = pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi= , it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-brid= i analogues, however. + bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the us= es of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of = groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi= -series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a seri= es of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro= -bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pr= o-bridi analogues, however. antecedent of pro= -brididefinition referent of pro-brididefinition <= primary>antecedent of pro-sumtidefinition<= /indexterm> referent of pro-= sumtidefinition A few technica= l terms: The term=20 =20 referent means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by exten= sion, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the = referent of the word=20 I is James. On the other hand, the term=20 antecedent refers to a piece of language which a pro-su= mti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d4"/> John loves himself @@ -92,98 +92,98 @@ mi-series you and others ko KOhA mi-series you-imperative - do mi foreman of a juryexample personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener(s) pro-sumtifor speaker(s)= pro= -sumtimi-series mi-seriesof pro-sumti= The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, t= he listener, and others in various combinations.=20 - mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for= whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 - do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither= =20 - mi nor=20 - do is specific about the number of persons refe= rred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the= jury as=20 + do m= i foreman of a juryexample personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-s= umtifor listener(s) pro-sumtifor spea= ker(s) pro-sumtimi-series mi-seriesof pro= -sumti The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the spea= ker, the listener, and others in various combinations.=20 + mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom th= e speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 + do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 + mi nor=20 + do is specific about the number of persons referred to;= for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 =20 - mi, since in speaking officially he represents = all of them. + mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. COI selma'o mi'= e COI = selma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect o= n referent of "mi" The referents of=20 - mi and=20 - do are usually obvious from the context, but ma= y be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 + mi and=20 + do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 . The vocative=20 - mi'e assigns=20 - mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign= =20 - do. + mi'e assigns=20 + mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 + do. <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/> mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 I run. do'o ma'a mi'a mi'o= pro-s= umtifor listeners and/or speakers and/or others The cmavo=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 =20 - ma'a, and=20 + ma'a, and=20 =20 - do'o express various combinations of the speake= r and/or the listener and/or other people: + do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or= the listener and/or other people: =20 - mi'o includes only the speaker and the list= ener but no one else; + mi'o includes only the speaker and the listener but= no one else; - mi'a includes the speaker and others but ex= cludes the listener; + mi'a includes the speaker and others but excludes t= he listener; =20 - do'o includes the listener and others but e= xcludes the speaker; + do'o includes the listener and others but excludes = the speaker; =20 - ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener,= others. + ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener, others.= =20 pro-sumti for spe= aker/listener/othersas masses = pro-sumti for speaker/listen= er/othersrelation to joi All o= f these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,=20 - mi'o is the same as=20 - mi joi do, the mass of me and you considered jo= intly. + mi'o is the same as=20 + mi joi do, the mass of me and you conside= red jointly. pro-sumti for "we"contrasted with English "we" English "we"contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we" In English,=20 we can mean=20 - mi or=20 - mi'o or=20 - mi'a or even=20 + mi or=20 + mi'o or=20 + mi'a or even=20 =20 - ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because= they cannot easily distinguish=20 + ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they ca= nnot easily distinguish=20 =20 - mi'o from=20 - mi'a: + mi'o from=20 + mi'a: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d2"/> We're going to the store. Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure= . kouse for commands kouse for imperatives imperativeswith ko commandswith ko Finally, the cmavo=20 - ko is logically equivalent to=20 - do; its referent is the listener. However, its = use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener t= o make the assertion true: + ko is logically equivalent to=20 + do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alte= rs an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make t= he assertion true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d3"/> do klama le zarci You go to-the store. becomes: @@ -192,38 +192,38 @@ ko klama le zarci You [imperative] go to-the store. Make you go to the store true! Go to the store! koin later selbri place in imperative imperativesEngli= sh contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, th= e word=20 - ko must be used. However,=20 - ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: + ko must be used. However,=20 + ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d5"/> mi viska ko I see you [imperative] Make=20 I see you true! Be seen by me! koin sub-clause of main bridi In=20 , it is necessary to make th= e verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of=20 - ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 - ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main= bridi: + ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 + ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d6"/> mi viska le prenu poi prami ko I see the person that loves you [imperative] Make=20 I see the person that loves you true! Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! @@ -254,46 +254,46 @@ KOhA ti-series that yonder, a far-distant object tu<= /indexterm> ta= ti pro-sumtiti-series ti-series pro-sumtias pointing r= eferents only this/that in Englishcompared with ti-series = pro-sumti ti-series pro-sumticompared with English this/th= at d= emonstrative pro-sumti pointingreference by It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by som= e related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words=20 this and=20 that serve this function among others:=20 this refers to something pointed at that is near the sp= eaker, and=20 that refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-s= umti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmav= o=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu provide only the pointing function of=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu provide only the pointing function of=20 this and=20 that; they are not used to refer to things that cannot = be pointed at. ti-series pro-sum= ti3 degrees of distance with = tuarchai= c English yon as equivalent of yonas archaic English equiv= alent of tu There are three pro-sumti of the ti-ser= ies rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between = objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among othe= r languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; = the pronoun=20 that referred to something at a medium distance from th= e speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun=20 yon to something far away. =20 ti-series pro-sum= tiproblems in written text ti-series pro-sumticonversational convention for In conversat= ion, there is a special rule about=20 - ta and=20 - tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. = When used contrastingly,=20 - ta refers to something that is near the listene= r, whereas=20 - tu refers to something far from both speaker an= d listener. This makes for a parallelism between=20 - ti and=20 - mi, and=20 - ta and=20 - do, that is convenient when pointing is not pos= sible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the othe= r hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to = be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what c= ounts as=20 + ta and=20 + tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. When use= d contrastingly,=20 + ta refers to something that is near the listener, where= as=20 + tu refers to something far from both speaker and listen= er. This makes for a parallelism between=20 + ti and=20 + mi, and=20 + ta and=20 + do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; f= or example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, = the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken= as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as= =20 near and=20 far away is relative to the current situation. thispronoun expression with ti tias pronoun expression= for English this thisadjective usage contrasted with pron= oun usage thispronoun usage contrasted with adjective usag= e It is important to distinguish between the Englis= h pronoun=20 this and the English adjective=20 this as in=20 this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 =20 - ti: + ti: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in multiple examples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>this boat</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1"/> le ti bloti the this boat =20 @@ -309,21 +309,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2"/> le vi bloti the here boat the nearby boat using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 - bloti to express that the boat is near the spea= ker. (Tenses are explained in full in=20 + bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 .) Another correct translation would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3"/> ti noi bloti =20 this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat @@ -406,61 +406,61 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d2"/> do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is= -a-false-sentence. ti-series pro-sum= ticontrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti di'ucontrasted with ta tacontrasted with di'u Using=20 - ta instead of=20 - di'u would cause the listener to look around to= see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. + ta instead of=20 + di'u would cause the listener to look around to see wha= t the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. da'u de'u di'u As with=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes= : a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, = either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use = the=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a clos= e utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either i= n the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the=20 i/=20 a/=20 u vowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 without causing collisions with = other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 i/=20 e/=20 a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo. da'e de'e di'e Most references in speech are to the past (what has alr= eady been said), so=20 - di'e,=20 + di'e,=20 =20 - de'e, and=20 + de'e, and=20 =20 - da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writ= ing, they are frequently handy: + da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, the= y are frequently handy: =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3"/> la saimn. cusku di'e =20 Simon expresses the-following-utterance. Simon says: =20 would typically be follow= ed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of someth= ing Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear= after=20 , and so=20 - di'e is appropriate. + di'e is appropriate. =20 do'i dei The remaining two cmavo,=20 - dei and=20 - do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance = that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance ut= tered by someone at some time: + dei and=20 + do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4"/> dei jetnu jufra This-utterance is-a-true-sentence. What I am saying (at this moment) is true. @@ -469,46 +469,46 @@ do'i jetnu jufra Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence. That's true (where=20 that is not necessarily what was just said). The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 - dei in the current utterance is the same as the= referent of=20 - di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 + dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 + di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 utterance is used rather than=20 sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. la'edi'u LAhE s= elma'o la'e Note one very common construction with=20 - di'u and the cmavo=20 - la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 + di'u and the cmavo=20 + la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 ) which precedes a sumti a= nd means=20 the thing referred to by (the sumti): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6"/> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= I love Jane, and I like that. la'edi'ucontrasted with di'u di'ucontrasted with la'= edi'u The effect of=20 - la'e di'u in=20 + la'e di'u in=20 is that the speaker likes, = not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by t= he previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often = written as a single word:=20 - la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up=20 + la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up= =20 =20 - di'u and=20 - la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally r= esult: + di'u and=20 + la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will gener= ally result: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7"/> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. @@ -644,119 +644,119 @@ la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. The English gloss=20 it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 =20 - ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that = its antecedent is=20 - le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 - la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in w= hich case=20 + ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its ante= cedent is=20 + le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 + la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent= , in which case=20 means that Alice, not the s= tore, is blue. goi= ko'a-series pro= -sumtiassigning with goi To av= oid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo=20 - goi: + goi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2"/> la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue= . ko'a-series pro-s= umtiassignment with goi as symmetrical Syntactically,=20 - goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative ph= rases are explained in=20 + goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relat= ive phrases are explained in=20 ). Semantically, it says t= hat=20 - ko'a and=20 - la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furtherm= ore that this is true because=20 - ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 - la .alis.. It is equally correct to say: + ko'a and=20 + la .alis. refer to the same thing, and fu= rthermore that this is true because=20 + ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 + la .alis.. It is equally correct to say:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d3"/> la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue= . ge'u in other words,=20 - goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 - ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always = elidable. The details are in=20 + goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 + ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable= . The details are in=20 . goi assignment of= ko'a-series pro-sumtiuse in speech contrasted with wr= iting The afterthought form of=20 - goi shown in=20 + goi shown in=20 and=20 is probably most common in = speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we w= ill want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 - ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice i= s first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 - goi is: + ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first = mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 + goi is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.= hereafter known asexamp= le The repetition signalled by=20 - go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts= . Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 - do, meaning B. Note that in=20 + go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finall= y, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 + do, meaning B. Note that in=20 , the tense=20 - ba (future time) is carried along by both=20 - go'i and=20 - go'e. + ba (future time) is carried along by both=20 + go'i and=20 + go'e. =20 Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12"/> le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli= The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-p= lace-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice. The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. =20 Here the=20 - go'i repeats=20 - le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since=20 - le makes the x1 place into a description, and t= he x1 place of this bridi is=20 - le xekri mlatu,=20 - le go'i means=20 - le xekri mlatu. + go'i repeats=20 + le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and sin= ce=20 + le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pl= ace of this bridi is=20 + le xekri mlatu,=20 + le go'i means=20 + le xekri mlatu. The cmavo=20 - go'o,=20 + go'o,=20 =20 - nei, and=20 + nei, and=20 =20 - no'a have been little used so far. They repeat = respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that enclo= ses the current bridi (=20 + no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respecti= vely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the = current bridi (=20 =20 - no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- ser= ies, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: + no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13"/> mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba du= nda le zdani le tixnu I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] giv= e the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give = the house to my daughter. (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 - my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fac= t that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. = To make the fact explicit, use=20 - le bersa/tixnu be mi.) + my in the colloquial English; it leaves t= he fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to impl= icit. To make the fact explicit, use=20 + le bersa/tixnu be mi.) For good examples of=20 - nei and=20 + nei and=20 =20 - no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: + no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14"/> mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte =20 I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of= [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting). I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased= (about ...) before you acted. @@ -1183,22 +1183,22 @@ mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a =20 I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] I will go when you do. go'i ra'ocontrasted with go'i Finally,=20 - ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'= i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sum= ti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and re= interpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the a= ntecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of= =20 - ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpr= eted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: + ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series= cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pr= o-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpre= ted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the anteceden= t of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 + ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16"/> mi ba lumci lemi karce I will wash my car. you might reply either: @@ -1216,32 +1216,32 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18"/> mi go'i ra'o =20 I will wash my car. The=20 - ra'o forces the second=20 - mi from the original bridi to mean the new spea= ker rather than the former speaker. This means that=20 - go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternative to= =20 + ra'o forces the second=20 + mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rath= er than the former speaker. This means that=20 + go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternat= ive to=20 =20 - do go'e in B's statement in=20 + do go'e in B's statement in=20 =20 . go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotations ri-series pro-sumti= in quotations The anaphoric pro-sumti of this secti= on can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text= outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may= be quoted by someone else. =20 go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotation series ri-series pro-sumtiin quotation series However, a=20 - ri-series or=20 - go'a-series reference within a quotation can re= fer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations ar= e closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken= up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it.= Here's an example: + ri-series or=20 + go'a-series reference within a quotation = can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotati= ons are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be = broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti with= in it. Here's an example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19"/> la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku l= u mi go'i li'u John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [= quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. John says, I am going to the store. Alice says,= Me too. @@ -1282,90 +1282,90 @@ co'e GOhA co'e-series has the obvious relationship =20 zo'e typical value<= /primary>contrasted with elliptical value for sumti<= /indexterm> elliptical value= contrasted with typical value for sumti elliptical sumti zo'eas place-holder for sumti elliptical pro-bridi indefinite pro-bridi= pro-s= umtiunspecified elliptical pro-sumti= indefinite pro-sumti co'e-series = pro-bridi zo'e-series pro-sumti The cmavo of the zo'e-serie= s represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo=20 =20 =20 - zo'e represents an elliptical value for this su= mti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped w= ithout being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the ty= pical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being d= efined as=20 + zo'e represents an elliptical value for this sumti plac= e; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without b= eing specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical va= lue. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined a= s=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, = or figure out how to express. zu'i typical sumti<= /primary> pro-su= mtitypical The cmavo=20 - zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical= value for this place of this bridi: + zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value f= or this place of this bridi: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d1"/> mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i<= /jbo> I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the hou= se [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means] In=20 , the first=20 - zu'i probably means something like=20 + zu'i probably means something like=20 =20 by the door, and the second=20 - zu'i probably means something like=20 + zu'i probably means something like=20 =20 on foot, those being the typical route and means for le= aving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise duri= ng a fire, neither=20 - zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use=20 + zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use=20 =20 - zu'i in=20 + zu'i in=20 =20 by standard places. irrelevantspecifying of sumti place sumtiirrelevant to= relationship zi'o Finally, the cmavo=20 - zi'o represents a value which does not even exi= st. When a bridi fills one of its places with=20 - zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri h= as a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes = to express. For example, the place structure of=20 + zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When= a bridi fills one of its places with=20 + zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a pla= ce which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to expre= ss. For example, the place structure of=20 =20 - zbasu is + zbasu is zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 living thingsexample Consider the sentence Living things are made from cells. = This cannot be correctly expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2"/> loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-m= ass-of cells because the=20 - zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 + zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 indicates that there is sti= ll a=20 maker in this relationship. We do not generally suppose= , however, that someone=20 makes living things from cells. The best answer is prob= ably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a=20 =20 maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use=20 - zi'o to eliminate the maker place: + zi'o to eliminate the maker place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d3"/> loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-= mass-of cells. zi'oas creating new selbri Note: The use of=20 - zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a se= lbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consid= er the following examples: + zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri act= ually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the f= ollowing examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d4"/> mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood. I make the building out of wood. @@ -1397,48 +1397,48 @@ mi zbasu le dinju zi'o I make the building [without-material]. I make the building. If=20 is true, then=20 through=20 must be true also. However,= =20 does not correspond to any = sentence with three regular (non-=20 - zi'o) sumti. + zi'o) sumti. co'e co'e= as selbri place-holder selbriomitting with co'= e The pro-bridi=20 - co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-seri= es of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does n= ot allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or = all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires = the use of=20 + co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of se= lma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow= the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumt= i may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use = of=20 =20 - co'e as a selbri place-holder: + co'e as a selbri place-holder: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8"/> mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme =20 I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. I try the door. =20 The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. co'erationale for word form The form of=20 - co'e was chosen to resemble=20 + co'e was chosen to resemble=20 =20 - zo'e; the cmavo=20 - do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 + zo'e; the cmavo=20 + do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 =20 ) also belongs to the same group of cma= vo. zo'e-seriescompared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti do'icompared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti Note that=20 - do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of ind= efinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to refer= ring only to an utterance. + do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. =20
Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series =20 =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: vo'a @@ -1502,48 +1502,48 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2"/> mi klama le zarci vo'e I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]. vo'e vo'apro-sumtireferring to place of different bridi with go'i-series To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions= like=20 - le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2n= d place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 + le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to = the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 . SOI selma'o soi= vice = versaEnglishexpressing with vo'a= -series pro-sumti and soi vo'a-series pro-sumtiuse in expre= ssing reciprocity with soi soiuse in expressing reciprocit= y with vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocityexpressing with vo= 'a-series pro-sumti and soi The cmavo of the vo'a-s= eries are also used with=20 - soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express recip= rocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase = like=20 + soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, = which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 =20 =20 vice versa: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in multiple examples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3"/> mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. =20 =20 I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 I and=20 you). soi with one follo= wing sumticonvention The signi= ficance of=20 - soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true e= ven if the x1 (specified by=20 - vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 - vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single= sumti follows=20 - soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 - soi is understood to be one of those involved:<= /para> + soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still = true even if the x1 (specified by=20 + vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 + vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 + soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 + soi is understood to be one of those involved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d4"/> mi prami do soi vo'a I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi]. = =20 again involves the x1 and x2 places. @@ -1551,73 +1551,73 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d5"/> mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i soi = vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that fr= om this). SEhU selma'o<= /primary> se= 'u se'= uelidability considerations <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">se'uas el= idable terminator for soi The elidable terminator f= or=20 - soi is=20 - se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed o= nly if there is just one sumti after the=20 - soi, and the=20 - soi construction is not at the end of the bridi= . Constructions using=20 - soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almo= st anywhere. Here is an example where=20 + soi is=20 + se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if t= here is just one sumti after the=20 + soi, and the=20 + soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constr= uctions using=20 + soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywh= ere. Here is an example where=20 =20 - se'u is required: + se'u is required: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6"/> mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that I run to this from that and vice versa.
sumti and bridi questions:=20 =20 - <jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase>mo</jbophrase> + ma and=20 + mo The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ma KOhA sumti question mo GOhA bridi question ma<= /indexterm> questionssumti maas sumti question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 , but=20 - ma and=20 - mo are listed in this chapter for completeness.= The cmavo=20 - ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: + ma and=20 + mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 + ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/> do klama ma You go to-what-destination? Where are you going? mo<= /indexterm> go'icompared with mo in overriding of arguments mocom= pared with go'i in overriding of arguments questionsselbri= mo<= /primary>as selbri question The cmavo=20 - mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which = makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the argu= ments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same man= ner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: + mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes th= e question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of= the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as t= he go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d2"/> do mo What predicate is true as applied to you? How are you? What are you doing? What are you? @@ -1643,51 +1643,51 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d4"/> doi ma O [what sumti?] which uses the vocative=20 - doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks= who the someone is.) + doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the= someone is.) =20 A further example of=20 - mo: + mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5"/> lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. Which person hit you? The big one. multiple moas multiple questions multiple maas multipl= e questions <= primary>multiple questions in one bridiexpressing When=20 - ma or=20 - mo is repeated, multiple questions are being as= ked simultaneously: + ma or=20 + mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simu= ltaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d6"/> ma djuno ma [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? Who knows what?
Relativized pro-sumti:=20 - <jbophrase>ke'a</jbophrase> + ke'a The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ke'a KOhA relativized sumti =20 ke'a relative claus= esuse of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in ke'afor relativized sumti in relative clauses pro-sumti= for relativized sumti in relative clauses This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 @@ -1697,66 +1697,66 @@ cat of plasticexample mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing= -being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic. I see a cat made of plastic. ke'aambiguity when omitted If=20 - ke'a were omitted from=20 + ke'a were omitted from=20 , it might be confused with:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d2"/> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat]= makes a-mass-of plastic I see a cat that makes plastic. ricontrasted with ke'a in relative clauses ke'acontras= ted with ri in relative clauses The anaphora cmavo= =20 =20 - ri cannot be used in place of=20 - ke'a in=20 + ri cannot be used in place of=20 + ke'a in=20 and=20 , because the relativized su= mti is not yet complete when the=20 =20 - ke'a appears. + ke'a appears. subscriptson ke'a for nested relative clauses = ke'asubs= cripting for nested relative clauses ke'aand abstract desc= riptions Note that=20 - ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and no= t with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of r= elative clauses within relative clauses,=20 - ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference = clear (see=20 + ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with o= ther embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative = clauses within relative clauses,=20 + ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (s= ee=20 ).
Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 - <jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> + ce'u The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ce'u KOhA abstraction focus ce'u The cmavo=20 - ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particul= arly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 + ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly pro= perty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 =20 - ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 - ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 + ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 + ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 . ce'uuse in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction property abstr= actionspecifying sumti place of property with ce'u In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a prope= rty of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 =20 =20 - ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish= clearly between: + ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>happiness</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1"/> le ka ce'u gleki the property-of (X being-happy) the property of being happy happiness @@ -1839,57 +1839,57 @@ da'o =20 DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi pro-bridi assignm= entstability of pro-sumti assignments= tability of How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi = remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or = pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have = the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the = cmavo belongs to. cei= goi bound variabl= e pro-sumtistability of assignable pro-sumtiexplicit cancellation of by rebinding assignable pro-sumtistability of personal pro-sumtistability of personal pr= o-sumtiimplicit cancellation of by change of speaker/l= istener Personal pro-sumti are stable until there i= s a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assigna= ble pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 - goi or=20 - cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi als= o generally last until re-bound; details are available in=20 + goi or=20 + cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 =20 . anaphoric pro-bri= distability of anaphoric pro-sumtista= bility of ke'astability of reflexive pro-sumtistability of utterance pro-sumtistability of Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in= which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within t= he bridi in which they appear; and=20 =20 - ke'a is stable only within its relative clause.= Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits dep= ending on the rules for the particular cmavo. + ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphor= ic pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending o= n the rules for the particular cmavo. indefinite pro-br= idistability of indefinite pro-sumtis= tability of <= primary>demonstrative pro-sumtistability of Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, = and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they = are used. =20 =20 DAhO selma'o<= /primary> da= 'o da'= osyntax of da'ofor cancellation of pr= o-sumti/pro-bridi assignment cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignmentwith da'o pro-bridi assignmentexplicit ca= ncellation of with da'o pro-sumti assignmentexplicit cance= llation of with da'o However, there are ways to can= cel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents.= (Some, such as=20 - mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as t= hey are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel ever= ything is with the cmavo=20 - da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for = this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of t= exts containing it. One use of=20 + mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are = used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything i= s with the cmavo=20 + da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this pur= pose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts con= taining it. One use of=20 =20 - da'o is when entering a conversation, to indica= te that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments= already made by other participants in the conversation. + da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that = one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already= made by other participants in the conversation. =20 pro-bridi assignm= entno'i effect on pro-sumti assignmentno'i effect on no'ieffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignme= nts = ni'oeffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments In addition, the cmavo=20 - ni'o and=20 - no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily = to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumt= i and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. Mor= e explanations of NIhO can be found in=20 + ni'o and=20 + no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indic= ate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pr= o-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explan= ations of NIhO can be found in=20 .
The identity predicate: du =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section: du GOhA identity du<= /indexterm> identity predica= te The cmavo=20 - du has the place structure: + du has the place structure: du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... durationale for selection of selma'o for and ap= pears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.=20 - du serves as mathematical=20 + du serves as mathematical=20 =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 . mintucontrasted with du ducontrasted with mintu The main difference between <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1"/> ko'a du le nanmu It-1 is-identical-to the man @@ -1901,103 +1901,103 @@ ko'a mintu le nanmu =20 It-1 is-the-same-as the man dumeaning of is this defining nature.=20 presumes that the speaker i= s responding to a request for information about what=20 - ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way= feels the need to define=20 - ko'a for later reference. A bridi with=20 - du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalingui= stically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same re= ferent. There may be any number of sumti associated with=20 - du, and all are said to be identical. + ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels t= he need to define=20 + ko'a for later reference. A bridi with=20 + du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically= saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. = There may be any number of sumti associated with=20 + du, and all are said to be identical. , however, predicates; it = is used to make a claim about the identity of=20 - ko'a, which presumably has been defined previou= sly. + ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously. dunlicontrasted with du ducontrasted with dunli duderivation of Note:=20 - du historically is derived from=20 - dunli, but=20 + du historically is derived from=20 + dunli, but=20 =20 - dunli has a third place which=20 + dunli has a third place which=20 =20 - du lacks: the standard of equality. + du lacks: the standard of equality.
lujvo based on pro-sumti pro-sumtirafsi for rafsibased on pro-sumti= There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, bu= t they are rarely used. (See=20 for a complete list.) The obv= ious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place = of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually sta= nd as the first rafsi in their lujvo. you-talkexample pro-sumti r= afsieffect of on place structure of lujvo<= /indexterm> lujvo<= secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 - donta'a, meaning=20 + donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 =20 - tavla be do, and would have the place structure= + tavla be do, and would have the place str= ucture t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 since t2 (the addressee) is already known to = be=20 - do. + do. you-cmavoexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 - donma'o, literally=20 + donma'o, literally=20 you-cmavo, which means=20 =20 a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 - cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure: + cmavo be zo do, and have the place struct= ure: c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 since both the c2 place (the grammatical clas= s) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the c= ontext=20 - do. + do. fo'a pro-sumti rafs= ianticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient form= s An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 =20 - fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be = expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express,= or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example wo= uld be: + fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expresse= d in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are = formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:<= /para> =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3"/> fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. zi'o beverageexample zi'o raf= sieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi effect on place structure of Fin= ally, lujvo involving=20 - zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed= in=20 + zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for - zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the ra= fsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a bever= age (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 + zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for = the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (som= ething drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 =20 =20 - se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to th= is is=20 - zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of=20 - se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashio= n would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 - zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as=20 - zilrelselpinxe, and=20 - lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 - lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and no= t to a non-existent drinker. + se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding= to this is=20 + zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place= of=20 + se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this = fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 + zilpavypinxe has the same place structure= as=20 + zilrelselpinxe, and=20 + lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 + lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, = and not to a non-existent drinker. =20 bu'aco'e pro-bridi raf= sias producing context-dependent meanings<= /indexterm> The pro-bridi=20 - co'e,=20 + co'e,=20 =20 - du, and=20 - bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as= if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 - du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanin= gs. + du, and=20 + bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they= were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 + du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent = meanings.
KOhA cmavo by series mi-series mi I (rafsi: mib) do - you (rafsi: don and doi) + you (rafsi: don and doi= ) mi'o you and I mi'a I and others, we but not you @@ -2083,29 +2083,29 @@ ko'o it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti ko'u it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti fo'a - it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'= a) + it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'a) fo'e - it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'= e) + it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'e) fo'i - it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'= i) + it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'i) fo'o it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti fo'u it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti @@ -2132,21 +2132,21 @@ zo'e the obvious value zu'i the typical value zi'o - the nonexistent value (rafsi: zil) + the nonexistent value (rafsi: zil) =20 vo'a-series vo'a x1 of this bridi @@ -2273,30 +2273,30 @@ bu'i some-predicate-3 =20 others: co'e - has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e) + has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e) mo bridi question du identity: x1 is identical to= x2, x3 ... - + dub du'o
Other cmavo discussed in this chapter goi diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 0ddc1d6..fe12615 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -16,49 +16,49 @@ relative pro-sumti =20 ku'o KUhO relative clause terminator Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 - ti if it is nearby, or=20 - ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 - tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained i= n full in=20 + ti if it is nearby, or=20 + ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 + tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full i= n=20 .) referenceambiguity of ti/ta/tu However, even wi= th the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may b= e appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell= just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in par= ticular, in the direction of his or her face), and says: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1"/> ti cu barda This-one is-big. What is the referent of=20 - ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the pers= on's nose? Or even (for=20 - ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean= =20 + ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nos= e? Or even (for=20 + ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean=20 =20 these ones as well as=20 this one) the pores on the person's nose? KUhO selma'o NOI= selma'o referenceuse of relative clause for relative clauseuse for reference To help solve th= is problem, Lojban uses a construction called a=20 relative clause. Relative clauses are usually attached = to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, = as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of= selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator=20 - ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,= =20 - noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first w= e will discuss the cmavo=20 - poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. + ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,=20 + noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will d= iscuss the cmavo=20 + poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. ke'aas referent for relativized sumti referenceto relat= ivized sumti with ke'a relativized sumtidefinition poisyntax of In between the=20 - poi and the=20 - ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax= as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pr= o-sumti=20 - ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stan= ds for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 + poi and the=20 + ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any = other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti= =20 + ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for t= he sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2"/> ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large. This thing which is a person is big. @@ -82,26 +82,26 @@ ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-bi= g. These things which are nose-pores are big. These nose-pores are big. big nose-poresexample big noseexample big person= example ITas notation convention in relative cl= ause chapter In the literal translations throughout= this chapter, the word=20 IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 - ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the = sumti (in=20 + ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 through=20 , the cmavo=20 - ti) to which the relative clause is attached. + ti) to which the relative clause is attached. ke'anon-initial place use in relative clause Of= course, there is no reason why=20 - ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relat= ive clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi= within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: + ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5"/> tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a= -rat. That thing which the cat dragged is a rat. What the cat dragged is a rat. @@ -111,66 +111,66 @@ ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. That thing that I want to own is a boat. In=20 ,=20 - ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstract= ions are explained in=20 + ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 ) within a relative clause. - relative clauseeffect of omission of ke'a on ke'aeffect of omission of Like any su= mti,=20 - ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in t= hat case is that it then falls into the x1 place: + relative clauseeffect of omission of ke'a on= ke'a<= secondary>effect of omission of Like any sumti,=20 + ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d7"/> ti poi nazbi cu barda This-thing which is-a-nose is-big. almost certainly means the same thing as=20 . However,=20 - ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the liste= ner that it belongs in some place other than x1: + ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that= it belongs in some place other than x1: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d8"/> tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat is equivalent to=20 . ku'oelidability for relative clauses As stated = before,=20 - ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it = is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 - ku'o will not be written in any of the examples= unless it is absolutely required: thus,=20 + ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almos= t always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 + ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless = it is absolutely required: thus,=20 can be written: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d9"/> ti poi prenu cu barda That which is-a-person is-big. That person is big. poidiscussion of translation without any change= in meaning. Note that=20 - poi is translated=20 + poi is translated=20 which rather than=20 such-that when=20 - ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the = relative clause bridi. The word=20 + ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative= clause bridi. The word=20 which is used in English to introduce English relative = clauses: other words that can be used are=20 who and=20 that, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d10"/> I saw a man who was going to the store. and @@ -195,23 +195,23 @@ noi NOI incidental relative clause introducer =20 relative clausesrestricted contrasted with incidental non-restrictive relati= ve clausedefinition (see also incidental relative clau= se) = incidental relative clausedefinition restrictive relative = clausedefinition relative clauserestr= ictive (see also restrictive relative clause) relative clauseskinds of There are two basic kinds of relative = clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by=20 =20 - poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 + poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 - noi. The difference between restrictive and inc= idental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information th= at is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are = attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional informatio= n which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the= referent of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 + noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 are restrictive relative clauses: the = information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The tit= le of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.) =20 =20 Consider the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1"/> le gerku poi blanu cu barda @@ -224,90 +224,90 @@ le gerku noi blanu cu barda The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large. The dog, which is blue, is large. In=20 , the information conveyed b= y=20 - poi blanu is essential to identifying the dog i= n question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dog= s that are blue. This is why=20 - poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In= =20 + poi blanu is essential to identifying the= dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general = to dogs that are blue. This is why=20 + poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In=20 , on the other hand, the dog= which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and t= he relative clause=20 - noi blanu just provides additional information = about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the rela= tive clause does not help identify it further.) + noi blanu just provides additional inform= ation about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then th= e relative clause does not help identify it further.) incidental relati= ve clauseas a parenthetical device commaeffect on relative clause in English relative clausesef= fect of commas in English relative clausesrestricted contr= asted with incidental in English expression In Engl= ish, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is= expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, claus= es with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incide= ntal relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in pu= nctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In add= ition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by=20 =20 =20 that as well as=20 which and=20 who, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin w= ith=20 that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo=20 - poi and=20 - noi rather than punctuation or intonation to ma= ke the distinction. + poi and=20 + noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the d= istinction. Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3"/> mi noi jdice cu zvati I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place]. I, a judge, am present. In this example,=20 - mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the = additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the l= istener's edification. + mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the addition= al information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener'= s edification. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d4"/> xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. Do you see my car, which is white? In=20 , the speaker is presumed to= have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is whit= e. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since=20 - le karce can be plural, in which case the incid= ental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 + le karce can be plural, in which case the= incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 =20 with a restrictive relative= clause: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5"/> xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi [True?] You see my car which is-white. Do you see my car that is white? Do you see my white car? relative clausecompared with tanru Here the spe= aker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumt= i=20 - le mi karce (and thereby the listener's attenti= on) to the white one only.=20 + le mi karce (and thereby the listener's a= ttention) to the white one only.=20 means much the same as=20 , which does not use a relat= ive clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d6"/> xu do viska le mi blabi karce [True?] You see my white car. Do you see my car, the white one? relative clausecontrasted with tanru So a restr= ictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as= a description involving a tanru. However,=20 =20 - blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague:= in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even = express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the= restrictive relative clause of=20 + blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat = vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or= even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-nes= s; the restrictive relative clause of=20 =20 can only refer to a car whi= ch is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.
Relative phrases The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pe GOI @@ -345,22 +345,22 @@ =20 =20 ge'u GEhU relative phrase terminator GOI selma'o relativ= e phraseas an abbreviation of a common relative clause= rel= ative phrasesyntax of relative phrase= rationale for There are types of relative clauses (= those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, a= nd can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phr= ases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo fol= lowed by a single sumti. - loose association<= /primary>expressing with pe peas loose associat= ion = pecompared with poi ke'a srana<= /secondary> Here is an example of=20 - pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relativ= e clause: + loose association<= /primary>expressing with pe peas loose associat= ion = pecompared with poi ke'a srana Here is an example of=20 + pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1"/> le stizu pe mi cu blanu The chair associated-with me is-blue. My chair is blue. @@ -369,22 +369,22 @@ le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue. In=20 and=20 , the link between the chair= and the speaker is of the loosest kind. - specificityexpressing with po possessionexpressing wi= th po poas restrictive possession = pocompa= red with poi ke'a se steci srana Here is an example of=20 - po: + specificityexpressing with po possessionexpressing wi= th po poas restrictive possession = pocompa= red with poi ke'a se steci srana Here is an example of=20 + po: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d3"/> le stizu po mi cu xunre The chair specific-to me is red. @@ -396,31 +396,31 @@ The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me)= is-red. pocontrasted with pe pecontrasted with po<= /indexterm>=20 and=20 contrast with=20 and=20 : the chair is more permanen= tly connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) = contrast between=20 and=20 is that=20 - pe mi would be appropriate for a chair the spea= ker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), = and=20 - po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (whether= or not he or she was currently occupying it). + pe mi would be appropriate for a chair th= e speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that ch= air), and=20 + po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (w= hether or not he or she was currently occupying it). pocontrasted with English possession As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by=20 - po is usually called=20 + po is usually called=20 possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (=20 =20 - steci in Lojban). - inalienable posses= sionexpressing with po'e intrinsic possessionexpressing with po'e possessionintrinsicexpressing with po'e po'eas intrinsic possessio= n po= 'ecompared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci = srana Here is an example of=20 - po'e, as well as another example of=20 + steci in Lojban). + inalienable posses= sionexpressing with po'e intrinsic possessionexpressing with po'e possessionintrinsicexpressing with po'e po'eas intrinsic possessio= n po= 'ecompared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se ste= ci srana Here is an example of=20 + po'e, as well as another example of=20 =20 - po: + po: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5"/> le birka po'e mi cu spofu =20 The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken @@ -464,66 +464,66 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d8"/> le birka be mi cu spofu The arm of-body me is broken intrinsic possess= ionexpressing by using place in some selbri reflecting the fact that the gismu=20 - birka has an x2 place representing the body to = which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can= be thus covered without using=20 + birka has an x2 place representing the body to which th= e arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus= covered without using=20 =20 =20 - po'e by placing the possessor into the appropri= ate place of the description selbri. + po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate plac= e of the description selbri. =20 Here is an example of=20 - po'u: + po'u: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d9"/> le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi The dog which-is my friend kisses me. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d10"/> le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi The dog which =3D my friend kisses me. - identityexpressing with po'u po'uas identity po'ucompared with poi ke'a du<= /indexterm> The cmavo=20 - po'u does not represent possession at all, but = rather identity. (Note that it means=20 - poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the r= elationship.) + identityexpressing with po'u po'uas identity po'ucompared with poi ke'a du The cmavo=20 + po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather i= dentity. (Note that it means=20 + poi du and its form was chosen to suggest= the relationship.) In=20 , the use of=20 - po'u tells us that=20 - le gerku and=20 - le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider = the contrast between=20 + po'u tells us that=20 + le gerku and=20 + le mi pendo represent the same thing. Con= sider the contrast between=20 and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d11"/> le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi My friend which-is the dog kisses me. po'urelative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of= The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowled= ge about the situation may not be. In=20 , the listener is presumed n= ot to understand which dog is meant by=20 - le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative phrase= clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend. + le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative = phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's frie= nd. , however, assumes that the = listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and s= pecifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be ob= vious). Here is another example of the same contrast: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d12"/> le tcadu po'u la nu,iork The city of New York [not another city] @@ -560,42 +560,42 @@ cup's friendexample friend's cupexample=20 is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive =E2=80=93=20 the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense =E2=80=93 = but Lojban has no trouble doing so. =20 incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 - ne and=20 - no'u stand to=20 + ne and=20 + no'u stand to=20 =20 - pe and=20 - po'u, respectively, as=20 - noi does to=20 - poi- they provide incidental information: + pe and=20 + po'u, respectively, as=20 + noi does to=20 + poi- they provide incidental information:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d16"/> le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.<= /gloss> The white dog, which is mine, bites you. In=20 , the white dog is already f= ully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him= or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi= claim. po'ucontrasted with no'u no'ucontrasted with po'u Distinguishing between=20 - po'u and=20 - no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room wi= th several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their nam= es, I might say: + po'u and=20 + no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with sever= al men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I mi= ght say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d17"/> le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci =20 The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet. The man, Jim, is a poet. @@ -625,157 +625,157 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d20"/> le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket. hands in pockets<= /primary>example is very natural. Of cou= rse, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or ano= ther's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified. GEhU selma'o<= /primary> goirationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter ge'ueffect of following logical connective on elidability logica= l connectiveseffect on elidability of ge'u from preced= ing relative phrase ge'uelidability of from relative phras= es Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo i= s=20 - ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never requir= ed. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified b= y a relative phrase, then an explicit=20 - ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affec= t the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What= about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 + ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howe= ver, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a rela= tive phrase, then an explicit=20 + ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the re= lativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about t= he cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 =20 , as it is not semantical= ly akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the = same.)
Multiple relative clauses:=20 - <jbophrase>zi'e</jbophrase> + zi'e zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner ZIhE selma'o<= /primary> multip= le relative clausesattaching with zi'e Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relati= ve clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 - zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join o= ne or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them a= pply to the same sumti. For example: + zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mo= re relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to = the same sumti. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d1"/> le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. zi'ecompared with English and <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">zi'econtr= asted with logical connectives The most usual trans= lation of=20 - zi'e in English is=20 + zi'e in English is=20 and, but=20 - zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike= most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 + zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of= the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 ), it cannot be converted into = a logical connection between sentences. relative phraseconnecting to relative clause with zi'e relative clauseconnecting to relative phrase with zi'e multiple relative claus= esconnecting different kinds with zi'e It is perfectly correct to use=20 - zi'e to connect relative clauses of different k= inds: + zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d2"/> le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klam= a The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my frie= nd owns IT) goes. The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going. In=20 , the restrictive clause=20 - poi blabi specifies which dog is referred to, b= ut the incidental clause=20 - noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incidental inf= ormation: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from = the=20 - poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though not n= ecessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first= . + poi blabi specifies which dog is referred= to, but the incidental clause=20 + noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incident= al information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog= from the=20 + poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though= not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears= first. zi'euse in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause<= /secondary> It is also possible to connect relative phrases wit= h=20 - zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clau= se: + zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d3"/> le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken. My blue bottle is broken. Note that if the colloquial translation of=20 were=20 My bottle, which is blue, is broken, then=20 - noi rather than=20 - poi would have been correct in the Lojban versi= on, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know = the bottle is blue. As written,=20 + noi rather than=20 + poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, sinc= e that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bott= le is blue. As written,=20 suggests that I probably ha= ve more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as = the blue one. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4"/> mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. =20 my chairexample=20 illustrates that more than = two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 - zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation b= ecause of the very un-English contrast between=20 - pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily c= onnected with me, and=20 - po do, implying that the chair has a more perma= nent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which ca= se the chair would naturally be your property.) + zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 + pe mi, implying that the chair is tempora= rily connected with me, and=20 + po do, implying that the chair has a more= permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in wh= ich case the chair would naturally be your property.) Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5"/> mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e no= i do dunda ke'a mi I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-u= pon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.<= /en> =20
Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 - <jbophrase>voi</jbophrase> + voi voi NOI non-veridical relative clause introducer There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 - voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 - voi are restrictive, like those introduced by= =20 - poi. However, there is a fundamental difference= between=20 - poi and=20 - voi relative clauses. A=20 - poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in= the same sense that a description using=20 - lo or=20 - loi is: it is essential to the interpretation t= hat the bridi actually be true. For example: + voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 + voi are restrictive, like those introduced by=20 + poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between= =20 + poi and=20 + voi relative clauses. A=20 + poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the sam= e sense that a description using=20 + lo or=20 + loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the = bridi actually be true. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d1"/> le gerku poi blabi cu klama The dog which is-white goes. it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence = constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, an= d the speaker uses=20 - le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, t= hen the listener will not understand correctly. However, + le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown = dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d2"/> le gerku voi blabi cu klama The dog which-I-describe-as white goes. puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not act= ually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only th= e speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,=20 - voi is like=20 - le; the speaker's intention determines the mean= ing. + voi is like=20 + le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning. As a result, the following two sentences <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d3"/> le nanmu cu ninmu That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. The=20 guy is actually a gal. @@ -785,52 +785,52 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d4"/> ti voi nanmu cu ninmu This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. mean essentially the same thing (except that=20 involves pointing thanks to= the use of=20 - ti, whereas=20 + ti, whereas=20 doesn't), and neither one i= s self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a = man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a w= oman.
Relative clauses and descriptors So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 - le,=20 - lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but= before the elidable terminator (which is=20 - ku), and after the=20 - ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptor= s that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 + le,=20 + lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 + ku), and after the=20 + ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out with all el= idable terminators, would appear as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1"/> le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. The dog which is white is going. Here=20 - ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 - poi and=20 - ku with=20 - le, and=20 - vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. + ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 + poi and=20 + ku with=20 + le, and=20 + vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. When a simple descriptor using=20 - le, like=20 - le gerku, has a relative clause attached, it is= purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go.= Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to=20 + le, like=20 + le gerku, has a relative clause attached,= it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause shou= ld go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d2"/> le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes. @@ -840,44 +840,44 @@ le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama The (dog) which is-white goes. will seem most natural to= speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses aft= er the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 , on the other hand, may s= eem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative claus= e first. Note that in=20 , the elidable terminator= =20 - ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relati= ve clause (=20 - blabi) will merge with the selbri of the desc= ription (=20 - gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentenc= e. The purpose of the form appearing in=20 + ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative claus= e (=20 + blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description = (=20 + gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The p= urpose of the form appearing in=20 will be apparent shortly. As is explained in detail in=20 , two different num= bers (known as the=20 inner quantifier and the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4"/> re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. =20 - mu is the inner quantifier and=20 - re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant= by attaching a relative clause to the sumti=20 - re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause i= s=20 - poi ninmu (meaning=20 + mu is the inner quantifier and=20 + re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by atta= ching a relative clause to the sumti=20 + re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative cl= ause is=20 + poi ninmu (meaning=20 who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d5"/> re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-t= he market. Two women out of the five persons go to the market. @@ -899,38 +899,38 @@ re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.= Two women out of the five persons go to the market. As the parentheses show,=20 means that all five of the = persons are women, whereas=20 means that the two who are = going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the re= lative clause comes after the explicit=20 - ku, as in=20 + ku, as in=20 , then the sumti as a whole = is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no=20 - ku, or if the relative clause comes before an e= xplicit=20 - ku, then the relative clause is understood to a= pply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to. + ku, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit= =20 + ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to = everything which the underlying selbri applies to. What about=20 ? By convention, it means th= e same as=20 , and it requires no=20 - ku, but it does typically require a=20 - ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause com= es before the inner quantifier. + ku, but it does typically require a=20 + ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes befor= e the inner quantifier. When=20 - le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti = has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood t= o be=20 - ro (meaning=20 + le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no e= xplicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be=20 + ro (meaning=20 all), as is explained in=20 . Thus=20 - le gerku is taken to mean=20 + le gerku is taken to mean=20 all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 - ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is= =20 - lo, the difference is quite important: + ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 + lo, the difference is quite important: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8"/> lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the marke= t. Some people, who are white, go to the market. @@ -940,39 +940,39 @@ lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the marke= t. Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market= . Both=20 and=20 tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 - lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inne= r quantifier is=20 - ro (meaning=20 + lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the defaul= t inner quantifier is=20 + ro (meaning=20 all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 - su'o (meaning=20 + su'o (meaning=20 at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= =20 In=20 , the relative clause descri= bed the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, wh= o are white, are going. But in=20 , the relative clause actual= ly describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that = it ends up meaning=20 First take all persons =E2=80=93 by the way, they're all white<= /quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made h= ere is false. =20 relative clauses = on losyntax suggestion The saf= e strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 - ku when attaching a=20 - noi relative clause to a=20 - lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming= far too much. + ku when attaching a=20 + noi relative clause to a=20 + lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too= much. relative clauses = and namesplacement considerations relative clauseson names relative clausesas part of name relative= clausesimpact of la on placement When the descriptor is=20 - la, indicating that what follows is a selbri us= ed for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different sig= nificance. A relative clause inside the=20 - ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reck= oned part of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 - ku is not. Therefore, + la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 + ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 + ku is not. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10"/> mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] I see that-named (=20 man which fears the of-IT horse). I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. @@ -988,48 +988,48 @@ Man) which fears the of-IT horse. I see the person named=20 Man who is afraid of his horse. refers to one (or more) of those named=20 Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> relative clauses = and indefinite sumtiplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of indefinite sumti on placement= Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 =20 =20 - re karce, which means almost the same as=20 - re lo karce (which in turn means the same as=20 - re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses atta= ched; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 - ku variety. Here is an example: + re karce, which means almost the same as= =20 + re lo karce (which in turn means the same= as=20 + re lo ro karce), can have relative clause= s attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 + ku variety. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12"/> mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri I possess two cars which-are black. relative clauses = on indefinite sumtisyntax considerations relative clauses<= /primary>syntax with indefinite sumti Th= e restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by t= he main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place= a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitl= y expressed terminating=20 =20 =20 =20 - ku.) Use an explicit=20 - lo instead. + ku.) Use an explicit=20 + lo instead.
Possessive sumti possessive sumticompared with relative phrase <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">relative phrasecompared with possessive sumti sumtibetween descript= or and description selbri In=20 through=20 , the sumti=20 - le mi karce appears, glossed as=20 + le mi karce appears, glossed as=20 my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 - pe relative phrase. So + pe relative phrase. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1"/> le mi karce cu xunre My car is-red. myexample and @@ -1049,53 +1049,53 @@ le karce pe mi cu xunre The car associated-with me is-red. possessor sumtidefinition possessive sumtidefinition means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one i= n=20 is called a=20 possessive sumti. Of course, it does not really indicat= e possession in the sense of ownership, but like=20 =20 - pe relative phrases, indicates only weak associ= ation; you can say=20 - le mi karce even if you've only borrowed it for= the night. (In English,=20 + pe relative phrases, indicates only weak association; y= ou can say=20 + le mi karce even if you've only borrowed = it for the night. (In English,=20 my car usually means=20 - le karce po mi, but we do not have the same sen= se of possession in=20 + le karce po mi, but we do not have the sa= me sense of possession in=20 my seat on the bus; Lojban simply makes the weaker sens= e the standard one.) The inner sumti,=20 =20 - mi in=20 + mi in=20 , is correspondingly called = the=20 possessor sumti. relative clauses = and possessive sumtidevelopment history possessive sumti a= nd relative clausesdevelopment history Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of re= lative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative p= hrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. = When preposed relative clauses of the=20 =20 type were devised, possessi= ve sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them. =20 numbers= as possessive sumti quotationsas possessive sum= ti d= escriptionsas possessive sumti= namesa= s possessive sumti pro-sumtias possessive sumti relative phras= escontrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allow= ed p= ossessive sumticontrasted with relative phrases in com= plexity allowed possessive sumtisyntax allowed= Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fled= ged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, witho= ut a=20 =20 - pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti= are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In additi= on, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form= would be interpreted as the unusual=20 + pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. Al= l these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 . Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4"/> le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. The man's car is blue. possessive sumti<= /primary>effect on elidability of ku kueffect o= f possessive sumti on elidability of Note the expli= cit=20 - ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which pre= vents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the= main description sumti. Because of the need for this=20 - ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are= pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable termin= ator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. + ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents th= e selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main de= scription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 + ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. =20 And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5"/> le li mu jdice se bende The of-the-number-five judging team-member Juror number 5 @@ -1108,40 +1108,40 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6"/> le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.= means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of=20 - noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. I= f I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I wou= ld need: + noi sipna applies to me, not my car, howe= ver. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean)= I would need: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d7"/> le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama The of-me car which sleeps isn't going. ku'oeffect of vau on elidability vaueffect on elidabil= ity ku'o Note that=20 uses=20 - vau rather than=20 - ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this te= rminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this cas= e, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 + vau rather than=20 + ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this terminator= ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, thoug= h, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 =20 - ku'o. + ku'o.
Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 - <jbophrase>vu'o</jbophrase> + vu'o The following cmavo is discussed in this section: vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: =20 @@ -1181,90 +1181,90 @@ la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 The Red Pony is in the far room. =20 red pony= example=20 is a bit complex, and may n= eed some picking apart. The quotation=20 - lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the string of w= ords=20 + lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the strin= g of words=20 The Red Pony. If the=20 =20 - la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omit= ted,=20 + la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 would claim that a certain = string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a stri= ng of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 - la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers n= ot to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by = John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of= =20 + la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to th= e words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Ste= inbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative = clause.=20 =20 =20 means exactly the same as:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4"/> la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u poi to'ercitno cu zvati l= e vu kumfa A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which= is-old is-at the [far distance] room. and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note= the required=20 - lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative cl= ause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an = old quotation! + lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause fro= m attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quot= ation! =20 relative clauses<= /primary>on connected sumti Sometimes, h= owever, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a m= ore complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (ex= plained in=20 =20 ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5"/> la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. The incidental claim in=20 is not that Frank and Georg= e are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative c= lause attaches only to=20 =20 - la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sum= ti. + la djordj, the immediately preceding simp= le sumti. =20 VUhO selma'o<= /primary> relati= ve clause scopeextending to preceding sumti with vu'o<= /secondary> To make a relative clause attach to both parts of t= he logically connected sumti in=20 , a new cmavo is needed,=20 - vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between th= e sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of tha= t relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many log= ical or non-logical connectives there may be. + vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti = and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relati= ve clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or = non-logical connectives there may be. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6"/> la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.<= /gloss> Frank and George, who are men, go to the house. The presence of=20 - vu'o here means that the relative clause=20 - noi nanmu extends to the entire logically conne= cted sumti=20 - la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, both F= rank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.= + vu'o here means that the relative clause=20 + noi nanmu extends to the entire logically= connected sumti=20 + la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, = both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation = shows. relative clauses = on complex sumtiLojban contrasted with English English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in th= e case of=20 and=20 by making use of number:=20 who is rather than=20 who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular an= d plural verbs:=20 =20 =20 - nanmu can mean=20 + nanmu can mean=20 is a man or=20 are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 - nanmu (meaning=20 + nanmu (meaning=20 is-a-man) were replaced with=20 - pu bajra (=20 + pu bajra (=20 ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7"/> la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house. Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. @@ -1312,22 +1312,22 @@ fi'i la frank. .e la djordj. =20 Welcome, Frank and George! Note that=20 says farewell to something = which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply = thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for examp= le) who is named=20 Horse. In a sense,=20 is ambiguous between=20 - co'o le xirma and=20 - co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambig= uity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 + co'o le xirma and=20 + co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic= ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges= . Similarly,=20 can be thought of as an abb= reviation of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d4"/> coi la frank. Hello, the-one-named=20 @@ -1382,56 +1382,56 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d1"/> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow. ke'a with subscri= ptuse for outer sumti reference subscriptsuse with ke'a for outer sumti reference inner sumtire= ferring to from within relative clause within relative clause outer sumtireferring to from within relative clause within relative cla= use = relativized sumtiin relative clauses within relative c= lauses ke'ameaning in relative clause inside relative clau= se However, an ambiguity can exist if=20 - ke'a is used in a relative clause within a rela= tive clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within t= he outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? Th= e latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 - ke'a: + ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative cla= use: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer= relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter= . To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 + ke'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2"/> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. The person who is in the room which he built is slow. =20 room which he buil= texample Here, the meaning of= =20 IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 - ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 + ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as pla= in=20 =20 - ke'a. + ke'a. prenex<= secondary>use for outer sumti reference outer sumtiprenex = for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in= =20 ), which is syntactically a ser= ies of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 - zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: + zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3"/> le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a = goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. is more verbose than=20 , but may be clearer, sinc= e it explicitly spells out the two=20 - ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assign= s them to the assignable cmavo=20 - ko'a and=20 - ko'e (explained in Chapter=20 + ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them t= o the assignable cmavo=20 + ko'a and=20 + ko'e (explained in Chapter=20 ).
Index of relative clause cmavo relative clauses<= /primary>list of cmavo for Relative clau= se introducers (selma'o NOI): noi incidental clauses diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index df6eb58..4888fa6 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -1,86 +1,86 @@ To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals
Introductory relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 - sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Loj= ban grammatical form called a=20 - selbri. + sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 + selbri. sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. goexample = x1in place structure notation place structurenotation conventions klamaplace structure= of The stock example of a place structure is that = of the gismu=20 - klama: + klama: - klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from o= rigin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5. + klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3= via route x4 employing means of transport x5. The=20 x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 - klama is a five-place predicate, and show the n= atural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent= , destination, origin, route, means. + klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. place structureinstability of The place structu= res of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work d= one so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all = users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the indi= vidual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of chan= ge to the brivla place structures.
Standard bridi form:=20 - <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> + cu The following cmavo is discussed in this section: cu CU prefixed selbri separator =20 bridibuilding from selbri and sumti The most us= ual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as=20 - klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to = place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the ot= her sumti in order after the selbri, thus: + klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place th= e sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumt= i in order after the selbri, thus: go to Boston from= Atlantaexample Boston from Atlantaex= ample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1"/> mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows: =20 x1 agent - mi + mi x2 destination - la bastn. + la bastn. x3 origin - la .atlantas. + la .atlantas. x4 route - le dargu + le dargu x5 means - le karce + le karce (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will tur= n out to have the same meaning as=20 ; this fact will not be reit= erated.) bridinon-standard form standard bridi formdefinition bridi= standard form of This ordering= , with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order= after the selbri, is called=20 standard bridi form, and is found in the bulk of Lojban= bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, = many other forms are possible, such as: =20 =20 @@ -100,47 +100,47 @@ mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. emphasischanging by using non-standard form of bridi bridieffect of using non-standard form All of the va= riant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emp= hasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard plac= es. Thus,=20 places emphasis on the selb= ri (because it is at the end);=20 emphasizes=20 - la bastn., because it has been moved before the= selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is per= mitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic = reordering. + la bastn., because it has been moved befo= re the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It = is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for dr= astic reordering. CU selma'o cueffect on elidable terminators cuusefulness= of = cunecessity of cuas selbri separator<= /secondary> In all these examples, the cmavo=20 - cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separat= e the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to = use=20 - cu. However, providing it helps the reader or l= istener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a c= omplex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable = terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be neces= sary. + cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the se= lbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use=20 + cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener = to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex s= umti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminat= ors, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary. =20 bridiselbri-first as exceptional selbri-first bridieff= ect on sumti places sumtiomitted first place in selbri-fir= st bridi sumtiorder in selbri-first bridi sumtiorder in selbri The general rule, then, is th= at the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain= their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if th= e selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4"/> klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car= ! =20 command= contrasted with observative form observative formcontrasted with command observativedefinition bridiexception to sumti place structure in = bridiomi= tting the first sumti place Here the x1 place is em= pty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In=20 ,=20 - klama is glossed=20 + klama is glossed=20 a goer rather than=20 go because=20 Go at the beginning of an English sentence would sugges= t a command:=20 Go to Boston!.=20 is not a command, simply a = normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fal= l on the selbri=20 - klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called a= n=20 + klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an=20 observative, because it usually calls on the listener t= o observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. = The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is = the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe. =20 (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put= the selbri first in the bridi: see=20 .) bridileaving end sumti places unspecified in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">sumtidrop= ping trailing unspecified unspecified trailing sumtidroppi= ng Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place othe= r than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or anothe= r, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5"/> @@ -154,38 +154,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6"/> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. - le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore= =20 + le karce occupies the x4 place, and the= refore=20 means: I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7"/> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using= -the car. place structuresomitting places with zo'e place structureleaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bridileav= ing a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e zo'eas place-ho= lder for unspecified sumti unspecified sumtiusing zo'e as = place-holder for Here the sumti cmavo=20 - zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;= =20 - zo'e means=20 + zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;=20 + zo'e means=20 the unspecified thing and has the same meaning as leavi= ng the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from contex= t.
Tagging places: FA The following cmavo are discussed in this section: fa FA tags x1 place @@ -212,112 +212,112 @@ fi'a =20 FA place structure question FA selma'o FA selma'= osyntax of In sentences like= =20 , it is easy to get lost and= forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more = complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of = selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo=20 - fa,=20 - fe,=20 - fi,=20 - fo, and=20 - fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the= x1 to x5 places respectively: + fa,=20 + fe,=20 + fi,=20 + fo, and=20 + fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x= 5 places respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1"/> fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. =20 =20 FA selma'ofor accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number sumti<= /primary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA place struc= tureexplicitly mapping sumti to place with FA place struct= ureeffect of FA on FA selma'oeffect o= n place structure In=20 , the tag=20 - fu before=20 - le karce clarifies that=20 - le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 - klama. The use of=20 - fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meanin= g of the x5 place; it simply says that=20 - le karce occupies it. + fu before=20 + le karce clarifies that=20 + le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 + klama. The use of=20 + fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the= x5 place; it simply says that=20 + le karce occupies it. In=20 , the tags are overkill; the= y serve only to make=20 even longer than it is. Her= e is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d2"/> fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IOR= K. x1=3D I go x2=3D (the house of me) which is-rural x3=3D New= York. In=20 , the place structure of=20 - klama is as follows: + klama is as follows: =20 =20 x1 agent - mi + mi x2 destination - le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau + le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau x3 origin - la nu,IORK. + la nu,IORK. x4 route (empty) x5 means (empty) FA selma'oas a reminder of place in place structure The=20 - fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what fo= llows is in the x3 place of=20 - klama; after listening to the complex sumti occ= upying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost. + fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is= in the x3 place of=20 + klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying t= he x2 place, it's easy to get lost. sumtire-ordering with FA selbri-first bridispecifying = first sumti place in with fa place structure ordereffect o= f FA on FA selma'oeffect on place structure order Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in wh= ich they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the p= laces. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order= desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginni= ng: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d3"/> klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le d= argu go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D t= he road. Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road. selbri-first bridi= effect on use of cu cueffect of selbr= i-first bridi on Note that no=20 - cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 + cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 , because=20 - cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumt= i, and=20 + cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and= =20 has no such sumti. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d4"/> fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I. @@ -332,123 +332,123 @@ le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the rout= e, using me as a means of transport. the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical. zo'ecompared with FA for omitting places FA selma'ocom= pared with zo'e for omitting places place structuresomitti= ng places with FA Tagging places with FA cmavo make= s it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones,= without any need for=20 - zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: + zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d6"/> klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car. A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car. Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged = with=20 - fa or=20 - fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in= reverse order. + fa or=20 + fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse= order. FA selma'oeffect on subsequent non-tagged places What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after= a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically su= cceeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7"/> klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. =20 In=20 , the=20 - fa causes=20 - mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the followi= ng untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mec= hanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a s= umti for the x1 place. + fa causes=20 + mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untag= ged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism b= y which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for= the x1 place. Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8"/> mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car. I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car. In=20 ,=20 - mi occupies the x1 place because it is the firs= t sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 - la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by virtue = of the tag=20 - =20 - fi, and=20 - le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of f= ollowing=20 - la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 - la bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its = tag=20 - fe, and=20 - le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and= x4 places to land in the x5 place. + mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti = in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 + la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by v= irtue of the tag=20 + =20 + fi, and=20 + le dargu occupies the x4 place as a resul= t of following=20 + la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 + la bastn. occupies the x2 place because o= f its tag=20 + fe, and=20 + le karce skips over the already-occupied = x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place. FA selma'oavoidance of complex usage of Such a = convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a = literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; t= he rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation = is possible. multiple sumti in= one placemeaning sumtimultiple in on= e place with FA FA selma'ofor putting more than one sumti = in a single place It is grammatically permitted to = tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of makin= g more than one claim: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9"/> [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to [x2=3D] the movie x2=3D the= house x2=3D the office to moviehouseoffice: example multiple sumti in one pla= ceavoiding may be taken to say= that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, mergin= g six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the lis= tener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in= =20 ), to say such things in Lojban= . In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it c= an only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the provis= o above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti ca= n be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmav= o tagging it. give or receiveexample questionsplace structure positio= n pl= ace structure questions The cmavo=20 - fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Loj= ban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 + fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 =20 - fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supp= ly the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true stat= ement: + fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10"/> fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu =20 [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? In=20 , the speaker uses the selbr= i=20 - dunda, whose place structure is: + dunda, whose place structure is: - dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3 + dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3 answers= to place structure questions The tagged = sumti=20 - fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes to kn= ow whether the sumti=20 + fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes= to know whether the sumti=20 =20 - do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 plac= e is already occupied by=20 - le rozgu). The listener can reply with a senten= ce consisting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 - fa if the listener is the giver,=20 - fi if he/she is the receiver. + do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is alr= eady occupied by=20 + le rozgu). The listener can reply with a = sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 + fa if the listener is the giver,=20 + fi if he/she is the receiver. fi'aeffect on subsequent untagged sumti I have = inserted the tag=20 - fe in brackets into=20 + fe in brackets into=20 , but it is actually not nec= essary, because=20 - fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore= ,=20 + fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 =20 - le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 plac= e even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. + le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x= 2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the sel= bri. There is also another member of FA, namely=20 - fai, which is discussed in=20 + fai, which is discussed in=20 .
Conversion: SE The following cmavo are discussed in this section: se SE 2nd place conversion @@ -464,41 +464,41 @@ 4th place conversion xe SE 5th place conversion SE selma'o SE selma'= ofor converting place structure SE selma'oeffect on selbri place structure converted selbrias d= ifferent selbri from unconverted converted selbriplace s= tructure of <= primary>converted selbriforming with SE converted selbridefinition So far we have seen w= ays to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of = the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o S= E are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (call= ed a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, aft= er the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places r= emain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and anoth= er. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thu= s, for example, when=20 =20 - se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2= place. + se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.<= /para> SE selma'oword formation of cmavo in SE selma'orationa= le for no 1st place conversion Note that the cmavo = of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no= =20 1st place conversion cmavo, because exchanging the x1 p= lace with itself is a pointless maneuver. se klamaplace structure of Here are the place s= tructures of=20 - se klama: + se klama: x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5 te<= /indexterm> and=20 - te klama: + te klama: x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5 ve<= /indexterm> and=20 - ve klama: + ve klama: =20 x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 xe<= /indexterm> and=20 - xe klama: + xe klama: x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5 SE selma'oeffect on place structure numbering N= ote that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in = the usual order, x1 to x5. Consider the following pair of examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1"/> @@ -516,43 +516,43 @@ fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi x2 =3D Boston go x1=3DI. To Boston go I. converted selbri<= /primary>as resetting standard order FA in selbricompared with converted selbri in meaning converted selbricompared with selbri with FA in meaning FA in selbricont= rasted converted selbri with in structure converted selbri= contrasted with selbri with FA in structure=20 and=20 mean the same thing, in the= sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent = and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and mean= s). Structurally, however, they are quite different.=20 =20 has=20 - la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 - mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 - se klama, and uses standard bridi order;=20 + la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 + mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 + se klama, and uses standard bridi order;= =20 has=20 - mi in the x1 place and=20 - la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri=20 - klama, and uses a non-standard order. + mi in the x1 place and=20 + la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri= =20 + klama, and uses a non-standard order. LE selma'o LA s= elma'o converted selbriin descriptions The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descripti= ons. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE= , called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We h= ave already seen the descriptions=20 - le dargu and=20 - le karce. To this we could add: + le dargu and=20 + le karce. To this we could add: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3"/> le klama the go-er, the one who goes =20 the go-erexample converted selbrito access non-first p= lace in description descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of following selbri In every case, the description is about something which fits into = the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination = (that is, something fitting the x2 place of=20 - klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 - se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The = result is + klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 + se klama, whose x1 place is a destination= . The result is the destinationexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4"/> le se klama the destination gone to by someone =20 @@ -582,271 +582,271 @@ le xe klama the means by which someone goes pluta ve klama<= /primary> Mars r= oadexample plutacontrasted with ve kl= ama = ve klamacontrasted with pluta = converted selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricon= trasted with other similar selbri=20 does not mean=20 the route plain and simple: that is=20 - le pluta, using a different selbri. It means a = route that is used by someone for an act of=20 + le pluta, using a different selbri. It me= ans a route that is used by someone for an act of=20 =20 =20 - klama; that is, a journey with origin and desti= nation. A=20 + klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever l= ikely to, may be called=20 - le pluta, but it cannot be=20 + le pluta, but it cannot be=20 =20 =20 - le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom= it is=20 + le ve klama, since there exists no one fo= r whom it is=20 =20 - le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in an act= ual journey by someone [da]). + le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in = an actual journey by someone [da]). =20 ke'e ke conversionextending scope of conversionscope of SE sel= ma'oextending scope of SE selma'oscop= e of When converting selbri that are more complex t= han a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmav= o is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an= entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 =20 - ke ... ke'e brackets: + ke ... ke'e brackets: blue houseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8"/> mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing The place structure of=20 - blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of= =20 - zdani, by the rule given in=20 + blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as t= hat of=20 + zdani, by the rule given in=20 . The place struct= ure of=20 - zdani is: + zdani is: zdani: x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2 The place structure of=20 - se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: + se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 Consequently,=20 means: I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 . multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 - se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 an= d x2 place of=20 + se te klama is achieved by exchanging the= x1 and x2 place of=20 =20 - te klama, producing: + te klama, producing: se te FIXME: TAG SPOT x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using = x5 =20 On the other hand,=20 - te se klama has a place structure derived from = swapping the x1 and x3 places of=20 - se klama: + te se klama has a place structure derived= from swapping the x1 and x3 places of=20 + se klama: x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5 multiple conversi= onavoiding which is quite diff= erent. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitra= ry scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligib= ly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a descripti= on. conversionswapping non-first places (Although no= one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound = conversions of the form=20 - setese, where the first and third cmavo are the= same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, incl= uding x1, alone:=20 + setese, where the first and third cmavo a= re the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others= , including x1, alone:=20 =20 - setese (or equivalently=20 + setese (or equivalently=20 =20 - tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 - texete (or=20 - xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.) + tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, wherea= s=20 + texete (or=20 + xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)
Modal places: FIhO, FEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section: fi'o FIhO modal place prefix fe'u FEhU modal terminator Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 - viska, whose place structure is: + viska, whose place structure is: viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. FEhU selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'u FIhO selma'o fi'o see with left eyeexample fi'ouse in adding places to place structure place structure= adding new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and ar= e talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 - viska such as=20 + viska such as=20 with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/> mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing I see you with the left eye. fi'o with selbri<= /primary>meaning of modal tagfi'o with selbri a= s fi= 'oeffect on following selbri T= he three-place relation=20 - viska has now acquired a fourth place specifyin= g the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo=20 - fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in= this case the gismu=20 - kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sum= ti filling the new place, namely=20 - le zunle. The semantics of=20 - fi'o kanla le zunle is that=20 - le zunle fills the x1 place of=20 - kanla, whose place structure is + viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the ey= e used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo=20 + fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this ca= se the gismu=20 + kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filli= ng the new place, namely=20 + le zunle. The semantics of=20 + fi'o kanla le zunle is that=20 + le zunle fills the x1 place of=20 + kanla, whose place structure is kanla: x1 is an/the eye of body x2 modal sumtias first place of modal tag selbri = modal place relationimportance of first place in fi'o tagrelation = of modal sumti following to selbri modal placerelation of = to selbri Thus=20 - le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of=20 - kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from = the context. It is important to remember that even though=20 - le zunle is placed following=20 - fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in the x1 p= lace of=20 - kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 - fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator = which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (o= mitting=20 - fe'u in that case would make the connective aff= ect the selbri). + le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of=20 + kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the cont= ext. It is important to remember that even though=20 + le zunle is placed following=20 + fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in th= e x1 place of=20 + kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 + fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is= rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting= =20 + fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the = selbri). modal sumtiand FA marking modal sumtieffect on place s= tructure modal sumtiposition in bridi seltcita sumti= definition (see also modal sumti) sumti tcitade= finition (see also modal tag) modal sumtidefinition (see a= lso seltcita sumti) modal tagdefinition (see also sumti tc= ita) modal placerationale for term name modal place<= secondary>definition The term for such an added pla= ce is a=20 modal place, as distinguished from the regular numbered= places. (This use of the word=20 modal is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not a= gree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too = entrenched to change easily.) The=20 - fi'o construction marking a modal place is call= ed a=20 + fi'o construction marking a modal place is called a=20 modal tag, and the sumti which follows it a=20 modal sumti; the purely Lojban terms=20 =20 =20 - sumti tcita and=20 - seltcita sumti, respectively, are also commonly= used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; t= hey have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to nu= mbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. + sumti tcita and=20 + seltcita sumti, respectively, are also co= mmonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any or= der; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi= to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. =20 Consider=20 again. Another way to view = the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for s= eeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 - pilno, whose place structure is + pilno, whose place structure is pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 and we can rewrite=20 as <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d2"/> mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. I see you using my left eye. Here the selbri belonging to the modal is=20 - se pilno. The conversion of=20 - pilno is necessary in order to get the=20 + se pilno. The conversion of=20 + pilno is necessary in order to get the=20 tool place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumt= i. The=20 =20 =20 tool user place is the x2 of=20 - se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 - pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 - fi'o pilno would mean=20 + se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 + pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 + fi'o pilno would mean=20 with tool user, leaving the tool unspecified.
Modal tags: BAI There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 - pilno is one of them. The place structure of=20 - pilno is: + pilno is one of them. The place structure of=20 + pilno is: pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 - fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban= sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided= in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 - sepi'o. + fi'o se pilno frequently would make many = Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is pr= ovided in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 + sepi'o. =20 SE selma'o BAI = selma'o conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagssh= ort forms as BAI cmavo fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI c= mavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs Here=20 - se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 - pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning = of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of= =20 + se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 + pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 =20 - fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag ba= sed on=20 - se pilno rather than=20 - pilno- the tool, not the tool user =E2=80=93 th= e grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 + fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a = tag based on=20 + se pilno rather than=20 + pilno- the tool, not the tool user =E2=80= =93 the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be rewritten = as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/> mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla =20 I see you with-tool: the left eye I see you using my left eye. The compound cmavo=20 - sepi'o is much shorter than=20 + sepi'o is much shorter than=20 =20 - fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought of as a= single word meaning=20 + fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought o= f as a single word meaning=20 with-tool. The modal tag=20 - pi'o, with no=20 + pi'o, with no=20 =20 - se, similarly means=20 + se, similarly means=20 with-tool-user, probably a less useful concept. Neverth= eless, the parallelism with the place structure of=20 - pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile.= + pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile. conversioneffect on BAI BAI selma'oeffect of conversion= on Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as witho= ut a SE cmavo; for example,=20 - ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu=20 + ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu=20 =20 - klama, has five usable forms corresponding to t= he five places of=20 - klama respectively: + klama, has five usable forms corresponding to the five = places of=20 + klama respectively: - ka'a + ka'a with-goer =20 - seka'a + seka'a with-destination - teka'a + teka'a with-origin - veka'a + veka'a with-route - xeka'a + xeka'a with-means-of-transport Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2"/> la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi =20 Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. =20 I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. =20 Avonexample traveling salespersonexample (=20 may seem a bit strained, bu= t it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 - vecnu in this case, may have a place added to i= t which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) + vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3"/> mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd. I walk with-destination Bradford. I am walking to Bradford. @@ -880,40 +880,40 @@ I eat in the airplane. English prepositi= onscontrasted with modal tags in preciseness modal tagscontrasted with English prepositions in preciseness BAI cmavo= rationale for selection There = are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed use= ful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, b= ecause many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding Englis= h prepositions and preposition compounds such as with,=20 without, and=20 by means of. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more preci= se than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place= structures of the corresponding gismu. =20 BAI selma'oform of cmavo in All BAI cmavo have = the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first conso= nant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gi= smu. The table in=20 shows the exceptions. vague relationship= modal tag for modal tagfor vague rela= tionship There is one additional BAI cmavo that is = not derived from a gismu:=20 - do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is= needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of= the extra place: + do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7"/> lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu =20 Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. A man of the north came to the city. modal placeon description = selbri "of"in Englishcompa= red with do'e = do'ecompared with English "of" Here=20 - le berti is provided as a modal place of the se= lbri=20 - nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and= is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English prepositi= on=20 + le berti is provided as a modal place of = the selbri=20 + nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 of.=20 also illustrates a modal pl= ace bound into a selbri with=20 - be. This construction is useful when the selbri= of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 - be are more fully explained in=20 + be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 + be are more fully explained in=20 .
Modal sentence connection: the causals =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ni'i mu'i ki'u ri'a= FIXME: TAG SPOT ri'a @@ -936,57 +936,57 @@ ni'i =20 BAI nibli modal: logical entailment This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the = grammatical construct called=20 modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies= some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo= which have causal implications:=20 =20 =20 - ja'e means=20 + ja'e means=20 with result, and so=20 - seja'e means=20 + seja'e means=20 with cause of unspecified nature; likewise,=20 - gau means=20 + gau means=20 with agent and=20 - tezu'e means=20 + tezu'e means=20 with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) =20 =20 causals= gismu There are four causal gismu in Loj= ban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in Engli= sh as=20 causal: - rinka + rinka >event x1 physically causes event x2 - krinu + krinu >event x1 is the justification for even= t x2 - mukti + mukti >event x1 is the (human) motive for eve= nt x2 - nibli + nibli >event x1 logically entails event x2 modal causalsimplication differences causalsmodal modalsfor causal gismu Each of these g= ismu has a related modal:=20 - ri'a,=20 - ki'u,=20 + ri'a,=20 + ki'u,=20 =20 - mu'i, and=20 + mu'i, and=20 =20 - ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these = modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:= + ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1"/> le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water = give to the plant. The plant grows because you water it. @@ -1041,22 +1041,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5"/> do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> You water the plant; therefore, it grows. with the=20 - ri'a changed to=20 - seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical= forms: + ri'a changed to=20 + seri'a. In addition, there are also symme= trical forms: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d6"/> le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu b= anro The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event= -of (the plant grows). Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the pl= ant, then it grows. @@ -1082,53 +1082,53 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8"/> do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows. You water the plant; therefore, it grows. The compound cmavo=20 - .iri'abo and=20 + .iri'abo and=20 =20 - .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the i= nitial=20 - .i indicates. The final=20 - bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 + .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as= the initial=20 + i indicates. The final=20 + bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 taking over the following sumti. If the=20 - bo were omitted from=20 + bo were omitted from=20 we would have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9"/> le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.<= /en> Because=20 - ri'a do is a modal sumti in=20 + ri'a do is a modal sumti in=20 =20 =20 , there is no longer an expl= icit sumti in the x1 place of=20 - djacu dunda, and the translation must be change= d. + djacu dunda, and the translation must be = changed. modal sentence co= nnectionrelation to modal of second sentence in modal sent= ence connectionrelation to modal of first sentence in<= /secondary> moda= l sentence connectioneffect on modal The effect of sentences like=20 and=20 is that the modal,=20 - ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an exp= licit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full brid= i. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills t= he x2 place of the gismu=20 - rinka; it specifies an event which is the effec= t. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you hav= e watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the= two. + ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an explicit su= mti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furth= ermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 pl= ace of the gismu=20 + rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. modal sentence co= nnectionwith other than causals In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the ty= pe exemplified by=20 and=20 . However, it makes little s= ense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to = fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective=20 - .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is har= d to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 + .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it = is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes= an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.
Other modal connections Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 for a more detailed discussion= of Lojban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthought moda= l connection, illustrated here by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1"/> @@ -1140,52 +1140,52 @@ <en>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>grasp water</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-= imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>definition</s= econdary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>aftert= hought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An= afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a comp= ound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Foret= hought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between= the two: the use of=20 =20 <quote>both</quote> and=20 <quote>and</quote> in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one).</para> =20 =20 <para><indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal sentence con= nection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm= type=3D"general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</= primary></indexterm> To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojb= an, place the modal plus=20 - <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> before the first bridi, and=20 - <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> between the two. No=20 - <jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> is used within the construct. The forethough= t equivalent of=20 + <valsi>gi</valsi> before the first bridi, and=20 + <valsi>gi</valsi> between the two. No=20 + <valsi>i</valsi> is used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-2D4c"/> is:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-d2b9"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2"/> ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of wa= ter. Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water. forethought modal= sentence connectionrelation to modal of second bridi = in f= orethought modal sentence connectionrelation to modal = of first bridi in forethought modal sentence connection for causalsorder of cause and effect Note that the ca= use, the x1 of=20 - rinka is now placed first. To keep the two brid= i in the original order of=20 + rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the= original order of=20 , we could say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d3"/> seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the= cup. In English, the sentence=20 Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup is ungramm= atical, because=20 therefore is not grammatically equivalent to=20 because. In Lojban,=20 - seri'agi can be used just like=20 - ri'agi. + seri'agi can be used just like=20 + ri'agi. modal sentence co= nnectioncondensing When the tw= o bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or s= umti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used= in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stat= ed. =20 sumti modal conne= ction = modal sumti connection When the bridi are the same ex= cept for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal= connection may be employed: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d4"/> mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu @@ -1238,36 +1238,36 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8"/> mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book. where=20 - le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 - vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails = =E2=80=93 see=20 + le cukta is set off by the non-elidable= =20 + vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails =E2=80=93= see=20 for more explanations. shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 can be further rearranged t= o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/> mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. which doesn't require the extra=20 - vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-ta= ils are shared. + vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are = shared. operand modal con= nection modal operand connection Finally, mathematical oper= ands can be modally connected. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d10"/> li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re the number n =3D the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n =3D= the-number 2 + 2. @@ -1275,29 +1275,29 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d11"/> li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo the-number =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4. The cmavo=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and ar= e required so that=20 - ni'igi affects more than just the immediately f= ollowing operand, namely the first=20 - re. (The right parenthesis,=20 - ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no = English translation does=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are requir= ed so that=20 + ni'igi affects more than just the immedia= tely following operand, namely the first=20 + re. (The right parenthesis,=20 + ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 justice. modal connectives= fi'o prohibited in fi'orestriction on= use Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsin= g algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 =20 - fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predef= ined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the = predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 and=20 .
Modal selbri Consider the example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1"/> @@ -1305,61 +1305,61 @@ mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. =20 bai= under compulsio= nexample modal sumtiunspecified modal sum= tileaving vague=20 has two modal sumti, using = the modals=20 =20 =20 - bau and=20 - bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language = explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify= =20 + bau and=20 + bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2"/> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku]. I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion. In=20 , the elidable terminator=20 - ku has taken the place of the sumti which would= normally follow=20 - bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one wh= o compels but keep the language vague: + ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normall= y follow=20 + bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compel= s but keep the language vague: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d3"/> mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Fr= ank. We are also free to move the modal-plus-=20 - ku around the bridi: + ku around the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d4"/> bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. modal followed by= selbrieffect on eliding cu An= alternative to using=20 - ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the= selbri, following the=20 + ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri,= following the=20 =20 - cu which often appears there. When a modal is p= resent, the=20 - cu is almost never necessary. + cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, = the=20 + cu is almost never necessary. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d5"/> mi bai tavla bau la lojban. I compelledly speak in-language Lojban. modal followed by= selbricontrasted with tanru modification in grammar modal= followed by selbricompared with tanru modification in= meaning In this use, the modal is like a tanru mod= ifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.=20 @@ -1367,28 +1367,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d6"/> mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban. I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban. The=20 - se conversion is needed because=20 - bapli tavla would be a=20 + se conversion is needed because=20 + bapli tavla would be a=20 compeller type of speaker rather than a=20 compelled (by someone) type of speaker, which is what a= =20 - bai tavla is. + bai tavla is. fi'o modal follow= ed by selbrieffect on eliding fe'u If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using=20 - fi'o, then=20 - fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and= the modal selbri from colliding: + fi'o, then=20 + fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the mod= al selbri from colliding: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7"/> mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do I with-eye see you. I see you with my eye(s). @@ -1399,42 +1399,42 @@ mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] =20 I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.= Here the=20 - bai is spread over both=20 - klama le zarci and=20 - cadzu le bisli, and the=20 - ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 + bai is spread over both=20 + klama le zarci and=20 + cadzu le bisli, and the=20 + ge ... gi represents the logical connecti= on=20 both-and between the two. modalsexpanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentenc= es that have been combined with=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9"/> bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the = ice [end]. means the same thing as=20 . Note: Either BAI modals or=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used i= n any of the constructions discussed in this section. + fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be = used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.
Modal relative phrases; Comparison The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pe GOI restrictive relative phrase @@ -1474,34 +1474,34 @@ la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-b= y me. =20 =20 Beethovenexample Artur Rubensteinexample Appassionataexample In=20 ,=20 - la .apasionatas. refers to a particular perform= ance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the = relative clause=20 - poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 - poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of= =20 - la .apasionatas to the performance in question.= + la .apasionatas. refers to a particular p= erformance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore= , the relative clause=20 + poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 + poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of=20 + la .apasionatas to the performance in que= stion. In=20 , however,=20 - la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as a whol= e, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incident= al. The cmavo=20 + la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as = a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely in= cidental. The cmavo=20 =20 - noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the inciden= tal nature of this relationship. + noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natu= re of this relationship. The cmavo=20 - pe and=20 - ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to= =20 - poi and=20 - noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rat= her than full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 + pe and=20 + ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to=20 + poi and=20 + noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than= full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 and=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3"/> la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. =20 @@ -1517,25 +1517,25 @@ =20 =20 relative phrases<= /primary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: a= ll we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubin= stein (in=20 =20 ) and Beethoven (in=20 =20 ), and that the relationship= s are respectively restrictive and incidental. It happens that both=20 - cusku and=20 - finti have BAI cmavo, namely=20 - cu'u and=20 + cusku and=20 + finti have BAI cmavo, namely=20 + cu'u and=20 =20 - fi'e. We can recast=20 + fi'e. We can recast=20 =20 and=20 as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d5"/> la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi =20 @@ -1554,86 +1554,86 @@ =20 =20 modals<= secondary>improving relative phrase preciseness with relative phrasesimproving preciseness with modals relative phrases with modalscompared to relative clauses in preciseness=20 and=20 have the full semantic cont= ent of=20 and=20 respectively. "less"English= wordexpressing with relative phrases "more"English wordexpressing with relative= phrases Modal relative phrases are often used with = the BAI cmavo=20 - mau and=20 + mau and=20 =20 - me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu= =20 + me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 =20 - zmadu (more than) and=20 - mleca (less than) respectively. The place struc= tures are: + zmadu (more than) and=20 + mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures ar= e: - zmadu: + zmadu: >x1 is more than x2 in property/quantit= y x3 by amount x4 - mleca: + mleca: >x1 is less than x2 in property/quantit= y x3 by amount x4 Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/> la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. likes more thanexample=20 requires that Frank likes B= etty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking= for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 - semau because the x2 place of=20 - zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case= , Frank's liking for Mary. + semau because the x2 place of=20 + zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8"/> la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. me'aavoiding in favor of semau mauavoiding in favor of= seme'a Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less= than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It = would be possible to rephrase=20 =20 using=20 - me'a rather than=20 + me'a rather than=20 =20 - semau, and=20 + semau, and=20 using=20 - mau rather than=20 + mau rather than=20 =20 - seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily c= onfusing. Like many BAI cmavo,=20 - mau and=20 + seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessa= rily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo,=20 + mau and=20 =20 - me'a are more useful when converted with=20 + me'a are more useful when converted with=20 =20 - se. + se. "less"English= wordimportance of relative phrase to "more"English wordimportance of relative p= hrase to If the=20 - ne were omitted in=20 + ne were omitted in=20 and=20 , the modal sumti (=20 =20 =20 - la meiris. and=20 - la betis. respectively) would become attached t= o the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 + la meiris. and=20 + la betis. respectively) would become atta= ched to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 would become: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9"/> la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. @@ -1644,36 +1644,36 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10"/> le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelc= i la meiris. The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quant= ity-of Frank's liking Mary. modals often attac= hed with relative phraseslist = The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals oth= er than=20 - semau and=20 - seme'a. Some other modals that are often associ= ated with relative phrases are:=20 - seba'i (=20 + semau and=20 + seme'a. Some other modals that are often = associated with relative phrases are:=20 + seba'i (=20 =20 instead of),=20 - ci'u (=20 + ci'u (=20 =20 on scale),=20 - de'i (=20 + de'i (=20 =20 dated),=20 - du'i (=20 + du'i (=20 =20 as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. fi'o modalsusage in relative phrases Note: The = uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals = and to=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. + fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 ) with modal connection, in a w= ay that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relatio= nship. Consider the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1"/> @@ -1697,28 +1697,28 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d3"/> mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein. I like you. And justified-by I like Jane. mixed modal conne= ctiondefinition Here the two s= entences=20 - mi nelci do and=20 - mi nelci la djein. are simultaneously asserted,= their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is ass= erted. The logical connective=20 - je comes before the modal=20 - ki'u in all such mixed connections. + mi nelci do and=20 + mi nelci la djein. are simultaneously ass= erted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship = is asserted. The logical connective=20 + je comes before the modal=20 + ki'u in all such mixed connections. =20 Since=20 - mi nelci do and=20 - mi nelci la djein. differ only in the final sum= ti, we can transform=20 + mi nelci do and=20 + mi nelci la djein. differ only in the fin= al sumti, we can transform=20 into a mixed sumti connecti= on: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4"/> mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. I like you and/because Jane. @@ -1762,33 +1762,33 @@ mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e= ] I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the d= og). I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.<= /en> ke'e ke tu'u tu'e carry s= ackexample In=20 , the=20 - tu'e ... tu'u brackets are the equivalent of th= e=20 - ke ... ke'e brackets in=20 + tu'e ... tu'u brackets are the equivalent= of the=20 + ke ... ke'e brackets in=20 and=20 , because=20 - ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more than one = sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 - .ijeseri'abo to=20 - .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 - tu'e ... tu'u portion was an effect, but would = not pin down the=20 - mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is l= egal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 + ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more tha= n one sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 + .ijeseri'abo to=20 + .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 + tu'e ... tu'u portion was an effect, but = would not pin down the=20 + mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. I= t is legal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 ) to modify the whole of a=20 - tu'e ... tu'u construct. + tu'e ... tu'u construct. fi'omixed modal connection with Note: The uses = of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and t= o=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. + fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section: jai JAI modal conversion =20 @@ -1803,54 +1803,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d1"/> mi cusku bau la lojban. I express [something] in-language Lojban. FA selma'o fai<= /primary> JA= I selma'o place structureeffect of modal conversion on conversio= nmodal modal conversionplace structur= e of modal conversiongrammar of ha= s an explicit x1 place occupied by=20 - mi and an explicit=20 - bau place occupied by=20 - la lojban. To exchange these two, we use a moda= l conversion operator consisting of=20 + mi and an explicit=20 + bau place occupied by=20 + la lojban. To exchange these two, we use = a modal conversion operator consisting of=20 =20 - jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmav= o. Thus, the modal conversion of=20 + jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus,= the modal conversion of=20 =20 =20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d2"/> la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me. faias allowing access to original first place in modal conversion modal con= versionaccess to original first place with fai In=20 , the modal place=20 - la lojban. has become the x1 place of the new s= elbri=20 - jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 = place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a speci= al=20 + la lojban. has become the x1 place of the= new selbri=20 + jai bau cusku. What has happened to the o= ld x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a= special=20 unnumbered place marked by the tag=20 - fai of selma'o FA. + fai of selma'o FA. faieffect on numbering of place structure places Note: For the purposes of place numbering,=20 - fai behaves like=20 - fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the o= ther places around it. + fai behaves like=20 + fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the other pla= ces around it. =20 modal conversions= in descriptions Like SE conver= sions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may re= fer to=20 the language of an expression as=20 - le jai bau cusku, for example. + le jai bau cusku, for example. modal conversion<= /primary>with no modal specified jai without modalmeaning In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 - jai without a following modal. This usage is no= t related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of= =20 - jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which sh= ould be an abstraction, into the=20 - fai position, and to raise one of the sumti fro= m the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature = is discussed in more detail in=20 + jai without a following modal. This usage is not relate= d to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 + jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 + fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 . The following two examples = mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/> le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. @@ -1862,74 +1862,74 @@ mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi leb= na le cukta] I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, th= e event-of (I take the book)] I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book. modal conversion = without modalas vague=20 , with the bracketed part om= itted, allows us to say that=20 I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is = justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-l= anguage methods of expression. fi'oand modal conversion modal conversion with fi'o N= ote: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BA= I modals and to=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. + fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Modal negation modals<= secondary>negation of negation of modals Negation is expl= ained in detail in=20 . There are two forms of negation = in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expres= ses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to wh= at has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 John didn't go to Paris (contradictory negation) and=20 John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negat= ion). modalscontradictory negation of negation of modalscontr= adictory Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo= is performed by appending=20 - -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use = of modals with=20 - -nai is to deny a causal relationship: + -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A commo= n use of modals with=20 + -nai is to deny a causal relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1"/> mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi I like you, but not because you like me. contradictory neg= ation of modalsexplanation of meaning=20 denies that the relationshi= p between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is no= t asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me= or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my = liking you. modalsscalar negation of negation of modalsscalar Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing=20 - na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cma= vo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo. + na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NA= hE, to the BAI cmavo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2"/> le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you wa= ter-give to the plant. plant growsexample scalar negation of modalsexplanatio= n of meaning=20 says that the relationship = between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: t= he plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can ha= ve motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between wateri= ng and growth exists, but=20 =20 doesn't say what it is (pre= sumably=20 - ri'a). + ri'a). fi'o modalsnegation of by negating selbri negation of fi'o modals= by negating selbri Note: Modals made wit= h=20 - fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. = The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar n= egation, however. + fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selb= ri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation,= however.
Sticky modals The following cmavo is discussed in this section: ki KI stickiness flag modalsmaking sticky modalsmaking long-scope= sticky modalsdefinition Like tenses, modals c= an be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following = bridi. The effect of this=20 stickiness is to make the modal, along with its followi= ng sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is pu= t into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the= cmavo=20 - ki of selma'o KI. For example, + ki of selma'o KI. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d1"/> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla= bau la gliban. I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English. =20 means the same as: @@ -1937,38 +1937,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d2"/> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla ba= u la gliban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of F= rank. In=20 ,=20 - bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling i= s made applicable to every following bridi.=20 - bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary= from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assump= tion can safely be made about its value. + bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made a= pplicable to every following bridi.=20 + bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from br= idi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can= safely be made about its value. sticky modalscanceling To cancel stickiness, us= e the form=20 - BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the = specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for= all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (=20 - ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 - ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in t= he form=20 - ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: + BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value fo= r the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickine= ss for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist= (=20 + ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 + ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 + ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3"/> mi ki tavla I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). fi'oproscribed for sticky modals sticky modalsfi'o pro= scribed from Note: Modals made with=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is= an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction. + fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.
Logical and non-logical connection of modals =20 non-logical conne= ctionof modals logical connectionof m= odals Logical and non-logical connectives are expla= ined in detail in=20 . For the purposes of this chap= ter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection be= tween two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bri= di with a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thing: @@ -1994,28 +1994,28 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-b0LW"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3"/> la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-orig= in the-house. The cmavo=20 - ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (te= rmsets are explained in=20 + ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets a= re explained in=20 and=20 ). When a termset contains more= than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the t= wo tags are derived from a common event.
CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms modal cmavoregular form for derivation There ar= e 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 - do'e, discussed in=20 + do'e, discussed in=20 =20 ), are derived directly from selected g= ismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, wh= ere C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the= two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in o= ne way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into= sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in = more than one sub-table, and are so noted. cmavo gismu comments Monosyllables of the form CVV: @@ -2179,25 +2179,25 @@ va'u xamgu CV'V cmavo can't begin with x =20
Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</tit= le> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table= </primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with Engli= sh equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cm= avo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the= cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third colum= n gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the= fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by=20 - <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>.</para> + <valsi>se</valsi>.</para> <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 - <jbophrase>te</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase>ve</jbophrase>, and even=20 - <jbophrase>xe</jbophrase> conversions (depending on the number of plac= es of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two = extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> + <valsi>te</valsi>,=20 + <valsi>ve</valsi>, and even=20 + <valsi>xe</valsi> conversions (depending on the number of places of th= e underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra ro= ws following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</prim= ary><secondary>basis in gismu place structure</secondary></indexterm> It sh= ould be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meani= ngs of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, a= nd are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptab= le range of uses for the modal tag are.</para> <cmavo-list> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo> <gismu>basti</gismu> <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">instead of</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>bai</cmavo> @@ -2266,21 +2266,21 @@ <modal-place se=3D"se">on the same date</modal-place> <entry>as</entry> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>di'o</cmavo> <gismu>diklo</gismu> <modal-place>at the locus of</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">at specific locus</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo><jbophrase>do'e</jbophrase></cmavo> + <cmavo><valsi>do'e</valsi></cmavo> <gismu>-----</gismu> <modal-place>vaguely related to</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>du'i</cmavo> <gismu>dunli</gismu> <modal-place>as much as</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">equal to</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> @@ -2291,22 +2291,22 @@ <modal-place se=3D"te">knowing about</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"ve">under epistemology</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>fa'e</cmavo> <gismu>fatne</gismu> <modal-place>reverse of</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">in reversal of</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> - <entry><jbophrase>fau</jbophrase></entry> - <entry><jbophrase>fasnu</jbophrase></entry> + <entry><valsi>fau</valsi></entry> + <entry><valsi>fasnu</valsi></entry> <entry>in the event of</entry> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo> <gismu>finti</gismu> <modal-place>created by</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">creating work</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"te">created for purpose</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> @@ -2507,27 +2507,27 @@ </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>pu'e</cmavo> <gismu>pruce</gismu> <modal-place>by process</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">processing from</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"te">processing into</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"ve">passing through stages</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> - <entry><jbophrase>ra'a</jbophrase></entry> - <entry><jbophrase>srana</jbophrase></entry> + <entry><valsi>ra'a</valsi></entry> + <entry><valsi>srana</valsi></entry> <entry>pertained to by concerning</entry> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> - <entry><jbophrase>ra'i</jbophrase></entry> - <entry><jbophrase>krasi</jbophrase></entry> + <entry><valsi>ra'i</valsi></entry> + <entry><valsi>krasi</valsi></entry> <entry>from source as an origin of</entry> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>rai</cmavo> <gismu>traji</gismu> <modal-place>with superlative</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">superlative in</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"te">at extreme</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"ve">superlative among</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> @@ -2609,20 +2609,20 @@ </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>zu'e</cmavo> <gismu>zukte</gismu> <modal-place>with actor</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"se">with means to goal</modal-place> <modal-place se=3D"te">with goal</modal-place> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list>=20 <para>The lujvo=20 - <jbophrase>tamsmi</jbophrase> on which=20 - <jbophrase>tai</jbophrase> is based is derived from the tanru=20 - <jbophrase>tarmi simsa</jbophrase> and has the place structure:</para> + <oldjbophrase>tamsmi</oldjbophrase> on which=20 + <valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru=20 + <oldjbophrase>tarmi simsa</oldjbophrase> and has the place structure:<= /para> <place-structure> tamsmi: x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4 </place-structure> <para>This lujvo is employed because=20 - <jbophrase>tarmi</jbophrase> does not have a place structure useful fo= r the modal's purpose.</para> + <valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the mo= dal's purpose.</para> </section> </chapter> diff --git a/todocbook/README-tags b/todocbook/README-tags index d9b903a..3ddcddd 100644 --- a/todocbook/README-tags +++ b/todocbook/README-tags @@ -1,11 +1,34 @@ =20 + BASIC <jbophrase> theory. + + We don't *actually* want to index every use of a Lojban word. + + So, <jbophrase> does nothing at all. + + All the *other* tags to index generation. + + The primary one is <valsi>; it's still called that even if it + wraps a cmavo compound. Any cmavo compound weird enough to have a + seperate meaning should be wrapped in <valsi>. Any others can + just be handled by having adjacent <valsi> bits. + + We need more of these. Lots of them, in fact. And we need to + allow them in lots of places. + + All <jbophrase> have been converted to <oldjbophrase>, which marks + up badly (FIXME: todo) + + Almost everything with glossary=3D"false", valid=3D"false", valid=3D"iff= y" + should simply be <jbophrase>; I can't see any use to keeping that + stuff around. + =20 We have a variety of local-use-only tags and roles that get converted into docbook XML as part of the processing. =20 <example> roles =20 <interlinear-gloss> =20 This is to only be used for=20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html.css b/todocbook/docbook2html.css index e981486..f3eb376 100644 --- a/todocbook/docbook2html.css +++ b/todocbook/docbook2html.css @@ -73,11 +73,15 @@ em[lang=3Djbo] { */ =20 div.informaltable table { border-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; } =20 div.informaltable td { padding: 15px; border: 1px solid #000; -} \ No newline at end of file +} + +I'm broken!!!! + +make something ugly for oldjbophrase diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html_config.xsl b/todocbook/docbook2html_con= fig.xsl index 9805e86..a7ed2ba 100644 --- a/todocbook/docbook2html_config.xsl +++ b/todocbook/docbook2html_config.xsl @@ -5,20 +5,25 @@ version=3D"1.0"> <xsl:param name=3D"use.id.as.filename" select=3D"'1'"/> <xsl:param name=3D"admon.graphics" select=3D"'1'"/> <xsl:param name=3D"admon.graphics.path"></xsl:param> <xsl:param name=3D"chunk.section.depth" select=3D"0"></xsl:param> <xsl:param name=3D"html.stylesheet" select=3D"'docbook2html.css'"/> <xsl:param name=3D"index.on.type" select=3D"1"/> <xsl:param name=3D"index.on.role" select=3D"1"/> <xsl:param name=3D"index.links.to.section" select=3D"0"/> =20 + <!-- temporary --> + <xsl:template match=3D"phrase[@role=3D'oldjbophrase']" mode=3D"class.val= ue"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"'oldjbophrase'"/> + </xsl:template> + <xsl:template match=3D"itemizedlist[@role=3D'word_spacing_list']" mode= =3D"class.value"> <xsl:value-of select=3D"'word_spacing_list'"/> </xsl:template> =20 <xsl:template match=3D"docbook:listitem[@role=3D'word_list']"> <xsl:for-each select=3D"str:tokenize(.)"> <listitem><para> <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> </para></listitem> </xsl:for-each> diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl b/todocbook/docbook2html= _preprocess.xsl index bccdab3..bcaef2f 100644 --- a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl +++ b/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl @@ -258,44 +258,99 @@ </xsl:if> <indexterm> <xsl:attribute name=3D"type">lojban-words</xsl:attribute> <primary><xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/></primary> </indexterm> <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> </foreignphrase> </glossterm> </xsl:template> =20 - <!-- lojban phrases and/or unglossed words --> + <xsl:template match=3D"jbophrase"> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"morphology"> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"morphology"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"letteral"> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"letteral"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"rafsi"> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"rafsi"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"diphthong"> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"diphthong"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"oldjbophrase"> + <phrase role=3D"oldjbophrase"> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </phrase> + </xsl:template> + + <xsl:template match=3D"valsi"> + <xsl:variable name=3D"slug"> + <xsl:call-template name=3D"make_slug"> + <xsl:with-param name=3D"input" select=3D"text()"/> + </xsl:call-template> + </xsl:variable> + <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo"> + <indexterm type=3D"lojban-words"> + <primary><xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/></primary> + </indexterm> + <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> + </foreignphrase> + </xsl:template> + + <!-- + Needs to be cannibalized to make <valsi>; <jbophrase. and + <oldjbophrase> do not much at all + + <!- - lojban phrases and/or unglossed words - -> <xsl:template match=3D"jbophrase" priority=3D"1"> <xsl:variable name=3D"wordsnum"> <xsl:value-of select=3D"count(str:tokenize(text()))"/> </xsl:variable> <xsl:variable name=3D"slug"> <xsl:call-template name=3D"make_slug"> <xsl:with-param name=3D"input" select=3D"text()"/> </xsl:call-template> </xsl:variable> - <!-- FIXME: the role is currently only used by the chapter2 + <!- - FIXME: the role is currently only used by the chapter2 markup stuff, which still needs to be implemented - --> + - -> <foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo"> <xsl:if test=3D"boolean(@role)"> <xsl:attribute name=3D"role"> <xsl:value-of select=3D"@role"/> </xsl:attribute> </xsl:if> <indexterm> <xsl:if test=3D"boolean($wordsnum > 1)"> <xsl:attribute name=3D"type">lojban-phrases</xsl:attribute> </xsl:if> <xsl:if test=3D"boolean($wordsnum =3D 1)"> <xsl:attribute name=3D"type">lojban-words</xsl:attribute> </xsl:if> <primary><xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/></primary> </indexterm> <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> </foreignphrase> </xsl:template> + --> =20 </xsl:stylesheet> diff --git a/todocbook/generate_glossary.xsl b/todocbook/generate_glossary.= xsl index e0c8253..412bdc5 100644 --- a/todocbook/generate_glossary.xsl +++ b/todocbook/generate_glossary.xsl @@ -30,22 +30,21 @@ ' ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ', '----abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz' )"/> </xsl:variable> <xsl:value-of select=3D"$slug"/> </xsl:template> =20 <!-- lojban words --> <!-- If you change the match here, also change it in docbook2html_preprocess.xsl ; search for LOJBAN WORDS MATCH --> - <xsl:template match=3D"//jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) =3D 1 and= ( not(@glossary) or @glossary !=3D 'false') - and ( not(@role) or ( @role !=3D 'morphology' and @role !=3D 'rafsi' a= nd @role !=3D 'diphthong' and @role !=3D 'letteral' ) ) ]"> + <xsl:template match=3D"//valsi"> <xsl:variable name=3D"slug"> <xsl:call-template name=3D"make_slug"> <xsl:with-param name=3D"input" select=3D"text()"/> </xsl:call-template> </xsl:variable> <xsl:value-of select=3D"$slug"/> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> <xsl:value-of select=3D"text()"/> <xsl:text> </xsl:text> </xsl:template> --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.