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The original message has been attached to this so you can view it (if it isn't spam) or label similar future email. If you have any questions, see the administrator of that system for details. Content preview: commit 1e83e7bc5533611c4534165e621a2495c42036f9 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sun Feb 13 09:00:01 2011 -0800 automated replacement of – with –, and addition of an entities file to handle that, and some TODO changes. [...] Content analysis details: (2.5 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- 0.7 TVD_RCVD_IP TVD_RCVD_IP 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.5000] 1.0 RDNS_DYNAMIC Delivered to internal network by host with dynamic-looking rDNS X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 1e83e7bc5533611c4534165e621a2495c42036f9 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sun Feb 13 09:00:01 2011 -0800 automated replacement of =E2=80=93 with –, and addition of an ent= ities file to handle that, and some TODO changes. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index 2b58c1a..68a2708 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -53,22 +53,22 @@ What is this book? goal of this book= this = bookgoal of reference grammar This= book is what is called a=20 reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Loj= ban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban= is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to dis= cover the functions of those features. The word=20 =20 discover is used advisedly; Lojban was not=20 invented by any one person or committee. Often, grammat= ical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was= fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to p= rove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time. By intention, this book is complete in description but not in ex= planation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in=20 ), there is a bit of explanation a= nd an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit= . In essence,=20 gives a brief overview of the languag= e,=20 gives the formal structure of the= language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal b= ones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even = correcting) the explanations in this book will become available. - linguistic drift<= /primary> Lojban= stability of Nevertheless, the= publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period= of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the la= nguage that will not even be considered until five years from publication d= ate, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the = language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of i= ts creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form = of new vocabulary =E2=80=93 Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary = it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as=20 - explains =E2=80=93 and through the i= rregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evoluti= on. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here= with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as wel= l as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fid= dling by language-meisters. + linguistic drift<= /primary> Lojban= stability of Nevertheless, the= publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period= of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the la= nguage that will not even be considered until five years from publication d= ate, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the = language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of i= ts creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form = of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it= needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as=20 + explains – and through the irr= egular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution= . (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here w= ith assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well = as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddl= ing by language-meisters. this bookstructure of structure of this book It is pr= obably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each= chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only late= r did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and id= eas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there sho= uld be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as pos= sible. chapter titlesintent of jokes Lojbanistan Each chapter has = a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt= to make the chapters more memorable. The title of=20 (which you are now reading), for exa= mple, is an allusion to the book=20 English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiber= no-English.=20 =20 Lojbanistan is both an imaginary country where Lojban i= s the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speake= rs, scattered over the world. Why=20 =20 mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. =20 diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 38d2740..e2754c8 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -228,21 +228,21 @@ zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.
Compound spatial tenses compound tensedefinition Humph, says the reader= : this talk of=20 - imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the poi= nt of it? =E2=80=93=20 + imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the poi= nt of it? –=20 zu'a means=20 on the left and=20 vi means=20 nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1"/> @@ -609,21 +609,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7"/> mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal. For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. I ate my meal for a while. - because the interval would then be centered on the past moment r= ather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Englis= h translations are the same =E2=80=93 English is not well-suited to represe= nting this distinction. + because the interval would then be centered on the past moment r= ather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Englis= h translations are the same – English is not well-suited to represent= ing this distinction. Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and wi= thout specified directions: fish on rightexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d8"/> ta ri'u ve'i finpe That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish. That thing on my right is a fish. @@ -745,21 +745,21 @@ =20 vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimen= sionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. =20 vi'e spatial tense<= /primary>4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense temporal tens= einteraction with 4-dimensional spatial tense futurewardas a spatial tense pastwardas a spatial= tense tensespace-time dimension for intervals= spatial tensefour-dimensional Einsteinianspace-time = intervals with 4 dimensions VIhA has a member=20 vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that= involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to= some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about = space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmav= o of FAhA assigned to=20 =20 =20 =20 pastward and=20 =20 - futureward considered as space rather than time directi= ons =E2=80=93 they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time ex= pression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense const= ruct with a=20 + futureward considered as space rather than time directi= ons – they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expr= ession useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense constru= ct with a=20 =20 =20 vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradi= ctory. =20
Movement in space: MOhI The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -841,21 +841,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/> mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. eat in airplaneexample (Perhaps I am eating in = an airplane.) - time travel movementtime There is no parallel facilit= y in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time =E2=80=93 time trave= l =E2=80=93 but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. + time travel movementtime There is no parallel facilit= y in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time travel = – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. =20
Interval properties: TAhE and=20 <valsi>roi</valsi> =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: di'i @@ -1086,21 +1086,21 @@ mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci =20 I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market. Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,=20 might in appropriate contex= t mean the same as=20 - after all =E2=80=93 but=20 + after all – but=20 allows us to be specific wh= en specificity is necessary. =20 ze'eca ze'eba ze'= epu PU selma'o have neverexample ze'ecameanin= g of ze'ebameaning of ze'epumeaning of ze'eeffect on following PU direction= temporal directionexception in meaning when following ze'e A PU cmavo following=20 ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one that fol= lows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo=20 =20 ze'epu signifies the interval stretching = from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journ= ey has taken you);=20 =20 ze'eba is the interval stretching from th= e reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form,=20 =20 ze'eca, makes specific the=20 @@ -1649,21 +1649,21 @@ le bloti pu za'o xelklama fe'e ba'o le lalxu The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism [sp= ace] [perfective] the lake. The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake. Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification:= although=20 xelklama appears to mean simply=20 - is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not =E2=80=93 the bridi= of=20 + is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not – the bridi o= f=20 has four omitted arguments,= and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its = meaning. =20 sumti tcita based= on quantified tenses quantified tensesas sumti tcita sumti tcit= a based on interval properties interval propertiesmeaning as= sumti tcita = sumti tcita based on interval continuousness= interval continuousnessmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on dimension dimensionmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on interval size interval si= zemeaning as sumti tcita The r= emaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and c= ontinuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify th= e particular interval over which the main bridi operates: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d11"/> @@ -1809,21 +1809,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d8"/> mi bapu klama le zarci I [future] [past] go-to the market. I will have gone to the market. - So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved= , order counts =E2=80=93 the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as i= f there were only one tense to worry about. + So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved= , order counts – the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if = there were only one tense to worry about. sticky tensesfrom part of a multiple tense But = why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate= portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part= of a tense sticky. Consider=20 , which adds a second bridi = and a=20 ki to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d9"/> pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku @@ -2226,21 +2226,21 @@ mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani I go-to [past] the market [,] the house. Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a ten= se-like relationship between nouns,=20 =20 cannot be expressed in Engl= ish without paraphrasing it either into=20 or else into=20 - I go to the house before the market, which is ambiguous= =E2=80=93 is the market going? + I go to the house before the market, which is ambiguous= – is the market going? gi<= /indexterm> bridi-tailsforethought tense connection of imaginary journeyorigin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection forethought tense conn= ection of bridi-tailsorder of = Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship be= tween bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a=20 bridi-tail is explained fully in=20 ; roughly speaking, it is a = selbri, possibly with following sumti.)=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 and=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d8"/> @@ -2600,21 +2600,21 @@ ro datka ca ca'a flulimna =20 All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are now actually swimming by floating. ki<= /indexterm> CAhA selma'o= c= a'a st= icky tensesand CAhA CAhA selma'omakin= g sticky CAhA selma'oorder in tense construct<= /indexterm> actual eventsexplicitly expressing A CAhA cmav= o is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for spa= ce. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before=20 ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky. is false in both Lojban and= English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, tru= e of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck tha= t is not swimming now. - ka'e innate capabil= ityexpressing explicitly Furth= ermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatc= hed (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by pr= edators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless= , all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming =E2=80=93 it is pa= rt of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 + ka'e innate capabil= ityexpressing explicitly Furth= ermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatc= hed (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by pr= edators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless= , all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming – it is part= of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 =20 ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d4"/> ro datka ka'e flulimna diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 9c10468..d4a0507 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1279,21 +1279,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d6"/> tu'a la djan. cu cafne something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 tu'a,=20 - would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs =E2=80=93 in other words, that John has = some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as ev= ents in English, but the x1 place of=20 + would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs – in other words, that John has so= me sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as even= ts in English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem = to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe= it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not th= e name of some event.) JAI selma'o jai= abstr= actionssimplification to sumti with jai abstractionsmaking concrete Logically, a counter= part of some sort is needed to=20 tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete= one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one func= tion, discussed in=20 and=20 ; for the purposes of this chapter, it = operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. T= his conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/> @@ -1325,21 +1325,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d9"/> le jai rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) the one who caused your death because=20 - jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description =E2=80=93 not so for=20 + jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description – not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10"/> diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index f67d595..64ac227 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -36,37 +36,37 @@ fagyfesti is derived from the tanru=20 fagri festi, it is not equivalent in mean= ing to it. In particular,=20 fagyfesti has a distinct place structure = of its own, not the same as that of=20 festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place= structure as=20 festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places o= f=20 fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there= is no equivalent of=20 be ... bei ... be'o (described in=20 ) to incorporate sumti into the mi= ddle of the lujvo. lujvorationale for creative understanding So why have= lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there i= s a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding = further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing mor= e information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there a= re more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since l= ujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning,= encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of = the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shor= ter than the corresponding tanru. =20 - lujvo place struc= tureguidelines lujvoguidelines for pl= ace structure absolute laws alternative guidelines There are no= absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The mak= er must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru an= d then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is sa= id in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standar= d, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may = well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in acc= ordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guideli= nes someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all i= s so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place s= tructure =E2=80=93 one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at = by similar consideration. + lujvo place struc= tureguidelines lujvoguidelines for pl= ace structure absolute laws alternative guidelines There are no= absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The mak= er must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru an= d then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is sa= id in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standar= d, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may = well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in acc= ordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guideli= nes someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all i= s so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place s= tructure – one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by= similar consideration. =20 =20 lujvocmavo incorporation If the tanru includes = connective cmavo such as=20 bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as=20 se or=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo= as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo= may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru cou= ld produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tan= ru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 .
The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour =20 - The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by =E2=80=93 but is not the= same as =E2=80=93 the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constr= ucted. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 + The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by – but is not the s= ame as – the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructe= d. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no c= oncise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furtherm= ore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the= =20 tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the = seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the = veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifier for=20 seltau and=20 modified for=20 tertau may help.) tanruplace structure of The place structure of = a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a resul= t, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the ter= tau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the thi= ngs referred to by the tertau. tanrupurpose wine-dark sea The purpose of a tanru is = to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning= of the seltau. For example, in the=20 @@ -94,55 +94,55 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2"/> x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x= 3 via route x4 using means x5 The tanru=20 klama zdani will also have two places, na= mely those of=20 zdani. Since a=20 klama zdani is a type of=20 - zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses =E2=80=93 wha= tever they may be =E2=80=93 are also houses. + zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses – whate= ver they may be – are also houses. dog houseexample tanrupossible meanings of= fleas= But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is nee= ded to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to = a less unlikely tanru:=20 gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 =20 gerku zdani is a house that has something= to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left un= stated. Thus, the meaning of=20 lo gerku zdani can include all of the fol= lowing: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also= houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All th= at is essential is that the place structure of=20 =20 zdani continues to apply. =20 For something (call it z1) to qualify as a=20 gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a h= ouse, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call t= hat z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1= to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (cal= led g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of=20 gerku zdani, as opposed to just=20 zdani, there's got to be some relationship (called r) b= etween some place of=20 =20 zdani and some place of=20 gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there= 's a relationship between some place of=20 zdani and any place of=20 gerku, then that relationship can be compounded with th= e relationship between the places of=20 gerku- namely,=20 - gerku itself =E2=80=93 to reach any of the other=20 + gerku itself – to reach any of the other=20 gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be= between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:=20 the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do wit= h the occupant of the house z1. Bill Clintonexample Doubtless to the relief of = the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White H= ouse (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a=20 gerku zdani. We go through the five varia= bles. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this w= riting, so it counts as a=20 =20 - zdani. Let's take a dog =E2=80=93 say, Spot (g1). Spot = has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White Ho= use counts as a=20 + zdani. Let's take a dog – say, Spot (g1). Spot ha= s to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White Hous= e counts as a=20 gerku zdani if there is any relationship = (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 pl= aces to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and sim= ply gotten a different relationship.) Chelsea Clinton The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated a= s=20 The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea = Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White Ho= use) or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take anoth= er dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we sa= y that the White House cannot fit into the first place of=20 =20 =20 gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 - gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller= , the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed foll= ows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are e= xplicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed withi= n a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other pla= ces, however, can be expressed =E2=80=93 thus: + gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller= , the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed foll= ows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are e= xplicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed withi= n a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other pla= ces, however, can be expressed – thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d3"/> la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o zdani la bil. klinton. The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. =20 @@ -151,21 +151,21 @@ gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 gerku zdani changes. So if we understand= =20 gerku zdani as having the same meaning as= the English word=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because= as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the = White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstand= ing). =20
The meaning of lujvo This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say= =20 - doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru =E2=80=93 the one left deliberately vague =E2=80=93 is the precise relat= ion between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tant= amount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. + doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru – the one left deliberately vague – is the precise relation = between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamou= nt to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. lujvoand seltau/tertau relationship lujvointerpreting<= /secondary> disa= mbiguated instance A lujvo is defined by a single dis= ambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the p= lace structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation be= tween the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we'r= e looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it d= etermines the place structure of the lujvo itself. =20 Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujv= o and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more s= pecific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one wil= l be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r. lujvodesign consideration for relationship The = insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expres= sed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the re= lationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close.= This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, pi= cks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau= place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship=20 dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as = a single short word; the relationship=20 dog lives in house is not. From all the various interpr= etations of=20 gerku zdani, the person creating=20 gerzda should pick the most useful value = of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and = the most obvious one is usually the closest one. In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that th= e predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate = itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like=20 zdani in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express rela= tions; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together=20 @@ -228,21 +228,21 @@ Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not yet done: = we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be = eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concern= s will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equippe= d with the terminology needed for those discussions.
Selecting places lujvo place struc= turebasis of The set of places= of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. = More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of plac= es of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just eno= ugh places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, = including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excl= uding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place r= equires assuming a standard value or range of values for it. lujvo place struc= turerationale for standardization It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 se jbopli or a=20 te klagau is. But this would mean that, r= ather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojb= anist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with littl= e or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelin= es documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it convent= ional wherever possible. - The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case =E2=80=93 that is to say, if the lujvo pla= ces are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places =E2=80=93 then it will be v= ery difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular plac= e means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic tha= t will be further discussed in=20 + The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case – that is to say, if the lujvo place= s are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places – then it will be very = difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place me= ans, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that wi= ll be further discussed in=20 . However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.
Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo great soldierexample lujvo place structurewhen first p= laces redundant veljvosymmetrical = lujvosy= mmetrical A common pattern, perhaps the most common= pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 @@ -371,21 +371,21 @@ zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. lujvo place struc= turedropping dependent seltau places The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent place= s provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed = from the tentative place structure given in=20 , leaving the place structur= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1"/> z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 - Informally put, the reason this has happened =E2=80=93 and it ha= ppens a lot with seltau places =E2=80=93 is that the third place was descri= bing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence + Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happ= ens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing= not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2"/> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. =20 @@ -851,21 +851,21 @@ because the alternative, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d4"/> [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go - doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside =E2=80=93 an interpretation = almost identical with=20 + doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside – an interpretation al= most identical with=20 anyway?) shellfishexample shellfish There are cases, however, = where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful= . For example,=20 xaskemcakcurnu means=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo =20 shell wormexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5"/> @@ -1122,42 +1122,42 @@ Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 nunctikezgau into=20 nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is broug= ht about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event= of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentati= ve place structure of <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3"/> g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 ea= ting c2 - But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly =E2=80=93 it does = not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from t= he seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 + But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly – it does no= t depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the= seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 =20 =20 nunctikezgau is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4"/> g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2<= /place-structure> There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoi in=20 , the interpretati= on of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti pla= ces. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with=20 gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstraction e= ither implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of=20 =20 gasnu is defined. Therefore, if we assume that=20 nu is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a= =20 se gasnu, then the rafsi=20 nun and=20 kez in=20 - nunctikezgau are only telling us what we = would already have guessed =E2=80=93 that the seltau of a=20 + nunctikezgau are only telling us what we = would already have guessed – that the seltau of a=20 gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, an= d use instead the shorter lujvo=20 ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpr= etation (=20 someone who both does and eats;=20 an eating doer), we can still deduce that the seltau re= fers to an event. (You can't=20 do an eater/=20 gasnu lo citka, with the meaning of=20 do as=20 bring about an event; so the seltau must refer to an ev= ent,=20 nu citka. The English slang meanings of= =20 @@ -1419,21 +1419,21 @@ xanplimi'e,=20 mi'erxanpli, and=20 minkemxanpli respectively. latent component<= /primary> Does this make=20 xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does m= ean that there is a latent component to the meaning of=20 =20 xanmi'e, the gismu=20 pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also= means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, ra= ther than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivati= on for=20 xancypliminde or one of the other possibi= lities that is analogous to the analysis of=20 terlantroge'u above, even if he or she de= cides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 - xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the poss= ibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously= =E2=80=93 an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind. + xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the poss= ibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously= – an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.
Comparatives and superlatives lujvosuperlatives lujvocomparatives English has the concepts of=20 comparative adjectives and=20 =20 superlative adjectives which can be formed from other a= djectives, either by adding the suffixes=20 =20 -er and=20 -est or by using the words=20 diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 048d4be..176a2c5 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -291,21 +291,21 @@ .uenai la djan. klama [Expected!] John comes. In=20 , John's coming has been ant= icipated by the speaker. In=20 =20 and=20 , no such anticipation has b= een made, but in=20 - the lack-of-anticipation go= es no further =E2=80=93 in=20 + the lack-of-anticipation go= es no further – in=20 , it amounts to actual surpr= ise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 o or=20 i from those beginning with=20 u, but in general they represent more complex, mo= re ambivalent, or more difficult emotions. .o'a pride modesty @@ -935,21 +935,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d4"/> .eiru'e =20 - I might (a weak obligation =E2=80=93 in English often mixed wi= th permission and desire) + I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed with= permission and desire) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d5"/> .eicu'i =20 @@ -969,35 +969,35 @@ .einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei formal requirementexample attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also ut= ter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the= language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you= mark what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 =20 cu'i by itself. =20
The space of emotions attitudinal scale= as axis in emotion-space Each = of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In= effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional spac= e. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point= in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coo= rdinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one= decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale value= s for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct singl= e point, which is our attitude. =20 - emotionswhen expressed emotionsinsights emotions= compound compound emotions Now no one is going= to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. = If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a t= ime =E2=80=93 usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently ch= anged in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful in= sights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Loj= ban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions wh= en they do recognize them. + emotionswhen expressed emotionsinsights emotions= compound compound emotions Now no one is going= to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. = If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a t= ime – usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently chan= ged in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insi= ghts into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojba= n), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when= they do recognize them. =20 attitudinal scale= neutral compared with positive + negative<= /indexterm> The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion= . We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in=20 that multiply the set of scales= by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, whi= ch might be expressed by=20 =20 =20 cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both the=20 =20 positive and=20 negative scale emotions at once. One expression of=20 fortitude might be=20 .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. - attitudinalscontrasted with rationalizations of emotion attitudinalsorder of Uttering one or more attitud= inals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter = emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emot= ions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, al= though their order of importance to us is also revealing =E2=80=93 of our a= ttitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessa= ry; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the=20 - vector sum naturally expresses the result. This is vita= l to their nature as attitudinals =E2=80=93 if you had to stop and think ab= out them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rational= izations. - attitudinalscontrasted with bridi People have p= roposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; = but emotions aren't logical or analytical =E2=80=93 saying=20 + attitudinalscontrasted with rationalizations of emotion attitudinalsorder of Uttering one or more attitud= inals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter = emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emot= ions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, al= though their order of importance to us is also revealing – of our att= itude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary= ; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the=20 + vector sum naturally expresses the result. This is vita= l to their nature as attitudinals – if you had to stop and think abou= t them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationaliz= ations. + attitudinalscontrasted with bridi People have p= roposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; = but emotions aren't logical or analytical – saying=20 I'm awed is not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. attitudinalsdesign benefit A nice feature of th= is design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the sa= me way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a= couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready= to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express = your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabu= lary offers a broad range of expression.
Emotional categories attitudinal categ= oriesrationale attitudinal categories emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting wit= h a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 ava= ilable VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion word= s in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then= assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the = result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to e= xpress very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common feature we identified was that the emotional wor= ds on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of w= hich was assigned its own cmavo: @@ -1047,21 +1047,21 @@ =20 .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label= =20 stress in English are expressed in Lojban with=20 .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be exp= ressed with=20 .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if = you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you = don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most = adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 =20 o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goe= r who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building. Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categoriz= e it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible = without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotio= ns within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physic= al comfort or vice versa. .eiro'u Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each= of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emot= ional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'= ll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojb= an possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that prob= ably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=20 - .eiro'u, for example =E2=80=93 look it up= ). + .eiro'u, for example – look it up).= =20 ro'anai= example attitudinalsstand-alone categories attitudi= nalscategories with nai attitudinalsc= ategories with scale markers You can use scale mark= ers and=20 nai on these six category words, and you can also use c= ategory words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentrate could be expressed simply as= =20 ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-sp= ecific way,=20 =20 ro'anai will express it. =20 attitudinal categ= oriesmnemonic for There is a m= nemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms ab= out. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down= your body in sequence. @@ -1244,21 +1244,21 @@ =20 ro'ole'o.=20 le'o is also useful in threats as an alternative to=20 =20 o'onai, which expresses anger. =20 vu'e sinfulexample virtueexample= righteous indignationexample The cmavo=20 vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. An exces= s of almost any emotion is usually somewhat=20 =20 =20 - sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings =E2=80=93 what we call ri= ghteous indignation might be=20 + sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings – what we call righ= teous indignation might be=20 =20 =20 =20 o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct fr= om lack of guilt:=20 .u'unai. se'i The cmavo=20 se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and g= enerosity, for example (in combination with=20 =20 .au): @@ -1336,21 +1336,21 @@ be'u can be used alone: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d9"/> le cukta be'u cu zvati ma =20 The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?] - Where's the book? =E2=80=93 I need it! + Where's the book? – I need it! se'a Lastly, the modifier=20 se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-= sufficiency or with dependence on others. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d10"/> @@ -1414,21 +1414,21 @@ .ie ge'eru'e might be=20 I agree, but ... where the=20 but is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always ex= pressed in English by English attitudinals.) attitudinal indic= atorsplacement of scale in A s= cale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the sca= le word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can hav= e its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expre= ssible. For example,=20 .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling mi= dway between pain (=20 .oi) and pleasure (=20 .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. =20 attitudinalsplacement in sentences with "nai" attitudinal indicat= orsplacement of "nai" in The cmavo=20 - nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language:= it always negates exactly one word =E2=80=93 the preceding one. Of all the= words used in indicator constructs,=20 + nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language:= it always negates exactly one word – the preceding one. Of all the w= ords used in indicator constructs,=20 nai is the only one with any meaning outside the indica= tor system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo an= d its=20 nai negator, the=20 nai will end up negating the last word of the indicator= . The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d1"/> mi .e .ui nai do I and [Yay!] [Not!] you @@ -1494,21 +1494,21 @@ mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi =20 I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!] can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 Damn, I snapped at you; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 I told you, you pest! - Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there =E2= =80=93 as the rules have it =E2=80=93 or about the entire bridi which hinge= s on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct express= ions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable. + Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there &nda= sh; as the rules have it – or about the entire bridi which hinges on = that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions = of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable. attitudinalsbenefit in written expression Even = if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unint= uitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression= . There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the= scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and = intonation to convey the writer's intent.
Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pei attitude question @@ -1523,25 +1523,25 @@ continue emotion end emotion You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sen= tence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be= true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more = logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate. pei= attitudinal que= stions The word=20 pei is therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked= by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English=20 How are you? coupled with=20 How do you feel? (which has a slightly different range = of usage). attitudinal answe= rsplausibility When asked in t= he context of discourse,=20 - pei acts like other Lojban question words =E2=80=93 it = requests the respondent to=20 + pei acts like other Lojban question words – it re= quests the respondent to=20 fill in the blank, in this case with an appropriate att= itudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression.= As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irr= elevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the = questioner. (A=20 =20 =20 - ge'e, however, is always in order =E2=80=93 you are not= required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 + ge'e, however, is always in order – you are not r= equired to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 =20 .i'inai, which is privacy as the reverse = of conviviality.) attitudinal quest= ionsasking intensity Most ofte= n, however, the asker will use=20 pei as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a re= sult,=20 pei is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would= have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference bet= ween UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usag= es in natural languages: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d1"/> @@ -1627,21 +1627,21 @@ =20 .uuse'inai dai<= /primary> sympat= hyexample empathyexample<= /indexterm> attitudesempathy contrasted with sympathy attitudinalsattributing emotion to others Empathy, which is no= t really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator=20 dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a= story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course ma= ke a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can = also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 =20 - dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else =E2=80=93 exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can a= lso use=20 + dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else – exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can als= o use=20 =20 dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someon= e else's emotion as if it were your own: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d9"/> .oiro'odai [Pain!] [physical] [empathy] @@ -1876,21 +1876,21 @@ ti'e la .uengas cu zergau =20 [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. I hear that Wenga is a crook. ka'u cultural knowl= edgeexample mythexample= A bridi marked by=20 - ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural c= ontext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should = be agreed on by a community of people =E2=80=93 you cannot just make up you= r own cultural context =E2=80=93 although=20 + ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural c= ontext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should = be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your = own cultural context – although=20 =20 objectivity in the sense of actual correspondence with = the facts is certainly not required. ka'u se'o dreamexample revelationexample evidentials= ka'u contrasted with se'o evidentialsse'o contr= asted with ka'u On the other hand,=20 se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speak= er as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, = such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line= between=20 =20 =20 ka'u and=20 se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent. za'a observationexample observation evidentialcontrasted= with observative observativecontrasted with observation = evidential A bridi marked by=20 za'a is based on perception or direct observation by th= e speaker. This use of=20 @@ -2194,21 +2194,21 @@ broadly construed; for=20 do'anai (as you might expect),=20 narrowly construed. pa'enai pa'e The cmavo=20 pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is be= ing fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas=20 =20 pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in f= avor of one party. =20 .ianai zo'o ironyexample sarcasmexample ironyexpressing sarcasmexpressing T= he scale of=20 je'u and=20 - je'unai is a little different from the ot= hers in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth =E2=80= =93 or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal= it from us. So under what circumstances would=20 + je'unai is a little different from the ot= hers in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth &ndash= ; or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal i= t from us. So under what circumstances would=20 je'unai be used, or=20 je'u be useful? For one thing,=20 je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that i= s a truth of logic, like=20 All cats are cats. Its counterpart=20 je'unai then serves to mark a logical con= tradiction. In addition,=20 je'unai can be used to express one kind o= f sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says,= but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms = of irony can be marked with=20 =20 =20 =20 zo'o (humor) or=20 @@ -2589,37 +2589,37 @@ I know who goes to the store. =20
Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 - la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name us= ed to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators =E2=80=93 in = fact, discursives =E2=80=93 but the need to tie them to names and other des= criptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But l= ike the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 + la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name us= ed to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators – in fa= ct, discursives – but the need to tie them to names and other descrip= tions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like = the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 nai too often vital to interpretation of a protocol sig= nal, as explained later in this section. =20 do'u DOhU selma= 'o voc= ativesgrammar overview The gra= mmar of vocatives is explained in=20 ; but in brief, a vocative = may be followed by a name (without=20 la), a description (without=20 le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at a= ll (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable ter= minator,=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required u= nless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.<= /para> =20 vocativesand definition of "you" youdefining= Using any vocative except=20 mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the meaning o= f the pro-sumti=20 - do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the l= istener, or at any rate the desired listener =E2=80=93 even if the desired = listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 + do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the l= istener, or at any rate the desired listener – even if the desired li= stener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speaker and=20 listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the ap= propriate terms would be=20 writer and=20 reader. vocativesnotation convention symbol "X" In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol = X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of th= e listener. DOI selma'o doi= doieffect on pause before name pause before nameeffect of doi The cmavo=20 doi is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the cmavo o= f selma'o COI, explained below,=20 doi can precede a name directly without an intervening = pause. It is not considered a scale, and=20 doinai is not grammatical= . In general,=20 doi needs no translation in English (we just use names = by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we some= times say=20 @@ -3153,24 +3153,24 @@ Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic comm= ents that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 - There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly =E2=80=93 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity marke= rs. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious l= evel. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of= new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify wi= th those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.<= /para> + There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly – mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers= . These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious lev= el. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of n= ew words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with= those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences. =20 =20 - Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions =E2=80=93 words that cannot be de= fined with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will ver= y quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evol= ve into a true system of emotions. + Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions – words that cannot be defi= ned with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very = quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve= into a true system of emotions. emotionsresearch using indicators emotionsrecording us= ing indicators There are several theories as to the= nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more abou= t ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an = accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for= expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of = human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They = also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recor= ding emotions. - emotionscultural bias of expression The full li= st of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks t= he language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are = important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias =E2=80=93 if a cul= ture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than o= thers, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. I= f a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them.<= /para> + emotionscultural bias of expression The full li= st of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks t= he language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are = important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias – if a cultu= re is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than oth= ers, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If = a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them. Sapir-Whorf effec= tsand emotional indicators Per= haps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emo= tions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than = others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference= from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have = devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may b= e the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the= type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools i= n existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having = such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf e= ffect will occur and will be recognized. It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system = like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-= cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in = the realm of emotional communication=20 at our mother's knee. Such children will have a Lojban = system that has stronger reinforcement than any typical culture system. The= second generation of such children, then, could be said to be the start of= a true Lojbanic culture. emotional indicat= orsnoticeable effects of We sh= ouldn't need to wait that long to detect significant effects. Emotion is so= basic to our lives that even a small change or improvement in emotional co= mmunication would have immediately noticeable effects. Perhaps it will be t= he case that the most important contribution of our=20 logical language will be in the non-logical realm of em= otion! =20
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 81db734..060b204 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -794,21 +794,21 @@ mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-= a-man. shows that=20 does not mean that either I= am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate transla= tion would be: - Of the three properties =E2=80=93 German-ness, wealth, and manhood = =E2=80=93 I possess either exactly one or else all three. + Of the three properties – German-ness, wealth, and manhood &nd= ash; I possess either exactly one or else all three. logical connectio= nnegation in connecting more than 2 sentences logical conn= ectionof more than 2 sentencesth= ings to avoid Because of the counterintuitiveness of= this outcome, it is safest to avoid=20 O with more than two sentences= . Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected tru= th values when used with more than two sentences. logical connectio= nof more than 2 sentencesall or = none In fact, no combination of logical connectives = can produce the=20 all or none interpretation intended (but not achieved) = by=20 without repeating one of th= e bridi. See=20 . There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two = sentences. What is the meaning of: logical connectio= n of more than 2 sentencesmixed "and" and &q= uot;or" FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1002,21 +1002,21 @@ I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the = office ). KE selma'o ke ke in s= umti groupingwhere allowed If = sumti were allowed to begin with=20 ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. German rich manexample Now we have enough facil= ities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 - I am German, rich, and a man =E2=80=93 or else none of these. The following paraphrase has the correct meaning: + I am German, rich, and a man – or else none of these. The following paraphrase has the correct meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10"/> [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo = mi nanmu [tu'u] ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) and (I am-German i= f-and-only-if I am-a-man ). The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all = three component sentences are true or all three are false. @@ -1836,21 +1836,21 @@ You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function= ?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? =20 coffee or teaexample the answer=20 e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if= not necessarily polite. afterthought conn= ectioncontrasted with forethought for grammatical utte= rances forethought connectioncontrasted with afterthought = for grammatical utterances forethought connectivesas ungra= mmatical utterance connectivesas ungrammatical utterance The forethought questions=20 ge'i and=20 =20 - gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers =E2=80=93 they sound l= ike the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 + gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound lik= e the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 =20 =20 is the forethought version = of=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14"/> do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi gi loi tcati @@ -2068,21 +2068,21 @@ liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned i= n the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 lo liste means a physical object such as = a grocery list: a purely abstract list is=20 lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sum= ti connected by=20 ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together = in a set or a mass. =20 jo'u jo'u= result of connection with jo'ucontrasted with c= e'o = jo'ucontrasted with ce jo'ucontrasted= with joi individuals into setby non-logical connection indivi= duals into massby non-logical connection non-logical conne= ctionof individuals into set = non-logical connectionof individuals into mass So=20 joi,=20 ce, and=20 ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are take= n to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a = sequence respectively. The cmavo=20 =20 - jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the su= mti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals =E2=80= =93 but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and Geor= ge are brothers is: + jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the su= mti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals – = but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George a= re brothers is: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8"/> la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. James is-the-brother-of George. @@ -2783,21 +2783,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5"/> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.<= /gloss> fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 - .) However, the tense informati= on =E2=80=93 that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of= my buying food =E2=80=93 can be added to the logical connective as follows= . The=20 + .) However, the tense informati= on – that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of m= y buying food – can be added to the logical connective as follows. Th= e=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 bo: ba<= /indexterm> .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6"/> diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 7600931..668053c 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -339,21 +339,21 @@
Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> The chair is not brown. - we make a positive inference =E2=80=93 that the chair is some ot= her color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: + we make a positive inference – that the chair is some othe= r color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d2"/> It is green. Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that t= he statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret som= e responses. If we hear the following exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d3"/> @@ -480,21 +480,21 @@ <quote>not necessary</quote> or=20 <quote>unnecessary</quote> being the polar opposite of necessary. Anot= her scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situation= s modified by one's philosophy:=20 <quote>not true</quote> may be equated with=20 <quote>false</quote> in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in t= ri-valued logic an intermediate between=20 <quote>true</quote> and=20 <quote>false</quote> is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous sca= le exists from true to false. The meaning of=20 =20 <quote>not true</quote> requires a knowledge of which variety of truth= scale is being considered.</para> <para>We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indic= ating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not = valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This= is the intent expressed in most contexts by=20 <quote>not mild</quote>, for example.</para> - <para>Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive = than scalar negation =E2=80=93 it says that the point or value stated is in= correct (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point = or value, whether or not on the scale.</para> + <para>Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive = than scalar negation – it says that the point or value stated is inco= rrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or= value, whether or not on the scale.</para> <para>In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such a= s=20 <quote>other than</quote>,=20 <quote>reverse of</quote>, or=20 <quote>opposite from</quote> expressions and their equivalents. More c= ommonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes=20 <quote>non-</quote>,=20 <quote>un-</quote>,=20 <quote>il-</quote>, and=20 <quote>im-</quote>. Just which form and permissible values are implied= by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept = which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English resul= ts from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixe= s.</para> <para>In the examples of=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-nahe"/>, we will translate the general case o= f scalar negation using the general formula=20 @@ -579,33 +579,33 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d6"/> mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market. These negations show the default scope of=20 na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanr= u.=20 =20 - says that I am going to the= market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, the= re are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one =E2= =80=93 see=20 + says that I am going to the= market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, the= re are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one &nda= sh; see=20 for a discussion of tanru meaning).= In neither=20 nor=20 does the=20 na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sentences con= tain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they = also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationshi= p. This is clearer in=20 , which says that I am going= , but in a non-walking manner. In=20 , we have claimed that the r= elationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is = not one of=20 going to (perhaps we are walking around the market, or = walking-in-place while at the market). The=20 scale, or actually the=20 set, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything whic= h plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interp= reted in the same way that answers to a=20 - mo question must be plausible =E2=80=93 the result must= not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate= to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the con= text.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, w= hile still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbr= i negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a differe= nt relationship. + mo question must be plausible – the result must n= ot only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate t= o the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the conte= xt.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, whi= le still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri = negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different= relationship. We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than= a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as= exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given= twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the=20 na'e): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d7"/> mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market. @@ -694,21 +694,21 @@ na'e klama becomes nalkla na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla Note:=20 -kem- is the rafsi for=20 - ke, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous= =E2=80=93=20 + ke, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous= –=20 ke'e is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo i= mplies a=20 =20 ke after the=20 -nal-, since it needs to close something; only a=20 ke immediately after the negation would make the=20 ke'e meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo. In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate=20 -nal- as=20 non-, to match the English combining forms, except when= the=20 na'e has single word scope and English uses=20 @@ -967,21 +967,21 @@ through=20 could be replaced by the lu= jvo=20 nalmle,=20 normle, and=20 tolmle respectively. This large variety of scalar negations is provided because diffe= rent scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both d= irections: there is no=20 ultimately ugly or=20 ultimately beautiful. Other scales, like temperature, a= re open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature = (so-called=20 absolute zero) but no maximum temperature. Still other = scales are closed at both ends. Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious=20 - to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? =E2=80=93 while ot= hers have more than one, and need=20 + to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? – while othe= rs have more than one, and need=20 ci'u to specify which opposite is meant. =20
sumti negation There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choi= ce of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator=20 na'ebo before the sumti. It turns out tha= t a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we = use implies,=20 =20 na'ebo forms a scalar negation. =20 @@ -1083,21 +1083,21 @@ mi paroinai dansu le bisli I [once] [not] dance-on the ice means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 is very different from the = English use of=20 not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 - never =E2=80=93 that is, exactly zero times. + never – that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in=20 , most indicators have an i= mplicit scale, and=20 nai changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end = of the scale. Thus=20 .uinai expresses unhappiness, and=20 .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambiva= lence, which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 =20 =20 @@ -1283,21 +1283,21 @@ na go'i [false] [repeat previous] as a response to a negative question like=20 , Lojban designers had to ch= oose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. D= oes=20 create a double negative in= the sentence by adding a new=20 na to the one already there (forming a double negative = and hence a positive statement), or does the=20 na replace the previous one, leaving the sentence uncha= nged? - It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way =E2=80=93 Russian= , Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative questio= n as positive. + It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way – Russian, = Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question = as positive. =20 The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can= also replace the=20 na in the context, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5"/> ja'a go'i (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) @@ -1345,43 +1345,43 @@ Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors ar= e inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When s= uch negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims= about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negati= ons which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lo= jban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is p= lausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine. Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would = destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need o= ther means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. W= hen the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express = metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion. =20 Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negatio= n with English-language examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d2"/> I have not=20 stopped beating my wife - (I never started =E2=80=93 failure of presupposition). + (I never started – failure of presupposition). <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d3"/> 5 is not blue - (color does not apply to abstract concepts =E2=80=93 failure o= f category). + (color does not apply to abstract concepts – failure of = category). <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d4"/> The current King of France is not bald. - (there is no current King of France =E2=80=93 existential fail= ure) + (there is no current King of France – existential failur= e) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d5"/> I do not have THREE children. - (I have two =E2=80=93 simple undue quantity) + (I have two – simple undue quantity) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d6"/> I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four. (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example= is that someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs) @@ -1459,21 +1459,21 @@ =20 na'i anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, a= nd suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value. Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic e= rrors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked b= y devising analogies to these examples: Existential failure can be marked by attaching=20 na'i to the descriptor=20 lo or the=20 poi in a=20 da poi-form sumti. (See and=20 for details on these con= structions.) Remember that if a=20 - le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you= may not understand what the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 the appropriate = response is then=20 + le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you= may not understand what the speaker has in mind – the appropriate re= sponse is then=20 ki'a, asking for clarification. Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposit= ion is overt; if not, one can insert a=20 mock presupposition to question with the sumti tcita (s= elma'o BAI) word=20 ji'u;=20 ji'uku thus explicitly refers to an unexp= ressed assumption, and=20 ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that s= omething is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 .) Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 le'a has meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 @@ -1548,25 +1548,25 @@ go'i ji'una'iku Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 =20 - jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction,= though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage woul= d be to disagree with =E2=80=93 by overriding =E2=80=93 a respondent's meta= linguistic negation. + jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction,= though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage woul= d be to disagree with – by overriding – a respondent's metaling= uistic negation. =20
- Summary =E2=80=93 Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now= Answered? + Summary – Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now A= nswered? <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1"/> na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index edb9b13..e337987 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -118,21 +118,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3"/> da zo'u da viska mi There-is-an-X such-that X sees me. da<= /indexterm> zo'econtrasted with da dacontrasted with zo'e existential= claimsdefinition daas a translation = for "something"=20 does not presuppose that th= e listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that t= here is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called=20 - existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or =E2=80=93 in= principle =E2=80=93 an inanimate object. We will see in=20 + existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or – in p= rinciple – an inanimate object. We will see in=20 =20 =20 how to represent such re= strictions.) ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u log= ical variablesnotation convention variableslogical prenexsyntax of prenexexpla= nation=20 has a two-part structure: t= here is the part=20 da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part= =20 da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any L= ojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number = of sumti followed by the cmavo=20 zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will = consist of one or more of the cmavo=20 da,=20 de, and=20 @@ -921,21 +921,21 @@ I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. I don't go to the store. naku na The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the c= ompound cmavo=20 naku in the prenex, which is identified a= nd compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojba= n grammar,=20 naku is then treated like a sumti. In a p= renex,=20 naku means precisely the same thing as th= e logician's=20 it is not the case that in a similar English context. (= Outside of a prenex,=20 - naku is also grammatically treated as a s= ingle entity =E2=80=93 the equivalent of a sumti =E2=80=93 but does not hav= e this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in=20 + naku is also grammatically treated as a s= ingle entity – the equivalent of a sumti – but does not have th= is exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in=20 .) external bridi ne= gationcompared to internal bridi negation<= /indexterm> internal bridi n= egationcompared to external bridi negation= internal bridi = negationdefinition external bridi negationdefinition bridi negationna before selbri compared to= naku in prenex bridi negationnaku in prenex compared to n= a before selbri To represent a bridi negation using= a prenex, remove the=20 na from before the selbri and place=20 naku at the left end of the prenex. This = form is called=20 external bridi negation, as opposed to=20 =20 =20 internal bridi negation using=20 =20 na. The prenex version of=20 @@ -1523,21 +1523,21 @@ nai,=20 na and=20 se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the= basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identit= ies, and then, apply each=20 nai,=20 na and=20 se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any dou= ble negatives that result. =20 =20 DeMorgan's Lawand moving a logical connective relative to "naku&qu= ot; = DeMorgan's Lawand distributing a negation<= /indexterm> distributing a n= egation When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we = wish to=20 distribute a negation over a logical connective; and, f= or internal=20 - naku negation, whenever a logical connect= ive moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation =E2=80=93 when it cross= es a negation boundary. + naku negation, whenever a logical connect= ive moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation – when it crosses= a negation boundary. nai= gi ge ga DeMorgan's L= awsample applications Let us a= pply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of f= orethought logical connectives, which are explained in=20 =20 . It suffices = to know that=20 ga and=20 gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean= =20 either and=20 or respectively, and that=20 ge and=20 gi used similarly mean=20 both and=20 @@ -1718,21 +1718,21 @@ There's some relationship between Jim and John. =20 some relationship= example selbri variablesprenex form a= s indefinite description The translations of=20 show how unidiomatic selbri= variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 =20 need to be totally reworded= in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it = is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because= only sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 - su'o bu'a is technically a sumti =E2=80= =93 in fact, it is an indefinite description like=20 + su'o bu'a is technically a sumti – = in fact, it is an indefinite description like=20 =20 =20 re nanmu, since=20 bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like=20 nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involving the b= u'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex. selbri variables<= /primary>form when not in prenex When th= e prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d2"/> @@ -1770,21 +1770,21 @@ ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. What does=20 mean? The appearance of=20 ci da quantifies=20 da as referring to three things, which are restricted b= y the relative clause to be cats. When=20 - re da appears later, it refers to two of = those three things =E2=80=93 there is no saying which ones. Further uses of= =20 + re da appears later, it refers to two of = those three things – there is no saying which ones. Further uses of= =20 da alone, if there were any, would refer once more to t= he three cats, so the requantification of=20 da is purely local. prenex scopein abstractions prenex scopein relative cl= auses prenex scopein embedded bridi prenex scopeinformal prenex scopefor sentences joined by .i prenex = scopefor sentences joined by ijeks In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to = following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 ) such as the=20 .ije in=20 . Theoretically, a bare=20 i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, howev= er, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 i, as if it were an=20 .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded brid= i such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the c= lause, as explained in=20 . A prenex preceding=20 diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index bb7d4ec..39f2327 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -22,21 +22,21 @@ lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest of this c= hapter. alphabetLatin used for Lojban Latinalphabet of Lojban= Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English do= es, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, eve= ryone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold: =20 alphabetwords for letters inrationale<= /indexterm> First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to a= nd represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in Engl= ish and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphab= et to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in= spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalent= s of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow. =20 =20 alphabetswords for non-Lojban lettersrationale Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in w= riting English. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: E= nglish-speakers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled=20 phi as=20 fye, whereas=20 fee would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-= speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban= , in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that= can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other w= riting systems. - Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti =E2=80=93 the equiv= alent of English pronouns. + Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti – the equival= ent of English pronouns. =20 letter<= secondary>contrasted with word for the letter lerfu wordco= ntrasted with lerfu lerfucontrasted with lerfu word In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tenden= cy to use the word=20 lerfu for both the letterals themselves and for the Loj= ban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruth= lessly suppressed, and the term=20 lerfu word will invariably be used for the latter. The = Lojban equivalent would be=20 lerfu valsi or=20 lervla.
A to Z in Lojban, plus one lerfu wordsLojban coverage requirement The firs= t requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must= represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for Englis= h are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 @@ -184,21 +184,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. o ' a lerfu wordseffect of systematic formulation spelling out wordsLojban contrasted with English in usefulness Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reas= ons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how= a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the En= glish ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words=20 fail and=20 vale sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu wo= rd of either, namely=20 eff or=20 - vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them =E2= =80=93 and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 + vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them &nda= sh; and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vail nor=20 fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the = spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling = out words does exist in Lojban. =20 lerfu words endin= g with "y"pause afterr= ationale Note that the lerfu words ending in=20 y were written (in=20 and=20 ) with pauses after them. It= is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to = do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3"/> @@ -821,21 +821,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>.abu dunda by. cy.</jbo> <en>A gives B C</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BOI selma'o</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi= </primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>boi</= primary><secondary>eliding from lerfu strings</secondary></indexterm> Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 =20 <oldjbophrase>by. cy.</oldjbophrase> is a single lerfu string, althoug= h written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpr= etation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, w= e need to introduce the elidable terminator=20 =20 <valsi>boi</valsi> (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate l= erfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these= appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 - <valsi>boi</valsi> is to attach a free modifier =E2=80=93 subscript, p= arenthesis, or what have you =E2=80=93 to a lerfu string.) The correct vers= ion is:</para> + <valsi>boi</valsi> is to attach a free modifier – subscript, par= enthesis, or what have you – to a lerfu string.) The correct version = is:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Hdwz"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6"/> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C =20 @@ -894,21 +894,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-express= ion e. This sentence contains four=20 e s. Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 - e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is = not a literal one =E2=80=93 but=20 + e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is = not a literal one – but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 lu ... li'u instead of=20 me'o, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4"/> @@ -1319,21 +1319,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. FOI end compound lerfu word LAU selma'ogrammar of following BY cmavo lerfu word cmavolist of auxiliary Note that LAU cmavo must be fo= llowed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where=20 equivalent means: either any Lojban word followed by=20 bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 tei ... foi compound cmavo.
- Proposed lerfu words =E2=80=93 introduction + Proposed lerfu words – introduction lerfu wordslist of proposednotation convention The following sections contain tables of proposed lerf= u words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu sy= stem. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabe= t name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-b= ased lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the sys= tem based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. proposed lerfu wo= rdsas working basis These tabl= es are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban= community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other = and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual u= sage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. P= robably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down= into a final, conventional form. =20 For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alph= abet lerfu).
Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet =20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 8cacb0c..f154ce3 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -30,21 +30,21 @@ 3x + 2y mathematical nota= tionand omitted operators cont= ains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpr= etations for the strings=20 =20 3x and=20 2y than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the = Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 =20 must not omit the multiplic= ation operators. =20 - mekso chaptercompleteness mekso chaptertable notation = convention The remainder of this chapter explains (= in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter = is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive a= bout uses of those components =E2=80=93 as of now, there has been no really= comprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await th= e test of usage to be fully clarified. + mekso chaptercompleteness mekso chaptertable notation = convention The remainder of this chapter explains (= in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter = is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive a= bout uses of those components – as of now, there has been no really c= omprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the = test of usage to be fully clarified.
Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pa PA 1 @@ -1629,21 +1629,21 @@ li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567. ABC base 16example digits beyond 9word pattern Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 au,=20 ei,=20 - ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A t= o D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E = and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 =E2=80=93 there was simply not enough a= vailable cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are= also in alphabetical order. + ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A t= o D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E = and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 – there was simply not enough ava= ilable cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are a= lso in alphabetical order. decimal pointin bases other than 10 base pointin bases= other than 10 The base point=20 =20 pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4"/> li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 2438270..7cfa2c6 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -98,21 +98,21 @@ i as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a ne= w topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of=20 =20 ni'o cmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent = to a single one; semantically, a greater number of=20 ni'o cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. Th= is feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and su= b-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and= written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between=20 ni'o in writing and in conversation. DAhO selma'o<= /primary> da= 'o par= agraph separationwritten text = tensesc= ope effect of new paragraph indicatorsscope effect of new = paragraph pro-sumtiscope effect of new paragraph pro-bridiscope effect of new paragraph paragraphse= ffects on scope discursive indicator indicator scope In written= text, a single=20 ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, w= hereas=20 =20 ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. I= n this situation,=20 ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitio= ns of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (= Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo=20 - da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an = indicator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 + da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an = indicator – it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 =20 ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of s= elma'o UI) or tense references, but=20 ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change= of topic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See=20 for a discussion of indi= cator scope.) =20 paragraph separat= ionspoken text Arabian Nights In spo= ken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by = one, with=20 ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient to cance= l pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in s= tories within stories such as=20 =20 The Arabian Nights, further levels may be expressed by = extending the=20 =20 @@ -430,21 +430,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d4"/> le zarci The store. - A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by its= elf constitute a bridi =E2=80=93 it does not claim anything, but merely com= pletes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi. + A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by its= elf constitute a bridi – it does not claim anything, but merely compl= etes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi. questionsmultiple There can be two=20 ma cmavo in a single question: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d5"/> ma klama ma Who goes where? @@ -532,30 +532,30 @@ Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 ji of A,=20 ge'i of GA,=20 =20 gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 - je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik = as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik = as an answer) – see=20 =20 =20 ; attitudes = (using=20 - pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) = =E2=80=93 see=20 + pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) &= ndash; see=20 ; place structur= es (using=20 - fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) = =E2=80=93 see=20 + fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) &= ndash; see=20 =20 ; tenses and modals (using=20 - cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as a= n answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as a= n answer) – see=20 and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See=20 =20 for details. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: linked argume= nts ut= terancesnon-bridi any number o= f sumti (with elidable terminator=20 diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 4ffe52b..abc38e4 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -705,21 +705,21 @@ =20 The cmavo=20 ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of= discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the tex= t may be indicated by multiple=20 ni'o s, with perhaps=20 ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,= =20 ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a sin= gle=20 ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single E= nglish paragraph. The cmavo=20 i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with = words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the = context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 xu, discussed in=20 - , is one such word =E2=80= =93 it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When= more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 + , is one such word – = it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When mor= e than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topi= c. It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxim= um clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be ad= ding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translatio= n for=20 i is the=20 and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....
tanru tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index f108bbc..93d7bb0 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1271,21 +1271,21 @@ I [inchoative] fight. I'm on the verge of fighting. selma'o ZEI () =20 A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo. ta xy. zei kantu kacma - That is-an-(X =E2=80=93 ray) camera. + That is-an-(X – ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. selma'o ZEhA () =20 A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short). mi puze'a citka I [past] [short interval] eat. diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index c92892a..6f61e94 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,25 +1,25 @@ Formal Grammars
YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. =20 /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. =20 - Step 1 =E2=80=93 Lexing + Step 1 – Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with non-Lojban failures o= f fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text f= ile using Lojban's phonetic spelling rules. The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm. =20 - Step 2 =E2=80=93 Filtering + Step 2 – Filtering From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict: If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) is ident= ified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a= pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening del= imiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recur= s=20 after a pause, as grammatically a single toke= n (labelled =20 in this grammar). There i= s no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the c= losing delimiter. If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is identif= ied, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =20 , instead of lexing it by = its normal grammatical function. @@ -34,42 +34,42 @@ If the word si (selma'o SI) is identified, er= ase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been conde= nsed into a single token by one of the above rules). If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identified, er= ase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follows= attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive f= urther definition later.) If the word su (selma'o SU) is identified, er= ase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding tok= en word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, if= speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginnin= g of a speaker's discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a speaker'= s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two adjacent uses of= su are required to erase the entire conversation. - Step 3 =E2=80=93 Termination + Step 3 – Termination If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it. - Step 4 =E2=80=93 Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens + Step 4 – Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed). Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where the= re may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRI= VLA. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If = they occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors). Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabe= l the previous token as selma'o BY. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI= or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and C= AI into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted = following any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word's gra= mmatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpretation = of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text are exp= licitly handled by the grammar. - Step 5 =E2=80=93 Insertion of Lexer Lexemes + Step 5 – Insertion of Lexer Lexemes Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical= function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YA= CC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings= of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either are replaced by a single specified lexer token for step 6, or the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to = identify it uniquely. The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generat= ion of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The str= ings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals= labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with t= he lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the = language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been perform= ed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented ou= t, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer token= s=20 @@ -98,21 +98,21 @@ F P R T S Y L Q . This ensures that the longest rules will be processed first; a PA+MA= I will not be seen as a PA with a dangling MAI at the end, for example. - Step 6 =E2=80=93 YACC Parsing + Step 6 – YACC Parsing YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance w= ith the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099= under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, an= d comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of= lexer tokens numbered from 900 up. */ %token=20 A_501 = /* eks; basic afterthought logical connectives */ %token=20 BAI_502 = /* modal operators */ %token=20 @@ -416,21 +416,21 @@ and relative clauses */ %token=20 XI_618 = /* subscripting operator */ %token=20 Y_619 = /* hesitation */ =20 %token=20 - ZAhO_621 = /* event properties =E2=80=93 inchoative, etc. */ + ZAhO_621 = /* event properties – inchoative, etc. */ %token=20 ZEhA_622 = /* time interval size tense */ =20 %token=20 ZEI_623 = /* lujvo glue */ %token=20 ZI_624 = /* time distance tense */ @@ -1630,31 +1630,31 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 operand_C_3= 85 : =20 | =20 - /* lerfu string as operand =E2=80=93 classic math variable */ + /* lerfu string as operand – classic math variable */ | =20 - /* quantifies a bridi =E2=80=93 inverse of -MOI */ + /* quantifies a bridi – inverse of -MOI */ | =20 - /* quantifies a sumti =E2=80=93 inverse of LI */ + /* quantifies a sumti – inverse of LI */ | =20 | =20 | =20 @@ -1946,21 +1946,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 /* words may be any Lojban words, with no claim of grammati= cality; the preparser will not lex the individual words per their normal selma'o; used to quote ungrammatical Lojban, equivalent to the * or ? writing convention for such text. */ =20 /* The preparser needs one bit of sophistication for this rule. A - quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings =E2=80=93 = this is + quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings – th= is is only a problem for a LOhU quote itself, since the LEhU clossing this quote would otherwise close the outer quotes, which is incorrect. For this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since thi= s is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser). Use ZO to mark any nested quotation LOhU. The preparser then will absorb it by the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU. This is obviously not the standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a sumti. But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway= , it doesn't matter. */ =20 @@ -3090,21 +3090,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ /* space defaults to time-space reference space */ =20 | =20 /* can include time if specified with VIhA; otherwise time defaults to = the time-space reference time */ =20 | =20 - /* time and space =E2=80=93 If=20 + /* time and space – If=20 is marked with VIhA for space-time the tense may be self-contradictory */ /* interval prop before space_time is for time distribution */ | =20 ; =20 lexer_P_980= : =20 diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index ed72158..83a6abc 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -322,23 +322,23 @@ [h]). The letter=20 h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 . In addition, the apostrophe vi= sually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differen= t ways) to separate syllables. unvoiced vowel gl= ideapostrophe as apostrophepurpose of= The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enabl= e a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a sin= gle word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an= unvoiced vowel glide. =20 apostrophevariant of As a permitted variant, an= y unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to= render the apostrophe: IPA=20 [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The conveni= ence of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a s= ubstitute for=20 [h]. pauserepresentation of in Lojban glottal stopas pause = in Lojban perioddefinition of The = period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal st= op (IPA=20 =20 - [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases =E2=80=93 explained in detail in=20 + [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases – explained in detail in=20 =20 - =E2=80=93 must occur. In particular= , a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word e= nding in a consonant is always followed by a pause. + – must occur. In particular, = a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word end= ing in a consonant is always followed by a pause. period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 =20 [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. =20 commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 @@ -616,21 +616,21 @@ y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could app= ear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 =20 - .y'y. is so used =E2=80=93 it is the Lojb= an name of the apostrophe letter (see=20 + .y'y. is so used – it is the Lojban= name of the apostrophe letter (see=20 ). vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> meiin. mei,in. @@ -1208,21 +1208,21 @@ stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 y or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 =20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penult= imate stress is=20 da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables c= reated solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. - stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress =E2=80=93 primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowes= t level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for s= yllables containing=20 + stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest = level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syl= lables containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed= on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed,= the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojba= n structural words (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> @@ -1315,38 +1315,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja - These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener = =E2=80=93 the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no im= port in recognizing the word. + These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener &= ndash; the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no impor= t in recognizing the word. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>syllabication</prima= ry><secondary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexter= m> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13"/> e'u bridi e'u BRI,di E'u BRI,di e'U.BRI,di In=20 ,=20 e'u is a cmavo and=20 bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciatio= ns is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 - e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that =E2=80=93 since the following word is a brivla =E2=80= =93 the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two = cases: + e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – th= e two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14"/> le re nobli prenu le re NObli PREnu diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 6b99cf5..532ac4b 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -112,21 +112,21 @@ C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless= it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified = forbidden pairs. C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. - brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes =E2=80=93 parts of speech =E2=80=93 in contrast to the eight tha= t are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla,= and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties =E2= =80=93 an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and un= ambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon eithe= r reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. + brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that ar= e traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and= cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – a= n arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguou= sly recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either readin= g or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. =20 =20 They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 =20 and,=20 if,=20 the and=20 to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 @@ -346,21 +346,21 @@ This would probably be the most common usage.
brivla adverbs= brivla as Lojban equivalents verbsbrivla as Loj= ban equivalents adjectivesbrivla as Lojban equivalents nounsbrivla as Lojban equivalents brivladefi= nition Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They c= arry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the eq= uivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single = part of speech. =20 =20 =20 =20 - subtypes of words= types= and subtypes of words Every brivla belongs to one of= three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morpholog= y, of the word =E2=80=93 all words of a particular structure can be assigne= d by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subt= ype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, s= ignificant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you hav= e never heard the word before. + subtypes of words= types= and subtypes of words Every brivla belongs to one of= three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morpholog= y, of the word – all words of a particular structure can be assigned = by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtyp= e. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, sig= nificant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have = never heard the word before. =20 flexible vocabula= ry The same principle allows you, when speaking or wr= iting, to invent new brivla for new concepts=20 on the fly; yet it offers people that you are trying to= communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lo= jban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely. =20 brivla<= secondary>properties of All brivla have the followi= ng properties: always end in a vowel; @@ -514,21 +514,21 @@ ninmu woman A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 for a list.
lujvo modifying brivla = (see also seltau) seltaucompared with English adverb seltaucompared with English adjective tanruexpla= nation of When specifying a concept that is not fou= nd among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems to= o general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concep= t as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 - metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive =E2=80=93 the modifying brivla redu= ces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concret= e, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like En= glish adverbs or adjectives. For example, + metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduce= s the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete,= or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like Engl= ish adverbs or adjectives. For example, =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1"/> skami pilno @@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ r making up the=20 rs consonant pair needed to make the word a b= rivla. Without the=20 r, the word would break up into=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo hav= e no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical = (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intend= ed. =20 Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . lujvoinvention of Most important, it is possibl= e to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new = or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban wo= rd. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is = a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.
rafsi - rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo =E2=80=93 whic= hever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is m= ost pleasing =E2=80=93 subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a sco= ring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and leg= al lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see=20 + rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo – whiche= ver the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is mos= t pleasing – subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring= algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal l= ujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see=20 ). unreduced lujvodefinition long rafsidefinition 4-letter ra= fsidefinition 5-letter rafsidefinitio= n gi= smubasic rafsi for lujvounreduced rafsilong rafsiforms of Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself= (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final = vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are re= presented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 =20 long rafsi, they are called=20 =20 unreduced lujvo. =20 Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are: @@ -758,21 +758,21 @@ zmadu, corresponding in general to English comparative = adjectives ending in=20 =20 -er such as=20 whiter (Lojban=20 labmau). On the other hand,=20 bakri (=20 chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo. There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form r= afsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form = and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of shor= t rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fa= irly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-for= m rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at th= e end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assi= gnment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu. =20 rafsirationale for assignments of rafsi space The int= ention was to use the available=20 - rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = =E2=80=93 in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-= used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), w= hile keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gis= mu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from am= ong the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a l= imited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most s= even possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most= three can be used, as explained above). + rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = – in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-us= ed lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), whi= le keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu= . For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from amon= g the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a lim= ited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most sev= en possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most t= hree can be used, as explained above). =20 =20 =20 rafsipossible forms for construction of Here ar= e the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form = CVC/CV, like sakli. The digits in the second column represen= t the gismu letters used to form the rafsi. @@ -934,21 +934,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d11"/> lerste lerfu liste letter list or a list of letters - lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters =E2=80=93 this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for com= pound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have= two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be = confused with gismu. + lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters – this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compo= und cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have t= wo or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be co= nfused with gismu. lujvo formrequirements for hyphen insertion in = hyphen letterdefinition hyphensuse of Whe= n attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen lett= er. In Lojban, the term=20 =20 hyphen always refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 y or one of the consonants=20 r and=20 n. (The letter=20 l can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in= lujvo.) lujvo formrequirements for y-hyphen insertion in The=20 y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when join= ing it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant = pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (= either cmavo or gismu). lujvoand consonant pairs Thus, the tanru=20 @@ -1117,21 +1117,21 @@ =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 3 borrowings borrowingsStage 3 borrowing= sfu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowe= d must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then u= sually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to = ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart. borrowingsmost common form for fu'ivlauniqueness of me= aning in rafsias fu'ivla categorizer fu'ivla categorizer The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla= ; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other langua= ges would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assig= ned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to = have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common = kind of fu'ivla. =20 =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 4 borrowings borrowingsStage 4 borrowing= sfu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 for a proposal concerning St= age 4 fu'ivla.) fu'ivla= form of fu'ivlaconstruction of The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu= and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word = from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 - fukpi valsi) from the other language and = Lojbanized =E2=80=93 the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equ= ivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitima= te Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla: + fukpi valsi) from the other language and = Lojbanized – the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equiv= alent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate= Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla: fu'ivlainitial consonant cluster in fu'ivlarules f= or formation of must contain a consonant cluster in= the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the be= ginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longe= r cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a pe= rmissible initial consonant pair:=20 spraile is acceptable, but not=20 ktraile or=20 trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; @@ -1303,22 +1303,22 @@ letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 spageti and=20 kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xaceru looks like a compo= und cmavo, and=20 kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 - integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'iv= la, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener,= even one with an English-speaking background; its source =E2=80=93 the Eng= lish word=20 - integral =E2=80=93 has various other specialized meanin= gs in other fields. + integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'iv= la, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener,= even one with an English-speaking background; its source – the Engli= sh word=20 + integral – has various other specialized meanings= in other fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 integrale almost certainly would eventual= ly come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that Englis= h associates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 i of=20 integrale is removed, or something like= =20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is ad= ded to the beginning;=20 @@ -1925,22 +1925,22 @@
Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 - is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo =E2=80=93 the version which would be entered into a di= ctionary.) - linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous =E2=80=93 it has several possible meanings. A lujv= o, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single= meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area o= f the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chos= en is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of= linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concep= t that seems the most useful one may change. + is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo – the version which would be entered into a dict= ionary.) + linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous – it has several possible meanings. A lujvo,= or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single m= eaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of = the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen= is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of l= inguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept = that seems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'euse to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeaning d= rift of You must also be aware of the possibility o= f some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for post= erity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is = in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a diff= erent place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily ba= d. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a mea= ning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dic= tionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 za'e (explained in=20 =20 ) before a newly coined lujvo to indic= ate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. =20 @@ -1993,22 +1993,22 @@ Put a=20 y-hyphen between the consonants of any imperm= issible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi. tosmabru test= Put a=20 y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form. - Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi =E2=80=93= with the pattern=20 - CVC ... CVC + X =E2=80=93 for=20 + Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi – w= ith the pattern=20 + CVC ... CVC + X – for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCC= V long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consona= nt cluster, or is something which has caused a=20 y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC= and itself by one of the above rules. The test is as follows: Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens. These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the tr= ial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word = will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 3698b23..8f73193 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -327,21 +327,21 @@ ta cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-small girl school. tanrudefault left-grouping of left-grouping ruledefin= ition of The rules of Lojban do not leave this sent= ence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with=20 . The choice made by the lan= guage designers is to say that=20 means the same as=20 . This is true no matter wha= t three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This= rule is called the=20 - left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common =E2=80=93 though not universal =E2=80=93 in ot= her contexts in Lojban. + left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common – though not universal – in other = contexts in Lojban. Another way to express the English meaning of=20 and=20 , using parentheses to mark = grouping, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d7"/> ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). @@ -390,22 +390,22 @@ In=20 , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 mutce bo barda and tertau=20 gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing o= nce again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other L= ojban tanru: the sense in which the=20 dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 =20 - to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g =E2=80=93 it first appeared in Quine's book=20 - Word and Object (1960) =E2=80= =93 it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English= =20 + to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g – it first appeared in Quine's book=20 + Word and Object (1960) –= it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English=20 pretty; it can mean=20 beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 very. Lojban=20 melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/> @@ -720,21 +720,21 @@ ta blanu je zdani that is-blue and is-a-house definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 blanu zdani refers to something which is = blue in the way that houses are blue;=20 - blanu je zdani has no such implication = =E2=80=93 the blueness of a=20 + blanu je zdani has no such implication &n= dash; the blueness of a=20 blanu je zdani is independent of its hous= eness. With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 =20 for a complete lis= t. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: @@ -1271,21 +1271,21 @@ =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjVx"/> is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand.</para> <para> Note that in Lojban=20 <quote>trying to go</quote> is expressed using=20 <valsi>troci</valsi> as the tertau. The reason is that=20 <quote>trying to go</quote> is a=20 <quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a=20 - <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going =E2=80=93 if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.= </para> + <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.</= para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</p= rimary><secondary>effect on sumti after the selbri</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><sec= ondary>effect on sumti before the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>unfilled places of inverted tanru</pri= mary></indexterm> Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru f= ill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordina= ry way. In=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjVx"/>,=20 <valsi>mi</valsi> fills the x1 place of=20 <oldjbophrase>troci co klama</oldjbophrase>, which is the x1 place of= =20 <valsi>troci</valsi>. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 <oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase> and=20 <oldjbophrase>le zdani</oldjbophrase> do not occupy selbri places, des= pite appearances.</para> <para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>) for referring to individu= al sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 @@ -1941,21 +1941,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjyW"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjyy"/>, which are equivalent in me= aning, but use=20 <valsi>ke</valsi> grouping and=20 <valsi>bo</valsi> grouping respectively:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjyW" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6"/> mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci - I (quickly =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. + I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-= to the market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7"/> mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. @@ -3722,21 +3722,21 @@ The logical connective=20 je is associative: that is,=20 A and (B and C) is the same as=20 (A and B) and C. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, , , , , and all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 =20 je were replaced by=20 naja or=20 jo or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct. - It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive =E2=80=93 they repre= sent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.= + It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represe= nt only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/> melbi cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school school for girls who are beautifully small diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index a138131..2fd1d51 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -424,21 +424,21 @@ The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa. loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 lei and=20 loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific in= dividuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass= of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 - to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa =E2=80=93 they live in various zoos around th= e world. On the other hand,=20 + to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the = world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/> loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. The English dwell in Africa. @@ -509,21 +509,21 @@ LE the set of those which really are la'i LA the set of those named masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. - la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which =E2=80=93 the superset =E2=80=93 contains = all the elements of the other =E2=80=93 the subset). The set descriptors=20 + la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all = the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors=20 =20 =20 =20 le'i,=20 lo'i and=20 la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 @@ -555,41 +555,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/> lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. There are a lot of rats. - The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge =E2=80=93 it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, si= nce some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set o= f rats brown =E2=80=93 brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets pos= sess. + The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc= e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of = rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess= . =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 fadni is: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 am= ong the members of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/> mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20 - Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical =E2=80=93 whether in language knowledge, or = age, or interests, or something else. If=20 + Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or ag= e, or interests, or something else. If=20 lo'i were changed to=20 lo in=20 , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.
Descriptors for typical objects =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -701,21 +701,21 @@ . For the purposes of this chapter, a= simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the sim= ple Lojban numbers=20 pa,=20 re,=20 ci,=20 vo, and=20 mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 - five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it =E2=80=93 which one or two depends on th= e particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifie= rs later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 + five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the = particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers= later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 piro and=20 pisu'o, are explained in=20 =20 .) Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1"/> @@ -890,21 +890,21 @@ le ci gerku cu blabi The three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white. outer quantifier<= /primary>implicit on descriptors inner quantifierimplicit on descriptors descriptorsimplicit quantifiers = for There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors = specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are= . They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent,= not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table list= s the implicit values: =20 - @@ -988,31 +988,31 @@ =20 le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 =20 lo,=20 loi,=20 lo'i, and=20 lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in= ner quantifier of=20 =20 su'o. - le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 but never less than one. + le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one. massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 piro, the whole of it. plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bit= s I have in mind.) pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 pi? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just = as=20 =20 pimu means=20 .5, and when used as a quantif= ier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 - piro means a portion consisting of the al= l-ness =E2=80=93 the entirety =E2=80=93 of a thing. Similarly,=20 + piro means a portion consisting of the al= l-ness – the entirety – of a thing. Similarly,=20 pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of = at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. =20 portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 =20 pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of= men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this su= bset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way = to say=20 half of the men; saying=20 pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portio= n of one of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you ne= ed to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 lu'a in=20 =20 @@ -1101,21 +1101,21 @@ indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 ku may still be used. The name=20 indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 =20 =20 lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 *gerku cu blabi is ungram= matical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 - *reboi ci gerku cu blabi = is also ungrammatical =E2=80=93=20 + *reboi ci gerku cu blabi = is also ungrammatical –=20 re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means= =20 23 dogs are white). Note:=20 also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 =20 =20 su'o ci cutci; another version of that ex= ample using an explicit=20 lo would be: @@ -1127,21 +1127,21 @@ <en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-sumti-based-descriptions"> <title>sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. =20 - sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required =E2=80= =93 it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not require= d. + sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required –= it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.<= /para> =20 A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two exa= mples --> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>the two of you</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/> re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men. @@ -1292,21 +1292,21 @@ mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. But=20 doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 =20 The Red Pony are presumably written. (More precisely, w= here the words=20 =20 - le xunre cmaxirma are written =E2=80=93 b= ut we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.) + le xunre cmaxirma are written – but= we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.) What you really want to say is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2"/> mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse = [unquote]. @@ -1574,23 +1574,23 @@ doi la djan. The-one-named John! DOhU selma'o<= /primary> vocati= ve phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the e= lidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except w= hen a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may= also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relativ= e clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 =20 - free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls =E2=80=93 see=20 - =E2=80=93 metalinguistic comments = =E2=80=93 see=20 - =E2=80=93 or reciprocals =E2= =80=93 see + free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls – see=20 + – metalinguistic comments &nda= sh; see=20 + – or reciprocals –= see ) which must be properly separate= d. vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10"/> diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 9382213..6b1011c 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1041,21 +1041,21 @@ and eliminates any possibil= ity of=20 ko'a being interpreted by the listener as referring to = Alice. go'u go'a answersgo'i for yes/no questions questionsanswer= ing with go'i go'ias affirmative answer to yes/no question= go'= i-series pro-bridieffect of sumti of referent bridi on= go'= i-series pro-bridias main-bridi anaphora only go'i-series = pro-bridieffect of sub-clauses on go'i-series pro-bridireferent of go'i-series pro-bridicompare= d with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">go'i-series pro-bridi ri-series pro-= sumti = anaphorapro-bridi go'i-series as anaphorapro-sumti ri-series as pronounsas anaphora= anaphoradefinition The cmavo=20 go'i,=20 go'a, and=20 =20 go'u follow exactly the same rules as=20 =20 ri,=20 ra, and=20 - ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti =E2=80=93 specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi t= hat are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractio= ns, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the g= o'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 + ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi tha= t are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions= , are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'= i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affi= rmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8"/> xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i [True-false?] The-word=20 John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. Is John your name? Yes. diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index fe12615..52c3833 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -556,22 +556,22 @@ le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu My friend associated-with the cup is small. My friend, the one with the cup, is small. cup's friendexample friend's cupexample=20 is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 - possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive =E2=80=93=20 - the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense =E2=80=93 = but Lojban has no trouble doing so. + possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive –=20 + the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – bu= t Lojban has no trouble doing so. =20 incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 ne and=20 no'u stand to=20 =20 pe and=20 po'u, respectively, as=20 noi does to=20 poi- they provide incidental information:= @@ -949,21 +949,21 @@ tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the defaul= t inner quantifier is=20 ro (meaning=20 all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 su'o (meaning=20 at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= =20 In=20 , the relative clause descri= bed the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, wh= o are white, are going. But in=20 , the relative clause actual= ly describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that = it ends up meaning=20 - First take all persons =E2=80=93 by the way, they're all white<= /quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made h= ere is false. + First take all persons – by the way, they're all white. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made her= e is false. =20 relative clauses = on losyntax suggestion The saf= e strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 ku when attaching a=20 noi relative clause to a=20 lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too= much. relative clauses = and namesplacement considerations relative clauseson names relative clausesas part of name relative= clausesimpact of la on placement When the descriptor is=20 la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 ku is not. Therefore, diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 1227f80..7e3ba36 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -765,21 +765,21 @@ BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 fi'o se pilno frequently would make many = Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is pr= ovided in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 sepi'o. =20 SE selma'o BAI = selma'o conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagssh= ort forms as BAI cmavo fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI c= mavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs Here=20 se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 =20 fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a = tag based on=20 se pilno rather than=20 - pilno- the tool, not the tool user =E2=80= =93 the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 + pilno- the tool, not the tool user &ndash= ; the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be rewritten = as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/> mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla =20 I see you with-tool: the left eye I see you using my left eye. @@ -1239,21 +1239,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8"/> mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book. where=20 le cukta is set off by the non-elidable= =20 - vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails =E2=80=93= see=20 + vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – s= ee=20 for more explanations. shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 can be further rearranged t= o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/> mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index f7d0bd4..0d1e76b 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -1,44 +1,15 @@ =20 All the imported/manual indexterm entries for single words or selma'o need removing. Might be nice to re-apply * cb87291250fa978bcb67f965bfb880601ce= 9f367 Chapter 6 lojban-word-importeds. for this. =20 -How about we split into , , and -? (is fragment quite right? pseudojbo? For things -that are lojbanic in structure, but not actual words; ktraile or -rafsi or similar). Basically all are Lojbanic to some extent; - are valid unless marked otherwise but have no -definition because phrasal; are valid unless marked -otherwise and have a definition unless marked otherwise; -is never valid nor has a definition. - - There should, however, be a way to mark that morphology fragments - are valid or not; consider cc - - What about cmevla? Maybe do , , ... ? - - -(from 4.xml): make into - -zort-: So for things like "spageti (Lojbanize)", what do you th= ink of spageti -(Lojbanize) or something? -I was thinking , but that seems a bit pointlessly bulky. -Oh, actually, without the parens at that point; they can get added back in= later if we want them. -By the code. - -Replace =E2=80=99 with ' - -Replace =E2=80=93 with — - WRT rafsi: man seems best =20 Will that suck for ger-zda ? =20 Let alone logj-bang-girz =20 r-hyphen -- just wrong @@ -439,21 +410,21 @@ after their terminators; it doesn't really matter, bu= t it's annoying. =20 ------ =20 If you see a ... around Lojban text, replace it with .... There are lots of these. =20 Also, use ... for purposeful na gendra and ... for na smudra =20 -Turn letters, like l, into l, into l (including ",", ".", and "'"). =20 Similarily we have role=3D"morphology" (consonant clusters), role=3D"diphthong", and role=3D"rafsi". =20 ------ =20 is bad; change it. If you can't figure out how to change it, or think it's actually correct in some particular place, post to the BPFK list. @@ -509,21 +480,21 @@ All such indexterm entries should end up in the examp= le itself, like so: start grouping ... - also need to wrap the lojban words there in a way that does indexing, and ideally auto-generation of the cmavo-per-selmaho lists we want for chapter 20 - does the structure achieve this? - It seems that there is a problem with the cmavo lists at the beginning of sections having missing entries; in particular, ones - wwith + in the selma'o, maybe?; they need to be manually checked + wwith +/* in the selma'o, maybe?; they need to be manually checked - lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"), others?... should each have their own index - cll_chapter5-section1 should be content-words-brivla or so ; those IDs should not change when things are moved around - list the members of each selma'o in chapter 20 - make sure the examples that aren't interlinear glosses don't have that as their role - so far there's - pronunciation-example - compound-cmavo-example @@ -560,10 +531,11 @@ All such indexterm entries should end up in the examp= le itself, like so: has the number of the chapter you're in. =20 =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Both/Other =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D - make sure backwards-compatible anchors exist - Ideally, make sure they are autogenerated as part of the HTML production. - Similarily, generate more-readable anchors based on current section number and such +=EF=BF=BD=C3=BD5:q! diff --git a/todocbook/iso-pub.ent b/todocbook/iso-pub.ent new file mode 100644 index 0000000..033fd24 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/iso-pub.ent @@ -0,0 +1,132 @@ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh index 7963e37..8aefb02 100755 --- a/todocbook/merge.sh +++ b/todocbook/merge.sh @@ -1,15 +1,17 @@ #!/bin/sh =20 echo ' - + + %iso-pub-ent; +]> =20 =20 =20 ' >cll.xml =20 testing=3D"" if [ "$1" =3D "-t" ] then --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.