From bpfk-list+bncCMbnveiNHRDal5vrBBoETqDRBA@googlegroups.com Thu Feb 24 13:22:13 2011 Received: from mail-pv0-f189.google.com ([74.125.83.189]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Psid4-0006s9-P9; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:22:13 -0800 Received: by pvc22 with SMTP id 22sf138114pvc.16 for ; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:36 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date :message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:x-google-group-id:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; bh=z0qdzOM3ZKfXeVEGN4Aml8DGobDli343TPurUHHgl4g=; b=GFEl7IyzB+a1AI+lFxiQzobM1NgJYpmJLvuJwSKEMmfv9vQE6WfbPu05LIT+2bWiiZ 0fKPVne9pd5GPFNit1Qz6T6urEEcdSke/1EAfl5zWkL5OrAJ0m+OvFKk0e3qRN2LdXSb 6HysojFDTBr93NJouRHIzzi3vGHhhPWBGKNrw= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results :x-google-group-id:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list:list-id :list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; b=ggiQp43oo5334nem+rXtawaAgAOysjDezmP+B5nlRFOPjtJyAg70VkrY0bhnxaMsB2 FsTTnhsgvrj/eX2rB4QboM093hz6ftN5tIRG8UldN2Bq6clNz3kHgro4FsNnytAmjKUm pCq+KXL08Z3O39cpYYc/PEs68/k/KU8Y8Dfqo= Received: by 10.142.174.15 with SMTP id w15mr97032wfe.52.1298582490831; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:30 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.142.201.17 with SMTP id y17ls795946wff.1.p; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.180.5 with SMTP id c5mr215031wff.74.1298582489924; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.180.5 with SMTP id c5mr215030wff.74.1298582489849; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:29 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTPS id k41si9312533wfa.7.2011.02.24.13.21.27 (version=TLSv1/SSLv3 cipher=OTHER); Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:28 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1Psicn-0006rT-Ra for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:26 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PsicW-0006r3-1I for bpfk@lojban.org; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 13:21:25 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PsicU-0001lu-Ve for bpfk@lojban.org; Thu, 24 Feb 2011 16:21:07 -0500 Date: Thu, 24 Feb 2011 16:21:06 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Thu Feb 24 16:21:06 EST 2011 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org X-Google-Group-Id: 1437086869 Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-8859-1 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable commit 2914e335c1e06ed2a1339f8d6c715040c6f4dd7b Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Thu Feb 24 12:36:00 2011 -0800 HAS CONTENT CHANGES. The "..." and "etc." in the table have been replaced with [N]roi and so on. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index e2754c8..23f1a24 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -15,1008 +15,1010 @@ =20 I will go to London tomorrow. =20 I am going to London tomorrow. all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the= present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound ten= se usually called=20 =20 =20 =20 present progressive. Likewise, a newspaper headline say= s=20 JONES DIES, although it is obvious that the time referr= ed to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every = sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, beca= use every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojba= n brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them. - elided tensemeaning of space locationas part of tense = system (see also tensespatial tense) timeas part of tense system (see also tensetemporal t= ense) tense systemand space location tense systemand space location tenseselbri types applicable to<= /secondary> In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every se= lbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide = information about location in space as well as in time. All tense informati= on is optional in Lojban: a sentence like: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d1"/> - - - mi klama le zarci - I go-to the market. - - - go to marketexample can be understood as: - - I went to the market. - I am going to the market. - I have gone to the market. - I will go to the market. - I continually go to the market. - as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is c= orrect. - cu<= /indexterm> cueffect of tense specification tense specificationef= fect on elidability of terminators tense specificationeffe= ct on "cu" tenseposition of in sentence The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is= easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the=20 - cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 - cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for el= iding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,= =20 - pu is the tense marker for=20 - past time: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2"/> - - - mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci - I in-the-past go-to the market. - I went to the market. - - - ku<= /indexterm> kuwith tense tensewith ku tenseposit= ion in sentence alternative It is also possible to = put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding=20 - ku after it. This=20 - ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never pos= sible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3"/> - - - puku mi klama le zarci - In-the-past I go-to the market. - Earlier, I went to the market. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d4"/> - - - mi klama puku le zarci - I go-to in-the-past the market. - I went earlier to the market. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d5"/> - - - mi klama le zarci pu [ku] - I go-to the market in-the-past. - I went to the market earlier. - - - tenseemphasizing by position in sentence tenseeffect o= f different position in sentence=20 - through=20 - are different only in empha= sis. Abnormal order, such as=20 - through=20 - exhibit, adds emphasis to t= he words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 - pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more= noticeable. - -
- Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - vi - VA - short distance - - - va - VA - medium distance - - - vu - VA - long distance - - - zu'a - FAhA - left - - - ri'u - FAhA - right - - - ga'u - FAhA - up - - - ni'a - FAhA - down - - - ca'u - FAhA - front - - - ne'i - FAhA - within - - - be'a - =20 - FAhA - north of - - - (The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 - .) - Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fa= miliar time tenses of=20 - =20 - , asks the reader? Beca= use the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for spa= ce than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 - =20 - =20 - . - temporal tense el= isioncompared with spatial tense elision in meaning tempor= al tensecompared with spatial tense in elidability spatial= tensecompared with temporal tense in elidability spatial = tenseas optional in English En= glish doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of w= ays in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no ne= ed to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the = optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space = and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically. - =20 - VA selma'o FAhA= selma'o spatial tensedistance distancespec= ification with VA VA selma'oand distance spatial tenseas an imaginary journey imaginary journeyand = spatial tense spatial tensedefinition Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it oc= curs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary jour= ney from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direc= tion taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For = example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/> - - - le nanmu va batci le gerku - The man [medium distance] bites the dog. - Over there the man is biting the dog. - - - va<= /indexterm> spatial tensereference frame spatial tensereferent o= f im= aginary journeyending point <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">imaginary journeystarting point man biting dog What is at a medium= distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What= is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can un= derstand the=20 - va as saying:=20 - If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location = of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified)= . This=20 - imaginary journey can be used to understand not only=20 - , but also every other spati= al tense construct. - directionspecification with FAhA FAhA selma'oand direc= tion spatial tensedirection Suppos= e you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a = VA cmavo: - zu'a FIXME: TAG SPOT - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2"/> - - - le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku - The man [left] bites the dog. - - - Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location = to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left = (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reason= able translation is: - - To my left, the man bites the dog. - - The=20 - my does not have an explicit equivalent i= n the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting = point. - vu<= /indexterm> va= vi VA selma'o= z= u'a VA= selma'orelation of words to tit= a, tu zu'aderivation of word (Etymo= logically, by the way,=20 - zu'a is derived from=20 - zunle, the gismu for=20 - left, whereas=20 - vi,=20 - va, and=20 - vu are intended to be reminiscent of=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu, the demonstrative pronouns=20 - this-here,=20 - that-there, and=20 - that-yonder.) - distanceorder of relative to direction in spatial tenses directionorder of relative to distance in spatial tenses spatial tensesorder of direction and distance specifications<= /indexterm> tense<= secondary>order of distance specification in tenseorder of= direction specification in What about specifying b= oth a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must co= me before the distance: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/> - - - le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku - The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. - Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. - - - As explained in=20 - , it would be perfectly= correct to use=20 - ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of th= e sentence to emphasize it: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/> - - - zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku - [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. - Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. - - -
-
- Compound spatial tenses - compound tensedefinition Humph, says the reader= : this talk of=20 - imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the poi= nt of it? –=20 - zu'a means=20 - on the left and=20 - vi means=20 - nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: - =20 - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1"/> - - - le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku - The man [up] [left] bites the dog. - - - manhole= example imaginary journeystages of in compound = tenses compound spatial tenseexplanation of The proper interpretation of=20 - is that the imaginary journ= ey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then = to the left. A translation might read: - - Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. - - (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-= biting is going on at the edge of the street.) - =20 - compound tense or= deringLojban contrasted with English compound tenseLojban contrasted with English in order of specification In the English translation, the keywords=20 - left and=20 - above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This = effect is typical of what happens when we=20 - unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equiva= lents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Loj= ban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. - The opposite order also makes sense: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d2"/> - - - le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku - The man [left] [up] bites the dog. - Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog. - - - compound spatial = tenseeffect of different ordering In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the s= ame as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship does = not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then east,= then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the Nort= h Pole. - compound spatial = tensewith direction and distance Each direction can have a distance following: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d3"/> - - - le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku - The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites = the dog. - Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites th= e dog. - - - compound spatial = tensebeginning with distance only A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, witho= ut any specified direction. (=20 - , with VA alone, is really a= special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.) - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d4"/> - - - le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku - The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. - Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. - - - compound spatial = tenseas direction with-or-without distance= Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with= or without specified distances for each: - =20 - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d5"/> - - - le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku - The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [wit= hin] bites the dog. - Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which i= s a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me, = the man bites the dog. - - - Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to= say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter t= he Lojban version of=20 - is than the English version= . -
-
- Temporal tenses: PU and ZI - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - pu - PU - past - - - ca - PU - present - - - ba - PU - future - - - zi - ZI - short time distance - - - za - ZI - medium time distance - - - zu - ZI - long time distance - - - ZI selma'o PU s= elma'o temporal tenseorder relative to spatial spatial tenseorder relative to temporal tenserationale= for relative order of temporal and spatial in tenseorder = of temporal and spatial in ZI selma'ocompared with VA PU selma= 'ocompared with FAhA temporal tensesc= ompared with spatial tenses Now that the reader und= erstands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about = temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU= and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal ten= se cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expre= ssed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then= certain constructions would be ambiguous.) - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1"/> - - - le nanmu pu batci le gerku - The man [past] bites the dog. - The man bit the dog. - - - means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary j= ourney through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of c= ourse, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in th= e previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) - ba<= /indexterm> ca= pu spacecontrasted with time in number of directions timecontrasted with space in number of directions Lo= jban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 - pu for the past,=20 - ca for the present, and=20 - ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from t= he corresponding gismu=20 - purci,=20 - cabna, and=20 - balvi. See=20 - for an explanation of the= exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more s= patial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relativ= e directions as well as=20 - =20 - direction-like relationships like=20 - surrounding,=20 - within,=20 - touching, etc. (See=20 - for a complete list.= ) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, t= oward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of s= elma'o PU? - bu'u ca tenseas subjective perception bu'ucompared with ca= ca<= /primary>compared with bu'u carational for The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings pe= rceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objecti= ve measurements. We have a sense of=20 - =20 - now which includes part of the objective past and part = of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into thr= ee parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a se= parate time-direction cmavo for the=20 - zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for th= e zero space direction:=20 - bu'u, which means something like=20 - =20 - coinciding. - tenseas observer-based relativity theoryrelation to Lo= jban tense system (Technical note for readers conve= rsant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen b= y the speaker, who is assumed to be a=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they do = not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, sti= ll less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjectiv= e but also observer-based.) - Here are some examples of temporal tenses: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d2"/> - - - le nanmu puzi batci le gerku - The man [past] [short distance] bites the dog. - A short time ago, the man bit the dog. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d3"/> - - - le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku - The man [past] [past] bites the dog. - Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the dog.= - The man had bitten the dog. - The man had been biting the dog. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d4"/> - - - le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku - The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog. - Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will= bite the dog. - Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog. - The man will have just bitten the dog. - The man will just have been biting the dog. - - - compound temporal= tensebeginning with distance only What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban d= oes allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d5"/> - - - le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku - The man [short] [past] bites the dog. - Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bi= te the dog. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d6"/> - - - le nanmu zu batci le gerku - The man [long] bites the dog. - A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the d= og. - - - unspecified direc= tiontemporal contrasted with in spatial=20 - and=20 - are perfectly legitimate, b= ut may not be very much used:=20 - zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time cl= ose to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the fut= ure. A rough translation might be=20 - about now, but not exactly now. - nearby in timeexample Because we can move in an= y direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening = in an unspecified space direction (=20 - nearby or=20 - far away), but we live only from past to future, and th= e idea of an event which happens=20 - nearby in time is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots = of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, = even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limi= tation of English. - =20 - tensewith both temporal and spatial Finally, he= re are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense: - long ago and far away= example FIXME: TAG SPOT - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7"/> - - - le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku - The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog. - Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog. - - - Alternatively, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d8"/> - - - le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku - The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. - The man bit the dog long ago and far away. - =20 - - -
-
- Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ve'i - VEhA - short space interval - - - ve'a - VEhA - medium space interval - - - ve'u - VEhA - long space interval - - - ze'i - ZEhA - short time interval - - - ze'a - ZEhA - medium time interval - - - ze'u - ZEhA - long time interval - - - ZEhA selma'o<= /primary> VE= hA selma'o tenseinterval contrasted with point tensepoint contrasted with interval So far, we = have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a p= articular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place = and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 - spread out than that:=20 - mi vasxu (I breathe) is something which i= s true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire= part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and= ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have alread= y studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which= the bridi is claimed to be true. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1"/> - - - le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli - The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. - In a small space, the child walks on the ice. - The child walks about a small area of the ice. - - - child on iceexample means that her walking was = done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classified= only roughly as=20 - small, medium, large, and are relative to the context: = a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room. - Here is an example using a time interval: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d2"/> - - - le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli - The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. - For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice= . - - - intervalrelative order with direction and distance in tense= tense= order of directiondistance and interval in= Note that with no time direction word,=20 - does not say when the walki= ng happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to specify= both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval a= lways comes afterward: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d3"/> - - - le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli - The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. - For a medium time, the child walked on the ice. - The child walked on the ice for a while. - - - interval directio= nspecifying cameaning when followin= g interval specification directionfollowing interval in te= nse construct intervalfollowed by direction in tense const= ruct tensespecifying relation of interval to point specifi= ed by direction and distance intervalspecifying relation t= o point specified by direction and distance tenserelation = of point specified by direction and distance to interval tenserelation of interval to point specified by direction and distance interval<= /primary>relation to point specified by direction and distance In=20 - , the relationship of the in= terval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the i= nterval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the poin= t? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this questio= n can be conclusively answered: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d4"/> - - - mi ca ze'ica cusku dei - I [present] [short time interval - present] express this-ut= terance. - I am now saying this sentence. - - - interval sizeas context-dependent means that fo= r an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short ti= me in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is=20 - . Of course,=20 - short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sen= tence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, t= he era of=20 - Homo sapiens would only be a=20 - ze'i interval. - By contrast, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d5"/> - - - mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei - I [present] [short time interval - past] express this-utter= ance. - I have just been saying this sentence. - - - imaginary journey= with interval direction pumeaning whe= n following interval specification means that for a= short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been exp= ressing=20 - . Here the imaginary journey= starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves into= the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d6"/> - - - mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi - I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal. - For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal. - I ate my meal for a while. - - - With=20 - ca instead of=20 - ba,=20 - becomes=20 - , - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7"/> - - - mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi - I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal. - For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. - I ate my meal for a while. - - - because the interval would then be centered on the past moment r= ather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Englis= h translations are the same – English is not well-suited to represent= ing this distinction. - Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and wi= thout specified directions: - fish on rightexample FIXME: TAG SPOT - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d8"/> - - - ta ri'u ve'i finpe - That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish. - That thing on my right is a fish. - - - In=20 - , there is no equivalent in = the colloquial English translation of the=20 - small interval which the fish occupies. Neither the Loj= ban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare=20 - : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d9"/> - - - ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe - That-there [right] [short space interval - front] is-a-fish= . - That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish. - - - Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a poin= t on my right to another point in front of the first point. -
-
- Vague intervals and non-specific tenses - interval sizevague interval sizeunspecified What is the significance of failing to specify an interval si= ze of the type discussed in=20 - =20 - ? The Lojban rule is that if= no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left = vague by the speaker. For example: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1"/> - - - mi pu klama le zarci - I [past] go-to the market. - - - really means: - - At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the eve= nt I went to the market was in progress. - - tense directionimplications on scope of event = past eventpossible extension into present The vague or unsp= ecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there = is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past= ! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-m= arket is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. - tenseLojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 - points up a fundamental dif= ference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sen= tence like=20 - I went to the market generally signifies that the going= -to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete= at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 - pu has no such implication. - tenseaorist aoristdefinition = Classical Greek aorist tense<= /primary>compared with Lojban tense This= property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 - aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tense = system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property,= however: - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3"/> - - - le tricu ba crino - The tree [future] is-green. - The tree will be green. - - - future eventpossible extension into present doe= s not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is n= ot green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, gre= en may have already started. - This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of i= ndicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are= several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 - (event contours) and=20 - =20 - =20 - (logical connection betwe= en tenses). -
-
- Dimensionality: VIhA - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - vi'i - VIhA - on a line - - - vi'a - =20 - VIhA - in an area - - - vi'u - VIhA - through a volume - - - vi'e - =20 - VIhA - throughout a space/time interval - - - spatial tensethree-dimensional spatial tensetwo-dimens= ional spatial tenseone-dimensional= spatial tenseplanar spatial tenselinear = spatial tensecontrasted with temporal in dimensionality Th= e cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental d= ifference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimension= al. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small int= erval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. I = can specify that a motion=20 - in a small space is more specifically=20 - in a short line,=20 - in a small area, or=20 - through a small volume. - VIhA selma'o<= /primary> What about the child walking on the ice in=20 - through=20 - ? Given the nature of ice, p= robably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumptio= n explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e7d1"/> - - - le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli - =20 - The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on = the ice. - In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. - - - vi'a size= order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals= dimensionality<= /primary>order with size in spatial tense intervals<= /indexterm> spatial tense in= tervalsorder of size and dimensionality in= spatial tense i= ntervalsorder of VEhA and VIhA in Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, V= EhA must come first, as=20 - shows. - dimensionalityof walking dimensionality of intervalas = subjective The reader may wish to raise a philosoph= ical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) T= he ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but s= ince the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjecti= ve nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essential= ly planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walkin= g. Even walking on a mountain could be called=20 - =20 - =20 - vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is assoc= iated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not conf= ined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensiona= l network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single m= ountain) would be properly described with=20 - =20 - vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimen= sionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. - =20 - vi'e spatial tense<= /primary>4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense temporal tens= einteraction with 4-dimensional spatial tense futurewardas a spatial tense pastwardas a spatial= tense tensespace-time dimension for intervals= spatial tensefour-dimensional Einsteinianspace-time = intervals with 4 dimensions VIhA has a member=20 - vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that= involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to= some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about = space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmav= o of FAhA assigned to=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - pastward and=20 - =20 - futureward considered as space rather than time directi= ons – they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expr= ession useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense constru= ct with a=20 - =20 - =20 - vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradi= ctory. - =20 -
-
- Movement in space: MOhI - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - mo'i - MOhI - movement flag - - - MOhI selma'o<= /primary> mo= 'i mov= ement specificationinteraction with direction in tense= s di= rectioninteraction with movement specification in tens= es t= enseexpressing movement in tensestati= c contrasted with moving All the information carrie= d by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: = the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less r= emote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on th= e result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speake= r is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cma= vo=20 - =20 - mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opt= ional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather th= an a static direction from the speaker. -on rightcontrasted with toward right toward rightcontrasted= with on right FIXME: TAG SPOT - - - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>toward my right</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1"/> - - - le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli - The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. - The child walks toward my right on the ice. - =20 - - - This is quite different from: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d2"/> - - - le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli - The child [right] walks-on the ice. - To the right of me, the child walks on the ice. - - - BAI selma'o ma'= i refe= rence framespecifying for direction tenses= directionreference frame for reference frame for directions in tenses In either case, however, the reference frame for definin= g=20 - =20 - right and=20 - left is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be cha= nged thus: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d3"/> - - - le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a - =20 - The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-= frame the-x1-place. - The child walks toward her right on the ice. - =20 - - - toward her right<= /primary>example=20 - is analogous to=20 - . The cmavo=20 - ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 - =20 - ), and allows specifying a reference fr= ame. - =20 - tenseorder of movement specification in movementorder = in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 - mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 - mo'i construct coming last: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/> - - - le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli - The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on= the ice. - Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward= my right on the ice. - =20 - - - movementwith multiple directions directionsmultiple wi= th movement <= primary>complex movementsexpressing It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 - zu'a ca'u after=20 - mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separ= ate bridi. - =20 - Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently= involving movement: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/> - - - mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi - I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. - While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. - - - eat in airplaneexample (Perhaps I am eating in = an airplane.) - time travel movementtime There is no parallel facilit= y in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time travel = – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. - =20 -
-
- Interval properties: TAhE and=20 - <valsi>roi</valsi> - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - di'i - TAhE - regularly - + elided tensemeaning of space locationas part of tens= e system (see also tensespatial tense) timeas part of tense system (see also tensetemporal= tense) tense systemand space location tense systemand space location tenseselbri types applicable t= o In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every = selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provid= e information about location in space as well as in time. All tense informa= tion is optional in Lojban: a sentence like: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d1"/> + + + mi klama le zarci + I go-to the market. + + + go to marketexample can be understood as: + + I went to the market. + I am going to the market. + I have gone to the market. + I will go to the market. + I continually go to the market. + as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is= correct. + cu cueffect of tense specification tense specification= effect on elidability of terminators tense specificationef= fect on "cu" tenseposition of in sentence The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi = is easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the=20 + cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 + cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for = eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,= =20 + pu is the tense marker for=20 + past time: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2"/> + + + + mi cu pu klama le zarci + mi pu klama le zarci + I in-the-past go-to the market. + I went to the market. + + + ku kuwith tense tensewith ku = tensepos= ition in sentence alternative It is also possible t= o put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding=20 + ku after it. This=20 + ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never p= ossible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3"/> + + + puku mi klama le zarci + In-the-past I go-to the market. + Earlier, I went to the market. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d4"/> + + + mi klama puku le zarci + I go-to in-the-past the market. + I went earlier to the market. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d5"/> + + + mi klama le zarci pu [ku] + I go-to the market in-the-past. + I went to the market earlier. + + + tense= emphasizing by position in sentence tenseeffect= of different position in sentence=20 + through=20 + are different only in emp= hasis. Abnormal order, such as=20 + through=20 + exhibit, adds emphasis to= the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 + pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be mo= re noticeable. +
+
+ Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + vi + VA + short distance + + + va + VA + medium distance + + + vu + VA + long distance + + + zu'a + FAhA + left + + + ri'u + FAhA + right + + + ga'u + FAhA + up + + + ni'a + FAhA + down + + + ca'u + FAhA + front + + + ne'i + FAhA + within + + + be'a + =20 + FAhA + north of + + + (The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 + .) + Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more = familiar time tenses of=20 + =20 + , asks the reader? Be= cause the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for s= pace than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 + =20 + =20 + . + temporal tense = elisioncompared with spatial tense elision in meaning<= /secondary> temp= oral tensecompared with spatial tense in elidability spati= al tensecompared with temporal tense in elidability spatia= l tenseas optional in English = English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of= ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no = need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what th= e optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, spac= e and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.<= /para> + =20 + VA selma'o<= /primary> FA= hA selma'o spatial tensedistance distancesp= ecification with VA VA selma'oand distance spatial tenseas an imaginary journey imaginary journeyan= d spatial tense spatial tensedefinition Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it = occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary jo= urney from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the dir= ection taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. Fo= r example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/> + + + le nanmu va batci le gerku + The man [medium distance] bites the dog. + Over there the man is biting the dog. + + + va spatial tense<= /primary>reference frame spatial tensereferent = of i= maginary journeyending point = imaginary journeystarting point man biting dog What is at a mediu= m distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. Wha= t is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can u= nderstand the=20 + va as saying:=20 + If you want to get from the speaker's location to the locatio= n of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecifie= d). This=20 + imaginary journey can be used to understand not only= =20 + , but also every other spa= tial tense construct. + directionspecification with FAhA FAhA selma'oand dir= ection spatial tensedirection Supp= ose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with = a VA cmavo: + zu'a<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2"/> + + + le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku + The man [left] bites the dog. + + + Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's locatio= n to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the lef= t (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reas= onable translation is: + + To my left, the man bites the dog. + + The=20 + my does not have an explicit equivalent= in the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the startin= g point. + vu va vi VA selma= 'o zu'a = VA selma'orelation of words to tita, tu zu'aderivation of word (Ety= mologically, by the way,=20 + zu'a is derived from=20 + zunle, the gismu for=20 + left, whereas=20 + vi,=20 + va, and=20 + vu are intended to be reminiscent of=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu, the demonstrative pronouns=20 + this-here,=20 + that-there, and=20 + that-yonder.) + distanceorder of relative to direction in spatial tenses<= /indexterm> directionorder of relative to distance in spatial tenses spatial tensesorder of direction and distance specifications tenseorder of distance specification in tenseorder = of direction specification in What about specifying= both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must = come before the distance: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/> + + + le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku + The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. + Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. + + + As explained in=20 + , it would be perfect= ly correct to use=20 + ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of = the sentence to emphasize it: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/> + + + zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku + [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. + Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. + + +
+
+ Compound spatial tenses + compound tense<= /primary>definition Humph, says the read= er: this talk of=20 + imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the p= oint of it? –=20 + zu'a means=20 + on the left and=20 + vi means=20 + nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary= -journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are invol= ved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs= run together: + =20 + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1"/> + + + le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku + The man [up] [left] bites the dog. + + + manholeexample imaginary journeystages of in compoun= d tenses compound spatial tenseexplanation of<= /indexterm> The proper interpretation of=20 + is that the imaginary jou= rney has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and the= n to the left. A translation might read: + + Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. + + (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the do= g-biting is going on at the edge of the street.) + =20 + compound tense = orderingLojban contrasted with English compound tenseLojban contrasted with English in order of specification In the English translation, the keywords=20 + left and=20 + above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. Thi= s effect is typical of what happens when we=20 + unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equi= valents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of L= ojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. + The opposite order also makes sense: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d2"/> + + + le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku + The man [left] [up] bites the dog. + Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog. + + + compound spatia= l tenseeffect of different ordering In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the= same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship doe= s not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then eas= t, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the No= rth Pole. + compound spatia= l tensewith direction and distance Each direction can have a distance following: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d3"/> + + + le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku + The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bite= s the dog. + Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites = the dog. + + + compound spatia= l tensebeginning with distance only A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, wit= hout any specified direction. (=20 + , with VA alone, is really= a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.) + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d4"/> + + + le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku + The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. + Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. + + + compound spatia= l tenseas direction with-or-without distance Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, wi= th or without specified distances for each: + =20 + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d5"/> + + + le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku + The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [w= ithin] bites the dog. + Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which= is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me= , the man bites the dog. + + + Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having = to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter= the Lojban version of=20 + is than the English versi= on. +
+
+ Temporal tenses: PU and ZI + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + pu + PU + past + + + ca + PU + present + + + ba + PU + future + + + zi + ZI + short time distance + + + za + ZI + medium time distance + + + zu + ZI + long time distance + + + ZI selma'o<= /primary> PU= selma'o temporal tenseorder relative to spatial= spatial tenseorder relative to temporal tenserationa= le for relative order of temporal and spatial in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tenseorde= r of temporal and spatial in ZI selma'ocompared with VA PU sel= ma'ocompared with FAhA temporal tensescompared with spatial tenses Now that the reader u= nderstands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand abou= t temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o = PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal t= ense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is exp= ressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, th= en certain constructions would be ambiguous.) + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1"/> + + + le nanmu pu batci le gerku + The man [past] bites the dog. + The man bit the dog. + + + means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary= journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of= course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in = the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) + ba ca pu spacecontrasted with time in number of directions timecontrasted with space in number of directions = Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 + pu for the past,=20 + ca for the present, and=20 + ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from= the corresponding gismu=20 + purci,=20 + cabna, and=20 + balvi. See=20 + for an explanation of t= he exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more= spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relat= ive directions as well as=20 + =20 + direction-like relationships like=20 + surrounding,=20 + within,=20 + touching, etc. (See=20 + for a complete lis= t.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward,= toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of= selma'o PU? + bu'u ca tenseas subjective perception bu'ucompared with = ca c= acompared with bu'u carational for The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings = perceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objec= tive measurements. We have a sense of=20 + =20 + now which includes part of the objective past and par= t of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into t= hree parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a = separate time-direction cmavo for the=20 + zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for = the zero space direction:=20 + bu'u, which means something like=20 + =20 + coinciding. + tense= as observer-based relativity theoryrelation to = Lojban tense system (Technical note for readers con= versant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen= by the speaker, who is assumed to be a=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they d= o not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, s= till less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subject= ive but also observer-based.) + Here are some examples of temporal tenses: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d2"/> + + + le nanmu puzi batci le gerku + The man [past] [short distance] bites the dog. + A short time ago, the man bit the dog. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d3"/> + + + le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku + The man [past] [past] bites the dog. + Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the do= g. + The man had bitten the dog. + The man had been biting the dog. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d4"/> + + + le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku + The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog. + Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man wi= ll bite the dog. + Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog. + The man will have just bitten the dog. + The man will just have been biting the dog. + + + compound tempor= al tensebeginning with distance only What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban= does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d5"/> + + + le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku + The man [short] [past] bites the dog. + Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will = bite the dog. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d6"/> + + + le nanmu zu batci le gerku + The man [long] bites the dog. + A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the= dog. + + + unspecified dir= ectiontemporal contrasted with in spatial<= /indexterm>=20 + and=20 + are perfectly legitimate,= but may not be very much used:=20 + zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time = close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the f= uture. A rough translation might be=20 + about now, but not exactly now. + nearby in time<= /primary>example Because we can move in = any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happenin= g in an unspecified space direction (=20 + nearby or=20 + far away), but we live only from past to future, and = the idea of an event which happens=20 + nearby in time is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lot= s of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers= , even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a li= mitation of English. + =20 + tense= with both temporal and spatial Finally, = here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense: + long ago and far aw= ayexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7"/> + + + le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku + The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog. + Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog. + + + Alternatively, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d8"/> + + + le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku + The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. + The man bit the dog long ago and far away. + =20 + + +
+
+ Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ve'i + VEhA + short space interval + + + ve'a + VEhA + medium space interval + + + ve'u + VEhA + long space interval + + + ze'i + ZEhA + short time interval + + + ze'a + ZEhA + medium time interval + + + ze'u + ZEhA + long time interval + + + ZEhA selma'= o = VEhA selma'o tenseinterval contrasted with point= tense= point contrasted with interval So far, w= e have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a= particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified plac= e and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 + spread out than that:=20 + mi vasxu (I breathe) is something which= is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the enti= re part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) a= nd ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have alre= ady studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over whi= ch the bridi is claimed to be true. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1"/> + + + le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli + The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. + In a small space, the child walks on the ice. + The child walks about a small area of the ice. + + + child on iceexample means that her walking wa= s done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classifi= ed only roughly as=20 + small, medium, large, and are relative to the context= : a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room. + Here is an example using a time interval: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d2"/> + + + le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli + The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. + For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the i= ce. + + + intervalrelative order with direction and distance in tense tenseorder of directiondistance and interval = in Note that with no time direction word,=20 + does not say when the wal= king happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to speci= fy both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval= always comes afterward: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d3"/> + + + le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli + The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.= + For a medium time, the child walked on the ice. + The child walked on the ice for a while. + + + interval direct= ionspecifying cameaning when followin= g interval specification directionfollowing interval in te= nse construct intervalfollowed by direction in tense const= ruct tensespecifying relation of interval to point specifi= ed by direction and distance intervalspecifying relation t= o point specified by direction and distance tenserelation = of point specified by direction and distance to interval tenserelation of interval to point specified by direction and distance interval<= /primary>relation to point specified by direction and distance In=20 + , the relationship of the = interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the= interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the po= int? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this quest= ion can be conclusively answered: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d4"/> + + + mi ca ze'ica cusku dei + I [present] [short time interval - present] express this-= utterance. + I am now saying this sentence. + + + interval sizeas context-dependent means that = for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short = time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is=20 + . Of course,=20 + short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long s= entence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context,= the era of=20 + Homo sapiens would only be a=20 + ze'i interval. + By contrast, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d5"/> + + + mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei + I [present] [short time interval - past] express this-utt= erance. + I have just been saying this sentence. + + + imaginary journ= eywith interval direction pumeaning w= hen following interval specification means that for= a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been e= xpressing=20 + . Here the imaginary journ= ey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves in= to the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d6"/> + + + mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi + I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal. + For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal. + I ate my meal for a while. + + + With=20 + ca instead of=20 + ba,=20 + becomes=20 + , + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7"/> + + + mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi + I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal. + For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. + I ate my meal for a while. + + + because the interval would then be centered on the past moment= rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Engl= ish translations are the same – English is not well-suited to represe= nting this distinction. + Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and = without specified directions: + fish on rightexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d8"/> + + + ta ri'u ve'i finpe + That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish. + That thing on my right is a fish. + + + In=20 + , there is no equivalent i= n the colloquial English translation of the=20 + small interval which the fish occupies. Neither the L= ojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare=20 + : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d9"/> + + + ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe + That-there [right] [short space interval - front] is-a-fi= sh. + That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish. + + + Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a po= int on my right to another point in front of the first point. +
+
+ Vague intervals and non-specific tenses + interval sizevague interval sizeunspecified What is the significance of failing to specify an interval = size of the type discussed in=20 + =20 + ? The Lojban rule is that = if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is lef= t vague by the speaker. For example: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1"/> + + + mi pu klama le zarci + I [past] go-to the market. + + + really means: + + At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the e= vent I went to the market was in progress. + + tense direction= implications on scope of event= past eventpossible extension into present The vague or un= specified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, ther= e is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's pa= st! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the= -market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. + tense= Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 + points up a fundamental d= ifference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense s= entence like=20 + I went to the market generally signifies that the goi= ng-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is comple= te at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 + pu has no such implication. + tense= aorist aoristdefinition= Classical Greek aorist tens= ecompared with Lojban tense Th= is property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 + aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tens= e system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same propert= y, however: + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3"/> + + + le tricu ba crino + The tree [future] is-green. + The tree will be green. + + + future eventpossible extension into present d= oes not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is= not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, g= reen may have already started. + This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of= indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there a= re several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 + (event contours) and=20 + =20 + =20 + (logical connection bet= ween tenses). +
+
+ Dimensionality: VIhA + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + vi'i + VIhA + on a line + + + vi'a + =20 + VIhA + in an area + + + vi'u + VIhA + through a volume + + + vi'e + =20 + VIhA + throughout a space/time interval + + + spatial tensethree-dimensional spatial tensetwo-dime= nsional spatial tenseone-dimensional spatial tenseplanar spatial tenselinear spatial tensecontrasted with temporal in dimensionality = The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental= difference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimensi= onal. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small i= nterval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. = I can specify that a motion=20 + in a small space is more specifically=20 + in a short line,=20 + in a small area, or=20 + through a small volume. + VIhA selma'= o What about the child walking on the ice in=20 + through=20 + ? Given the nature of ice,= probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumpt= ion explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e7d1"/> + + + le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli + =20 + The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-o= n the ice. + In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. + + + vi'a sizeorder with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals dimensionalit= yorder with size in spatial tense intervals spatial tense = intervalsorder of size and dimensionality in spatial tense= intervalsorder of VEhA and VIhA in Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both,= VEhA must come first, as=20 + shows. + dimensionality<= /primary>of walking dimensionality of intervala= s subjective The reader may wish to raise a philoso= phical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.)= The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but= since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjec= tive nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essenti= ally planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walk= ing. Even walking on a mountain could be called=20 + =20 + =20 + vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is ass= ociated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not co= nfined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensio= nal network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single= mountain) would be properly described with=20 + =20 + vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dim= ensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. + =20 + vi'e spatial tens= e4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense temporal te= nseinteraction with 4-dimensional spatial tense futureward= as a spatial tense pastwardas a spati= al tense tensespace-time dimension for intervals spatial tense= four-dimensional Einsteinianspace-tim= e intervals with 4 dimensions VIhA has a member=20 + vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one th= at involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, = to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements abou= t space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cm= avo of FAhA assigned to=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + pastward and=20 + =20 + futureward considered as space rather than time direc= tions – they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time ex= pression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense const= ruct with a=20 + =20 + =20 + vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contra= dictory. + =20 +
+
+ Movement in space: MOhI + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + mo'i + MOhI + movement flag + + + MOhI selma'= o = mo'i m= ovement specificationinteraction with direction in ten= ses = directioninteraction with movement specification in te= nses tenseexpressing movement in = tensesta= tic contrasted with moving All the information carr= ied by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static= : the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less= remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on = the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the spea= ker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the c= mavo=20 + =20 + mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and o= ptional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather = than a static direction from the speaker. + on rightcontrasted with toward right toward rightcontrast= ed with on right FIXME: TAG SPOT + + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>toward my right</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1"/> + + + le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli + The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. + The child walks toward my right on the ice. + =20 + + + This is quite different from: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d2"/> + + + le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli + The child [right] walks-on the ice. + To the right of me, the child walks on the ice. + + + BAI selma'o= m= a'i re= ference framespecifying for direction tenses directionreference frame for reference frame for directions in tenses In either case, however, the reference frame for defin= ing=20 + =20 + right and=20 + left is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be c= hanged thus: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d3"/> + + + le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a + =20 + The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-referenc= e-frame the-x1-place. + The child walks toward her right on the ice. + =20 + + + toward her righ= texample=20 + is analogous to=20 + . The cmavo=20 + ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 + =20 + ), and allows specifying a reference = frame. + =20 + tense= order of movement specification in movementorde= r in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 + mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the= =20 + mo'i construct coming last: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/> + + + le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli + The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-= on the ice. + Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance towa= rd my right on the ice. + =20 + + + movementwith multiple directions directionsmultiple = with movement complex movementsexpressing It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 + zu'a ca'u after=20 + mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a sep= arate bridi. + =20 + Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherent= ly involving movement: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/> + + + mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi + I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. + While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. + + + eat in airplane= example (Perhaps I am eating i= n an airplane.) + time travel movement<= /primary>time There is no parallel facil= ity in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time trave= l – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. + =20 +
+
+ Interval properties: TAhE and=20 + <valsi>roi</valsi> + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + di'i + TAhE + regularly + =20 - - na'o - TAhE - typically - + + na'o + TAhE + typically + =20 - - ru'i - TAhE - continuously - + + ru'i + TAhE + continuously + =20 - - ta'e - TAhE - habitually - + + ta'e + TAhE + habitually + =20 =20 - - di'inai - TAhE - irregularly - - - na'onai - TAhE - atypically - - - ru'inai - TAhE - intermittently - + + di'inai + TAhE + irregularly + + + na'onai + TAhE + atypically + + + ru'inai + TAhE + intermittently + =20 - - ta'enai - TAhE - contrary to habit - + + ta'enai + TAhE + contrary to habit + =20 - - roi - ROI - n times - - - roinai - ROI - other than n times - + + roi + ROI + n times + + + roinai + ROI + other than n times + =20 - - ze'e - ZEhA - whole time interval - + + ze'e + ZEhA + whole time interval + =20 =20 - - ve'e - VEhA - whole space interval - + + ve'e + VEhA + whole space interval + =20 - - TAhE selma'o<= /primary> interv= alsspread of actions over discreteof = tense intervals continuousof tense intervals Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time.= Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is invo= lved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lo= jban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or= non-continuous actions. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d1"/> - - - mi puzu ze'u velckule - I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attend= ee (pupil). - Long ago I attended school for a long time. - - - attend schoolexample probably does not mean tha= t I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago inte= rval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. Mo= re explicitly, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d2"/> - - - mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule - =20 - I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-p= upil. - Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. - - - ta'e na'o di'i ru'i= regul= arlyexample interval spreadmutually= contrasted The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated = as follows:=20 - ru'i covers the entirety of the interval,=20 - =20 - di'i covers the parts of the interval which are systema= tically spaced subintervals;=20 - =20 - na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which par= t is determined by context;=20 - =20 - ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with referen= ce to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the = x1 place of the bridi). - =20 - interval spreadwith unspecified interval Using = TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the t= ime interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For exa= mple: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3"/> - - - mi ba ta'e klama le zarci - =20 - I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. - I will habitually go to the market. - I will make a habit of going to the market. - - - specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefi= nite. Similarly, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d4"/> - - - mi na'o klama le zarci - =20 - I [typically] go-to the market. - I typically go/went/will go to the market. - - - illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no dist= ance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is = no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-= to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine t= hese vague values. - nai= intermittently<= /primary>example interval spreadexpressing Engl= ish "intermittently"=20 - Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 - continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, = but by adding the negation suffix=20 - -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 - ru'i. For example: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5"/> - - - le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli - The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. - The child intermittently walks on the ice. - =20 - - - interval spreadnegation with nai As shown in th= e cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with=20 - -nai;=20 - ru'inai and=20 - di'inai are probably the most useful. - ROI selma'o roi= once<= /primary>example tensequantified quantified tempora= l tensedefinition An intermitt= ent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the = interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 + + TAhE selma'= o inte= rvalsspread of actions over <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">discreteo= f tense intervals continuousof tense intervals= Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in tim= e. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is in= volved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. = Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous = or non-continuous actions. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d1"/> + + + mi puzu ze'u velckule + I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-atte= ndee (pupil). + Long ago I attended school for a long time. + + + attend schoolexample probably does not mean t= hat I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago in= terval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. = More explicitly, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d2"/> + + + mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule + =20 + I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a= -pupil. + Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. + + + ta'e na'o di'i<= /primary> ru= 'i reg= ularlyexample interval spreadmutually= contrasted The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated = as follows:=20 + ru'i covers the entirety of the interval,=20 + =20 + di'i covers the parts of the interval which are syste= matically spaced subintervals;=20 + =20 + na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which p= art is determined by context;=20 + =20 + ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with refer= ence to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in th= e x1 place of the bridi). + =20 + interval spread= with unspecified interval Usin= g TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the= time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For e= xample: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3"/> + + + mi ba ta'e klama le zarci + =20 + I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. + I will habitually go to the market. + I will make a habit of going to the market. + + + specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is inde= finite. Similarly, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d4"/> + + + mi na'o klama le zarci + =20 + I [typically] go-to the market. + I typically go/went/will go to the market. + + + illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no di= stance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there i= s no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these going= s-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine= these vague values. + nai intermittentl= yexample interval spreadexpressing En= glish "intermittently"=20 + Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 + continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo= , but by adding the negation suffix=20 + -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to= =20 + ru'i. For example: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5"/> + + + le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli + The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. + The child intermittently walks on the ice. + =20 + + + interval spread= negation with nai As shown in = the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with=20 + -nai;=20 + ru'inai and=20 + di'inai are probably the most useful. + ROI selma'o= r= oi onc= eexample tensequantified<= /indexterm> quantified tempo= ral tensedefinition An intermi= ttent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during th= e interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a= number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English= , but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 =20 =20 never,=20 once,=20 twice,=20 thrice, ...=20 always, and by the related phrases=20 many times,=20 a few times,=20 @@ -1467,22 +1469,22 @@ I buy salad ingredients in three locations. =20 always and everywhere= example salad ingredientsexample sow grai= nexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d3"/> - ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo [whole t= ime] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places] - The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. + ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo + [whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places= ] The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. Always and everywhere, two plus two is four. As shown in=20 , when a tense comes first i= n a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this ca= se=20 du), it is emphasized. be'a ZAhO selma= 'o fe'e = spatial contoursexpressing The= =20 fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose befor= e members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction= meaning=20 =20 @@ -3450,35 +3452,40 @@ objective quantified tense flag noroi never paroi once - ... + + [N]roi + [N] times + roroi always - etc. pare'u the first time rere'u the second time - etc. + + [N]re'u + the [N]th time + TAhE subjective quantified tense di'i @@ -3591,22 +3598,22 @@ nowhere fe'eroroi everywhere fe'eba'o beyond - etc. + etc. MOhI spatial movement flag mo'i motion @@ -3653,22 +3660,22 @@ tense conversion jaica the time of jaivi the place of - etc. + etc.
List of spatial directions and direction-like relations =20 spatial direction= slist of The following list of= FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used with= out=20 mo'i to express a direction, and then when used with=20 mo'i to express movement in the direction. When possibl= e, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. diff --git a/todocbook/Makefile b/todocbook/Makefile index 76516dd..4d63769 100644 --- a/todocbook/Makefile +++ b/todocbook/Makefile @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ =20 web: html/index.html cp docbook2html.css html/ - rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test - cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test + rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook-cll-test + cp -pr html ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook-cll-test =20 html/index.html: cll.xml xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml >= cll_processed.xml xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ xhtml cll_processed.xml 2>&1 | = grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".' =20 cll.xml: 1.xml 2.xml 3.xml 4.xml 5.xml 6.xml 7.xml 8.xml 9.xml 10.xml 11.x= ml 12.xml 13.xml 14.xml 15.xml 16.xml 17.xml 18.xml 19.xml 20.xml 21.xml merge.sh [0-9].xml 1[0-9].xml 2[0-9].xml diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index d24873c..79e6712 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -10,32 +10,20 @@ WRT rafsi: man seems be= st Let alone logj-bang-girz =20 Handling chapter 2: why don't we just require that the number of sub-entri= es matches? Also: maybe rename jbo/gloss for this purpose, or introduce roles. =20 10.xml =20 - mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci -- - doubled up - - - Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. - - [snip others] - - To my left, the man bites the dog. - - -- not really, no. - ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo [whole time] [= all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places] -- needs a gloss section =20 once ... roroi always etc. pare'u the first time --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.