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[...] Content analysis details: (0.1 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -0.7 RCVD_IN_DNSWL_LOW RBL: Sender listed at http://www.dnswl.org/, low trust [209.85.212.189 listed in list.dnswl.org] -0.0 SPF_PASS SPF: sender matches SPF record 0.8 BAYES_50 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 40 to 60% [score: 0.5000] 0.1 DKIM_SIGNED Message has a DKIM or DK signature, not necessarily valid -0.1 DKIM_VALID Message has at least one valid DKIM or DK signature 0.0 RFC_ABUSE_POST Both abuse and postmaster missing on sender domain commit 0b4a1236bb6ad1bc28e9961f877cdfdda50472bd Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sun Mar 27 15:15:37 2011 -0700 Split out the indexterm lines to make them easier to manipulate. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index fd0074c..852fbb8 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -72,21 +72,25 @@ mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. =20
What are the typographical conventions of this book? =20 Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> this bookexamples of examples in this book The reader= will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book.= One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>go to the store</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>go to the store</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1"/> mi klama le zarci I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. I go to the store. will become wearisomely familiar before=20 is reached. This method is delibe= rate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples whereve= r possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. = Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a tex= tbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). R= ather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-b= e Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the= usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 7a97453..9136533 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -41,21 +41,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3"/> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. - want to be a sold= ierexample descriptionsand abstractio= ns Abstraction selbri may also be used in descripti= ons, preceded by=20 + =20 + +want to be a soldierexample + + descriptionsand abstractions Abstraction selbri may also= be used in descriptions, preceded by=20 le (or any other member of selma'o LE): <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d4"/> la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. @@ -166,21 +170,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d8"/> le nu la djan. cinba la djein. the event-of John kissing Jane =20 - kissing Janeexample normal circumstances is relativel= y brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances). + =20 + +kissing Janeexample + + normal circumstances is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal cir= cumstances). =20 =20 abstractionssumti ellipsis in We can see from= =20 =20 through=20 that ellipsis of sumti is v= alid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sen= tence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure o= ut from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that t= he proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 =20 nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place el= lipsized: @@ -230,21 +238,25 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Ia6f"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12"/> la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study= Lojban is easy for me when I study. - under conditions<= /primary>example (The=20 + =20 + +under conditionsexample + + (The=20 when of the English would also be appropriate for a con= struction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than = that the studying is concurrent with the ease.) nuplace structure eventsplace structure The place structure of a=20 nu abstraction selbri is simply: x1 is an event of (the bridi)
Types of event abstractions =20 @@ -293,37 +305,45 @@ le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri =20 The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a c= rime. =20 - pu'u killing Jimexample abstractionsprocess<= /indexterm> process abstract= ionsdefinition process abstractor <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginnin= g, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a=20 + pu'u =20 + +killing Jimexample + + abstractionsprocess process abstractionsdefinition<= /indexterm> process abstract= or kil= ling Jim An event considered as extended in time, and= structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and a= n end, is called a=20 process. The abstractor=20 pu'u means=20 =20 process-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2"/> ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu se= lcatra =20 [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaki= ng-up ) many state-rulers were-killed During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were k= illed. - zu'o Roman Empireexample abstractionsactivity activity abstr= actionsdefinition activity abstractor Roman Empire An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive i= s called an=20 + zu'o =20 + +Roman Empireexample + + abstractionsactivity activity abstractionsdefinition activity abstr= actor = Roman Empire An event considered as extended in time = and cyclic or repetitive is called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 zu'o means=20 =20 activity-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3"/> mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe @@ -342,21 +362,25 @@ le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do =20 The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. My being alive is dangerous to you. =20 - being aliveexample event typesdescribed The abstractors in=20 + =20 + +being aliveexample + + event typesdescribed The abstractors in=20 through=20 could all have been replace= d by=20 nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allow= s every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: state eventdescribed the=20 state of running begins when the runner starts and = ends when the runner stops; activity even= tdescribed the=20 @@ -454,21 +478,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1"/> la djan. cu se risna zo'e John has-as-heart something-unspecified. John has a heart. =20 - has a heartexample has the same truth condition= s as + =20 + +has a heartexample + + has the same truth conditions as <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d2"/> la djan. cu ckaji le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei] John has-the-property the property-of having-as-heart somet= hing. John has the property of having a heart. @@ -515,21 +543,25 @@ understood as being specified externally. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d5"/> ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei] a-property-of me loving something-unspecified - property of lovin= gexample is quite different fr= om + =20 + +property of loving= example + + is quite different from <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d6"/> ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei] a-property-of something-unspecified loving me In particular, sentences like=20 @@ -538,21 +570,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d7"/> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X) I love John more than I love George. - KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ce= 'u lov= e moreexample FIXME: TAG SPOT<= /para> + KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ce= 'u =20 + +love moreexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d8"/> =20 la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me). John loves me more than George loves me. @@ -591,21 +627,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d11"/> le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of giving the horse =20 - giving the horse<= /primary>example into + =20 + +giving the horseexample + + into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d12"/> le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse to someone-unspe= cified) the property of being a giver of the horse @@ -748,21 +788,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1"/> le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4 the truth of 2 + 2 being 4 - 2 + 2example is equivalent to=20 + =20 + +2 + 2ex= ample + + is equivalent to=20 truth, and <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d2"/> le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5 the truth of 2 + 2 being 5 @@ -774,21 +818,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d3"/> mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei] I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime= doer)). I will decide whether George is a criminal. - whether criminal<= /primary>example jeiplace structure= truth-value abs= tractionsplace structure legal system=20 + =20 + +whether criminalexample + + jeipl= ace structure truth-value abstractionsplace structure legal sy= stem=20 does not imply that George = is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am us= ing, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,=20 =20 jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of=20 ni: jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 fuzzy logic and t= ruth-value abstraction abstractionstruth-value and fuzzy log= ic Abstractions using=20 jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 incl= usive (as distinct from=20 @@ -803,21 +851,25 @@ du'u NU predication abstraction =20 abstractionsmental activity abstractionswith knowingbelieving, etc. propositional attitudes There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they= make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call t= hese the=20 propositional attitudes, and they include (in English) = things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Co= nsider the English sentence: =20 - Frank is a foolexample knowexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +Frank is a foolexample + + knowe= xample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d1"/> I know that Frank is a fool. =20 How's that in Lojban? Let us try: @@ -872,21 +924,25 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5"/> mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. =20 =20 - Frank is a foolexample curiousexample curious and here=20 + =20 + +Frank is a foolexample + + curiousexample curious and here=20 du'u could probably be replaced by=20 jei without much change in meaning: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6"/> mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. @@ -957,21 +1013,25 @@ I know that John went to the store. we can also say things like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d2"/> I know who went to the store. =20 - know whoexample abstractionswith wonderdoubt, etc. This form is called an=20 + =20 + +know whoexample + + abstractionswith wonderdoubt, etc. = This form is called an=20 indirect question in English because the embedded Engli= sh sentence is a question:=20 =20 Who went to the store? A person who says=20 is claiming to know the ans= wer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English = verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who= went to the store. =20 =20 UI selma'o kau<= /primary> To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a=20 =20 =20 le du'u abstraction, but rather than usin= g a question word like=20 @@ -1125,21 +1185,25 @@ ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three m= ice running =20 See how the three mice run! =20 - miceexample experience abstractionsplace structure All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An ex= perience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of=20 + =20 + +miceexa= mple + + experience abstractionsplace structure All three of thes= e abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so t= he place structure of=20 li'i is: =20 li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experien= ced by x2 =20 =20 idea abstractions= place structure concept abstractionsp= lace structure Similarly, an idea requires a mind t= o hold it, so the place structure of=20 si'o is: @@ -1166,21 +1230,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d5"/> le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:<= /para> - bicycle raceexample Jesusexample intersect Jesus FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +bicycle raceexample + + Jesus= example intersect <= primary>Jesus FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d6"/> le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke= nalmatma'e sutyterjvi the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape type-of= -killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-= competition The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle= Race =20 @@ -1231,21 +1299,25 @@ which has an abstract description within an abstract description= , quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), w= e may also say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d3"/> I try the door. =20 - LAhE selma'o<= /primary> tu= 'a try= the doorexample abstractionssimplifi= cation to sumti with tu'a where it is understood th= at what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. T= he same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explici= tly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is=20 + LAhE selma'o<= /primary> tu= 'a =20 + +try the doorexample + + abstractionssimplification to sumti with tu'a where it i= s understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act o= f opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be= marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is=20 tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equival= ent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d4"/> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-action-to-do-with the door. @@ -1297,21 +1369,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/> tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death. - cause deathexample into + =20 + +cause deathexample + + into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d8"/> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 1a26a21..e37dc4b 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -70,21 +70,25 @@ tertau may help.) tanruplace structure of The place structure of = a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a resul= t, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the ter= tau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the thi= ngs referred to by the tertau. tanrupurpose wine-dark sea The purpose of a tanru is = to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning= of the seltau. For example, in the=20 Iliad, the poet talks about=20 the wine-dark sea, in which=20 =20 wine is a seltau relative to=20 dark, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to=20 sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or col= or. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in w= hich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of t= he time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or colo= r will be rejected as irrelevant. =20 - goer-houseexample As a simple example, consider= the rather non-obvious tanru=20 + =20 + +goer-houseexample + + As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru=20 klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 =20 zdani has two places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1"/> x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 @@ -95,21 +99,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2"/> x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via= route x4 using means x5 The tanru=20 klama zdani will also have two places, na= mely those of=20 zdani. Since a=20 klama zdani is a type of=20 zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses – whate= ver they may be – are also houses. - dog houseexample tanrupossible meanings of= fleas= But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is nee= ded to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to = a less unlikely tanru:=20 + =20 + +dog houseexample + + tanru= possible meanings of fleas But is knowing the places of t= he tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? N= o. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru:=20 gerku zdani, literally=20 dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a= =20 =20 gerku zdani is a house that has something= to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left un= stated. Thus, the meaning of=20 lo gerku zdani can include all of the fol= lowing: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also= houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All th= at is essential is that the place structure of=20 =20 zdani continues to apply. =20 For something (call it z1) to qualify as a=20 gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a h= ouse, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call t= hat z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1= to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (cal= led g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of=20 @@ -117,21 +125,25 @@ zdani, there's got to be some relationship (called r) b= etween some place of=20 =20 zdani and some place of=20 gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there= 's a relationship between some place of=20 zdani and any place of=20 gerku, then that relationship can be compounded with th= e relationship between the places of=20 gerku- namely,=20 gerku itself – to reach any of the other=20 gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be= between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:=20 the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do wit= h the occupant of the house z1. - Bill Clintonexample Doubtless to the relief of = the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White H= ouse (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a=20 + =20 + +Bill Clintonexample + + Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here's an illustration. We want to= find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S. President liv= es, that is) counts as a=20 gerku zdani. We go through the five varia= bles. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this w= riting, so it counts as a=20 =20 zdani. Let's take a dog – say, Spot (g1). Spot ha= s to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White Hous= e counts as a=20 gerku zdani if there is any relationship = (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 pl= aces to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and sim= ply gotten a different relationship.) Chelsea Clinton The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated a= s=20 The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea = Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White Ho= use) or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take anoth= er dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we sa= y that the White House cannot fit into the first place of=20 =20 =20 gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 @@ -181,21 +193,25 @@ gerku. We can proceed as follows: lujvo place struc= turenotation conventions (The = notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest = of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent pl= aces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) lujvo place struc= tureexplicated walk-through <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">new notation The place structure of=20 zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated here using= the new notation: =20 - doghouseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +doghouseexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1"/> z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 gerku is: @@ -234,21 +250,25 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lujvo place struc= ture</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexte= rm> It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scra= tch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments cont= ribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons ar= guing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapt= er.</para> <para>The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 <oldjbophrase>se jbopli</oldjbophrase> or a=20 <oldjbophrase>te klagau</oldjbophrase> is. But this would mean that, r= ather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojb= anist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with littl= e or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelin= es documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it convent= ional wherever possible.</para> <para>The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case – that is to say, if the lujvo place= s are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places – then it will be very = difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place me= ans, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that wi= ll be further discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-anomalous-lujvo"/>.</para> <para>However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-symmetrical-asymmetrical"> <title>Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo - great soldierexample lujvo place structurewhen first p= laces redundant veljvosymmetrical = lujvosy= mmetrical A common pattern, perhaps the most common= pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a=20 + =20 + +great soldierexample + + lujvo place structurewhen first places redundant veljvosymmetri= cal = lujvosymmetrical A common patt= ern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is calle= d a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 =20 banli sonci. The underlying gismu place s= tructures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1"/> @@ -261,21 +281,25 @@ balsoi need not include places for both s= 1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 balsoi is at most =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2"/> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property = b2 by standard b3 =20 - listen attentivel= yexample lujvo place structurewhen fi= rst places redundant plus others symmetrical veljvo Som= e symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the resp= ective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 + =20 + +listen attentively= example + + lujvo place structurewhen first places redundant plus others symmetrical veljvo Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in= addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 =20 tinju'i,=20 to listen (=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirna and=20 jundi are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3"/> @@ -323,21 +347,25 @@ s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2= However, although=20 gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't tr= anslate=20 doghouse; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse.= Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;=20 gerzda is simpler than=20 gerselzda. From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru. =20 - car goerexample The lujvo=20 + =20 + +car goerexample + + The lujvo=20 karcykla, for example, is based on=20 karce klama, or=20 car goer. The place structure of=20 =20 karce is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d7"/> karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 @@ -382,21 +410,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2"/> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. =20 - Mon Reposexample really means + =20 + +Mon Reposexample + + really means <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d3"/> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. =20 @@ -431,21 +463,25 @@ la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St= . Bernard, of breed St. Bernard. supplementary inf= ormation employing the over-ample place structure of= =20 . The dog breed is redundant= ly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitive= ly speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplem= entary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. =20 - beetle<= secondary>example As a further example, take=20 + =20 + +beetlee= xample + + As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 =20 calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7"/> @@ -479,21 +515,25 @@ =20 =20 klama tertau into a=20 litru or=20 cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ in their= number of arguments, and suppressing places of=20 klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resultin= g modified place structure is that of=20 litru or=20 cliva. Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau= and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed furt= her in=20 . - school buildingexample lujvo place structuredropping d= ependent placescaveat auditoriums <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">elementary schools playgrounds recital roo= ms Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the sel= tau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the l= ujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed = of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the constr= uction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools nee= d auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and s= o on: therefore, the place structure of=20 + =20 + +school buildingexample + + lujvo place structuredropping dependent placescaveat auditorium= s elem= entary schools = playgrounds recital rooms Unfortunately, not all d= ependent places in the seltau can be safely removed: some of them are neces= sary to interpreting the lujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much= to a doghouse what breed of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot o= f difference to the construction of a school building what kind of school i= s in it! Music schools need auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schoo= ls need playgrounds, and so on: therefore, the place structure of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 kuldi'u (from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be =20 @@ -503,35 +543,43 @@ d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subjec= t c3 to audience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem= to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. =20
Ordering lujvo places. lujvo place order= So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places= to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the = story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right ord= er of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becom= es critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way tha= t a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is = which. - prayer<= secondary>example lujvo place orderrationale for standardi= zation If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then= , we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some con= ventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take f= or example the lujvo=20 + =20 + +prayere= xample + + lujvo place orderrationale for standardization If we aim= to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in = the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very r= eal ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo=20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1"/> di'e jdaselsku la dong. =20 This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. =20 - Dongexample we must be able to know if Dong is = the person making the prayer, giving the meaning + =20 + +Dongexa= mple + + we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving t= he meaning =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d2"/> This is a prayer by Dong =20 or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in @@ -540,21 +588,25 @@ This is a prayer to Dong =20 We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each = lujvo (=20 =20 discusses when this is act= ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak= es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co= nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo= und across gismu place structures (see=20 ), and are even more= necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still n= ecessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to t= ake advantage of any available regularities. =20 =20 - great soldierexample lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujv= o el= imination process We use two different ordering rules= : one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lu= jvo like=20 + =20 + +great soldierexample + + lujvo place ordersymmetrical lujvo elimination process We use = two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmet= rical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like=20 balsoi (from=20 ) has the places o= f its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the eliminat= ion process. For=20 =20 balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4"/> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property = b2 by standard b3 @@ -579,21 +631,25 @@ b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3 b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-s= tandard-b3 where=20 gi'e is the Lojban word for=20 and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained= in=20 . - veterinarianexample lujvo place orderasymmetrical lujv= o an= imal doctorexample Asymmetrica= l lujvo like=20 + =20 + +veterinarianexample + + lujvo place orderasymmetrical lujvo animal doctorexample Asymmetrical lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a diffe= rent rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place struc= ture, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to = the first place of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 =20 danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7"/> @@ -611,21 +667,25 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8"/> m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 fo= r ailment m3 using treatment m4 animal patient Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, = the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared plac= e; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.<= /para> =20
lujvo with more than two parts. - tomorrowexample lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more pa= rt veljvo The theory we have outlined so far is an = account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more t= han two parts. An example is=20 + =20 + +tomorrowexample + + lujvo place orderbased on 3-or-more part veljvo The theo= ry we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often= lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 =20 future,=20 adjacent, and=20 day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 bavlamdei as having two components:=20 bavla'i,=20 next, and=20 @@ -650,21 +710,25 @@ anomalous orderin= g of lujvo places While symmetrical lujvo normally pu= t any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is = a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the def= inition of=20 =20 bavlamdei. This is an example of how the = guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that,= not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank = places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3"/> d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days l= ater (default 1) by standard d3 - long-swordexample medieval weapon Here is another exa= mple of a multi-part lujvo:=20 + =20 + +long-swordexample + + medieval weapon<= /indexterm> Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:=20 cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4"/> clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3 @@ -749,21 +813,25 @@
Eliding SE rafsi from tertau lujvo place struc= tureeffect of "SE"-dropping in tertau Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more troub= le. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe = some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,=20 posydji describes a type of=20 djica,=20 gerzda describes a type of=20 zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 gerzda does not describe a=20 se zdani- it is not a word that could be = used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog. - blue-eyedexample Now consider how we would tran= slate the word=20 + =20 + +blue-eyedexample + + Now consider how we would translate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 =20 blakanla (from=20 blanu kanla, meaning=20 blue eye). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot= say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d1"/> @@ -801,47 +869,59 @@ se that really should be there), any attempt to accommo= date the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting= a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with = SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more ex= plicit counterparts: in this case,=20 blaselkanla.
Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo lujvo place struc= turedropping "KEhE" = lujvo place structuredropping "KE" People constr= ucting lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, the= y will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to g= et thrown out are usually=20 ke and=20 ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We c= an usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau wit= h=20 ke and=20 ke'e missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo= inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. - beefsteakexample beefsteak For example, in=20 + =20 + +beefsteakexample + + beefsteak For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d1"/> [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo ( bovine meat ) slice =20 - bovine<= secondary>example because of the usual Lojban left-= grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that ve= ljvo and + =20 + +bovinee= xample + + because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to= be much difference between that veljvo and <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d2"/> bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e] bovine ( meat slice ) =20 =20 - sneak inexample meat sliceexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 + =20 + +sneak inexample + + meat sliceexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d3"/> zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e] crime ( inside go ) @@ -853,40 +933,52 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d4"/> [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside – an interpretation al= most identical with=20 anyway?) - shellfishexample shellfish There are cases, however, = where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful= . For example,=20 + =20 + +shellfishexample + + shellfish There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produ= ce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,=20 xaskemcakcurnu means=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo =20 - shell wormexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +shell wormexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5"/> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) =20 invertebrate (=20 worm in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 =20 xasycakcurnu has the veljvo - ocean shellexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +ocean shellexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6"/> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm =20 @@ -1459,21 +1551,25 @@ For example, the concept=20 young is expressed by the gismu=20 citno, with place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d2"/> citno: c1 is young - younger= example lujvo place ordercomparatives The comparative concept=20 + =20 + +younger= example + + lujvo place ordercomparatives The comparative concept=20 younger can be expressed by the lujvo=20 =20 citmau (based on the veljvo=20 citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3"/> @@ -1605,21 +1701,25 @@ t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 ext= remum (largest by default) of set t4 Consider the gismu=20 xamgu, whose place structure is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d10"/> xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 - better<= secondary>example The comparative form is=20 + =20 + +bettere= xample + + The comparative form is=20 xagmau, corresponding to English=20 better, with a place structure (by the rules given abov= e) of <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11"/> z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in am= ount z4 lujvo place order= superlatives lujvo place structuresu= perlatives We would expect the place structure of= =20 xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow = mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concep= ts, resulting in: diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index e33e08c..52ea221 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -66,21 +66,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d6"/> .ianai la djan klama =20 [Nonsense!] John is coming. - UI selma'o .ian= ai .ue .a'o .uu <= primary>.ui John is comingexample <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">attitudinalsword-form for primary The primary Lojban attitud= inals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where c= mavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo= : all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs= (=20 + UI selma'o .ian= ai .ue .a'o .uu <= primary>.ui =20 + +John is comingexample + + attitudinalsword-form for primary The primary Lojban att= itudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases whe= re cmavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these c= mavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphth= ongs (=20 =20 .ai,=20 .au,=20 .ei, and=20 .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are perm= itted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (=20 =20 =20 .ia,=20 .ie,=20 .ii,=20 @@ -687,21 +691,25 @@ request negative request .e'u suggestion no suggestion warning - after sleepexample More examples (after a good = night's sleep): + =20 + +after sleepexample + + More examples (after a good night's sleep): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8"/> .e'a do sazri le karce =20 [permission] You drive the car. Sure, you can drive the car. @@ -959,21 +967,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d6"/> .einai =20 I need not (a non-obligation) - .einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei formal requirementexample attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also ut= ter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the= language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you= mark what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 + .einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei =20 + +formal requirement= example + + attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also utter a = scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the langu= age: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark = what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 =20 cu'i by itself. =20
The space of emotions attitudinal scale= as axis in emotion-space Each = of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In= effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional spac= e. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point= in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coo= rdinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one= decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale value= s for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct singl= e point, which is our attitude. =20 emotionswhen expressed emotionsinsights emotions= compound compound emotions Now no one is going= to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. = If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a t= ime – usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently chan= ged in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insi= ghts into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojba= n), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when= they do recognize them. @@ -1033,34 +1045,42 @@ secular sacrilegious re'e ro'u ro'o ro'i= r= o'e ro'a Using these, we were able to assign=20 o'u to mark a scale of what we might call=20 =20 generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed,= satisfied, you express comfort with=20 o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate= how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this = scale into six separate ones, should you wish. =20 - mental discomfort= example physical distressexample stressexample embarrassmentexample spiritual disc= omfortexample sexual discomfortexampl= e at= titudinal categoriesexample of effect For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as= =20 + =20 + +mental discomfort<= secondary>example + + physical distressexample stressexample = embarrassmentexample spiritual discomfortexample sexual discomfortexample attitudinal categoriesexample of= effect For example, embarrassment is a social disc= omfort, expressible as=20 =20 .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label= =20 stress in English are expressed in Lojban with=20 .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be exp= ressed with=20 .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if = you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you = don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most = adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,=20 =20 o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort,=20 o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goe= r who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building. Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categoriz= e it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible = without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotio= ns within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physic= al comfort or vice versa. .eiro'u Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each= of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emot= ional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'= ll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojb= an possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that prob= ably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=20 .eiro'u, for example – look it up).= =20 - ro'anai= example attitudinalsstand-alone categories attitudi= nalscategories with nai attitudinalsc= ategories with scale markers You can use scale mark= ers and=20 + =20 + +ro'anai= example + + attitudinalsstand-alone categories attitudinalscategories with = nai = attitudinalscategories with scale markers<= /indexterm> You can use scale markers and=20 nai on these six category words, and you can also use c= ategory words without specifying the emotion. Thus,=20 I'm trying to concentrate could be expressed simply as= =20 ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-sp= ecific way,=20 =20 ro'anai will express it. =20 attitudinal categ= oriesmnemonic for There is a m= nemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms ab= out. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down= your body in sequence. ro'a @@ -1150,25 +1170,33 @@ presence/satisfaction satiation se'a [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency - self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 + =20 + +self-orientationexample + + attitudinal modifiers It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion c= ategories, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. Thes= e tended to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be= thought of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some = need to be placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few= of the attitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understa= nd these modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the a= ttitudinals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emoti= onal pictures you can build: =20 - ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 + ga'inai ga'i =20 + +condescensionexample + + deferenceexample <= primary>inferiorexample The cm= avo=20 ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate condescension= or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as be= ing below (for=20 ga'i) or above (for=20 =20 ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social pos= ition. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, wh= o is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in = the sentence, as with=20 =20 doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a s= tatement addressed to a social superior. @@ -1237,21 +1265,25 @@ =20 le'o The cmavo=20 le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom = overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps = in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express t= hese feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their = coach using=20 =20 =20 ro'ole'o.=20 le'o is also useful in threats as an alternative to=20 =20 o'onai, which expresses anger. =20 - vu'e sinfulexample virtueexample= righteous indignationexample The cmavo=20 + vu'e =20 + +sinfule= xample + + virtueexample righteous indignationexample The cmavo=20 vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. An exces= s of almost any emotion is usually somewhat=20 =20 =20 sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings – what we call righ= teous indignation might be=20 =20 =20 =20 o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct fr= om lack of guilt:=20 .u'unai. se'i The cmavo=20 @@ -1320,21 +1352,25 @@ ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8"/> .uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!] - large mealexample might be something you say af= ter a large meal which you enjoyed. + =20 + +large mealexample + + might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed. =20 Like all modifiers,=20 be'u can be used alone: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d9"/> le cukta be'u cu zvati ma @@ -1617,21 +1653,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d8"/> pei.o'usai [question] [comfort] [strong] Are you again healthy? =20 - .uuse'inai dai<= /primary> sympat= hyexample empathyexample<= /indexterm> attitudesempathy contrasted with sympathy attitudinalsattributing emotion to others Empathy, which is no= t really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator=20 + .uuse'inai dai<= /primary> =20 + +sympathyexample + + empathyexample attitudesempathy contrasted with sympathy attitudina= lsattributing emotion to others Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator=20 dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a= story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course ma= ke a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can = also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 =20 dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else – exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can als= o use=20 =20 dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someon= e else's emotion as if it were your own: =20 @@ -1652,21 +1692,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d10"/> le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean= -floor. =20 Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank. - ship sankexample suggesting that the ship felt = fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker= 's pity for it. + =20 + +ship sankexample + + suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, and simu= ltaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it. =20 attitudinalsnon-speaker attitudes attitudinalsexceptio= ns Both=20 pei and=20 dai represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitu= dinals reflect the speaker's attitude. =20 bu'onai bu'o attitude= sceasing attitudesbeginning attitudescontinuing attitudinalscontours attitudesexpressing changes in Finally, we = often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has no= t changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore,=20 .ui .ui .ui is not the same as=20 .uicai, but simply means that we are cont= inuing to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, co= ntinuing to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal= contour cmavo=20 bu'o. =20 @@ -1787,43 +1831,55 @@ =20 =20 =20 evidentialsrhetorical flavor evidentialsindisputable= bridi indisputable bridi A bridi with an evidential in i= t becomes=20 indisputable, in the sense that the speaker is saying= =20 how it is with him or her, which is beyond argument. Cl= aims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly sub= ject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive,= or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discours= e that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than di= scourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogue= s or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices. =20 =20 evidentialsplacement in bridi Evidentials are m= ost often placed at the beginning of sentences, and are often attached to t= he=20 i that separates sentences in connected discourse. It i= s in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is = placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect th= e claim made by the main bridi. - ja'o deductionexample thusexample A bridi marked by=20 + ja'o =20 + +deductionexample + + thuse= xample A bridi marked by=20 ja'o is a conclusion by the speaker based on other (sta= ted or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of=20 ja'o are=20 thus and=20 therefore. - ca'e pronouncement<= /primary>example husband and wifeexample A bridi marked by=20 + ca'e =20 + +pronouncementexample + + husband and wife= example A bridi marked by=20 ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In addition t= o definitions of words,=20 =20 ca'e is also appropriate in what are called performativ= es, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English ex= ample is=20 =20 I now pronounce you husband and wife, where the very ac= t of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban= translation might be: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d1"/> ca'e le re do cu simxu speni =20 [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses. - ba'anai ba'acu'= i = ba'a e= xperiencedexample rememberedexample antic= ipatedexample evidentialsba'a scale The three scale positions of=20 + ba'anai ba'acu'= i = ba'a =20 + +experiencedexample + + rememberedexample = anticipatedexample <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">evidentialsba'a scale The three scale positions of=20 ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is bas= ed on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus=20 =20 =20 ba'a means that the statement represents a future event= as anticipated by the speaker;=20 =20 =20 =20 ba'acu'i, a present event as experienced = by the speaker;=20 =20 =20 @@ -1835,89 +1891,117 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d2"/> ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu =20 [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain. My leg hurts. - su'a inductionexample evidentialsja'o contrasted with su= 'a e= videntialssu'a contrasted with ja'o A bridi marked by=20 + su'a =20 + +inductionexample + + evidentialsja'o contrasted with su'a evidentialssu'a contrasted= with ja'o A bridi marked by=20 su'a is a generalization by the speaker based on other = (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between=20 su'a and=20 ja'o is that=20 ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not = necessarily rigorous), whereas=20 =20 su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern recogni= tion from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). =20 - su'anai abductionexample The opposite point of th= e scale,=20 + su'anai =20 + +abductionexample + + The opposite point of the scale,=20 su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing = specific conclusions from general premises or patterns. =20 =20 discursivessu'a as This cmavo can also function= as a discursive (see=20 ), in which case=20 su'a means=20 abstractly or=20 in general, and=20 su'anai means=20 =20 concretely or=20 in particular. - ti'e hearsayexample A bridi marked by=20 + ti'e =20 + +hearsay= example + + A bridi marked by=20 ti'e is relayed information from some source other than= the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was re= layed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally goo= d example of=20 =20 ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.= =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d3"/> ti'e la .uengas cu zergau =20 [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. I hear that Wenga is a crook. - ka'u cultural knowl= edgeexample mythexample= A bridi marked by=20 + ka'u =20 + +cultural knowledge= example + + mythe= xample A bridi marked by=20 ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural c= ontext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should = be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your = own cultural context – although=20 =20 objectivity in the sense of actual correspondence with = the facts is certainly not required. - ka'u se'o dreamexample revelationexample evidentials= ka'u contrasted with se'o evidentialsse'o contr= asted with ka'u On the other hand,=20 + ka'u se'o =20 + +dreamex= ample + + revelationexample = evidentialska'u contrasted with se'o evidentials<= /primary>se'o contrasted with ka'u On th= e other hand,=20 se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speak= er as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, = such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line= between=20 =20 =20 ka'u and=20 se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent. - za'a observationexample observation evidentialcontrasted= with observative observativecontrasted with observation = evidential A bridi marked by=20 + za'a =20 + +observationexample + + observation evidentialcontrasted with observative observativec= ontrasted with observation evidential A bridi marke= d by=20 za'a is based on perception or direct observation by th= e speaker. This use of=20 =20 =20 observe is not connected with the Lojban=20 observative, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The= latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclu= sion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view. =20 =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d4"/> za'a do tatpi =20 [I observe!] You are-tired. I see you are tired. - pe'ipei pe'i opinion<= /primary>example A bridi marked by=20 + pe'ipei pe'i =20 + +opinion= example + + A bridi marked by=20 pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form=20 =20 =20 pe'ipei is common, meaning=20 =20 Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be=20 =20 peipe'i, in accordance with the distincti= on explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since=20 pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference= between the two orders.) =20 @@ -1926,37 +2010,45 @@ pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo =20 [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed. In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. =20 - e'u= ru'a assumptionexample Carthage destroyedexample e'ucompared with ru'a ru'acompared with e'u A bridi marked by=20 + e'u= ru'a =20 + +assumptionexample + + Carthage destroyedexample e'ucompared with ru'a ru'acompared with e'u A bridi marked by=20 ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is simi= lar to one possible use of=20 =20 e'u. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d6"/> ru'a doi livinston. =20 Dr. Livingstone, I presume? (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) =20 - ju'apei ju'a basisexample Livingstonexample Finally, the evidential=20 + ju'apei ju'a =20 + +basisex= ample + + Livingstonexample Finally, the evidential=20 ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a st= atement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is = not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 =20 =20 ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but i= n question form it can be useful:=20 =20 ju'apei means=20 =20 What is the basis for your statement? and serves as an = evidential, as distinct from emotional, question. =20
@@ -1994,34 +2086,42 @@ mi'u [mintu] ditto po'o the only relevant case - go'i po'o mi'u si'a= j= i'a ku'i tooexample butexample<= /indexterm> ditto<= secondary>example go'icontrasted with mi'u mi'ucontrasted with go'i discursives for consecutive discoursecontrasted These five discursives are mutuall= y exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The f= irst four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,=20 + go'i po'o mi'u si'a= j= i'a ku'i =20 + +tooexam= ple + + butex= ample dittoexample go'icontrasted with mi= 'u m= i'ucontrasted with go'i discursives for consecutive discou= rsecontrasted These five discu= rsives are mutually exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considere= d as scales. The first four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,= =20 ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argument. The = second,=20 =20 ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The third,= =20 =20 si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerati= ng an additional example. The fourth,=20 =20 mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, an= d can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being re= peated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 =20 go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 ), which is a non-discursive= version of=20 ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous= bridi. =20 - onlyexample Lastly,=20 + =20 + +onlyexa= mple + + Lastly,=20 po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, an= d thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 =20 only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1"/> mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi =20 @@ -2055,21 +2155,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d4"/> mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o =20 I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). - hit noseexample hit cousinexample po'oplacement in sentence Note that=20 + =20 + +hit noseexample + + hit cousinexample = po'oplacement in sentence Note that=20 only can go before or after what it modifies in English= , but=20 po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward. =20 Next, the=20 commentary on words group: va'i [valsi] in other words @@ -2189,21 +2293,25 @@ do'a,=20 =20 broadly construed; for=20 do'anai (as you might expect),=20 narrowly construed. pa'enai pa'e The cmavo=20 pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is be= ing fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas=20 =20 pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in f= avor of one party. =20 - .ianai zo'o ironyexample sarcasmexample ironyexpressing sarcasmexpressing T= he scale of=20 + .ianai zo'o =20 + +ironyex= ample + + sarcasmexample ironyexpressing sarcasmexpressi= ng The scale of=20 je'u and=20 je'unai is a little different from the ot= hers in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth &ndash= ; or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal i= t from us. So under what circumstances would=20 je'unai be used, or=20 je'u be useful? For one thing,=20 je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that i= s a truth of logic, like=20 All cats are cats. Its counterpart=20 je'unai then serves to mark a logical con= tradiction. In addition,=20 je'unai can be used to express one kind o= f sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says,= but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms = of irony can be marked with=20 =20 =20 @@ -2337,21 +2445,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5"/> ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'= u ri pazvau If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly= know she is pregnant. =20 - pregnant sisterexample sister pregnantexample hypothetical= worldcontrasted with real world= example real worldcontrasted with hypothetical worldexample and: + =20 + +pregnant sisterexample + + sister pregnant<= secondary>example hypothetical worldcontrasted with real w= orldexample real worldcontrasted wi= th hypothetical worldexample a= nd: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d6"/> ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le = du'u ri pazvau If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that she is-pregnant. If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know sh= e is pregnant. =20 @@ -2410,21 +2522,25 @@ bi'u new information old information ge'e non-specific indicator - ki'a huh?= example confusion about what was said confusionmetali= nguistic The cmavo=20 + ki'a =20 + +huh?exa= mple + + confusion about what was s= aid co= nfusionmetalinguistic The cmav= o=20 ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellaneous ind= icators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what h= as been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is= =20 .uanai). The confusion may be about the m= eaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a = sumti. One of the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 ki'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1"/> mi nelci le ctuca @@ -2507,38 +2623,46 @@ Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some ot= her sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of=20 pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference:=20 =20 blanu in=20 could mean=20 sad (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> pe'anai literally The negated form,=20 pe'anai, indicates that what has been sai= d is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-lang= uage intuition is to be ignored. =20 - heartburnexample culturally dependent lujvo figurative lujvo= place structure figurative lujvo lujvoplace structure of figurat= ive lujvo Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 + =20 + +heartburnexample + + culturally dependent lujvo= figur= ative lujvoplace structure figurative lujvo lujvoplace structure of figurative lujvo Alone amo= ng the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 pe'a has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 pev. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (cultural= ly dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the= place structure of the components. Thus=20 risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a plac= e structure like: x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 whereas=20 pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figur= ative, might have the place structure: x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either=20 risna or=20 jelca. - bi'unai bi'u anexample aexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">theexampl= e a/= ancontrasted with the thecontrasted w= ith a/an The uses of=20 + bi'unai bi'u =20 + +anexamp= le + + aexam= ple = theexample a/ancontrasted with the thecontrasted with a/an The uses of= =20 bi'u and=20 =20 bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of = the English articles=20 =20 =20 the and=20 a/an. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with= =20 I saw a man who .... Later in the story, the same man w= ill be referred to with the phrase=20 the man. Lojban does not use its articles in the same w= ay: both=20 =20 @@ -2706,36 +2830,44 @@ ki'e [ckire] appreciation gratitude disappreciation ingratitude - fi'i= je'e ki'e thank you= example politenessyou're welcome politene= ssthank you and you're welcome= =20 + fi'i= je'e ki'e =20 + +thank youexample + + politenessyou're welcome politenessthank you and you're welcome= =20 Thank you, X; indicates appreciation or gratitude= toward the listener. The usual response is=20 je'e, but=20 fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: see the ex= planation of=20 fi'i. fi'i [friti] welcome offering unwelcome inhospitality - fi'i= hospitalityexample you're welcomeje'e contrasted wit= h fi'i you're welcomefi'i contrasted with je'e= =20 + fi'i= =20 + +hospitalityexample + + you're welcomeje'e contrasted with fi'i you're welcomefi'i cont= rasted with je'e=20 At your service, X;=20 Make yourself at home, X; offers hospitality (pos= sibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note tha= t=20 fi'i is=20 not the equivalent of American English=20 You're welcome as a mechanical response to=20 Thank you; that is=20 je'e, as noted below. @@ -2771,21 +2903,25 @@ Over, X; indicates that the speaker has completed= the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. T= he negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follo= ws does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,= =20 I'm not done talking! je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt - je'e= roger= example politenessyou're welcome=20 + je'e= =20 + +rogerex= ample + + politenessyou're welcome=20 Roger, X!,=20 I understand; acknowledges the successful receipt= of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure = to receive correctly, and is usually followed by=20 ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of=20 je'e and=20 je'enai are the grunt typically wri= tten=20 uh-huh and=20 What?/Excuse me?.=20 je'e is also used to mean=20 You're welcome when that is a response to=20 Thank you. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index bff1426..eccfd5f 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -10,21 +10,25 @@ sentence (sometimes called a=20 statement or=20 proposition), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a= small set of=20 truth functions, which combine two sentences to create = a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that th= e truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only= on the truth value of the component sentences. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e1d1"/> John is a man or James is a woman. - man or womanexample is true if=20 + =20 + +man or womanexample + + is true if=20 John is a man is true, or if=20 James is a woman is true. If we know whether John is a = man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether=20 John is a man or James is a woman is true, provided we = know the meaning of=20 or. Here=20 John is a man and=20 James is a woman are the component sentences. negating a senten= ceand truth value We will use = the phrase=20 negating a sentence to mean changing its truth value. A= n English sentence may always be negated by prefixing=20 =20 It is false that ..., or more idiomatically by insertin= g=20 @@ -282,21 +286,25 @@ The six types of logical connectives logical connectiv= esrationale for multiple sets in grammar In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1"/> Mary went to the window and ... =20 - window<= secondary>example where the last word could be foll= owed by=20 + =20 + +windowe= xample + + where the last word could be followed by=20 the door, a noun phrase, or by=20 saw the horses, a sentence with subject omitted, or by= =20 John went to the door, a full sentence, or by one of a = variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate = such grammatical looseness. JA selma'o GIhA= selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o logical connectivesselma'oenumerated Instead, there are a total = of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, a= nd JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vow= els, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel i= s the entire cmavo. logical connectiv= escmavoformat for each selma'o Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 A is=20 a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with=20 A, which is a truth function, = or=20 a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for=20 E in selma'o GIhA is=20 @@ -1000,21 +1008,25 @@ mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke= 'e] I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the = office ). KE selma'o ke ke in s= umti groupingwhere allowed If = sumti were allowed to begin with=20 ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. - German rich manexample Now we have enough facil= ities to handle the problem of=20 + =20 + +German rich manexample + + Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 I am German, rich, and a man – or else none of these. The following paraphrase has the correct meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10"/> [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo = mi nanmu [tu'u] ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) and (I am-German i= f-and-only-if I am-a-man ). @@ -1222,21 +1234,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3"/> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan. = .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the boo= k to John or I take the book from John. is equivalent in meaning to: - owe moneyexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +owe moneyexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d4"/> mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau = la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book t= o/from John. The literal English translation in=20 @@ -1463,21 +1479,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d2"/> ti blanu je zdani This is-blue and a-house. - blue houseexample unconnected tanrucontrasted with log= ically connected version logical connectionin tanrucontrasted with unconnected version B= ut of course=20 + =20 + +blue houseexample + + unconnected tanrucontrasted with logically connected version logical connectionin tanrucontrasted with unconnected v= ersion But of course=20 and=20 are not necessarily equival= ent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that=20 might just as well mean <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d3"/> This is a house for blue inhabitants. and=20 @@ -1613,21 +1633,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d13"/> mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu I see a man and a woman. there is a great temptation to reduce further to: - man-womanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +man-womanexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d14"/> mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu I see a man and woman. But=20 @@ -1692,21 +1716,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d4"/> nago'i =20 Fido is not a dog. truth questionscontrasted with connection questions Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth quest= ions so far discussed. Consider - dog or catexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +dog or catexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d5"/> Is Fido a dog or a cat? Superficially,=20 seems like a truth question= with the underlying statement: @@ -1831,21 +1859,25 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d13"/> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function= ?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? =20 - coffee or teaexample the answer=20 + =20 + +coffee or teaexample + + the answer=20 e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if= not necessarily polite. afterthought conn= ectioncontrasted with forethought for grammatical utte= rances forethought connectioncontrasted with afterthought = for grammatical utterances forethought connectivesas ungra= mmatical utterance connectivesas ungrammatical utterance The forethought questions=20 ge'i and=20 =20 gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound lik= e the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 =20 =20 is the forethought version = of=20 : @@ -1873,21 +1905,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d16"/> do cadzu gi'i bajra =20 You walk [or?] run? connective questi= on answerscontrasted with other languages<= /indexterm> However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply = to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. - if coffeebring teaexample = Abraham Lincolnexample imperativesand truth truthin imperative sentences bridi connectionuse of imperative= s in bridi connectionuse of truth questions in= Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of = sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the conve= ntion that a truth question is true if the answer is=20 + if coffeebring teaexample = =20 + +Abraham Lincolnexample + + imperativesand truth truthin imperative sentences bridi connection<= /primary>use of imperatives in bridi connection= use of truth questions in Truth questions may be us= ed in bridi connection. This form of sentence is perfectly legitimate, and = can be interpreted by using the convention that a truth question is true if= the answer is=20 =20 =20 yes and false if the answer is=20 no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the = special pro-sumti=20 ko, which means=20 you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the= command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may= be translated thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d17"/> @@ -1914,21 +1950,25 @@ <quote>and</quote>,=20 <quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 =20 <quote>and</quote> of:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-x6JW"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1"/> John and Alice carried the piano. - carried pianoexample massjoining elements into a Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that Joh= n carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that: + =20 + +carried pianoexample + + massj= oining elements into a Given the nature of pianos, = this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is= not true that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d2"/> John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano. JOI selma'o joi= which would mean that each of them carried the piano= by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomeno= n as a=20 mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more compon= ents into a mass: @@ -1957,21 +1997,25 @@ The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. The cmavo=20 ku is the elidable terminator for=20 le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see= =20 le nanmu joi and assume that another tanr= u component is to follow; since the second=20 le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. = No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a= following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. JOI selma'o joikdefinition Single or compound cma= vo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the n= ames for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect= bridi-tails. - blue and redexample mixed withexample tanru connectionconnotation of non-logical In tanr= u,=20 + =20 + +blue and redexample + + mixed withexample = tanru connectionconnotation of non-logical In tanru,=20 joi has the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5"/> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball. @@ -2040,38 +2084,46 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6"/> mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. - choose fromexample masscontrasted with set in distribu= tion of properties setcontrasted with mass in distribution= of properties setas specified by members The x3 place of=20 + =20 + +choose fromexample + + massc= ontrasted with set in distribution of properties <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">setcontra= sted with mass in distribution of properties setas specifi= ed by members The x3 place of=20 cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A s= et is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unl= ike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' = properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the r= ats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theo= ry (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional log= ic is quite enough for one chapter! =20 ce<= /indexterm> setby listing members with ce In=20 we specify that set by list= ing the members with=20 ce joining them. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d7"/> ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan. =20 This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John. This is a list of you, me, and John. - listexample setcontrasted with ordered sequence masscontrasted with ordered sequence ordered sequencecontrasted with mass ordered sequencecontrasted with= set ordered sequenceby listing members sequenceas an abstract list listas a physical object sequencecontrasted with list listcontrasted wit= h sequence The x2 place of=20 + =20 + +listexa= mple + + setco= ntrasted with ordered sequence masscontrasted with ordered= sequence ordered sequencecontrasted with mass= ordered sequenc= econtrasted with set ordered sequence= by listing members sequenceas an abstract list= list<= secondary>as a physical object sequencecontrasted with lis= t li= stcontrasted with sequence The= x2 place of=20 liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned i= n the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 lo liste means a physical object such as = a grocery list: a purely abstract list is=20 lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sum= ti connected by=20 ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together = in a set or a mass. =20 jo'u jo'u= result of connection with jo'ucontrasted with c= e'o = jo'ucontrasted with ce jo'ucontrasted= with joi individuals into setby non-logical connection indivi= duals into massby non-logical connection non-logical conne= ctionof individuals into set = non-logical connectionof individuals into mass So=20 joi,=20 ce, and=20 ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are take= n to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a = sequence respectively. The cmavo=20 =20 @@ -2080,21 +2132,25 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8"/> la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. James is-the-brother-of George. - brothersexample possibly adding a discursive el= ement meaning=20 + =20 + +brothersexample + + possibly adding a discursive element meaning=20 and vice versa. However,=20 James and George are brothers cannot be correctly trans= lated as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d9"/> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna James and George is-a-brother. @@ -2124,21 +2180,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d11"/> la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome. joi= where=20 joi is used to create the necessary mass. - fa'u respectivelyexample respectivelyspecifying with fa'= u co= nnectionnon-distributed Likewi= se,=20 + fa'u =20 + +respectivelyexample + + respectivelyspecifying with fa'u connectionnon-distributed Likewise,=20 fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where = order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d12"/> la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas. James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-or= der-with Martha. James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively. @@ -2229,21 +2289,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d2"/> lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu =20 The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-thing= s is small. =20 - rich and Germanexample intersection of setscompared wi= th and union of setscompared with or There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes=20 + =20 + +rich and Germanexample + + intersection of setscompared with and union of setscompared w= ith or There is a parallelism between logic and set= theory that makes=20 and=20 equivalent respectively to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d3"/> lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large. @@ -2284,21 +2348,25 @@ asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . termsetsnon-logical connection of non-logical connectionof termsets Non-logical connection is permitted a= t the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumt= i or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place s= tructure of=20 =20 casnu is: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: - discuss in langua= geexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +discuss in languageexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7"/> mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u c= asnu =20 ( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-lan= guage English ) discuss. @@ -2337,21 +2405,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d10"/> mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci l= e karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u =20 I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the = quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the = dog. ) List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. - tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o list of things to doexample<= /indexterm> to-do listexample tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on listsuse of tu'e/tu'u in=20 + tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o =20 + +list of things to doexample + + to-do listexample = tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect = on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on= listsu= se of tu'e/tu'u in=20 represents a list of things= to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a= sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the = dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is= related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 , because= there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase=20 mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The br= ackets effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 di'e, which means=20 =20 the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 .ijoi is used to connect sentences that r= epresent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban = equivalent of=20 @@ -2391,21 +2463,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d13"/> joi Mixed-mass-and. Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together). - ughexample coffee mixed with teaexample Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)= + =20 + +ughexam= ple + + coffee mixed with teaexample Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)
Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</ti= tle> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</prim= ary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI= selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><prima= ry>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as endpoints</secondary></indext= erm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives= </primary><secondary>intervals</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the n= on-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-connectives"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-continued"/>, there are three oth= er connectives which can appear in joiks:=20 <valsi>bi'i</valsi>,=20 <valsi>bi'o</valsi>, and=20 <valsi>mi'i</valsi>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used= to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo= =20 @@ -2421,38 +2497,46 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1"/> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20 - bi'i between Dresde= n and Frankfurtexample non-logical connectivesun-ordered intervals In=20 + bi'i =20 + +between Dresden and Frankfur= texample + + non-logical connectivesun-ordered intervals In=20 , it is all the same whether= I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresd= en, so=20 =20 bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti= =20 la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into = the x2 place of=20 sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval sp= ecifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the wh= ole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in = extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2"/> mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac. I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. - bi'o from one to tw= o o'clockexample non-logical connectivesordered intervals In=20 + bi'o =20 + +from one to two o'clockexample + + non-logical connectivesordered intervals In=20 , on the other hand, it is e= ssential that=20 la pacac. comes before=20 la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (= or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an int= erval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to: sebi'o FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3"/> @@ -2461,21 +2545,25 @@ =20 I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] Fi= rst-hour. English cannot readily express=20 sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood= by reversing the two sumti. =20 mi'i intervalsexpressed as center and distance Th= e third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a different viewp= oint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For examp= le: =20 - bomb destroyed fi= fty milesexample FIXME: TAG SP= OT + =20 + +bomb destroyed fifty milesexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4"/> le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno =20 The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. @@ -2522,33 +2610,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d8"/> mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of= both. =20 - between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO selma'ogramm= ar of As these examples should make clear, the GAhO= cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically a= djacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and= the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have ju= st one GAhO. + =20 + +between Dresden and Frankfur= texample + + GAhO selma'ogrammar of As these examples should make cle= ar, the GAhO cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands = physically adjacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the fir= st GAhO, and the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatica= l to have just one GAhO. ke'ietymology of ga'oetymology of (Etymologically,=20 ga'o is derived from=20 ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 ke'i from=20 kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI selma'ogrammar of BIhI joiks are grammatic= al anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijo= iks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses. =20 intervalseffect of nai on naieffect on intervals negated i= ntervalsmeaning of Negated int= ervals, marked with a=20 -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate a= n interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with= respect to some understood scale): - except from 10 to= 12example FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +except from 10 to 12example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. =20 You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. =20 @@ -2603,21 +2699,25 @@ GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI joigiks= connection types Joigiks may be used to = non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.<= /para> in forethought becomes: - carry the pianoexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +carry the pianoexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. =20 @@ -2630,21 +2730,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11"/> mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (= inclusive). - between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO position in forethought intervals= foret= hought intervalsGAhO position = In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from t= he endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first= endpoint. + =20 + +between Dresden and Frankfur= texample + + GAhO position in forethoug= ht intervals forethought intervalsGAhO position<= /indexterm> In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically sepa= rated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers = to the first endpoint.
Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso mathematical expr= essionsconnectives in non-logical connectionin mathematical expressions logical connectionin ma= thematical expressions Lojban has a separate gramma= r embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expression= s (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 =20 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are o= perands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. JOI selma'o GUh= A selma'o <= primary>JA selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o BO selma'o bo connecting operatorswith bo in connective boin joiks for operators boin jeks for operators guheksconnecting oper= ators jeksconnecting operators operatorsc= onnecting operandsconnecting geksconnecti= ng operands <= primary>eksconnecting operands= Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with ge= ks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterth= ought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components.= (However, jeks and joiks with=20 @@ -2660,21 +2764,25 @@ exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. - three of four peo= pleexample=20 + =20 + +three of four peopleexample + +=20 is equivalent in meaning, b= ut uses forethought connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d2"/> vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. @@ -2718,21 +2826,25 @@ li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not incl= uding one =20 - ce'o zero to oneexample compound subscript You can also= combine two operands with=20 + ce'o =20 + +zero to oneexample + + compound subscript You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6"/> xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 @@ -2762,55 +2874,67 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1"/> la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is= -a-noblest-governor. Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king. - once and future k= ingexample can be reduced to:<= /para> + =20 + +once and future kingexample + + can be reduced to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d2"/> la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor. Arthur was and will be king. and=20 are equivalent in meaning; = neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now. non-logically con= nected tenses Non-logical connection with joiks is al= so possible between tenses: - breathe= example FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +breathe= example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d3"/> mi pu bi'o ba vasxu I [past] from ... to [future] breathe. =20 I breathe from a past time until a future time. =20 The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals exp= ressible, such as=20 =20 from a medium time ago until a long time from now. tenses<= secondary>grouping of connectives in groupingof connection= in tenses tensesforethought connection in forethought connect= ionin tenses No forethought co= nnections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way= to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed = to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or moda= ls can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode expl= icitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications. =20 tensed logical co= nnection Tensed logical connections are both more com= plex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider t= he English sentence: - went and boughtexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +went and boughtexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d4"/> I went to the market, and I bought food. The verbatim translation of=20 , namely: @@ -2855,33 +2979,41 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-129L"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7"/> la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market. John and Alice go to the market simultaneously. - KE selma'o JOI = selma'o KE selma'o A selma'o simultaneouslyexample tensed logical co= nnectivesin joik=E2=80=A6ke <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6ke Between an ek (or= joik) and=20 + KE selma'o JOI = selma'o KE selma'o A selma'o =20 + +simultaneouslyexample + + tensed logical connectives= in joik=E2=80=A6ke tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6ke Between an ek (or joik) an= d=20 ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d8"/> mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the schoo= l ). I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or th= e school. - BO selma'o GIhA= selma'o and earlierexample tensed logical connectives= in gihek=E2=80=A6bo Between a gihek and= =20 + BO selma'o GIhA= selma'o =20 + +and earlierexample + + tensed logical connectives= in gihek=E2=80=A6bo Between a = gihek and=20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d9"/> mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/t= o you. I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, y= en) from you. @@ -2891,60 +3023,76 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d10"/> mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. - BO selma'o I se= lma'o JA selma'o = and simultaneouslyexample tensed logical connecti= vesin ijoik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6bo Between an ijek (or = ijoik) and=20 + BO selma'o I se= lma'o JA selma'o =20 + +and simultaneously= example + + tensed logical connectives= in ijoik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6bo Between an ijek (or ijo= ik) and=20 =20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu =20 I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. - TUhE selma'o<= /primary> I = selma'o JOI selma'o JA selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connec= tivesin ijoik=E2=80=A6tu'e tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6tu'e Between an ije= k (or ijoik) and=20 + TUhE selma'o<= /primary> I = selma'o JOI selma'o JA selma'o =20 + +and thenexample + + tensed logical connectives= in ijoik=E2=80=A6tu'e tensed logical connectives= in ijek=E2=80=A6tu'e Between an ijek (or= ijoik) and=20 =20 tu'e, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12"/> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. - BO selma'o JA s= elma'o JOI selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connectivesin joik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin jek=E2=80=A6bo And finally, between a jek (or= joik) and=20 + BO selma'o JA s= elma'o JOI selma'o =20 + +and thenexample + + tensed logical connectives= in joik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin jek=E2=80=A6bo And finally, between a je= k (or joik) and=20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d13"/> mi mikce jebabo ricfu I-am-a doctor and [later] rich I am a doctor and future rich person. - tu'e ke bo TUhE sel= ma'o KE selma'o BO selma'o doctor and then richexample tu'econtrasted with bo for tensed logical connection bocontrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection ke= contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bocontras= ted with ke for tensed logical connection As can be= seen from=20 + tu'e ke bo TUhE sel= ma'o KE selma'o BO selma'o =20 + +doctor and then richexample + + tu'ec= ontrasted with bo for tensed logical connection bocontrast= ed with tu'e for tensed logical connection kecontrasted wi= th bo for tensed logical connection bocontrasted with ke f= or tensed logical connection As can be seen from=20 and=20 , the choice between=20 bo and=20 ke (or=20 tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be= connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neithe= r would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always= be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 bo,=20 ke, or=20 tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cma= vo in=20 and=20 through=20 @@ -2968,21 +3116,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d15"/> mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja =20 I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food I went to the market and bought some food. - pu ge went and boug= htexample=20 + pu ge =20 + +went and boughtexample + +=20 is similar to=20 . There is no time relations= hip specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the = past.
Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title= > <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU s= elma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary= >jeks</primary><secondary>connecting abstractors</secondary></indexterm> <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><seconda= ry>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"genera= l-imported"><primary>logical connection of abstractors</primary></indexterm= > Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed bet= ween abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be exp= anded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstract= ion marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.=20 =20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qGVP"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qgVR"/> are equivalent in meaning:<= /para> @@ -2998,33 +3150,41 @@ <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qgVR" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d2"/> le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. =20 - quality and quant= ityexample abstractionsgrouping of co= nnectives in = groupingof connection in abstractions abstraction= sforethought connection in forethought connectionin abstractions As with tenses and moda= ls, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.<= /para> + =20 + +quality and quantityexample + + abstractionsgrouping of connectives in groupingof connection i= n abstractions abstractionsforethought connection in forethoug= ht connectionin abstractions A= s with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override th= e left-grouping rule. logical connectio= ninside abstractionscontrasted w= ith outside logical connectionin abstractionsinner bridi contrasted with outer bridi Logi= cal connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though.= Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connec= tion inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined = by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d3"/> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .= iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-els= e isn't-at) Jupiter. I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter. - Jupiter lifeexample is true, since the embedded= sentence is a tautology, but: + =20 + +Jupiter lifeexample + + is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4"/> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi j= invi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=20 diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 1d30ee5..033c043 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -81,21 +81,25 @@ I see the man/men. that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). attitudinalsand logic logicand attitudinals In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the= ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are= applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can c= onclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.
Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: - something sees me= example FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +something sees me<= secondary>example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1"/> Something sees me. There are two plausible Lojban translations of=20 . The simpler one is: @@ -145,21 +149,25 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-t4qI"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d4"/> da de zo'u da prami de There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y. Somebody loves somebody. - somebody loves so= mebodyexample logical variableseffect= of using multiple different somebodycontrasted with someb= ody else In=20 + =20 + +somebody loves somebodyexample + + logical variableseffect of using multiple different somebodycon= trasted with somebody else In=20 , the literal interpretation= of the two variables=20 da and=20 de as=20 there-is-an-X and=20 there-is-a-Y tells us that there are two things which s= tand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case tha= t the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself;= nothing in the Lojban version of=20 rules out that interpretati= on, which is why the colloquial translation does not say=20 Somebody loves somebody else. The things referred to by= different variables may be different or the same. (We use=20 somebody here rather than=20 something for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usua= lly persons, though the Lojban does not say so.) logical variables= with multiple appearances in bridi It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once i= n the main bridi: @@ -167,21 +175,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d5"/> da zo'u da prami da =20 There-is-an-X such that X loves X Somebody loves himself/herself. - somebody loves se= lfexample da prami decontrasted with = da prami da <= primary>da prami dacontrasted with da prami de What=20 + =20 + +somebody loves selfexample + + da prami decontrasted with da prami da da prami dacontrasted w= ith da prami de What=20 claims is fundamentally dif= ferent from what=20 claims, because=20 da prami da is not structurally the same = as=20 =20 da prami de. However, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d6"/> @@ -195,71 +207,87 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d7"/> da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me Somebody's dog sees me - somebody's dogexample is perfectly correct even= though the=20 + =20 + +somebody's dogexample + + is perfectly correct even though the=20 da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessi= ves are explained in=20 .) logical variables= when not in main bridi It is v= ery peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable no= t to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8"/> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. =20 - Ralphexample has a variable bound in a prenex w= hose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecifie= d. + =20 + +Ralphex= ample + + has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the foll= owing bridi is completely unspecified.
Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everything for=20 something in=20 ? We get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1"/> Everything sees me. universal claims<= /primary>explanation Of course, this exa= mple is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. = It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal clai= ms (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed= , some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, s= ince they are so rarely true in Lojban.) =20 - everything sees m= eexample The Lojban translatio= n of=20 + =20 + +everything sees me= example + + The Lojban translation of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2"/> ro da zo'u da viska mi For-every X : X sees me. ro da ro everythingexpressing with "ro da" When the variable cmavo=20 da is preceded by=20 ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 will bring them withi= n a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 ro da for=20 everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: - everything loves = everythingexample FIXME: TAG S= POT + =20 + +everything loves everything<= /primary>example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3"/> ro da ro de zo'u da prami de For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y. Everything loves everything. @@ -288,21 +316,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d5"/> da ro de zo'u da viska de There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y. Something sees everything. - something sees ev= erythingexample everything sees somethingexample <= primary>logical variableseffect of order in prenex=20 + =20 + +something sees everythingexample + + everything sees something<= /primary>example logical variableseffect of ord= er in prenex=20 and=20 mean completely different t= hings.=20 says that for everything, t= here is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for ev= ery seer.=20 , on the other hand, says th= at there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (incl= uding itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds= of silliness. =20 There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 =20 anybody/anything rather than=20 everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference whic= h of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle o= ne which is explained in=20 . @@ -363,21 +395,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d3"/> ro da zo'u da vasxu For-every X : X breathes Everything breathes - everything breath= esexample and + =20 + +everything breathesexample + + and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d4"/> ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Every dog breathes. =20 Each dog breathes. @@ -465,21 +501,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d5"/> de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person Some dog bites everyone. - dog bitesexample Fidoexample w= hich has the structure of=20 + =20 + +dog bitesexample + + Fidoe= xample which has the structure of=20 : it says that there is a do= g (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has= ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that=20 is false, while agreeing to= =20 . universal claims<= /primary>dangers of using Even so,=20 is most probably false, sin= ce some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4 (might t= here be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?)= indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In= English we are prone to say that=20 =20 =20 =20 Everyone says or that=20 Everybody does or that=20 @@ -513,21 +553,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7"/> di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for= -use-against-Z by-Z This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herse= lf. - weapon against se= lfexample (in which=20 + =20 + +weapon against selfexample + + (in which=20 di is used rather than=20 da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8"/> ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-pe= rson by-Z. @@ -544,21 +588,25 @@ =20 all persons, just as=20 =20 re prenu means=20 two persons. In fact, unadorned=20 da is also taken to have an implicit number in front of= it, namely=20 su'o, which means=20 at least one. Why is this? Consider=20 again, this time with an ex= plicit=20 su'o: - su'o something sees= meexample somethingexpressing using = "su'o" FIXME: TAG SPOT + su'o =20 + +something sees me<= secondary>example + + somethingexpressing using "su'o" FIXME: TAG SP= OT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1"/> su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. Something sees me. @@ -615,21 +663,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d5"/> su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 . - ro prenu all person= sexample restricted variablecompared = with indefinite description indefinite descriptioncompared= with restricted variable indefinite descriptiondefinition= Now we can explain the constructions=20 + ro prenu =20 + +all personsexample + + restricted variablecompared with indefinite description = indefinite descriptioncompared with restricted variable <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">indefinite descriptiondefinition Now we can explain the cons= tructions=20 ro prenu for=20 =20 all persons and=20 =20 re prenu for=20 two persons which were casually mentioned at the beginn= ing of this Section. In fact,=20 ro prenu, a so-called=20 =20 indefinite description, is shorthand for=20 =20 @@ -679,21 +731,25 @@ su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given)= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1"/> ci gerku cu batci re nanmu Three dogs bite two men. - dogs biteexample three dogs bite two menexample multiple i= ndefinite sumtimeaning indefinite sumtimeaning when multiple in sentence The question ra= ised by=20 + =20 + +dogs biteexample + + three dogs bite two menexample multiple indefinite sumtimeaning= ind= efinite sumtimeaning when multiple in sentence The question raised by=20 is, does each of the dogs b= ite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men pe= r dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the n= umber of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker = has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two= and six inclusive. Let us transform=20 step by step as we did with= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d2"/> ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men. @@ -957,21 +1013,25 @@ naku de zo'u de zutse It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits. It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits. It is false that something sits. Nothing sits. - nothing sitsexample with + =20 + +nothing sitsexample + + with <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d4"/> su'ode naku zo'u de zutse For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits. There is something that doesn't sit. @@ -980,22 +1040,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d5"/> roda su'ode zo'u da prami de For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y. =20 Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily= the same thing). - everybody loves s= omethingexample or: - something is love= d by everybodyexample FIXME: T= AG SPOT + =20 + +everybody loves somethingexample + + or: + =20 + +something is loved by everyb= odyexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d6"/> su'ode roda zo'u da prami de There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y. There is at least one particular thing that is loved by e= verybody. @@ -1281,21 +1349,25 @@ prenex manipu= lationexporting na from left of prenex prenex manipulation= importing na from selbri A=20 na before the selbri is always transformed into a= =20 naku at the left-hand end of the pren= ex, and vice versa.
Using=20 <oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence - some do not go to= schoolexample FIXME: TAG SPOT= + =20 + +some do not go to schoolexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1"/> Some children do not go to school. We cannot express this directly with=20 na; the apparently obvious translation @@ -1565,21 +1637,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d2"/> naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom. It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome. - go to Paris or Ro= meexample DeMorgan's Lawand logically= connected sentences logically connected sentencesand DeMo= rgan's Law negatormovement from bridi to sumti= It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator= from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,=20 + =20 + +go to Paris or Romeexample + + DeMorgan's Lawand logically connected sentences logically connected sentencesand DeMorgan's Law negatormovement from br= idi to sumti It is not an acceptable logical manipu= lation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However= ,=20 and related examples are no= t sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected senten= ces. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,=20 =20 expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3"/> ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and Jo= hn, to-Rome, [false] goes. @@ -1712,21 +1788,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d1"/> su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. There's some relationship between Jim and John. =20 - some relationship= example selbri variablesprenex form a= s indefinite description The translations of=20 + =20 + +some relationship<= secondary>example + + selbri variables= prenex form as indefinite description Th= e translations of=20 show how unidiomatic selbri= variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 =20 need to be totally reworded= in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it = is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because= only sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 su'o bu'a is technically a sumti – = in fact, it is an indefinite description like=20 =20 =20 re nanmu, since=20 bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like=20 diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 69387bb..d60e2b7 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -342,37 +342,45 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. bu bubu word "bu&= quot; = namespause requirement in lerfu words bueffect of multiple is needed when discussing=20 bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 bu to itself, but more than one=20 bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is= not defined, but it is presumably different from=20 .abu.) It does not matter if the word is = a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belo= nging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary= to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absor= b preceding or following words. - happy faceexample smiley faceexample logogramswords for smiley faceword for unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 + =20 + +happy faceexample + + smiley faceexample logogramswords for = smiley faceword for <= primary>unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 bu to words has been used primarily to make names for v= arious logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name= for the=20 =20 =20 happy face is=20 =20 .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 .ui that means=20 happiness. Likewise, the=20 =20 smiley face, written=20 =20 :-) and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is= called=20 zo'obu The existence of these names does = not mean that you should insert=20 .uibu into running Lojban text to indicat= e that you are happy, or=20 zo'obu when something is funny; instead, = use the appropriate attitudinal directly. - ampersandexample ampersand characterword for "&&q= uot;word for Likewise,=20 + =20 + +ampersandexample + + ampersand characterword for "&"word for Likewise,=20 joibu represents the ampersand character,= =20 =20 =20 &, based on the cmavo=20 joi meaning=20 mixed and. Many more such lerfu words will probably be = invented in future. "<= secondary>"word for "."word for syllable breakword for = pausewor= d for syllable breaksymbol for pausesymbo= l for The=20 . and=20 , characters used in Lojbanic writing to represen= t pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words= =20 =20 @@ -386,21 +394,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. denPAbu. No pause is r= equired between=20 denpa (or=20 slaka) and=20 bu, though.
Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of c= ultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of a= s many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in writt= en text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need = a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. - alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 + =20 + +alphaex= ample + + lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation with names One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the = language itself, Lojbanized and with=20 bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has= been made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 @@ -410,21 +422,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .y'y.buh= ky.buq vy.buw - quackexample As an example, the English word=20 + =20 + +quackex= ample + + As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1"/> ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. q @@ -528,23 +544,31 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. zai .xiragan. bu =20 Japanese hiragana syllabary =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - Japanese hiragana= example hiraganaexample Japanese katakana= example katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not bee= n standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need f= or them. (Note the=20 + =20 + +Japanese hiragana<= secondary>example + + hiraganaexample Japanese katakanaexample katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these = shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someo= ne actually has a need for them. (Note the=20 . characters marking leading and following pauses= .) - LAU selma'o ce'= a bold= example italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsfor font facespecifying for letters fontspecifying for letters In addition, there may be multiple visible representat= ions within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwr= iting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 + LAU selma'o ce'= a =20 + +boldexa= mple + + italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsf= or font facespecifying for letters= fontsp= ecifying for letters In addition, there may be mult= iple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: r= oman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These tradit= ional=20 =20 font and face distinctions are also represented by shif= t words, indicated with the cmavo=20 =20 ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5"/> @@ -570,34 +594,42 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d7"/> ce'a .pavrel. bu =20 12-point font size =20 - BY selma'o na'a= font<= /primary>example 12-pointexample handwritingexample Helvetica fontexample lo'acontrasted with na'a na'acontrasted with lo'a canceling= letter shifts = shift wordscanceling effect The cmavo=20 + BY selma'o na'a= =20 + +fontexa= mple + + 12-pointexample handwritingexample Helvetica fontexample lo'acontrasted with na'a na'ac= ontrasted with lo'a canceling letter shifts shift wordscanceling= effect The cmavo=20 na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: = it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case L= ojban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 =20 =20 =20 lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leav= ing font and case shifts in place. =20 =20 =20 Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of pr= oposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.
Accent marks and compound lerfu words - tildea diacritical mark cedillaa diacritical mark circumfl= exa diacritical mark umlauta diacriti= cal mark accent marka diacritical mark lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation of diacritical marks on= diac= ritical marksas lerfu Many lan= guages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the= lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels,= called (in English)=20 + =20 + +tildea = diacritical mark + + cedillaa diacritical mark circumflexa diacritical mark umlauta diacritical mark accent marka diacritica= l mark lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentati= on of diacritical marks on diacritical marksas lerfu Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add sp= ecial marks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three = accent marks above vowels, called (in English)=20 =20 =20 acute,=20 grave, and=20 circumflex. Likewise, German uses a mark called=20 =20 umlaut; a mark which looks the same is also used in Fre= nch, but with a different name and meaning. =20 diacritical marks= problem of position These mark= s may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojba= n. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words m= ust be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representi= ng the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer p= rograms that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent ma= rk before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often prono= unced afterwards (for example, in German=20 =20 @@ -616,29 +648,37 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi (=20 e acute )=20 t ( acute=20 e) - ete accent markexample diacritical marksorder of specificati= on within tei=E2=80=A6foi and it does not matter wh= ether=20 + ete =20 + +accent markexample + + diacritical marksorder of specification within tei=E2=80=A6foi and it does not matter whether=20 akut. bu appears before or after=20 .ebu; the=20 tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the = acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of = precision represented by=20 would rarely be required: i= t might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for e= xact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French. diacritical marks= problem with multiple on one lerfu This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent ma= rk on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which = accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to r= epresent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the = word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolv= ed by further conventions not yet established. =20 =20 - Spanish chexample Spanish llexample compound lettersnative languagerepresenting as distinc= t letters accented lettersconsidered as distinct from unacc= ented diacritical marksconsidered as forming distinct lett= ers Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consi= der certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented = equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the print= ed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters o= r not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (= like=20 + =20 + +Spanish chexample + + Spanish llexample = compound lettersnative languagerepresenting as distinct letters accented lettersco= nsidered as distinct from unaccented diacritical markscons= idered as forming distinct letters Some languages, = like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accented lerfu to be completely = distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lojban does not make a form= al distinction, since the printed characters look the same whether they are= reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition, some languages consider = certain 2-letter combinations (like=20 ll and=20 ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may = be represented by enclosing the combination in=20 tei ... foi. lerfu wordsforming new for non-Lojban letters using bu In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible= to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally o= r well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 ll or Croatian=20 lj could be called=20 libu, but that usage would not necessaril= y be universally understood. contains a table = of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks. =20 @@ -732,37 +772,45 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. s u b i s h i - Mitsubishiexample kanjirepresenting based on strokes Chine= se charactersrepresenting based on strokes= Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu= words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there ar= e about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about = 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character = with a=20 + =20 + +Mitsubishiexample + + kanji= representing based on strokes Chinese charactersrepresenti= ng based on strokes Alternatively, a really ambitio= us Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to wri= te Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a = flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and= then represent each character with a=20 =20 =20 =20 tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.
lerfu words as pro-sumti lerfu stringdefinition So far, lerfu words have= only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several ot= her grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single l= erfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term=20 =20 lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: - A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +A loves Bexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1"/> .abu prami by. A loves B =20 @@ -790,37 +838,45 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani The dog is black. G goes to the house. (A less literal English translation would use=20 D for=20 dog instead.) Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings: - Alexander Pavlovi= tch Kuznetsovexample Steven Mark Jonesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ovexample + + Steven Mark Jonesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4"/> la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. =20 =20 SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban. Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 ru'o.abupyky instead. lerfu stringsas pro-sumtifor multiple sumti separ= ated by boi What about - A gives BCexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +A gives BCexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5"/> .abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C BOI selma'o boi= boieliding from lerfu strings Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 @@ -832,21 +888,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6"/> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C =20 - A gives B to Cexample where the two occurrences= of=20 + =20 + +A gives B to Cexample + + where the two occurrences of=20 boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurre= nce is not. Likewise: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7"/> xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. =20 X loves everybody. @@ -868,34 +928,42 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 .abu refers to. The solution to this prob= lem makes use of the cmavo=20 me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. - "a" is = letteralexample FIXME: TAG SPO= T + =20 + +"a" is letteralexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/> me'o .abu cu lerfu The-expression=20 a is-a-letteral. Now we can translate=20 into Lojban: - four "e"= ;sexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +four "e"sexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d3"/> dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-express= ion e. This sentence contains four=20 e s. @@ -921,21 +989,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. zo cannot be used, because=20 .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, because it says:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5"/> The word=20 .abu is a letteral - word "abu&qu= ot;example which is not the ca= se; rather, the thing symbolized by the word=20 + =20 + +word "abu"example + + which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word=20 .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6"/> la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu =20 The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. @@ -961,21 +1033,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. a =3D b + c function name= lerfu string as lerfu stringas functi= on name A lerfu string as function name (preceded b= y=20 =20 ma'o of selma'o MAhO): - function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +function f of xexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2"/> li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x =20 y =3D f(x) @@ -995,66 +1071,82 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats This rat is my Nth rat. =20 - Nth ratexample utterance ordinallerfu string as lerfu = stringas utterance ordinal A l= erfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI): + =20 + +Nth rat= example + + utterance ordinallerfu string as lerfu stringas utterance ordin= al A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by= a cmavo of selma'o MAI): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d4"/> ny.mai Nthly =20 - Nthlyexample subscriptslerfu string as= lerfu stringas subscript A lerfu string as su= bscript (preceded by=20 + =20 + +Nthlyex= ample + + subscriptslerfu string as lerfu stringas subscript<= /indexterm> A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by=20 xi of selma'o XI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d5"/> xy. xi ky. x sub k - x sub kexample quantifierlerfu string as lerfu string<= /primary>as quantifier A lerfu string as= quantifier (enclosed in=20 + =20 + +x sub k= example + + quantifierlerfu string as lerfu stringas quantifier= A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in=20 vei ... ve'o parentheses): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6"/> vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu (=20 n) persons - vei= n peopleexample lerfu stringsas quantifiersavoiding interaction with sumti quantified The parentheses are required because=20 + vei= =20 + +n peopleexample + + lerfu stringsas quantifiersavoiding interaction with sumti= quantified The parentheses are required because=20 ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti,= =20 ny. and=20 lo prenu. In general, any mathematical ex= pression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a q= uantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 ve'o, can usually be elided. lerfu juxtapositi= on interpretationcontrasted with mathematical interpre= tation lerfu stringinterpretationcon= trasted with mathematical interpretation All the exa= mples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in= accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu st= ring would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojba= n,=20 =20 .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication=20 =20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c but is the= variable=20 abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employ= ed that made the value of a variable like=20 @@ -1093,21 +1185,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1"/> la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la s= ykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 - NYCexample SQLexample NATOexample IBMexample CIAexample DNAex= ample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final conson= ant There is no fixed convention for assigning the = final consonant. In=20 + =20 + +NYCexam= ple + + SQLex= ample NATOexample IBMexample<= /indexterm> CIAexample DNAexample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final consonant There is = no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In=20 , the last consonant of the = lerfu string has been replicated into final position. buomitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words acronyms names based on l= erfu wordsomitting bu Some com= pression can be done by leaving out=20 bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is= moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introduci= ng an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2"/> diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 6750f74..aac3a1c 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -123,21 +123,25 @@ pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero 1234567890 one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hu= ndred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20 - 123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 + =20 + +123exam= ple + + numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate c= mavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5= end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewis= e end in the vowels=20 @@ -202,52 +206,64 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1"/> ni'u pa negative-sign 1 -1 - pa<= /indexterm> -1example signs on numbersgrammar Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are atta= ched. It is also possible to use=20 + pa<= /indexterm> =20 + +-1examp= le + + signs on numbers= grammar Grammatically, the signs are par= t of the number to which they are attached. It is also possible to use=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these num= bers is explained in=20 . decimal pointas numerical punctuation punctuationin nu= mbers numerical punctuation Various numerical punctuation= marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following exa= mples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2"/> ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five 3.1415 - pi<= /indexterm> 3.1415= example decimal pointeffect of different notati= ons (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a= period in the symbolic version of=20 + pi<= /indexterm> =20 + +3.1415e= xample + + decimal pointeffect of different notations (In some cult= ures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symbolic version of=20 ;=20 pi is still the Lojban representation for the decimal p= oint.) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d3"/> re fi'u ze =20 two fraction seven 2/7 - fi'u 2/7<= secondary>example reciprocalexpression of mathematical fractio= nsnumerator default fractionsexpressi= ng with numerical punctuation=20 + fi'u =20 + +2/7exam= ple + + reciprocalexpression of mathematical fractionsnumerator default= fra= ctionsexpressing with numerical punctuation=20 is the name of the number t= wo-sevenths; it is not the same as=20 the result of 2 divided by 7 in Lojban, although numeri= cally these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present bu= t the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the= reciprocal of the following number: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d4"/> fi'u ze =20 @@ -385,30 +401,42 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d2"/> ci ka'o re 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i) - ka'o ci'i infinityexample ka'oas special number compared w= ith as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 + ka'o ci'i =20 + +infinityexample + + ka'oa= s special number compared with as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 =20 i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d3"/> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></= indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + ci'i no infinity zero =E2=84=B50 (a transfinite cardinal) =20 The special numbers=20 pai and=20 @@ -500,21 +528,25 @@ vei VEI left parenthesis ve'o VEhO right parenthesis - VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i 1 += 1 =3D 2example mathematical notation= infix Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one e= quals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to: + VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i =20 + +1 + 1 =3D 2example + + mathematical notationinfix Let us begin at the beginning= : one plus one equals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1"/> li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two. 1 + 1 =3D 2 @@ -546,21 +578,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3"/> levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. This fly has a mass of 3 grams. - 3 grams= example units of measurementexpressing measurements= expressing requires=20 + =20 + +3 grams= example + + units of measurementexpressing measurementsexpressing requires=20 li because=20 ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way = in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of= length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first= place and a number as the second place. Using=20 =20 li for=20 le in=20 would produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4"/> @@ -569,21 +605,25 @@ The-number 3 is-a-person. which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i add= ition operatorcontrasted with positive sign positive sign<= /primary>contrasted with addition operator additiona mathematical operator mathematical operators The cm= avo=20 su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of math= ematical operators, and means=20 =20 addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 ma'u which means the positive sign as an indication of = a positive number: =20 - +1 + -1 =3D 0example FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + ++1 + -1 =3D 0example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5"/> li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. +1 + -1 =3D 0 @@ -676,21 +716,25 @@ li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny.= [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 =20 The-number (n plus one) times (= n plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times- n plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n - ny<= /indexterm> te'a (n + 1)(n + 1= ) =3D n^2 + 2n + 1example lerfu stringsinterpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation lerfu st= ringsin mathematical expressions There are several new usages in=20 + ny<= /indexterm> te'a =20 + +(n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n^2 + 2n = + 1example + + lerfu stringsinterpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretatio= n le= rfu stringsin mathematical expressions There are several new usages in=20 :=20 te'a means=20 =20 raised to the power, and we also see the use of the ler= fu word=20 ny, representing the letter=20 n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ord= inary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu word= s (called a=20 lerfu string) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word,= in agreement with computer-science conventions;=20 abc is a single variable, not the equivalent of=20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c. (Of course, a local convention cou= ld state that the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values o= f the variables=20 @@ -1255,21 +1299,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d13"/> ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu =20 All rats can eat all-but-one rats. All rats can eat all other rats. - eat themselvesexample (The use of=20 + =20 + +eat themselvesexample + + (The use of=20 da'a means that=20 does not require that all r= ats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot e= at, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictate= s that=20 =20 itself is, indeed, the=20 other rat.) ni'u ma'u ni'uwith elided number ma'uwith elided number<= /secondary> As mentioned in=20 ,=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive number and=20 @@ -1317,21 +1365,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17"/> mi ponse rau rupnu =20 I possess enough currency-units. =20 - pi<= /indexterm> enough currency<= /primary>example indefinite portionssubjective<= /secondary> subj= ective portionsexpressing Like= the=20 + pi<= /indexterm> =20 + +enough currencyexample + + indefinite portionssubjective subjective portionsexpressing Like the=20 so'a-series,=20 =20 rau,=20 =20 du'e, and=20 =20 mo'a can be preceded by=20 =20 pi; for example,=20 pirau means=20 @@ -1353,21 +1405,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d19"/> mi speni so'ici prenu I am-married-to many/three persons. I am married to three persons (which is=20 many in the circumstances). - both dogsexample=20 + =20 + +both dogsexample + +=20 assumes a mostly monogamous= culture by stating that three is=20 many.
Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ji'i PA @@ -1405,21 +1461,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1"/> ji'i vo no approximation four zero approximately 40 =20 - approximately 40<= /primary>example approximate numbersexpressing = some exactness of If=20 + =20 + +approximately 40example + + approximate numbersexpressing some exactness of If=20 ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits = following it are approximate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d2"/> vo no ji'i mu no four zero approximation five zero roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousand is exact, but the=20 @@ -1456,21 +1516,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d5"/> re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u two point seven one approximation negative-sign 2.71 (rounded down) =20 - rounded downexample rounded upexample ji'iwith elided number=20 + =20 + +rounded downexample + + rounded upexample = ji'iwith elided number=20 through=20 are all approximations to= =20 te'o (exponential e).=20 ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case it means= =20 approximately the typical value in this context. =20 za'u me'i su'o su'e= inexa= ct numbers with bounds The four cmavo=20 su'e,=20 =20 su'o,=20 @@ -1510,21 +1574,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d9"/> mi catlu za'u re prenu =20 I look-at more-than two persons - exactly twoexample more thanexample less thanexample at leastexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">at mostex= ample pluralLojban equivalent of = exact numberexpressing at mostcontrasted with more thanat least, less than at leastcontrasted with more= thanless than, at most more thancont= rasted with less thanat least, at most less than= contrasted with more thanat least, at most= Each of these is a subtly different claim:=20 + =20 + +exactly twoexample + + more thanexample <= primary>less thanexample at leastexam= ple = at mostexample pluralLojban equivalen= t of exact numberexpressing at mostcontra= sted with more thanat least, less than at least<= secondary>contrasted with more thanless than, at most= more= thancontrasted with less thanat= least, at most less thancontrasted with more thanat least, at most Each of these is a su= btly different claim:=20 is true of two or any great= er number, whereas=20 requires three persons or m= ore. Likewise,=20 refers to zero, one, or two= ;=20 to zero or one. (Of course,= when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,=20 me'i re can be any number less than 2, an= d likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 =20 exactly 2, neither more nor less is just=20 re. Note that=20 su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of = English plurals. za'uwith elided number me'iwith elided number su'owith elided number su'ewith elided number If no number follows one of these cmavo,=20 @@ -1626,38 +1694,46 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d3"/> li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567. - ABC base 16example digits beyond 9word pattern Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 + =20 + +ABC base 16example + + digits beyond 9<= secondary>word pattern Note the pattern in the cmav= o: the diphthongs=20 au,=20 ei,=20 ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A t= o D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E = and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 – there was simply not enough ava= ilable cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are a= lso in alphabetical order. decimal pointin bases other than 10 base pointin bases= other than 10 The base point=20 =20 pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4"/> li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. =20 - VUhU selma'o<= /primary> F.8 ba= se 16example basenon-constant ju'ugrammar of Since=20 + VUhU selma'o<= /primary> =20 + +F.8 base 16example + + basen= on-constant <= primary>ju'ugrammar of Since= =20 ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical = to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undef= ined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for makin= g=20 ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which = is not a constant. pi'e hoursminutesseconds: example compound basedefinition compound baseseparator for base varying= for each digitseparator for T= here are some numerical values that require a=20 base that varies from digit to digit. For example, time= s represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 =20 digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 =20 pi'e is used: @@ -1798,37 +1874,45 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>numeric= al selbri</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> Lojban posses= ses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kin= d of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number.= There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based= selbri with specific place structures.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>mei</primary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>cardinal selbri= </primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D= "general-imported"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary><secondary>place struc= ture</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo=20 <valsi>mei</valsi> creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure = is:</para> =20 <definition> x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of whi= ch is/are x3 </definition> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><se= condary>expressing relation with individuals forming</secondary></indexterm= > <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>e= xpressing relation with set forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm typ= e=3D"general-imported"><primary>individuals</primary><secondary>expressing = relation with mass formed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gener= al-imported"><primary>individuals</primary><secondary>expressing relation w= ith set formed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported= "><primary>set</primary><secondary>expressing relation with individuals for= ming set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><pri= mary>set</primary><secondary>expressing relation with mass formed from set<= /secondary></indexterm> A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given n= umber of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which = make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenien= ce, not logical necessity.</para> =20 <para>Some examples:</para> - <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three rats</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> + <para>=20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three rats</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-ujSA"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1"/> lei mi ratcu cu cimei Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome. My rats are three. I have three rats. =20 Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that= is, I have three rats. =20 Another example, with one element this time: - singular meexample individualexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +singular meexample + + individualexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2"/> mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. In=20 @@ -1847,27 +1931,35 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. =20 The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats t= here are. - lo'i set of all rat= sexample rats in parkexample fewsomeexample lo'iwith elided quantifiers In=20 + lo'i =20 + +set of all ratsexample + + rats in parkexample fewsomeexample lo'iwith el= ided quantifiers In=20 , the x2 and x3 places are v= acant, and the x4 place is filled by=20 lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers= are explicitly given) means=20 the whole of the set of all those things which are rats= , or simply=20 the set of all rats. =20 - manysomeexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +manysomeexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d4"/> le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. =20 There are many rats in the park. @@ -1912,21 +2004,25 @@ mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence =20 I am enough-th in the movie line. =20 - enough-thexample all-thexample= first ratexample=20 + =20 + +enough-thexample + + all-thexample first ratexample=20 means, in the appropriate c= ontext, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I wi= ll get a seat for the movie. si'e portion selbri= place structure portion selbridefinit= ion The cmavo=20 si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: @@ -1950,21 +2046,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9"/> le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability = .5. =20 - va'e coin headsexample probability .5example= scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition<= /secondary> The cmavo=20 + va'e =20 + +coin headsexample + + probability .5example scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition The cmavo=20 va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 unreduced fractio= nsuse in granular scales scalegranula= r contrasted with continuous If the scale is granul= ar rather than continuous, a form like=20 =20 cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case,= 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six p= ositions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions.= Here is an example: @@ -1972,21 +2072,25 @@ le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness. =20 This rose is very red. - mo'a du'e rau scale of = rednessexample 8 out of tenexample scale = selbriplace structure effect from subjective numbers proba= bility selbriplace structure effect from subjective nu= mbers portion selbriplace structure effect from subjective= numbers ordinal selbriplace structure effect from subject= ive numbers <= primary>cardinal selbriplace structure effect from sub= jective numbers subjective numberseffect on place structur= e for scale selbri subjective numberseffect on place struc= ture for probability selbri subjective numberseffect on pl= ace structure for portion selbri subjective numberseffec= t on place structure for ordinal selbri subjective numbers= effect on place structure for cardinal selbri When = the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers=20 + mo'a du'e rau =20 + +scale of rednessexample + + 8 out of tenexample scale selbriplace structure effect from sub= jective numbers probability selbriplace structure effect f= rom subjective numbers portion selbriplace structure effec= t from subjective numbers ordinal selbriplace structure ef= fect from subjective numbers cardinal selbriplace structur= e effect from subjective numbers subjective numberseffec= t on place structure for scale selbri subjective numbersef= fect on place structure for probability selbri subjective numberseffect on place structure for portion selbri= subjective numberseffect on place structure for ordinal selbri subjective numberseffect on place structure for cardinal selbri<= /indexterm> When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjec= tive numbers=20 rau,=20 =20 du'e, or=20 =20 mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additional pla= ce is added for=20 =20 by standard. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d11"/> @@ -2013,25 +2117,33 @@ <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-cyLo"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d12"/> ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. That is my nth rat. - nth rat= example numerical selbrirestriction on numbers = used for numerical selbrigrammar M= ore complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the res= ulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expr= ession is required. + =20 + +nth rat= example + + numerical selbri= restriction on numbers used for numerical selbrigrammar More complex mekso cannot be placed direct= ly in front of MOI, due to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, = a somewhat artificial form of expression is required. me'u ME selma'o= m= e nume= rical selbrialternative to compensate for restriction = on numbers "me"effect of MOI on numerical selbricomplex numerical selbriuse of "me&q= uot; with The cmavo=20 me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti i= nto a selbri. A whole=20 me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: - (n+1)-th ratexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +(n+1)-th ratexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13"/> ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats. That is my (n+1)-th rat. @@ -2052,21 +2164,25 @@ le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o<= /jbo> =20 The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-ste= reotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability. =20 I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. =20 - PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u snowball's chanceexample boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 + PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u =20 + +snowball's chance<= secondary>example + + boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. A= s a result, the=20 me'u in=20 could also be replaced by a= =20 boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 pa and=20 moi from joining into a compound.
Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -2136,21 +2252,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d1"/> li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> =20 x3 =3D x1 + x<= subscript>2 - XI selma'o xi x-sub-3= example subscriptsinternal grammar of= Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 + XI selma'o xi =20 + +x-sub-3= example + + subscriptsinternal grammar of Subscripts always begin wi= th the flag=20 xi (of selma'o XI).=20 xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a ge= neral mekso expression in parentheses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2"/> xy.boixino x0 @@ -2250,34 +2370,42 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2"/> li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number ei= ght scientific three. 300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 108 - 3 ( 10^8example geirationale for order of places scientifi= c notationrationale for order of places Why are the arguments to=20 + =20 + +3 ( 10^8example + + geira= tionale for order of places scientific notationrationale f= or order of places Why are the arguments to=20 gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic not= ation? So that=20 gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specificat= ion of a large (or small) imprecise number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d3"/> gei reno (scientific) two-zero 10 20 - 10^20example floating point numbersexpressing exponential = notationwith base other than 10 geias= a ternary operator operandstoo many for infix operation null = operatorfor infix operations with too many operands ge'afor infix operations with too many operands<= /indexterm> Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common= exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 + =20 + +10^20ex= ample + + floating point numbersexpressing exponential notationwith base = other than 10 geias a ternary operator operandstoo many for infix operation null operatorfor infix = operations with too many operands ge'afor infix operation= s with too many operands Note, however, that althou= gh 10 is far and away the most common exponent base, it is not the only pos= sible one. The third operand of=20 gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default val= ue. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (T= his has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integ= ers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating = point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here= is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4"/> papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 @@ -2329,21 +2457,25 @@ ge'a sa'i pi'a matrixwith ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns matrixas combination of vectors matrix column operator <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">matrix row operator<= /indexterm> Vectors can be combined into matrices using either=20 pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 =20 =20 sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first combines ve= ctors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors repr= esenting columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments:= additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 =20 =20 =20 ge'a. - magic squareexample Therefore, the=20 + =20 + +magic squareexample + + Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix =20 816 @@ -2526,21 +2658,25 @@ exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. - three or four peo= pleexample=20 + =20 + +three or four peopleexample + +=20 is equivalent in meaning, b= ut uses forethought connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2"/> vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. @@ -2596,21 +2732,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/> =20 go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy= . su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei= by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i r= e bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number a-times-(x<= /quote> power two ) plus b-times- x plus c equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ t= he-negation-of( b ) plus or minus the-root-of (b-power-2 min= us four-times- a-times- c ) ] divided-by two-= times- a. Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then= x =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2= =88=92 4ac) 2a - quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 + =20 + +quadratic formula<= secondary>example + + infix notation mixed with = Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notation mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group= the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be= removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 fe'a and=20 ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in= the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules b= e understood. =20 BIhI selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o non-logical connectionof operators non-logical connect= ionof operands Non-logical con= nection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between op= erators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with=20 @@ -2713,59 +2853,71 @@ =20 li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i =20 The-number the-operator tangent (=CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-numbe= r infinity. =20 tan(=CF=80/2) =3D =E2=88=9E - tan(pi/2) =3D inf= inityexample=20 + =20 + +tan(pi/2) =3D infinityexample + +=20 tanjo is the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used = in forethought ni'e formulaeexpressing based on pure dimensions = conversion of selbri into op= erand = operandconverting selbri into = selbric= onverting into an operand The cmavo=20 ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of th= e selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 =20 ni abstraction, since=20 ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A = common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2"/> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e n= i condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume - mo'e Length ( Width= ( Depth =3D Volumeexample dimensioned numbersexpressing conversion of sumti into operand operandconv= erting sumti into sumticonverting into an operand The cmavo=20 + mo'e =20 + +Length ( Width ( Depth =3D V= olumeexample + + dimensioned numbersexpressing conversion of sumti into operand= operandconverting sumti into sumticonverting into an operand The cmavo=20 mo'e operates similarly to=20 =20 ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an = operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensi= oned numbers: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d3"/> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu =20 The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. - pride of lionsexample 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals= example folk quantifiersexpressing= Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called=20 + =20 + +pride of lionsexample + + 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 a= nimalsexample folk quantifiersexpress= ing Another use is in constructing Lojbanic version= s of so-called=20 folk quantifiers, such as=20 =20 a pride of lions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d4"/> mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo @@ -2904,21 +3056,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d6"/> li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals th= e-number four. where the=20 na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful= bridi - MAI selma'o mai= first= lyexample digit stringdefinition of secti= on numbering textsub-division numbering with -mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 + MAI selma'o mai= =20 + +firstly= example + + digit stringdefinition of section numbering textsub-division number= ing with -mai Numerical free modifiers, correspondi= ng to English=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7"/> @@ -2957,29 +3113,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11"/> pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order) - MAI selma'o mo'= o firs= tlyexample chapter numbering mo'ocontrasted= with mai maicontrasted with mo'o = textdiv= ision numbering with -mai The difference between=20 + MAI selma'o mo'= o =20 + +firstly= example + + chapter numbering mo'o= contrasted with mai maicontrasted with mo'o textdivision numbering with -mai The = difference between=20 mai and=20 mo'o is that=20 mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and in= ternally numbered with=20 mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 mo'o. (See=20 for more on these words= .) - roi= once<= secondary>example tensenumerical A= numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with=20 + roi= =20 + +onceexa= mple + + tense= numerical A numerical tense can be created by suffi= xing a digit string with=20 =20 roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 =20 once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . boi= numerical tense= seffect on use of boi boiexception be= fore ROI boiexception before MAI = MAI selma'oexception on use of boi before ROI selma'oexception on= use of boi before Note: the elidable terminator=20 boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or= ROI.
@@ -3021,21 +3185,25 @@ NAhE selma'o<= /primary> negati= onof operator Members of selma= 'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. T= he implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi tr= ue: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d2"/> li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12. - opposite-of-minus= example FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +opposite-of-minus<= secondary>example + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d3"/> li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. =20 @@ -3127,21 +3295,25 @@ ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, using the el= idable terminator=20 te'u if necessary. ma'opotential ambiguity caveat There is a poten= tial semantic ambiguity in=20 ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 fy. is already in use as a variable: it c= omes to mean=20 the function whose value is always f= . However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strin= gs as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practi= ce.
Four score and seven: a mekso problem =20 - Four score and se= venexample Gettysburg Addressexample<= /secondary> meks= oand literary translation Abra= ham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 + =20 + +Four score and sevenexample + + Gettysburg Addressexample meksoand literary translation Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words= =20 =20 =20 Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 =20 four score and seven. (A=20 score, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it = is analogous to a=20 dozen for 12.) The trivial way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d1"/> diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 71e5ae1..d2de2b9 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -164,21 +164,25 @@ zhe4 xiao1= xi2 wo3 zhi1dao le John is the father of Sam| | |=20 sumti selbri sumti (argument) - giveexample In a relationship, there are a defi= nite number of things being related. In English, for example,=20 + =20 + +giveexa= mple + + In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. I= n English, for example,=20 give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4"/> John gives Sam the book. and @@ -86,21 +94,25 @@ </example> <para>seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 <quote>give</quote> has not changed.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>place structure</= primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, each se= lbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as it= s=20 <quote>place structure</quote>. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 <valsi>gismu</valsi>, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places.</para> <para>This book uses the Lojban terms=20 <valsi>bridi</valsi>,=20 <valsi>sumti</valsi>, and=20 <oldjbophrase>selbri</oldjbophrase>, because it is best to come to und= erstand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding= words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.</para> - <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>underlines</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-i= mported"><primary>double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chap= ter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>un= derscore notation for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm = type=3D"general-imported"><primary>notation conventions</primary><secondary= >for Quick Tour chapter</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban examples in this= chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) und= er each sumti, and a double underline (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to hel= p you to tell them apart.</para> + <para>=20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>underlines</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>double underscore notation= convention for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>notatio= n conventions</primary><secondary>for Quick Tour chapter</secondary></index= term> The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book)= use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (=3D= =3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-pronunciation"> <title>Pronunciation pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 @@ -325,21 +337,25 @@ where the=20 x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2"/> John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. =20 - engineeringexample has=20 + =20 + +engineeringexample + + has=20 John in the x1 place,=20 Sam in the x2 place,=20 engineering in the x3 place, and=20 =20 Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3"/> Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and su= bject matter engineering and language Lojban. @@ -733,51 +749,63 @@ has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2"/> x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in lang= uage x4 x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 - fast talkerexample tanru default groupingquick-tour ve= rsion When three or more gismu are in a row, the fi= rst modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and = that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example + =20 + +fast talkerexample + + tanru default groupingquick-tour version When three or m= ore gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined me= aning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, an= d so on. For example <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3"/> sutra tavla cutci - fast-talker shoe<= /primary>example has the place structure= + =20 + +fast-talker shoeexample + + has the place structure <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4"/> s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of mat= erial s3 That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. =20 Note especially the use of=20 type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5"/> bajra cutci runner shoe =20 - runner shoeexample most probably refers to shoe= s suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instan= ces as=20 + =20 + +runner shoeexample + + most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpre= ted in some imaginative instances as=20 shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, t= he meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its component= s, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d6"/> sutra tavla fast-talker @@ -786,21 +814,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d7"/> jikca toldi social butterfly =20 =20 - Lepidopteraexample butterflysocialexample social butterflyexample m= ust always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family=20 + =20 + +Lepidopteraexample + + butterflysocialexample social butterflyexa= mple must always be an insect with large brightly-c= olored wings, of the family=20 Lepidoptera. =20 tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> @@ -927,21 +959,25 @@ Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.
Description sumti - talker<= secondary>example descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, t= he listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a ta= lker other than=20 + =20 + +talkere= xample + + descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk abo= ut things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. = Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than=20 mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into = the first place of=20 tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls= this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 le tavla ku means=20 the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> @@ -1187,21 +1223,25 @@
The sumti=20 <valsi>di'u</valsi> and=20 <oldjbophrase>la'e di'u</oldjbophrase> referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me. How do you know what=20 =20 this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: - beautiful dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +beautiful dogexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> le gerku ku cu=20 melbi @@ -1362,21 +1402,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> ko tavla - ko<= secondary>quick-tour version Talk!example instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 + ko<= secondary>quick-tour version =20 + +Talk!ex= ample + + instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 true; it means=20 Talk! Other examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> ko sutra @@ -1421,21 +1465,25 @@ ko ko kurji - Take care!example both mean=20 + =20 + +Take care!example + + both mean=20 You take care of you and=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.
Questions questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 and in various other= chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kin= ds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. =20 =20 @@ -1631,21 +1679,25 @@ xu do kanro Are you healthy? - healthy= example can be answered with + =20 + +healthy= example + + can be answered with <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d12"/> mi kanro I am healthy. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index da322b4..526b6fb 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -340,21 +340,25 @@ =20 commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r (discussed later). Commas are never required: n= o two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a = comma. periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> .i.ai.i.ai.o [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o] Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh! However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compa= red to the English. Furthermore, although=20 is a string of meaningful L= ojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of per= iods embedded within the written word.) @@ -546,21 +550,25 @@ brlgan. [br=CC=A9l gan] or [brl=CC=A9 gan] is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. - Earlexample syllab= ic consonantsfinal in word Syl= labic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the stan= dpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally req= uired to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. = An example is=20 + + +Earlexa= mple + + syllabic consonantsfinal in word Syllabic consonants are= treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban mor= phology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a co= nsonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is=20 =20 rl., which is an approximation of the Eng= lish name=20 Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. =20 =20 syllabic consonan= tseffect on stress stresseffect of sy= llabic consonants on Syllables with syllabic conson= ants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syll= ables to stress (see=20 =20 ).
@@ -756,21 +764,25 @@ xk, and=20 mz are forbidden. yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 y can be inserted to break up the pair: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> djeimyz. [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 @@ -1021,21 +1033,25 @@ vrusi [=CB=88vru si] or [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d2"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + .AMsterdam. =20 [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] or [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA= =94] stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer voweland stre= ss When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buff= ered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are = never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in eff= ect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ig= nored. =20 @@ -1073,21 +1089,25 @@ ponyni'u [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> bongynanba [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 bone bread (note the use of=20 =20 @@ -1230,21 +1250,25 @@ dikyjvo DI,ky,jvo (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 ky is not counted in determining stress. = The vowel=20 y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Armstrong</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Armstrong</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> .armstrong. .ARM,strong. This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 Armstrong. The final=20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 33cacca..925628d 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -537,50 +537,66 @@ tanrucombination of The simplest Lojban tanru a= re pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas tha= t can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex i= dea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or wi= th individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on= . tanruambiguity of The meaning of a tanru is usu= ally at least partly ambiguous:=20 skami pilno could refer to a computer tha= t is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that th= e modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also p= ossible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambi= guities) of meaning. tanruand creativity Making tanru is essentially= a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the g= rouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantic= ally ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gism= u are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail= in=20 . tanruexpression of To express a simple tanru, si= mply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor=20 big boat becomes the tanru =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big boat</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big boat</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d2"/> barda bloti representing roughly the same concept as the English word=20 ship. - paternal grandmot= herexample The binary metaphor= =20 + =20 + +paternal grandmotherexample + + The binary metaphor=20 father mother can refer to a paternal grandmother (=20 =20 =20 a father-ly type of mother), while=20 mother father can refer to a maternal grandfather (=20 =20 a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become th= e tanru - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>father mother</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>father mother</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d3"/> patfu mamta and - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>mother father</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>mother father</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d4"/> mamta patfu respectively. tanruambiguity in The possibility of semantic a= mbiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret=20 , the listener must determin= e what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an= appropriate context,=20 mamta patfu could mean not=20 @@ -646,21 +662,25 @@ glue in lujvoy-hyphen as y-hyphenand stress determinat= ion = y-hyphenuse of A=20 y (which is ignored in determining stress or cons= onant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue = the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or t= he word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these co= nditions, detailed in=20 =20 =20 . glue in lujvon-hyphen as n-hyphenuse of glue in lujvor-hyphen as r-hyphenuse of An=20 r (in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to = the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. = For example, in the lujvo - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8"/> soirsai sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations cmavo= contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning the raf= si=20 @@ -728,21 +748,25 @@ prunyplipe pruni plipe elastic (springy) leap or spring (the verb) - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>supper</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>supper</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d5"/> vancysanmi vanci sanmi evening meal or supper =20 @@ -1000,71 +1024,91 @@ bridi zei valsi cmavo without raf= simethod of including in lujvo= fu'ivlamethod of including in lujvo cmenemethod of including in = lujvo rafsilack ofeffect on forming = lujvo lujvofrom cmavo with no rafsi= is the exact equivalent of=20 brivla (but not necessarily the same as t= he underlying tanru=20 bridi valsi, which could have other meani= ngs.) Using=20 zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a c= mene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13"/> xy. zei kantu X ray - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Persian rug</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Persian rug</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rug</primary><second= ary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d14"/> kulnr,farsi zei lolgai Farsi floor-cover Persian rug - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d15"/> na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma non-A, non-B liver-disease non-A, non-B hepatitis - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sherman tank</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sherman tank</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>tank</primary><secon= dary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d16"/> .cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank is particularly notew= orthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is = not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two component= s, but by adding a=20 zei between=20 by. and=20 livgyterbilma to produce - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17"/> na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because = its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a= brivla must be constructed ad hoc. @@ -1182,43 +1226,59 @@ =20 Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exam= ples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not= be pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>spaghetti</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>spaghetti</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>syllabic pronunciati= ons of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secon= dary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm fi= ts with five different examples; should it go in all five or just the first= ? --> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d3"/> spaghetti from English or Italian =20 spageti Lojbanize cidj,r,spageti prefix long rafsi =20 dja,r,spageti prefix short rafsi where=20 cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form = with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relie= d on: in any event, it means the same thing. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/> Acer the scientific name of maple trees =20 =20 acer Lojbanize xaceru add initial consonant and final vowel tric,r,xaceru prefix rafsi ric,r,xaceru prefix short rafsi @@ -1230,53 +1290,65 @@ tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 saktrxaceru, or could be represented by t= he tanru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but the= y would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>brie</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>brie</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/> brie from French =20 bri Lojbanize cirl,r,bri prefix rafsi where=20 cirl- represents=20 cirla (=20 cheese). - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/> cobra =20 kobra Lojbanize sinc,r,kobra prefix rafsi where=20 sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/> quark =20 kuark Lojbanize kuarka add final vowel sask,r,kuarka prefix rafsi @@ -1349,164 +1421,212 @@ kuln,r,blgaria Bulgarian in culture =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d11"/> gugd,r,blgaria Bulgaria the country <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d12"/> bang,r,kore,a Korean the language =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Korean</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d13"/> kuln,r,kore,a Korean the culture =20 - Navajoexample fu= 'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin= fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 + + +Navajoe= xample + + fu'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith i= nvalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin fu'ivla= Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably= , some form of the native name=20 Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 Navajo is far more widely known than=20 =20 Dine'e.
cmene names in Lojban (= see also cmene) cmenedefinition namespurpos= e of cmenepurpose of Lojbanized na= mes, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. =20 namesrationale for lojbanizing cmenerationale for lojb= anizing cmeneand analyzability of speech stream namesexamples of cmeneexamples of Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attem= pts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modificatio= n. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzabl= e, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are L= ojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equ= ivalents: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1"/> djim. Jim - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jane</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jane</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2"/> djein. Jane - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Arnold</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Arnold</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d3"/> .arnold. Arnold =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Pete</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Pete</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d4"/> pit. Pete =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Katrina</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Katrina</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d5"/> katrinas. Katrina =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d6"/> kat,r,in. Catherine =20 syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable= , so=20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 ka.) - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/> katis. Cathy =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Kate</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Kate</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d8"/> keit. Kate =20 namesunusual stress in cmeneunusual stress in namesstress in cmenestress in namesrules for formation cmenerules for formation= Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant,= and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusu= al stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, ea= ch ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a s= ingle word with no pause. For example, =20 <!-- FIXME: these two indexterms match two different examples; sho= uld they go in both or just the first? --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Brown</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Brown</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><seco= ndary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d9"/> djan. braun. and @@ -1525,21 +1645,25 @@ <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">maris.</oldjbophrase>,=20 <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">meiris.</oldjbophrase>,=20 <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">merix.</oldjbophrase>, or even=20 <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">marys.</oldjbophrase>. The last alter= native is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desir= able to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant= need not be an=20 <letteral>s</letteral>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant = at the end.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>names</primary><s= econdary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>restrictions on fo= rm of</secondary></indexterm> Names are not permitted to have the sequences= =20 <valsi>la</valsi>,=20 <valsi>lai</valsi>, or=20 <valsi>doi</valsi> embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediatel= y preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact tha= t all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of t= hese words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might= break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, bre= ak-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the wo= rd before the=20 <valsi>la</valsi>, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, wh= ich is impossible.</para> - <para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for these two indexterms to go --><= indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Nederlands</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><pri= mary>Laplace</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> For exampl= e, the invalid name=20 + <para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for these two indexterms to go --> + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Nederlands</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Laplace</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> For example, the invalid name=20 <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">laplas.</oldjbophrase> would look lik= e the Lojban words=20 <oldjbophrase>la plas.</oldjbophrase>, and=20 <oldjbophrase glossary=3D"false">ilanas.</oldjbophrase> would be misun= derstood as=20 <oldjbophrase>.i la nas.</oldjbophrase>. However,=20 <pronunciation><jbo>NEderlants.</jbo></pronunciation> cannot be mishea= rd as=20 <pronunciation><jbo>NEder lants.</jbo></pronunciation>, because=20 <pronunciation><jbo>NEder</jbo></pronunciation> with no following paus= e is not a possible Lojban word.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>names</primary><s= econdary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>alt= ernatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> There are clo= se alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizin= g names, such as=20 <oldjbophrase>ly</oldjbophrase>,=20 <valsi>lei</valsi>, and=20 @@ -1584,33 +1708,45 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/> sol. the Sun from the gismu solri, meaning solar, or actually pertaining to the Sun - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13"/> ralj. Chief as a title from the gismu ralju, meaning principal. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/> nol. Lord/Lady from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning noble. cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: @@ -2101,21 +2237,25 @@ Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there is no p= reference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes= a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes= as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing= rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels ar= e chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it = have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might d= ominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.= =20 - doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): + + +doghouseexample + + lujvo= examples of making Here are some lujvo with their s= cores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even n= ecessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/> zbasai zba + sai (1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) = - 3 =3D 5847 @@ -2202,21 +2342,25 @@ The fourth form,=20 ge'u-zdani, however, requ= ires an=20 r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of t= he lujvo is=20 ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are=20 =20 gerkyzda and=20 gerkyzdani respectively. - boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 + + +boat classexample + + The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we = might expect that=20 gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H= score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of = 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo wo= uld probably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 bloti klesi (=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. The rafsi for=20 bloti are=20 -lot-,=20 -blo-, and=20 -lo'i-; for=20 @@ -2260,21 +2404,25 @@ blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 - Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 + =20 + +Logical Language Groupexample + + So the form=20 blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny m= argin over=20 blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only sl= ightly worse;=20 lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe= , and=20 lo'irlei because of having both apostroph= e and hyphen. Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 logji bangu girzu, or=20 logical-language group in English. (=20 The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) The available rafsi are=20 -loj- and=20 @@ -2348,21 +2496,25 @@ logjybangygir =20 lojbangirz lojbaugirz lojbangygirz =20 logjybangirz logjybaugirz logjybangygirz - <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 + <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample =20 + +male sexual teacherexample + + The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 =20 lojbangri and=20 lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slig= htly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of = the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedd= ed in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 girzu, producing=20 lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 =20 ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 @@ -3120,21 +3272,25 @@ rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controversi= al. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/> tci'ile Chilean is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a= Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist i= f they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, bu= t does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 9ce5317..e73023d 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -45,21 +45,25 @@ ta brablo That is-a-large-boat. That is a ship. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>schooner</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>schooner</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d5"/> =20 ta blotrskunri That is-a-(boat)-schooner. That is a schooner. illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivl= a respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word w= hose meaning can be learned independent of its origins. @@ -82,21 +86,25 @@ What kind of tree is lemon-colored? adjective-noun co= mbinationwith tanru adverb-verb combinationwith tanru In Lojban, tanru are also used for= the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like=20 big boy and adverb-verb combinations like=20 quickly run. This is a consequence of Lojban not having= any such categories as=20 noun,=20 verb,=20 adjective, or=20 adverb. English words belonging to any of these categor= ies are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of ta= nru: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d1"/> =20 tu pelnimre tricu That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree). That is a lemon tree. @@ -104,21 +112,25 @@ la djan. barda nanla That-named John is-a-big boy. John is a big boy. - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quick runner</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quick runner</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d3"/> mi sutra bajra I quick run I quickly run./I run quickly. Note that=20 pelnimre is a lujvo for=20 @@ -171,21 +183,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d7"/> John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big. This=20 way that boys are big would be quite different from the= way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant. ambiguity of tanr= u tanr= uambiguity of All tanru are am= biguous semantically. Possible translations of: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>goer table</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>goer table</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d8"/> ta klama jubme That is-a-goer type-of-table. include: @@ -629,21 +645,25 @@ gi GI forethought connection separator Consider the English phrase=20 big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big red dog</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big red dog</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1"/> barda xunre gerku (big type-of red) type-of dog will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever= way redness might be described as=20 big. Nor is @@ -996,21 +1016,25 @@ zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 blanu with=20 xamgu, we get: FIXME: TAG SPOT - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>good house</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>good house</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/> ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. =20 This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. Since=20 @@ -1028,21 +1052,25 @@ BEhO selma'o<= /primary> be= 'o BEI selma'o bei BE selma'o be linked sumtiin tanru seltaufilling sumti places in Here, the gismu=20 xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 be'o (of selma'o BEhO). linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in:= - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/> ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-t= hing) school) @@ -1265,21 +1293,25 @@ mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. I try to go to the market from the house. =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>try to go</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>try to go</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4"/> mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. =20 @@ -1522,49 +1554,61 @@ li vo nu'a su'i li re li re The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. A possible tanru example might be: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>addition problems</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>addition problems</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5"/> mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. I understand addition problems. =20 MOI selma'o More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathemati= cal expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numeric= al selbri. Details are available in=20 =20 . Here are a few tanru: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Preem Palver</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + +=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6"/> la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. =20 Preem Palver is the first speaker. =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two brothers</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two brothers</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7"/> la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. Anyi and Asun are two brothers. =20 =20 @@ -1611,21 +1655,25 @@ terminator for me MEhU selma'o<= /primary> me= 'u ME selma'o me meplace structure of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">conversion of sumti into selbr= i sumt= i into selbri <= primary>selbri from sumti A sumti can be made into a = simple selbri by preceding it with=20 me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable t= erminator=20 me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pl= ace structure x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti] which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1"/> le ci nolraitru the three noblest-governors the three kings If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tra= dition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: =20 @@ -1683,21 +1731,25 @@ You are-the-referent-of=20 the-one-called John. You are John. meused with names It is common to use=20 me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 la, as seltau. For example: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chrysler</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7"/> ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called Chrysler) car. =20 That is a Chrysler car. =20 @@ -1796,21 +1848,25 @@ do se prami mi You [swap x1 and x2] love me. You are loved by me. Conversion is fully explained in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, the = important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following s= imple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to= be careful! Consider=20 : - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>walk to market</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>walk to market</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/> la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. Alice walks to the market. To convert this sentence so that=20 diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index d66aae6..3bbc4fa 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -161,21 +161,25 @@ plurals= Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to= markets is to just one (=20 the market) or to more than one (=20 the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 are valid. Only the context= can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no wa= y of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is exp= lained in=20 .) Now consider the following strange-looking example: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>The men are women</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>The men are women</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3"/> le nanmu cu ninmu One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as men<= /quote> are women. The man is a woman. The men are women. =20 @@ -225,21 +229,25 @@ true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity lacompared = with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 le descriptions,=20 la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 .) For example: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/> la cribe pu finti le lisri The-one-named=20 bear [past] creates the story. Bear wrote the story. naming predicate In=20 @@ -384,21 +392,25 @@ (Of course the second=20 le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 le, the one preceding=20 prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>piano-moving</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2"/> lei prenu cu bevri le pipno The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carr= y the piano. =20 mass objectand logical reasoning mass objectproperties = of m= ultiple individual objectscontrasted with mass object<= /secondary> mass= objectcontrasted with multiple individual objects Here the same three persons are treated not as individ= uals, but as a so-called=20 mass entity, or just=20 @@ -408,58 +420,70 @@ laias mass counterpart of lai loias mass counterpart = of lo The descriptors=20 loi and=20 lai are analogous to=20 lo and=20 la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 loi) or by name (=20 lai). A classic example of=20 loi use is: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/> loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa. loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 lei and=20 loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific in= dividuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass= of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the = world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/> loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. The English dwell in Africa. since there is at least one English person living there.=20 explains another method of saying wha= t is usually meant by=20 The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living i= n Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. mass objectspeculiarities of English translation of Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English= plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the si= ngular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by sin= gulars with no article: =20 =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5"/> loi matne cu ranti =20 Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. Butter is soft. mass objectas dependent on intention Of course, = some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 @@ -471,21 +495,25 @@ x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butter is translated as something like=20 a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) mass nameuse of The mass name descriptor=20 =20 =20 lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 , - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/> lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear [past] creates the nearby book. The Bears wrote this book. laicontrasted with la in implications lacontrasted with= lai in implications in a context where=20 @@ -524,21 +552,25 @@ lo'i and=20 la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 loi, and=20 lo'i: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/> lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. Some rats are brown. =20 @@ -565,21 +597,25 @@ The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc= e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of = rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess= . =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 fadni is: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among t= he members of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/> mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20 Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or ag= e, or interests, or something else. If=20 @@ -606,35 +642,43 @@ As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for discrimina= ting between=20 the lion who lives in Africa and=20 the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 lo'e means=20 the typical, as in - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/> lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. typical objectsand instantiation typical objectsdetermi= ning characteristics of What is this=20 typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2"/> lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in En= gland. le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 @@ -656,32 +700,40 @@ stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 =20 le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 le'e cinfo may be very fine. Furthermore, - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/> le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. =20 =20 is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. - typical Smithexample name e= quivalent for typicalrationale for lack= of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 + + +typical Smithexample + + name equivalent for typicalrationale for lack of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 lo'e and=20 le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 typical George or a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. =20
Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -849,21 +901,25 @@ piro PA the whole of quantificationbefore description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we ca= n say that exactly two of them are white as follows: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/> re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. Two of the dogs are white. inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 @@ -1117,21 +1173,25 @@ sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. =20 sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required –= it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.<= /para> =20 A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two exa= mples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>the two of you</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>the two of you</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/> re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d2"/> @@ -1146,21 +1206,25 @@ <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qLAr"/>, which has the sumti-base= d description=20 =20 <oldjbophrase>le re do</oldjbophrase>, says that of the two listener= s, all (the implicit outer quantifier=20 <valsi>ro</valsi>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 <valsi>re</valsi> gives the number of individuals which the inner su= mti=20 =20 <valsi>do</valsi> refers to.</para> <para>Here is another group of examples:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qLbf" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three e= xamples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3"/> re le ci cribe cu bunre Two-of the three bears are-brown. =20 @@ -1263,21 +1327,25 @@ <valsi>lu'u</valsi> to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers<= /primary><secondary>as short forms for common special cases</secondary></in= dexterm> Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 <quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where=20 =20 <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is the title of a book. How about:</para> =20 <para><indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>unqualified sumti<= /primary><secondary>contrasted with qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm>= <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>qualified sumti</primary><s= econdary>contrasted with unqualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: T= AG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-6W3v"> <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two exa= mples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1"/> mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. But=20 doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 @@ -1318,21 +1386,25 @@ =20 la'e dereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meaning The sumti qualifier=20 lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, lu'eas short for le sinxa be FIXME: TAG SPOT <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>title of book</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>title of book</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/> mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. I said the title of this book. The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: @@ -1368,21 +1440,25 @@ tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 . <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three e= xamples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/> lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu =20 The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. The set of rats is large, but some of its members are sma= ll. =20 @@ -1423,21 +1499,25 @@ =20 I see something-other-than the dog. This compound,=20 na'ebo, is the most common of the four ne= gation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context = of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to: =20 =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/> mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes l= ukewarm food. =20 (In=20 @@ -1682,22 +1762,30 @@ In=20 and=20 ,=20 .djan. appears with a pause before it as = well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special= cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general wor= d-stream. namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/> doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newpo= rt News. =20 =20 name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 @@ -1735,21 +1823,25 @@ ly'iras Lottie (American pronuncia= tion) *latis LYtis. or lo= tis. - Doyleexample Lyraexample Lottieexample= namesu= sing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other languag= es or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more ra= fsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 + + +Doyleex= ample + + Lyrae= xample Lottieexample namesusing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other languages or created = arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged = to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj- for=20 logji (logical) and=20 ban- for=20 bangu (language) unite to form the name of this languag= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/> lojban. diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index f44bb54..9f857c8 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -8,21 +8,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1"/> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require = mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a = thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express = a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would b= e too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. pronouns in Engli= shas independent of abbreviations Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Fu= rthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of a= bbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: =20 <!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in two exa= mples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>shook stick</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>shook stick</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d2"/> John picked up a stick and shook it. and <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d3"/> John picked up a stick and shook a stick. @@ -92,21 +96,25 @@ mi-series you and others ko KOhA mi-series you-imperative - do m= i foreman of a juryexample personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-s= umtifor listener(s) pro-sumtifor spea= ker(s) pro-sumtimi-series mi-seriesof pro= -sumti The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the spea= ker, the listener, and others in various combinations.=20 + do m= i + +foreman of a jury<= secondary>example + + personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener= (s) = pro-sumtifor speaker(s) pro-sumtimi-s= eries mi-seriesof pro-sumti The mi= -series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in vari= ous combinations.=20 mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom th= e speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 mi nor=20 do is specific about the number of persons referred to;= for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 =20 mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. COI selma'o mi'= e COI = selma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect o= n referent of "mi" The referents of=20 mi and=20 do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 . The vocative=20 @@ -282,21 +290,25 @@ near and=20 far away is relative to the current situation. thispronoun expression with ti tias pronoun expression= for English this thisadjective usage contrasted with pron= oun usage thispronoun usage contrasted with adjective usag= e It is important to distinguish between the Englis= h pronoun=20 this and the English adjective=20 this as in=20 this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 =20 ti: <!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in multiple examples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>this boat</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>this boat</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1"/> le ti bloti the this boat =20 thisadjective expression with vi vias adjective express= ion for English this does not mean=20 this boat but rather=20 @@ -428,21 +440,25 @@ a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo. da'e de'e di'e Most references in speech are to the past (what has alr= eady been said), so=20 di'e,=20 =20 de'e, and=20 =20 da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, the= y are frequently handy: =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3"/> la saimn. cusku di'e =20 Simon expresses the-following-utterance. Simon says: =20 @@ -694,28 +710,36 @@ goi is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.= - hereafter known asexamp= le + +hereafter known as= example + + legal jargonexample<= /indexterm> Again,=20 ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entire= ly acceptable in=20 . This last form is reminisc= ent of legal jargon: The party of the first part, hereafter known as= Buyer, .... =20 pro-bridias abbreviation for bridi broda-series for pro-bridicompared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti ko'a-series for pro-sumticompared with broda-series for pro-bridi pro-bridibroda-series broda-series pro-bridi Just as the ko'= a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or comp= lex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-= series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:= - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>thingy</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5"/> ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino = broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The gr= een thingy is large. The red thingy is small. cei= brodabroda-series = pro-bridiword-form rationale = ceifor b= roda-series pro-bridi assignment broda-series pro-bridia= ssigning with cei goi for ko'a-series assignmentcompared w= ith cei for broda-series assignment cei for broda-series assignmentcompared with goi for ko'a-series assignment antecedentfor pro-bridi The pro-bridi=20 broda has as its antecedent the selbri=20 slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The = cmavo=20 @@ -1321,21 +1345,25 @@ =20 zu'i in=20 =20 by standard places. irrelevantspecifying of sumti place sumtiirrelevant to= relationship zi'o Finally, the cmavo=20 zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When= a bridi fills one of its places with=20 zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a pla= ce which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to expre= ss. For example, the place structure of=20 =20 zbasu is zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 = - living thingsexample Consider the sentence + =20 + +living thingsexample + + Consider the sentence Living things are made from cells. This cannot be correctly expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2"/> loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-m= ass-of cells @@ -1484,21 +1512,25 @@ se'u SEhU soi terminator reciprocal pro-su= mti re= flexive pro-sumti pro-sumtireferring to place of same bridi = with vo'a-series pro-sumtivo'a-series anaphorapro-sumti vo'a-series as The cmavo of the vo'a= -series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a spe= cific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; th= e five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean= different things in different bridi. Some examples: =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>wash self</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>wash self</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1"/> mi lumci vo'a I wash myself <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2"/> @@ -1511,21 +1543,25 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>vo'e</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>vo'a</prim= ary></indexterm><indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</pr= imary><secondary>referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series</se= condary></indexterm> To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions= like=20 <oldjbophrase>le se go'i ku</oldjbophrase> do the job: this refers to = the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>SOI selma'o</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>soi= </primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>vice = versa</primary><secondary>English</secondary><tertiary>expressing with vo'a= -series pro-sumti and soi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"genera= l-imported"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in expre= ssing reciprocity with soi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gene= ral-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocit= y with vo'a-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"ge= neral-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with vo= 'a-series pro-sumti and soi</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-s= eries are also used with=20 <valsi>soi</valsi> (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, = which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 =20 =20 <quote>vice versa</quote>:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-vpb3"> <title><!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in multiple examples --> - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3"/> mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. =20 =20 I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 I and=20 you). @@ -1627,21 +1663,25 @@ What are you? is a truly pregnant questio= n that will have several meanings depending on context. (One thing it probably does not mean is=20 Who are you? in the sense=20 What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed = by: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>what is your name</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>what is your name</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d3"/> ma cmene do What sumti is-the-name-of you? What is your name? or even @@ -1691,21 +1731,25 @@ ke'a KOhA relativized sumti =20 ke'a relative claus= esuse of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in ke'afor relativized sumti in relative clauses pro-sumti= for relativized sumti in relative clauses This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 ) to indicate how the sumt= i being relativized fits within the clause. For example: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cat of plastic</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1"/> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing= -being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic. I see a cat made of plastic. ke'aambiguity when omitted If=20 ke'a were omitted from=20 @@ -1749,21 +1793,25 @@ =20 ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 . ce'uuse in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction property abstr= actionspecifying sumti place of property with ce'u In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a prope= rty of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 =20 =20 ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: - <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>happiness</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>happiness</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1"/> le ka ce'u gleki the property-of (X being-happy) the property of being happy happiness =20 @@ -1924,34 +1972,42 @@ dunli, but=20 =20 dunli has a third place which=20 =20 du lacks: the standard of equality.
lujvo based on pro-sumti pro-sumtirafsi for rafsibased on pro-sumti= There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, bu= t they are rarely used. (See=20 for a complete list.) The obv= ious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place = of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually sta= nd as the first rafsi in their lujvo. - you-talkexample pro-sumti r= afsieffect of on place structure of lujvo<= /indexterm> lujvo<= secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 + + +you-talkexample + + pro-sumti rafsi<= secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo lujvopro-s= umti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 tavla be do, and would have the place str= ucture =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1"/> t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 since t2 (the addressee) is already known to = be=20 do. - you-cmavoexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 + + +you-cmavoexample + + On the other hand, the lujvo=20 donma'o, literally=20 you-cmavo, which means=20 =20 a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 cmavo be zo do, and have the place struct= ure: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2"/> @@ -1968,21 +2024,25 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3"/> fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. - zi'o beverageexample zi'o raf= sieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi effect on place structure of Fin= ally, lujvo involving=20 + zi'o + +beverageexample + + zi'o rafsieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi= effect on place structure of Finally, lujvo involv= ing=20 zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for = the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (som= ething drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 =20 =20 se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding= to this is=20 zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place= of=20 se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this = fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 zilpavypinxe has the same place structure= as=20 zilrelselpinxe, and=20 diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 3d9ea97..1896d75 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -80,21 +80,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d4"/> ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-bi= g. These things which are nose-pores are big. These nose-pores are big. - big nose-poresexample big noseexample big person= example ITas notation convention in relative cl= ause chapter In the literal translations throughout= this chapter, the word=20 + =20 + +big nose-poresexample + + big noseexample big personexample ITas notatio= n convention in relative clause chapter In the lite= ral translations throughout this chapter, the word=20 IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 through=20 , the cmavo=20 ti) to which the relative clause is attached. ke'anon-initial place use in relative clause Of= course, there is no reason why=20 ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5"/> @@ -435,21 +439,25 @@ </example> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qm7W" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d7"/> le botpi po mi cu spofu The bottle specific-to me is-broken - person's armexample alienable possessiondefinition extrins= ic possessiondefinition inalienable possessiondefinition intrinsic possessiondefinition pocontrasted with po'e po'econtrasted with po<= /secondary>=20 + =20 + +person's armexample + + alienable possessiondefinition extrinsic possessiondefinition inali= enable possessiondefinition <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">intrinsic possession= definition pocontrasted with po'e po'econtrasted with po=20 and=20 on the one hand, and=20 on the other, illustrate th= e contrast between two types of possession called=20 intrinsic and=20 extrinsic, or sometimes=20 inalienable and=20 =20 alienable, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or= inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possess= or, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of=20 , people are usually taken t= o intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains t= he arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, howev= er, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsi= c possession is a matter of degree.) =20 @@ -530,21 +538,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d13"/> la nu,iork po'u le tcadu New York the city (not the state or some other New York)<= /natlang> - New York stateexample New York cityexample= possessed in re= lative phrasescompared with possessor possessor in relativ= e phrasescompared with possessed The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places app= lies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects: + =20 + +New York stateexample + + New York cityexample possessed in relative phrasescompared with= possessor possessor in relative phrasescompared with poss= essed The principle that the possessor and the poss= essed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the po= ssibility of odd effects: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14"/> le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu The cup associated-with my friend is small. My friend's cup is small =20 @@ -552,21 +564,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d15"/> le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu My friend associated-with the cup is small. My friend, the one with the cup, is small. - cup's friendexample friend's cupexample=20 + =20 + +cup's friendexample + + friend's cupexample=20 is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive –=20 the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – bu= t Lojban has no trouble doing so. =20 incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 ne and=20 no'u stand to=20 =20 @@ -623,21 +639,25 @@ seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pock= ets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put i= nto his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d20"/> le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket. - hands in pockets<= /primary>example is very natural. Of cou= rse, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or ano= ther's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified. + =20 + +hands in pocketsexample + + is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into = another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be spe= cified. GEhU selma'o<= /primary> goirationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter ge'ueffect of following logical connective on elidability logica= l connectiveseffect on elidability of ge'u from preced= ing relative phrase ge'uelidability of from relative phras= es Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo i= s=20 ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howe= ver, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a rela= tive phrase, then an explicit=20 ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the re= lativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about t= he cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 =20 , as it is not semantical= ly akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the = same.)
Multiple relative clauses:=20 <valsi>zi'e</valsi> @@ -702,21 +722,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4"/> mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. =20 - my chairexample=20 + =20 + +my chairexample + +=20 illustrates that more than = two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 pe mi, implying that the chair is tempora= rily connected with me, and=20 po do, implying that the chair has a more= permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in wh= ich case the chair would naturally be your property.) Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5"/> @@ -970,21 +994,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10"/> mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] I see that-named (=20 man which fears the of-IT horse). I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. - afraid of horseexample says that the speaker se= es a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horse= s, whereas + =20 + +afraid of horseexample + + says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not = necessarily fear any horses, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11"/> mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma. I see that-named(=20 Man) which fears the of-IT horse. I see the person named=20 Man who is afraid of his horse. @@ -1025,21 +1053,25 @@ pe relative phrase. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1"/> le mi karce cu xunre My car is-red. - myexample and + =20 + +myexamp= le + + and <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d2"/> le pe mi karce cu xunre The (associated-with me) car is-red. mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no spe= cial considerations of quantifiers here, @@ -1094,21 +1126,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5"/> le li mu jdice se bende The of-the-number-five judging team-member Juror number 5 - juror 5= example which is not quite the same as= =20 + =20 + +juror 5= example + + which is not quite the same as=20 the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. possessive sumti = with relative clauseseffect of placement relative clauses = with possessive sumtieffect of placement possessive sumti<= /primary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti possessive sumti<= /primary>relative clauses on relative clauseson= possessive sumti A possessive sumti may also have = regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it w= ere not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately follo= wing the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not t= he possessive. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6"/> le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.= @@ -1149,21 +1185,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1"/> li pai noi na'e frinu namcu The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= The irrational number pi =20 - irrational number= example relative clauseson quotation<= /secondary> rela= tive clauseson number And here= is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation: + =20 + +irrational number<= secondary>example + + relative clauses= on quotation relative clauseson number And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quo= tation: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2"/> lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I = express IT) is-a-sentence. I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. @@ -1179,21 +1219,25 @@ la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 The Red Pony is in the far room. =20 - red pony= example=20 + + +red ponyexample + +=20 is a bit complex, and may n= eed some picking apart. The quotation=20 lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the strin= g of words=20 The Red Pony. If the=20 =20 la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 would claim that a certain = string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a stri= ng of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to th= e words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Ste= inbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative = clause.=20 =20 =20 @@ -1395,21 +1439,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2"/> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. The person who is in the room which he built is slow. =20 - room which he buil= texample Here, the meaning of= =20 + + +room which he builtexample + + Here, the meaning of=20 IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as pla= in=20 =20 ke'a. prenex<= secondary>use for outer sumti reference outer sumtiprenex = for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in= =20 ), which is syntactically a ser= ies of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3"/> diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index f40ac76..5b8d3ed 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -2,21 +2,25 @@ <title>To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals
Introductory relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 selbri. sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. - goexample = x1in place structure notation place structurenotation conventions klamaplace structure= of The stock example of a place structure is that = of the gismu=20 + + +goexamp= le + + x1in = place structure notation place structurenotation conventio= ns k= lamaplace structure of The sto= ck example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 klama: klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3= via route x4 employing means of transport x5. The=20 x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. place structureinstability of The place structu= res of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work d= one so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all = users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the indi= vidual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of chan= ge to the brivla place structures.
@@ -26,21 +30,25 @@ cu CU prefixed selbri separator =20 bridibuilding from selbri and sumti The most us= ual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as=20 klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place th= e sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumt= i in order after the selbri, thus: - go to Boston from= Atlantaexample Boston from Atlantaex= ample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +go to Boston from Atlantaexample + + Boston from Atlantaexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1"/> mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows: @@ -142,21 +150,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5"/> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, usin= g an unspecified means). =20 - unspecified route= example unspecified sumtinon-trailing= =20 + =20 + +unspecified route<= secondary>example + + unspecified sumtinon-trailing=20 has empty x4 and x5 places:= the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However,= simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to= be specified: in <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6"/> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. @@ -397,21 +409,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9"/> [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to [x2=3D] the movie x2=3D the= house x2=3D the office to moviehouseoffice: example multiple sumti in one pla= ceavoiding may be taken to say= that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, mergin= g six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the lis= tener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in= =20 ), to say such things in Lojban= . In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it c= an only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the provis= o above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti ca= n be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmav= o tagging it. - give or receiveexample questionsplace structure positio= n pl= ace structure questions The cmavo=20 + + +give or receiveexample + + questionsplace structure position place structure questions Th= e cmavo=20 fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 =20 fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10"/> fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu @@ -536,24 +552,32 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3"/> le klama the go-er, the one who goes =20 - the go-erexample converted selbrito access non-first p= lace in description descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of following selbri In every case, the description is about something which fits into = the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination = (that is, something fitting the x2 place of=20 + =20 + +the go-erexample + + converted selbri= to access non-first place in description= descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of = following selbri In every case, the description is = about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get= a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of= =20 klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 se klama, whose x1 place is a destination= . The result is - the destinationexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +the destinationexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4"/> le se klama the destination gone to by someone =20 @@ -579,39 +603,47 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d7"/> le xe klama the means by which someone goes - pluta ve klama<= /primary> Mars r= oadexample plutacontrasted with ve kl= ama = ve klamacontrasted with pluta = converted selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricon= trasted with other similar selbri=20 + pluta ve klama<= /primary> =20 + +Mars roadexample + + pluta= contrasted with ve klama ve klamacontrasted with pluta convert= ed selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricontrasted with other similar selbri=20 does not mean=20 the route plain and simple: that is=20 le pluta, using a different selbri. It me= ans a route that is used by someone for an act of=20 =20 =20 klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever l= ikely to, may be called=20 le pluta, but it cannot be=20 =20 =20 le ve klama, since there exists no one fo= r whom it is=20 =20 le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in = an actual journey by someone [da]). =20 ke'e ke conversionextending scope of conversionscope of SE sel= ma'oextending scope of SE selma'oscop= e of When converting selbri that are more complex t= han a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmav= o is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an= entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 =20 ke ... ke'e brackets: - blue houseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + =20 + +blue houseexample + + FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8"/> mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing The place structure of=20 @@ -673,21 +705,25 @@ FEhU modal terminator Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 viska, whose place structure is: viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. - FEhU selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'u FIhO selma'o fi'o see with left eyeexample fi'ouse in adding places to place structure place structure= adding new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and ar= e talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 + FEhU selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'u FIhO selma'o fi'o =20 + +see with left eye<= secondary>example + + fi'ou= se in adding places to place structure place structureaddi= ng new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are t= alking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 viska such as=20 with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/> mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing @@ -830,21 +866,25 @@ la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi =20 Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. =20 I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. =20 - Avonexample traveling salespersonexample (=20 + =20 + +Avonexa= mple + + traveling salespersonexample (=20 may seem a bit strained, bu= t it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3"/> mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd. I walk with-destination Bradford. I am walking to Bradford. @@ -1019,21 +1059,25 @@ la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna =20 Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is= -human. =20 Socrates died because Socrates is human. =20 - Socratesexample plant growsexample "because"English wordfour varieties of In=20 + =20 + +Socratesexample + + plant growsexample "because"English word<= tertiary>four varieties of In=20 through=20 , the same English word=20 because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 , and explore some variation= s on it. causals= claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effe= ct and/or relation abstraction bridieffect on claim of bri= di As written,=20 claims that the plant grows= , but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abst= ractions are explained in=20 =20 ) without actually making a cl= aim. If I express=20 , I have said that the plant= in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that= there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is seman= tically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being wa= tered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could = reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: =20 @@ -1133,21 +1177,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1"/> mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. I grasp the water because I grasp the cup. - grasp waterexample forethought connectiondefinition aftert= hought connectiondefinition An= afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a comp= ound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Foret= hought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between= the two: the use of=20 + =20 + +grasp waterexample + + forethought connectiondefinition afterthought connectiondefinit= ion An afterthought connection is one that is signa= led only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two con= structs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before t= he first construct and between the two: the use of=20 =20 both and=20 and in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one). =20 =20 modal sentence con= nectionforethought forethought modal sentence connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojb= an, place the modal plus=20 gi before the first bridi, and=20 gi between the two. No=20 i is used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 is: @@ -1303,21 +1351,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1"/> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. =20 - bai= under compulsio= nexample modal sumtiunspecified modal sum= tileaving vague=20 + bai= =20 + +under compulsionexample + + modal sumtiunspecified modal sumtileaving vague=20 has two modal sumti, using = the modals=20 =20 =20 bau and=20 bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2"/> @@ -1387,21 +1439,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7"/> mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do I with-eye see you. I see you with my eye(s). - bai ke see with eye= example modalsexpanding scope over in= ner modal connection modalsexpanding scope over non-logica= l connection = modalsexpanding scope over logical connection= with ke ... ke'e There are two other uses of modal= s. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been = connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see=20 + bai ke =20 + +see with eyeexample + + modalsexpanding scope over inner modal connection modalsexpandi= ng scope over non-logical connection modalsexpanding scope= over logical connection with ke ... ke'e There are= two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails= that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal conne= ction (see=20 for more on logical and non-lo= gical connections): <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8"/> mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] =20 I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the= ice. @@ -1474,21 +1530,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2"/> la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-b= y me. =20 =20 - Beethovenexample Artur Rubensteinexample Appassionataexample In=20 + + +Beethovenexample + + Artur Rubenstein= example Appassionataexample In=20 ,=20 la .apasionatas. refers to a particular p= erformance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore= , the relative clause=20 poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of=20 la .apasionatas to the performance in que= stion. In=20 , however,=20 la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as = a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely in= cidental. The cmavo=20 =20 noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natu= re of this relationship. @@ -1583,21 +1643,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/> la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. - likes more thanexample=20 + =20 + +likes more thanexample + +=20 requires that Frank likes B= etty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking= for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 semau because the x2 place of=20 zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8"/> @@ -1762,21 +1826,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d8"/> mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e= ] I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the d= og). I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equa= lly. - ke'e ke tu'u tu'e carry s= ackexample In=20 + ke'e ke tu'u tu'e =20 + +carry sackexample + + In=20 , the=20 tu'e ... tu'u brackets are the equivalent= of the=20 ke ... ke'e brackets in=20 and=20 , because=20 ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more tha= n one sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 .ijeseri'abo to=20 .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 tu'e ... tu'u portion was an effect, but = would not pin down the=20 mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. I= t is legal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 @@ -1897,21 +1965,25 @@ na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NA= hE, to the BAI cmavo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2"/> le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you wa= ter-give to the plant. - plant growsexample scalar negation of modalsexplanatio= n of meaning=20 + =20 + +plant growsexample + + scalar negation of modals<= /primary>explanation of meaning=20 says that the relationship = between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: t= he plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can ha= ve motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between wateri= ng and growth exists, but=20 =20 doesn't say what it is (pre= sumably=20 ri'a). fi'o modalsnegation of by negating selbri negation of fi'o modals= by negating selbri Note: Modals made wit= h=20 fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selb= ri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation,= however.
Sticky modals The following cmavo is discussed in this section: diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 8bd8c93..93ce567 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -36,20 +36,22 @@ entry, when it should actually be . =20 All instances of need to be checked, because many of them do not, in fact, denote definitions (in which case they should be replaced be ). =20 ------ =20 Entries like (NOTE the type) need to be moved into examples. =20 +They have been seperated out by blank lines to make it easier. + Especially things like this: =20 lemon treeexample FIXME: TAG SPOT =20 which are artificial paragraphs solely for index importing. =20 All such indexterm entries should end up in the example itself, like so: =20 <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.