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The original message has been attached to this so you can view it or label similar future email. If you have any questions, see the administrator of that system for details. Content preview: Page semi-protected Milk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the fluid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. For the milk-like beverages d [...] Content analysis details: (2.8 points, 5.0 required) pts rule name description ---- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -1.9 BAYES_00 BODY: Bayes spam probability is 0 to 1% [score: 0.0000] 0.0 URIBL_BLOCKED ADMINISTRATOR NOTICE: The query to URIBL was blocked. See http://wiki.apache.org/spamassassin/DnsBlocklists#dnsbl-block for more information. [URIs: email-shesoftware.com] -0.0 SPF_PASS SPF: sender matches SPF record 0.0 HTML_MESSAGE BODY: HTML included in message 1.1 MPART_ALT_DIFF_COUNT BODY: HTML and text parts are different 0.1 DKIM_SIGNED Message has a DKIM or DK signature, not necessarily valid -0.1 DKIM_VALID_EF Message has a valid DKIM or DK signature from envelope-from domain -0.1 DKIM_VALID_AU Message has a valid DKIM or DK signature from author's domain -0.1 DKIM_VALID Message has at least one valid DKIM or DK signature 1.9 RAZOR2_CF_RANGE_51_100 Razor2 gives confidence level above 50% [cf: 100] 0.9 RAZOR2_CHECK Listed in Razor2 (http://razor.sf.net/) 1.0 FROM_EXCESS_BASE64 From: base64 encoded unnecessarily 0.0 LOTS_OF_MONEY Huge... sums of money 0.0 T_MONEY_PERCENT X% of a lot of money for you This is a multi-part message in MIME format. --b1_DJGYpay4k6yEMonNLwDLQuXXLylVBoQqqeZTtgjw3A Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Page semi-protected Milk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navi= gationJump to search This article is about the fluid produced by the mammar= y glands of mammals. For the milk-like beverages derived from plants, see P= lant milk. For other uses of the word, see Milk (disambiguation). "Dairy mi= lk" redirects here. For the line of chocolate products, see Cadbury Dairy M= ilk. A glass of pasteurized cow's milk Milk is a nutrient-rich, white liqui= d food produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source = of nutrition for infant mammals (including humans who are breastfed) before= they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains= colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to its young and can redu= ce the risk of many diseases. It contains many other nutrients[1] including= protein and lactose. Interspecies consumption of milk is not uncommon, par= ticularly among humans, many of whom consume the milk of other mammals.[2][= 3] As an agricultural product, milk, also called dairy milk, is extracted f= rom farm animals during or soon after pregnancy. Dairy farms produced about= 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011,[4] from 260 million dairy cows.[5] Ind= ia is the world's largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of = skimmed milk powder, yet it exports few other milk products.[6][7] The ever= increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-s= upply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the= future.[8] The United States, India, China and Brazil are the world's larg= est exporters of milk and milk products.[9] China and Russia were the world= 's largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countri= es became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk.[10] Th= roughout the world, more than six billion people consume milk and milk prod= ucts. Over 750 million people live in dairy farming households.[11] Content= s 1 Etymology and terminology 1.1 Dairy milk alternatives 2 Types of consum= ption 2.1 Nutrition for infant mammals 2.2 Food product for humans 3 Histor= y 3.1 Industrialization 3.2 Overproduction 4 Sources 4.1 Other animal-based= sources 5 Production worldwide 5.1 Production yields 5.2 Price 6 Physical = and chemical properties 6.1 pH 6.2 Lipids 6.3 Proteins 6.3.1 Caseins 6.4 Sa= lts, minerals, and vitamins 6.4.1 Calcium phosphate structure 6.5 Sugars an= d carbohydrates 6.6 Miscellaneous contents 6.7 Appearance 7 Processing 7.1 = Pasteurization 7.1.1 Filtration 7.2 Creaming and homogenization 7.3 UHT 8 N= utrition and health 8.1 Cow's milk 8.2 Nutritional value 8.3 Recommended co= nsumption 8.4 Medical research 8.5 Lactose intolerance 8.6 Possible harms 8= .7 Flavored milk in U.S. schools 9 Evolution of lactation 10 Bovine growth = hormone supplementation 11 Criticism 12 Varieties and brands 12.1 Reduction= or elimination of lactose 12.2 Additives and flavoring 12.3 Distribution 1= 2.3.1 Australia and New Zealand 12.3.2 India 12.3.3 Pakistan 12.3.4 United = Kingdom 12.3.5 United States 12.4 Packaging 12.5 Spoilage and fermented mil= k products 13 Use in other food products 14 Language and culture 15 Other u= ses 16 See also 17 References 18 Further reading 19 External links Etymolog= y and terminology The term "milk" comes from "Old English meoluc (West Saxo= n), milc (Anglian), from Proto-Germanic *meluks "milk" (source also of Old = Norse mjolk, Old Frisian melok, Old Saxon miluk, Dutch melk, Old High Germa= n miluh, German Milch, Gothic miluks)".[12] In food use, from 1961, the ter= m milk has been defined under Codex Alimentarius standards as: "the normal = mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or more milkings wit= hout either addition to it or extraction from it, intended for consumption = as liquid milk or for further processing."[13] The term dairy relates to an= imal milk and animal milk production. A substance secreted by pigeons to fe= ed their young is called "crop milk" and bears some resemblance to mammalia= n milk, although it is not consumed as a milk substitute.[14] Dairy milk al= ternatives The definition above precludes non-animal products which resembl= e dairy milk in color and texture, such as almond milk, coconut milk, rice = milk, and soy milk. In English, the word "milk" has been used to refer to "= milk-like plant juices" since 1200 AD.[15] In the USA, (mostly plant-based)= milk alternatives now command 13% of the "milk" market, leading the US dai= ry industry to attempt, multiple times, to sue producers of dairy milk alte= rnatives, to have the name "milk" limited to animal milk, so far without su= ccess.[16] Types of consumption Milk consumption occurs in two distinct ove= rall types: a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food= product obtained from other mammals for consumption by humans of all ages.= Nutrition for infant mammals Main articles: Breastfeeding and Lactation Br= eastfeeding to provide a mother's milk A goat kid feeding on its mother's m= ilk In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, ei= ther directly or by expressing the milk to be stored and consumed later. Th= e early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodie= s that provide protection to the newborn baby as well as nutrients and grow= th factors.[17] The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion var= ies from species to species.[18] For humans, the World Health Organization = recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addi= tion to other food for up to two years of age or more.[19] In some cultures= it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the perio= d may be longer.[20] Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for breast = milk, which introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalan= ces, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, and a host of allergic react= ions.[21] Food product for humans The Holstein Friesian cattle is the domin= ant breed in industrialized dairy farms today A bowl of milk for the shaman= rite. Buryatia. Russia In many cultures, especially in the West, humans co= ntinue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other mammals (esp= ecially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability = to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, a= n enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. People therefore conv= erted milk to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lacto= se. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations i= n Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood. This mutation= allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain p= opulations when other food sources failed.[22] Milk is processed into a var= iety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and chees= e. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, la= ctose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additives and ind= ustrial products. Whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturate= d fat.[23][24] The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, = and a few tropical shrubs. The enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, re= aches its highest levels in the human small intestine after birth and then = begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly.[25] Those groups w= ho do continue to tolerate milk, however, often have exercised great creati= vity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates, not only of cattle, but a= lso sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, horses, reindeer and camels. India i= s the largest producer and consumer of cattle and buffalo milk in the world= .[26] Per capita consumption of milk and milk products in selected countrie= s in 2011[27] Country Milk (liters) Cheese (kg) Butter (kg) Ireland 135.6 6= .7 2.4 Finland 127.0 22.5 4.1 United Kingdom 105.9 10.9 3.0 Australia 105.3= 11.7 4.0 Sweden 90.1 19.1 1.7 Canada 78.4 12.3 2.5 United States 75.8 15.1= 2.8 Europe 62.8 17.1 3.6 Brazil 55.7 3.6 0.4 France 55.5 26.3 7.5 Italy 54= .2 21.8 2.3 Germany 51.8 22.9 5.9 Greece 49.1 23.4 0.7 Netherlands 47.5 19.= 4 3.3 India 39.5 - 3.5 China 9.1 - 0.1 History Drinking milk in Germany in = 1932 Humans first learned to consume the milk of other mammals regularly fo= llowing the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the= development of agriculture. This development occurred independently in sev= eral global locations from as early as 9000=E2=80=937000 BC in Mesopotamia[= 28] to 3500=E2=80=933000 BC in the Americas.[29] People first domesticated = the most important dairy animals =E2=80=93 cattle, sheep and goats = =E2=80=93 in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle had been independentl= y derived from wild aurochs populations several times since.[30] Initially = animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has suggested= that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair an= d labor, began much later in a separate secondary products revolution in th= e fourth millennium BC.[31] Sherratt's model is not supported by recent fin= dings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that = shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Sou= thwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC.[32][33] From Southwest = Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but = did not reach Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC),[34] and South A= sia (7000=E2=80=935500 BC).[35] The first farmers in central Europe[36] and= Britain[37] milked their animals. Pastoral and pastoral nomadic economies,= which rely predominantly or exclusively on domestic animals and their prod= ucts rather than crop farming, were developed as European farmers moved int= o the Pontic-Caspian steppe in the fourth millennium BC, and subsequently s= pread across much of the Eurasian steppe.[38] Sheep and goats were introduc= ed to Africa from Southwest Asia, but African cattle may have been independ= ently domesticated around 7000=E2=80=936000 BC.[39] Camels, domesticated in= central Arabia in the fourth millennium BC, have also been used as dairy a= nimals in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.[40] The earliest Egyptian= records of burn treatments describe burn dressings using milk from mothers= of male babies.[41] In the rest of the world (i.e., East and Southeast Asi= a, the Americas and Australia) milk and dairy products were historically no= t a large part of the diet, either because they remained populated by hunte= r-gatherers who did not keep animals or the local agricultural economies di= d not include domesticated dairy species. Milk consumption became common in= these regions comparatively recently, as a consequence of European colonia= lism and political domination over much of the world in the last 500 years.= In the Middle Ages, milk was called the "virtuous white liquor" because al= coholic beverages were safer to consume than water.[42] Industrialization P= reserved Express Dairies three-axle milk tank wagon at the Didcot Railway C= entre, based on an SR chassis The growth in urban population, coupled with = the expansion of the railway network in the mid-19th century, brought about= a revolution in milk production and supply. Individual railway firms began= transporting milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and 1850s. Pos= sibly the first such instance was in 1846, when St Thomas's Hospital in Sou= thwark contracted with milk suppliers outside London to ship milk by rail.[= 43] The Great Western Railway was an early and enthusiastic adopter, and be= gan to transport milk into London from Maidenhead in 1860, despite much cri= ticism. By 1900, the company was transporting over 25 million gallons annua= lly.[44] The milk trade grew slowly through the 1860s, but went through a p= eriod of extensive, structural change in the 1870s and 1880s. Milk transpor= tation in Salem, Tamil Nadu Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchas= ing power increased and milk became regarded as a required daily commodity.= Over the last three decades of the 19th century, demand for milk in most p= arts of the country doubled, or in some cases, tripled. Legislation in 1875= made the adulteration of milk illegal =E2=80=93 this combined with a marke= ting campaign to change the image of milk. The proportion of rural imports = by rail as a percentage of total milk consumption in London grew from under= 5% in the 1860s to over 96% by the early 20th century. By that point, the = supply system for milk was the most highly organized and integrated of any = food product.[43] 1959 milk supply in Oberlech, Vorarlberg, Austria The fir= st glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s. The first company= to do so may have been the New York Dairy Company in 1877. The Express Dai= ry Company in England began glass bottle production in 1880. In 1884, Herve= y Thatcher, an American inventor from New York, invented a glass milk bottl= e, called "Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar," which was sealed with a waxed= paper disk.[45] Later, in 1932, plastic-coated paper milk cartons were int= roduced commercially.[45] In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Paste= ur invented pasteurization, a method of killing harmful bacteria in beverag= es and food products.[45] He developed this method while on summer vacation= in Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines.[46] He found= out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only abou= t 50=E2=80=9360 =C2=B0C (122=E2=80=93140 =C2=B0F) for a brief time to kill = the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without= sacrificing the final quality.[46] In honor of Pasteur, the process became= known as "pasteurization". Pasteurization was originally used as a way of = preventing wine and beer from souring.[47] Commercial pasteurizing equipmen= t was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the process i= n Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885.[48][49] Overproduction Continued improv= ements in the efficiency of milk production led to a worldwide glut of milk= by 2016. Russia and China became self-sufficient and stopped importing mil= k. Canada has tried to restrict milk production by forcing new farmers/incr= eased capacity to "buy in" at C$24,000 per cow. Importing milk is prohibite= d. The European Union theoretically stopped subsidizing dairy farming in 20= 15. Direct subsidies were replaced by "environmental incentives" which resu= lts in the government buying milk when the price falls to =E2=82=AC200 per = 1,000 liters (220 imp gal; 260 U.S. gal). The United States has a voluntary= insurance program that pays farmers depending upon the price of milk and t= he cost of feed.[10] Sources Modern dairy farm in Norway The females of all= mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates co= mmercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was p= roduced from cows.[50] Human milk is not produced or distributed industrial= ly or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastm= ilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for vari= ous reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases,= etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.[51] In the Western world, cow's milk is p= roduced on an industrial scale and is by far the most commonly consumed for= m of milk. Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment produ= ces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Dairy cattle such as = the Holstein have been bred selectively for increased milk production. Abou= t 90% of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are H= olsteins.[25] Other dairy cows in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown= Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn). Other ani= mal-based sources Other significant sources of milk Goats (2% of world's mi= lk) Buffaloes (11%) Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk= used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, go= at, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectiv= ely produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.[50= ] In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist.[52] According to th= e U.S. National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buf= falo) are not milked commercially;[53] however, various sources report cows= resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk prod= ucers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North Amer= ica[54] and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1= 980s.[55] Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk is similar = to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human consumption. The main reason= s for this are that milking a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome= , and that sows can not store their milk as cows can.[56] A few pig farms d= o sell pig cheese as a novelty item; these cheeses are exceedingly expensiv= e.[57] Production worldwide Main article: Dairy farming Top ten cow milk pr= oducers in 2013[58] Rank Country Production (metric tons) 1 United States 9= 1,271,058 2 India 60,600,000 3 China 35,310,000 4 Brazil 34,255,236 5 Germa= ny 31,122,000 6 Russia 30,285,969 7 France 23,714,357 8 New Zealand 18,883,= 000 9 Turkey 16,655,009 10 United Kingdom 13,941,000 Top ten sheep milk pro= ducers in 2013[59] Rank Country Production (metric tons) 1 China 1,540,000 = 2 Turkey 1,101,013 3 Greece 705,000 4 Syria 684,578 5 Romania 632,582 6 Spa= in 600,568 7 Sudan 540,000 8 Somalia 505,000 9 Iran 470,000 10 Italy 383,83= 7 Top ten goat milk producers in 2013[60] Rank Country Production (metric t= ons) 1 India 5,000,000 2 Bangladesh 2,616,000 3 Sudan 1,532,000 4 Pakistan = 801,000 5 Mali 720,000 6 France 580,694 7 Spain 471,999 8 Turkey 415,743 9 = Somalia 400,000 10 Greece 340,000 Top ten buffalo milk producers in 2013[61= ] Rank Country Production (metric tons) 1 India 70,000,000 2 Pakistan 24,37= 0,000 3 China 3,050,000 4 Egypt 2,614,500 5 Nepal 1,188,433 6 Myanmar 309,0= 00 7 Italy 194,893 8 Sri Lanka 65,000 9 Iran 65,000 10 Turkey 51,947 In 201= 2, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India followed by the= United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil.[62] All 28 European = Union members together produced 153.8 million tonnes of milk in 2013, the l= argest by any politico-economic union.[63] Increasing affluence in developi= ng countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has= led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years.= In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attract= ed investments by multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many countrie= s production remains on a small scale and presents significant opportunitie= s for diversification of income sources by small farms.[64] Local milk coll= ection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transfer= red to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to= work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India.[65] = Production yields Child milking a cow by hand FAO reports[50] Israel dairy = farms are the most productive in the world, with a yield of 12,546 kilogram= s (27,659 lb) milk per cow per year. This survey over 2001 and 2007 was con= ducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording)[66] across 17= developed countries. The survey found that the average herd size in these = developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and = 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in= New Zealand. Annual milk production in the same period increased from 7,72= 6 to 8,550 kg (17,033 to 18,850 lb) per cow in these developed countries. T= he lowest average production was in New Zealand at 3,974 kg (8,761 lb) per = cow. The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of th= e cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the anima= ls. What the cow ate made the most impact on the production obtained. New Z= ealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to = Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-ri= ch mixed diet. The milk yield per cow in the United States, the world's lar= gest cow milk producer, was 9,954 kg (21,945 lb) per year in 2010. In contr= ast, the milk yields per cow in India and China =E2=80=93 the second and th= ird largest producers =E2=80=93 were respectively 1,154 kg (2,544 lb) and 2= ,282 kg (5,031 lb) per year.[67] Price It was reported in 2007 that with in= creased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for= feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially i= ncreased worldwide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumpt= ion of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States= above the government subsidized price.[68] In 2010 the Department of Agric= ulture predicted farmers would receive an average of $1.35 per U.S. gallon = of cow's milk (35 cents per liter), which is down 30 cents per gallon from = 2007 and below the break-even point for many cattle farmers.[69] Physical a= nd chemical properties Butterfat is a triglyceride (fat) formed from fatty = acids such as myristic, palmitic, and oleic acids. Milk is an emulsion or c= olloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid that contains disso= lved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals.[70] Because it is = produced as a food source for the young, all of its contents provide benefi= ts for growth. The principal requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and = protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids supplied by proteins (e= ssential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and= inorganic elements, and water.[71] pH The pH of milk ranges from 6.4 to 6.= 8 and it changes over time. Milk from other bovines and non-bovine mammals = varies in composition, but has a similar pH. Lipids Main article: Butterfat= Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by = a membrane.[72] Each fat globule is composed almost entirely of triacylglyc= erols and is surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex lipids such as = phospholipids, along with proteins. These act as emulsifiers which keep the= individual globules from coalescing and protect the contents of these glob= ules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of the milk. Although 97= =E2=80=9398% of lipids are triacylglycerols, small amounts of di- and monoa= cylglycerols, free cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, an= d phospholipids are also present. Unlike protein and carbohydrates, fat com= position in milk varies widely in the composition due to genetic, lactation= al, and nutritional factor difference between different species.[72] Like c= omposition, fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15 microm= eters in diameter between different species. Diameter may also vary between= animals within a species and at different times within a milking of a sing= le animal. In unhomogenized cow's milk, the fat globules have an average di= ameter of two to four micrometers and with homogenization, average around 0= .4 micrometers.[72] The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K along with esse= ntial fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the = milk fat portion of the milk.[25] Proteins Normal bovine milk contains 30= =E2=80=9335 grams of protein per liter of which about 80% is arranged in ca= sein micelles. Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its composition (nu= trition table). Caseins Main article: Casein The largest structures in the = fluid portion of the milk are "casein micelles": aggregates of several thou= sand protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a surfactant micelle= , bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate. E= ach casein micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a micrometer a= cross. There are four different types of casein proteins: =CE=B1s1-, =CE= =B1s2-, =CE=B2-, and =CE=BA-caseins. Most of the casein proteins are bound = into the micelles. There are several competing theories regarding the preci= se structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the out= ermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, k-casein, reaching= out from the body of the micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-c= asein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel e= ach other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a = stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid.[25][73] M= ilk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including= enzymes. These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do n= ot form larger structures. Because the proteins remain suspended in whey re= maining when caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as w= hey proteins. Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large marg= in.[25] The ratio of caseins to whey proteins varies greatly between specie= s; for example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in humans.[74] Ratio o= f caseins to whey proteins in milk of nine mammals[74] Species Ratio Human = 29.7:70.3 =E2=80=93 33.7:66.3 Bovine 82:18 Caprine 78:22 Ovine 76:24 Buffal= o 82:18 Equine 52:48 Camel 73:27 =E2=80=93 76:24 Yak 82:18 Reindeer 80:20 = =E2=80=93 83:17 Salts, minerals, and vitamins Minerals or milk salts, are t= raditional names for a variety of cations and anions within bovine milk. Ca= lcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are a= ll included as minerals and they typically occur at concentration of 5= =E2=80=9340 mM. The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably = calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much greater excess o= f solubility of solid calcium phosphate.[71] In addition to calcium, milk i= s a good source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, th= iamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all p= resent in milk. Calcium phosphate structure For many years the most accepte= d theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherica= l casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium= phosphate linkages. However, there are two recent models of the casein mic= elle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle. The= first theory attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters o= f calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the = centerpiece to micellular structure. Specifically in this view, unstructure= d proteins organize around the calcium phosphate giving rise to their struc= ture and thus no specific structure is formed. The second theory proposed b= y Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of= micelle formation but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of= the caseins. Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polym= erization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap, to form micelles= with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters. Some sources indicate that th= e trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6; whereas, others sa= y it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite CaHPO4 -2H2O.[75] = Sugars and carbohydrates A simplified representation of a lactose molecule = being broken down into glucose (2) and galactose (1) Milk contains several = different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oli= gosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes appro= ximately 40% of whole cow's milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide comp= osite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. Bovine milk averages 4.8= % anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skim= med milk. Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other ca= rbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks.[= 71] Miscellaneous contents Other components found in raw cow's milk are liv= ing white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, and a large n= umber of active enzymes.[25] Appearance Both the fat globules and the small= er casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribut= e to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules contain some yellow-o= range carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) = to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in th= e whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which sometimes can be discern= ed in skimmed milk or whey products.[25] Fat-free skimmed milk has only the= casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelen= gth blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint.[73= ] Processing Milk products and productions relationships (click to enlarge)= In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and p= roducts obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the U.S.,= these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemispher= e facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonter= ra. Pasteurization Main article: Pasteurization =C2=A7 Milk Pasteurization = is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria by heating the milk for a short= time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include fu= ll cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT.[76] = The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 =C2=B0C for 1= 5 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk,[77] rendering it sa= fe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated.[78] Dairies = print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any un= sold milk from their shelves. A side effect of the heating of pasteurizatio= n is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble calcium and pho= sphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20= %.[79] Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the tw= o B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thia= min and vitamin B12. The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant= , as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C. Filtration Micro= filtration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces= milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in t= he taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed = milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced th= rough ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk[80= ] (as compared to 99.999% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteu= rization).[81] The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cre= am to reconstitute the original milk composition. Ultrafiltration uses fine= r filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass throu= gh while retaining fats, calcium and protein.[82] As with microfiltration, = the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards.[83] = Ultrafiltered milk is used is cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for= a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher pro= tein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk.[84] Cr= eaming and homogenization A milking machine in action Upon standing for 12 = to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream la= yer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream often is sold as a se= parate product with its own uses. Today the separation of the cream from th= e milk usually is accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The= fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less de= nse than water. The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level fo= rces prevent this from happening. In fact, the cream rises in cow's milk mu= ch more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated glo= bules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a m= illion globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins.[25] Thes= e clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in mi= lk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as readily and= are smaller to begin with, resulting in a slower separation of cream from = these milks.[25] Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a cre= am layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressu= res through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbule= nce and cavitation.[85] A greater number of smaller particles possess more = total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original f= at globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are attr= acted to the newly exposed fat surfaces. Nearly one-third of the micelles i= n the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure. The casein = weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerate= d separation. The exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes pr= esent in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors. = To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immed= iately before or during homogenization. Homogenized milk tastes blander but= feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized. It is whiter and more resi= stant to developing off flavors.[25] Creamline (or cream-top) milk is unhom= ogenized. It may or may not have been pasteurized. Milk that has undergone = high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-homogenized", has= a longer shelf life than milk that has undergone ordinary homogenization a= t lower pressures.[86] The homogenization process increases the shelf life = of milk because it decreases the radius of fat globules and other particles= (per Stokes's law) thus delaying the rate of agglomeration.[citation neede= d] UHT Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT), is a type of milk processing where all b= acteria are destroyed with high heat to extend its shelf life for up to 6 m= onths, as long as the package is not opened. Milk is firstly homogenized an= d then is heated to 138 degrees Celsius for 1=E2=80=933 seconds. The milk i= s immediately cooled down and packed into a sterile container. As a result = of this treatment, all the pathogenic bacteria within the milk are destroye= d, unlike when the milk is just pasteurised. The milk will now keep for up = for 6 months if unopened. UHT milk does not need to be refrigerated until t= he package is opened, which makes it easier to ship and store. But in this = process there is a loss of vitamin B1 and vitamin C and there is also a sli= ght change in the taste of the milk.[87] Nutrition and health See also: Fat= content of milk The composition of milk differs widely among species. Fact= ors such as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar;= the levels of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat= globules, and the strength of the curd are among those that may vary.[27] = For example: Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% = lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams. Cow's milk= contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% miner= als[88] and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams. See also Nutritional = value further on Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while t= he milk of seals and whales may contain more than 50% fat.[89] Milk composi= tion analysis, per 100 grams Constituents Unit Cow Goat Sheep Water buffalo= Water g 87.8 88.9 83.0 81.1 Protein g 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5 Fat g 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.= 0 ----Saturated fatty acids g 2.4 2.3 3.8 4.2 ----Monounsaturated fatty aci= ds g 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.7 ----Polyunsaturated fatty acids g 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 Carb= ohydrate (i.e. the sugar form of lactose) g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9 Cholesterol mg = 14 10 11 8 Calcium mg 120 100 170 195 Energy kcal 66 60 95 110 kJ 275 253 3= 96 463 Cow's milk These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in th= e lactation period. Milk fat percentages Cow breed Approximate percentage J= ersey 5.2 Zebu 4.7 Brown Swiss 4.0 Holstein-Friesian 3.6 The protein range = for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4= .9%.[25] Milk fat percentages may be manipulated by dairy farmers' stock di= et formulation strategies. Mastitis infection can cause fat levels to decli= ne.[90] Nutritional value Nutrient contents in %DV of common foods (raw, un= cooked) per 100 g Cow's milk (whole) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) E= nergy 252 kJ (60 kcal) Carbohydrates 5.26 g Sugars lactose 5.26 g 5.26 g Fa= t 3.25 g Saturated 1.865 g Monounsaturated 0.812 g Polyunsaturated 0.195 g = Protein 3.22 g Tryptophan 0.075 g Threonine 0.143 g Isoleucine 0.165 g Leuc= ine 0.265 g Lysine 0.140 g Methionine 0.075 g Cystine 0.017 g Phenylalanine= 0.147 g Tyrosine 0.152 g Valine 0.192 g Arginine 0.075 g Histidine 0.075 g= Alanine 0.103 g Aspartic acid 0.237 g Glutamic acid 0.648 g Glycine 0.075 = g Proline 0.342 g Serine 0.107 g Vitamins Quantity %DV=E2=80=A0 Vitamin A e= quiv. 6% 46 =CE=BCg Thiamine (B1) 4% 0.044 mg Riboflavin (B2) 15% 0.183 mg = Vitamin B12 19% 0.45 =CE=BCg Choline 3% 14.3 mg Vitamin D 0% 2 IU Minerals = Quantity %DV=E2=80=A0 Calcium 11% 113 mg Magnesium 3% 10 mg Potassium 3% 13= 2 mg Sodium 3% 43 mg Other constituents Quantity Water 88.32 g 100 mL corre= sponds to 103 g.[95] Units =CE=BCg =3D micrograms =E2=80=A2 mg =3D milligra= ms IU =3D International units =E2=80=A0Percentages are roughly approximated= using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database Proces= sed cow's milk was formulated to contain differing amounts of fat during th= e 1950s. One cup (250 mL) of 2%-fat cow's milk contains 285 mg of calcium, = which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake (DRI) of calciu= m for an adult. Depending on its age, milk contains 8 grams of protein, and= a number of other nutrients (either naturally or through fortification) in= cluding: Biotin Iodine Magnesium Pantothenic acid Potassium Riboflavin Sele= nium Thiamine Vitamin A Vitamin B12 Vitamins D Vitamin K The amount of calc= ium from milk that is absorbed by the human body is disputed.[96] Calcium f= rom dairy products has a greater bioavailability than calcium from certain = vegetables, such as spinach, that contain high levels of calcium-chelating = agents,[97] but a similar or lesser bioavailability than calcium from low-o= xalate vegetables such as kale, broccoli, or other vegetables in the genus = Brassica.[98][99] Milk as a calcium source has been questioned in media, bu= t scientific research is lacking to support the hypothesis of acidosis indu= ced by milk. The hypothesis in question being that acidosis would lead to l= eaching of calcium storages in bones to neutralize pH levels (also known as= acid-ash hypothesis). Research has found no link between metabolic acidosi= s and consumption of milk.[100][101][102] Recommended consumption The U.S. = federal government document Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010[103] rec= ommends consumption of three glasses of fat-free or low-fat milk for adults= and children 9 and older (less for younger children) per day. This recomme= ndation is disputed by some health researchers who call for more study of t= he issue, given that there are other sources for calcium and vitamin D. The= researchers also claim that the recommendations have been unduly influence= d by the American dairy industry,[104] and that whole milk may be better fo= r health due to its increased ability to satiate hunger. Medical research A= 2008 review found evidence suggesting that consumption of milk is effectiv= e at promoting muscle growth.[105] Some studies have suggested that conjuga= ted linoleic acid, which can be found in dairy products, is an effective su= pplement for reducing body fat.[106] With regards to the claim of milk prom= oting stronger bones, there has been no association between milk consumptio= n or excess calcium intake[107] and a reduced risk of bone fractures. In 20= 11, The Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published a meta-analysis exam= ining whether milk consumption might protect against hip fracture in middle= -aged and older adults. Studies could find no association between drinking = milk and lower rates of fractures.[108] In 2014, JAMA Pediatrics published = a report after monitoring almost 100,000 men and women for more than two de= cades. Subjects were asked to report on how much milk they had consumed as = teenagers, and were followed to see if there was any association with a red= uced chance of hip fractures later in life. No correlation was found.[109][= 110] A study published in The BMJ that followed more than 45,000 men and 61= ,000 women in Sweden age 39 and older had similar results. Milk consumption= in adults was associated with no protection for men, and an increased risk= of fractures in women. The risk of any bone fracture increased 16% in wome= n who drank three or more glasses daily, and the risk of a broken hip incre= ased 60%. It was also associated with an increased risk of death in both se= xes.[110] Milk and dairy products have the potential for causing serious in= fection in newborn infants. Unpasteurized milk and cheeses can promote the = growth of Listeria bacteria. Listeria monocytogenes can also cause serious = infection in an infant and pregnant woman and can be transmitted to her inf= ant in utero or after birth. The infection has the potential of seriously h= arming or even causing the death of a preterm infant, an infant of low or v= ery low birth weight, or an infant with an immune system defect or a congen= ital defect of the immune system. The presence of this pathogen can sometim= es be determined by the symptoms that appear as a gastrointestinal illness = in the mother. The mother can also acquire infection from ingesting food th= at contains other animal products such as, hot dogs, delicatessen meats, an= d cheese.[111] Lactose intolerance Main article: Lactose intolerance Lactos= e, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk, must be cleaved in the sma= ll intestine by the enzyme lactase, in order for its constituents, galactos= e and glucose, to be absorbed. Lactose intolerance is a condition in which = people have symptoms due to not enough of the enzyme lactase in the small i= ntestines.[112] Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can toler= ate before symptoms develop. These may include abdominal pain, bloating, di= arrhea, gas, and nausea. Severity depends on the amount a person eats or dr= inks.[113] Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of mil= k without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated i= f drunk with a meal or throughout the day.[113][114] Lactose intolerance do= es not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract.[115] There are four type= s: primary, secondary, developmental, and congenital. Primary lactose intol= erance is when the amount of lactase decline as people age. Secondary lacto= se intolerance is due to injury to the small intestine such as from infecti= on, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, or other diseases.[113][116= ] Developmental lactose intolerance may occur in premature babies and usual= ly improves over a short period of time. Congenital lactose intolerance is = an extremely rare genetic disorder in which little or no lactase is made fr= om birth.[113] When lactose intolerance is due to secondary lactase deficie= ncy, treatment of the underlying disease allows lactase activity to return = to normal levels.[117] Lactose intolerance is different from a milk allergy= .[113] The number of people with lactose intolerance is unknown.[118] Some = human populations have developed lactase persistence, in which lactase prod= uction continues into adulthood probably as a response to the benefits of b= eing able to digest milk from farm animals.[112] The percentage of the popu= lation that has a decrease in lactase as they age is less than 10% in North= ern Europe and as high as 95% in parts of Asia and Africa.[112] Possible ha= rms Further information: Infant food safety Some studies suggest that milk = consumption may increase the risk of suffering from certain health problems= . Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is an immunologically mediated adverse reaction,= rarely fatal, to one or more cow's milk proteins.[119] Milk from any mamma= l contains amino acids and microRNA which influence the drinker's metabolis= m and growth;[120] this "programming" is beneficial for milk's natural cons= umers, namely infants of the same species as the milk producer, but post-in= fancy and trans-species milk consumption affects the mTORC1 metabolic pathw= ay and may promote diseases of civilization such as obesity and diabetes.[1= 20][121] Milk contains exogenous opioid peptides called exorphins which inc= lude opioid food peptides like Gluten exorphin and opioid food peptides. Ex= orphins mimic the actions of endorphines because they bind to the same opio= id receptors in the brain. The exorphin in milk is called casein, a substan= ce that breaks down in the human stomach to produce the opioid peptide caso= morphin. In the early 1990s it was hypothesized that casomorphin can cause = or aggravate autism spectrum disorders,[122][123] and casein-free diets are= widely promoted. Studies supporting these claims have had significant flaw= s, and the data are inadequate to guide autism treatment recommendations.[1= 23][124] The most recent assessment by the World Cancer Research Fund and t= he American Institute for Cancer Research found that most individual epidem= iological studies showed increased risk of prostate cancer with increased i= ntake of milk or dairy products.[125] "Meta-analysis of cohort data produce= d evidence of a clear dose-response relationship between advanced/aggressiv= e cancer risk with milk intake, and between all prostate cancer risk and mi= lk and dairy products." Possible mechanisms proposed included inhibition of= the conversion of vitamin D to its active metabolite, 1,25- dihydroxy vita= min D3 by calcium (which some evidence suggests increases cell proliferatio= n in the prostate), and elevation of levels of insulin-like growth factor-1= (IGF-1).[125] Several sources suggest a correlation between high calcium i= ntake from milk, in particular, and prostate cancer,[126][127][128] consist= ent with a calcium/vitamin D based mechanism. Overall, the WCRF/AICR panel = concluded that "The evidence is inconsistent from both cohort and case-cont= rol studies. There is limited evidence suggesting that milk and dairy produ= cts are a cause of prostate cancer."[125] Flavored milk in U.S. schools Mil= k must be offered at every meal if a United States school district wishes t= o get reimbursement from the federal government.[129] A quarter of the larg= est school districts in the U.S. offer rice or soy milk and almost 17% of a= ll U.S. school districts offer lactose-free milk. Of the milk served in U.S= . school cafeterias, 71% is flavored, causing some school districts to prop= ose a ban because flavored milk has added sugars. (Though some flavored mil= k products use artificial sweeteners instead.) The Boulder, Colorado, schoo= l district banned flavored milk in 2009 and instead installed a dispenser t= hat keeps the milk colder.[129] Evolution of lactation The mammary gland is= thought to have derived from apocrine skin glands.[130] It has been sugges= ted that the original function of lactation (milk production) was keeping e= ggs moist. Much of the argument is based on monotremes (egg-laying mammals)= .[130][131][132] The original adaptive significance of milk secretions may = have been nutrition[133] or immunological protection.[134][135] This secret= ion gradually became more copious and accrued nutritional complexity over e= volutionary time.[130] Tritylodontid cynodonts seem to have displayed lacta= tion, based on their dental replacement patterns.[136] Bovine growth hormon= e supplementation Since November 1993, recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbS= T), also called rBGH, has been sold to dairy farmers with FDA approval. Cow= s produce bovine growth hormone naturally, but some producers administer an= additional recombinant version of BGH which is produced through geneticall= y engineered E. coli to increase milk production. Bovine growth hormone als= o stimulates liver production of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). The U= .S. Food and Drug Administration,[137] the National Institutes of Health[13= 8] and the World Health Organization[139] have reported that both of these = compounds are safe for human consumption at the amounts present. Milk from = cows given rBST may be sold in the United States, and the FDA stated that n= o significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-trea= ted and that from non-rBST-treated cows.[140] Milk that advertises that it = comes from cows not treated with rBST, is required to state this finding on= its label. Cows receiving rBGH supplements may more frequently contract an= udder infection known as mastitis.[141] Problems with mastitis have led to= Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan banning milk from rBST treated c= ows. Mastitis, among other diseases, may be responsible for the fact that l= evels of white blood cells in milk vary naturally.[142][143] rBGH is also b= anned in the European Union, for reasons of animal welfare.[144] Criticism = Further information: Milk substitute Vegans and some other vegetarians do n= ot consume milk for reasons mostly related to animal rights and environment= al concerns. They may object to features of dairy farming including the nec= essity of keeping dairy cows pregnant, the killing of almost all the male o= ffspring of dairy cows (either by disposal soon after birth, for veal produ= ction, or for beef), the routine separation of mother and calf soon after b= irth, other perceived inhumane treatment of dairy cattle, and culling of co= ws after their productive lives.[145] Some have criticized the American gov= ernment's promotion of milk consumption. Their main concern is the financia= l interest that the American government has taken in the dairy industry, pr= omoting milk as the best source of calcium.[citation needed] All United Sta= tes schools that are a part of the federally funded National School Lunch A= ct are required by the federal government to provide milk for all students.= The Office of Dietary Supplements recommends that healthy adults between a= ges 19 and 50 get about 1,000 mg of calcium per day.[146] Milk production i= s also resource intensive. On a global weighted average, for the production= of a given volume of milk, a thousand times as much water has to be used.[= 147] Varieties and brands Main article: Dairy product Glass milk bottle use= d for home delivery service in the UK Milk products are sold in a number of= varieties based on types/degrees of: additives (e.g. vitamins, flavorings)= age (e.g. cheddar, old cheddar) coagulation (e.g. cottage cheese) farming = method (e.g. organic, grass-fed) fat content (e.g. half and half, 3% fat mi= lk, 2% milk, 1% milk, skim milk) fermentation (e.g. buttermilk) flavoring (= e.g. chocolate and strawberry) homogenization (e.g. cream top) packaging (e= .g. bottle, carton, bag) pasteurization (e.g. raw milk, pasteurized milk) r= eduction or elimination of lactose species (e.g. cow, goat, sheep) sweeteni= ng (e.g., chocolate and strawberry milk) water content (e.g. dry milk powde= r, condensed milk, ultrafiltered milk) Milk preserved by the UHT process do= es not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf l= ife (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unre= frigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia. Reduction= or elimination of lactose Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing mil= k over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier. Once the molecule is cleav= ed, there are no lactose ill effects. Forms are available with reduced amou= nts of lactose (typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly 0%.= The only noticeable difference from regular milk is a slightly sweeter tas= te due to the generation of glucose by lactose cleavage. It does not, howev= er, contain more glucose, and is nutritionally identical to regular milk. F= inland, where approximately 17% of the Finnish-speaking population has hypo= lactasia,[148] has had "HYLA" (acronym for hydrolysed lactose) products ava= ilable for many years. Lactose of low-lactose level cow's milk products, ra= nging from ice cream to cheese, is enzymatically hydrolysed into glucose an= d galactose. The ultra-pasteurization process, combined with aseptic packag= ing, ensures a long shelf life. In 2001, Valio launched a lactose-free milk= drink that is not sweet like HYLA milk but has the fresh taste of ordinary= milk. Valio patented the chromatographic separation method to remove lacto= se. Valio also markets these products in Sweden, Estonia, Belgium,[149] and= the United States, where the company says ultrafiltration is used.[150] In= the UK, where an estimated 4.7% of the population are affected by lactose = intolerance,[151] Lactofree produces milk, cheese, and yogurt products that= contain only 0.03% lactose. To aid digestion in those with lactose intoler= ance, milk with added bacterial cultures such as Lactobacillus acidophilus = ("acidophilus milk") and bifidobacteria ("a/B milk") is available in some a= reas.[152] Another milk with Lactococcus lactis bacteria cultures ("culture= d buttermilk") often is used in cooking to replace the traditional use of n= aturally soured milk, which has become rare due to the ubiquity of pasteuri= zation, which also kills the naturally occurring Lactococcus bacteria.[153]= Lactose-free and lactose-reduced milk can also be produced via ultra filtr= ation, which removes smaller molecules such as lactose and water while leav= ing calcium and proteins behind. Milk produced via these methods has a lowe= r sugar content than regular milk.[82] Additives and flavoring In areas whe= re the cattle (and often the people) live indoors, commercially sold milk c= ommonly has vitamin D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB ra= diation. Reduced-fat milks often have added vitamin A palmitate to compensa= te for the loss of the vitamin during fat removal; in the United States thi= s results in reduced fat milks having a higher vitamin A content than whole= milk.[154] Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a m= eans of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and ha= s been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others. Some nutrition= ists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of= high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonl= y obese in the U.S.[155] Distribution Returning reusable glass milk bottles= , used for home delivery service in the UK A glass bottle of non-homogenize= d, organic, local milk from the U.S. state of California. American milk bot= tles are generally rectangular in shape[citation needed] A rectangular milk= jug design used by Costco and Sam's Club stores in the United States which= allows for stacking and display of filled containers rather than being shi= pped to the store in milk crates and manual loading into a freezer display = rack Due to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be delivered to= households daily in many countries; however, improved refrigeration at hom= e, changing food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and the higher = cost of home delivery mean that daily deliveries by a milkman are no longer= available in most countries. Australia and New Zealand In Australia and Ne= w Zealand, prior to metrication, milk was generally distributed in 1 pint (= 568 mL) glass bottles. In Australia and Ireland there was a government fund= ed "free milk for school children" program, and milk was distributed at mor= ning recess in 1/3 pint bottles. With the conversion to metric measures, th= e milk industry were concerned that the replacement of the pint bottles wit= h 500 mL bottles would result in a 13.6% drop in milk consumption; hence, a= ll pint bottles were recalled and replaced by 600 mL bottles. With time, du= e to the steadily increasing cost of collecting, transporting, storing and = cleaning glass bottles, they were replaced by cardboard cartons. A number o= f designs were used, including a tetrahedron which could be close-packed wi= thout waste space, and could not be knocked over accidentally. (slogan: No = more crying over spilt milk.) However, the industry eventually settled on a= design similar to that used in the United States.[156] Milk is now availab= le in a variety of sizes in paperboard milk cartons (250 mL, 375 mL, 600 mL= , 1 liter and 1.5 liters) and plastic bottles (1, 2 and 3 liters). A signif= icant addition to the marketplace has been "long-life" milk (UHT), generall= y available in 1 and 2 liter rectangular cardboard cartons. In urban and su= burban areas where there is sufficient demand, home delivery is still avail= able, though in suburban areas this is often 3 times per week rather than d= aily. Another significant and popular addition to the marketplace has been = flavored milks =E2=80=93 for example, as mentioned above, Farmers Union Ice= d Coffee outsells Coca-Cola in South Australia.[citation needed] India In r= ural India, milk is home delivered, daily, by local milkmen carrying bulk q= uantities in a metal container, usually on a bicycle. In other parts of met= ropolitan India, milk is usually bought or delivered in plastic bags or car= tons via shops or supermarkets. The current milk chain flow in India is fro= m milk producer to milk collection agent. Then it is transported to a milk = chilling center and bulk transported to the processing plant, then to the s= ales agent and finally to the consumer. A 2011 survey by the Food Safety an= d Standards Authority of India found that nearly 70% of samples had not con= formed to the standards set for milk. The study found that due to lack of h= ygiene and sanitation in milk handling and packaging, detergents (used duri= ng cleaning operations) were not washed properly and found their way into t= he milk. About 8% of samples in the survey were found to have detergents, w= hich are hazardous to health.[157] Pakistan In Pakistan, milk is supplied i= n jugs. Milk has been a staple food, especially among the pastoral tribes i= n this country. United Kingdom Since the late 1990s, milk-buying patterns h= ave changed drastically in the UK. The classic milkman, who travels his loc= al milk round (route) using a milk float (often battery powered) during the= early hours and delivers milk in 1 pint glass bottles with aluminium foil = tops directly to households, has almost disappeared. Two of the main reason= s for the decline of UK home deliveries by milkmen are household refrigerat= ors (which lessen the need for daily milk deliveries) and private car usage= (which has increased supermarket shopping). Another factor is that it is c= heaper to purchase milk from a supermarket than from home delivery. In 1996= , more than 2.5 billion liters of milk were still being delivered by milkme= n, but by 2006 only 637 million liters (13% of milk consumed) was delivered= by some 9,500 milkmen.[158] By 2010, the estimated number of milkmen had d= ropped to 6,000.[159] Assuming that delivery per milkman is the same as it = was in 2006, this means milkmen deliveries now only account for 6=E2=80= =937% of all milk consumed by UK households (6.7 billion liters in 2008/200= 9).[160] Almost 95% of all milk in the UK is thus sold in shops today, most= of it in plastic bottles of various sizes, but some also in milk cartons. = Milk is hardly ever sold in glass bottles in UK shops. United States Gettin= g milk at the back door ~ 1940 In the United States, glass milk bottles hav= e been replaced mostly with milk cartons and plastic jugs. Gallons of milk = are almost always sold in jugs, while half gallons and quarts may be found = in both paper cartons and plastic jugs, and smaller sizes are almost always= in cartons. The "half pint" (237 mL, 5=E2=81=8412 imp pt) milk carton is t= he traditional unit as a component of school lunches, though some companies= have replaced that unit size with a plastic bottle, which is also availabl= e at retail in 6- and 12-pack size. Packaging This section needs additional= citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding cit= ations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and remove= d. Find sources: "Milk" =E2=80=93 news =C2=B7 newspapers =C2=B7 books = =C2=B7 scholar =C2=B7 JSTOR (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove thi= s template message) Glass milk bottles are now rare. Most people purchase m= ilk in bags, plastic bottles, or plastic-coated paper cartons. Ultraviolet = (UV) light from fluorescent lighting can alter the flavor of milk, so many = companies that once distributed milk in transparent or highly translucent c= ontainers are now using thicker materials that block the UV light. Milk com= es in a variety of containers with local variants: Argentina Commonly sold = in 1 liter bags and cardboard boxes. The bag is then placed in a plastic ju= g and the corner cut off before the milk is poured. Australia and New Zeala= nd Distributed in a variety of sizes, most commonly in aseptic cartons for = up to 1.5 liters, and plastic screw-top bottles beyond that with the follow= ing volumes; 1.1 L, 2 L, and 3 L. 1 liter milk bags are starting to appear = in supermarkets, but have not yet proved popular. Most UHT-milk is packed i= n 1 or 2 liter paper containers with a sealed plastic spout.[156] Brazil Us= ed to be sold in cooled 1 liter bags, just like in South Africa. Today the = most common form is 1 liter aseptic cartons containing UHT skimmed, semi-sk= immed or whole milk, although the plastic bags are still in use for pasteur= ized milk. Higher grades of pasteurized milk can be found in cartons or pla= stic bottles. Sizes other than 1 liter are rare. Canada 1.33 liter plastic = bags (sold as 4 liters in 3 bags) are widely available in some areas (espec= ially the Maritimes, Ontario and Quebec), although the 4 liter plastic jug = has supplanted them in western Canada. Other common packaging sizes are 2 l= iter, 1 liter, 500 mL, and 250 mL cartons, as well as 4 liter, 1 liter, 250= mL aseptic cartons and 500 mL plastic jugs. Chile Distributed most commonl= y in aseptic cartons for up to 1 liter, but smaller, snack-sized cartons ar= e also popular. The most common flavors, besides the natural presentation, = are chocolate, strawberry and vanilla. China Sweetened milk is a drink popu= lar with students of all ages and is often sold in small plastic bags compl= ete with straw. Adults not wishing to drink at a banquet often drink milk s= erved from cartons or milk tea. Colombia Sells milk in 1 liter plastic bags= . Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro UHT milk (trajno mlij= eko/trajno mleko/=D1=82=D1=80=D0=B0=D1=98=D0=BD=D0=BE =D0=BC=D0=BB=D0=B5= =D0=BA=D0=BE) is sold in 500 mL and 1 L (sometimes also 200 mL) aseptic car= tons. Non-UHT pasteurized milk (svje=C5=BEe mlijeko/sve=C5=BEe mleko/=D1= =81=D0=B2=D0=B5=D0=B6=D0=B5 =D0=BC=D0=BB=D0=B5=D0=BA=D0=BE) is most commonl= y sold in 1 L and 1.5 L PET bottles, though in Serbia one can still find mi= lk in plastic bags. Estonia Commonly sold in 1 L bags or 0.33 L, 0.5 L, 1 L= or 1.5 L cartons. Parts of Europe Sizes of 500 mL, 1 liter (the most commo= n), 1.5 liters, 2 liters and 3 liters are commonplace. Finland Commonly sol= d in 1 L or 1.5 L cartons, in some places also in 2 dl and 5 dl cartons. Ge= rmany Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons. Sale in 1-liter plastic bags (commo= n in the 1980s) now rare. Hong Kong Milk is sold in glass bottles (220 mL),= cartons (236 mL and 1 L), plastic jugs (2 liters) and aseptic cartons (250= mL). India Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags and in bottles in some par= ts like in west. It is still customary to serve the milk boiled, despite pa= steurization. Milk is often buffalo milk. Flavored milk is sold in most con= venience stores in waxed cardboard containers. Convenience stores also sell= many varieties of milk (such as flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in differe= nt sizes, usually in aseptic cartons. Indonesia Usually sold in 1 liter car= tons, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are available. Israel A plastic bag = of milk in Israel. Non-UHT milk is most commonly sold in 1 liter waxed card= board boxes and 1 liter plastic bags. It may also be found in 1.5 L and 2 L= waxed cardboard boxes, 2 L plastic jugs and 1 L plastic bottles. UHT milk = is available in 1 liter (and less commonly also in 0.5 L) carton "bricks". = Japan Commonly sold in 1 liter waxed paperboard cartons. In most city cente= rs there is also home delivery of milk in glass jugs. As seen in China, swe= etened and flavored milk drinks are commonly seen in vending machines. Keny= a Milk in Kenya is mostly sold in plastic-coated aseptic paper cartons supp= lied in 300 mL, 500 mL or 1 liter volumes. In rural areas, milk is stored i= n plastic bottles or gourds.[161][162] The standard unit of measuring milk = quantity in Kenya is a liter. Pakistan Milk is supplied in 500 mL plastic b= ags and carried in jugs from rural to cities for selling Philippines Milk i= s supplied in 1000 mL plastic bottles and delivered from factories to citie= s for selling. Poland UHT milk is mostly sold in aseptic cartons (500 mL, 1= L, 2 L), and non-UHT in 1 L plastic bags or plastic bottles. Milk, UHT is = commonly boiled, despite being pasteurized. South Africa Commonly sold in 1= liter bags. The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off= before the milk is poured. South Korea Sold in cartons (180 mL, 200 mL, 50= 0 mL 900 mL, 1 L, 1.8 L, 2.3 L), plastic jugs (1 L and 1.8 L), aseptic cart= ons (180 mL and 200 mL) and plastic bags (1 L). Sweden The milk section in = a Swedish grocery store. Commonly sold in 0.3 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons and s= ometimes as plastic or glass milk bottles. Turkey Commonly sold in 500 mL o= r 1L cartons or special plastic bottles. UHT milk is more popular. Milkmen = also serve in smaller towns and villages. U --b1_DJGYpay4k6yEMonNLwDLQuXXLylVBoQqqeZTtgjw3A Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable =0A=0A=0A=0A=0A=0A=0A= =0A=0A=0A
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