Received: from mail-yw0-f61.google.com ([209.85.213.61]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PPdFd-00041o-MZ; Mon, 06 Dec 2010 07:45:20 -0800 Received: by ywh1 with SMTP id 1sf10669723ywh.16 for ; Mon, 06 Dec 2010 07:45:10 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:received:mime-version:x-beenthere:received :received:received:received:received:received-spf:received:received :received:date:message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=vhO/WlhUwdCtN3Un5o1c/FFeGPwIY72UZ3vLLzk1TQ0=; b=ez11X9vWLmf1hGlgFvHITF9SPSkms/ifFM1wgmhWYup0dPLGPcoq6s6nGYLsyLlbtS ny7iSpH+0VKLXPnTfC4aIMXkc/RT/plMJTQ0LFcdHUbNme1/s3N/wa1hjXsVbFvu73lv +UOXY0E6hsx0NAHQLCgI97TeB8GbCqgGxs8Wc= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=tc4Um234gkphhC+pZF681wjDbxhf5uQjBPUuHaEk85S4Udb3KEy7ouPzMJm9RiKP9v 2m8k4+ttrjjdbNxBx9WNW2GeBvzlzEk/CRLMTX3Bi7ekB0s3tnpE0e4T/LiKqeq78wpi wqMiegMymGGm4S5lMwBaHvdVlhsQphrRv2yaE= Received: by 10.147.99.10 with SMTP id b10mr283147yam.19.1291650304586; Mon, 06 Dec 2010 07:45:04 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.150.102.24 with SMTP id z24ls1898343ybb.3.p; Mon, 06 Dec 2010 07:45:02 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.151.105.7 with SMTP id h7mr1153486ybm.6.1291650302430; Mon, 06 Dec 2010 07:45:02 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.187.3 with SMTP id k3mr3280502wff.74.1291609271386; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 20:21:11 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.187.3 with SMTP id k3mr3280498wff.74.1291609270869; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 20:21:10 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTP id p40si5488273wfc.2.2010.12.05.20.21.07; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 20:21:10 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PPSZX-0007cU-7I for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 20:21:07 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PPSZT-0007cG-JK for bpfk@lojban.org; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 20:21:07 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PPSZS-0004Ob-MW for bpfk@lojban.org; Sun, 05 Dec 2010 23:21:02 -0500 Date: Sun, 05 Dec 2010 23:21:02 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Sun Dec 5 23:21:02 EST 2010 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Length: 2408783 commit 5c2c51ab98e41a1aba0340d9c997d0a490bffbe4 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sun Dec 5 19:57:57 2010 -0800 The giant docbook/xml conversion, first pass. Now for the by-hand stuff. diff --git a/1/3/index.html b/1/3/index.html index 8f81b3a..d7e217a 100644 --- a/1/3/index.html +++ b/1/3/index.html @@ -27,21 +27,21 @@

3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?

Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a = mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.

The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throug= hout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same= sentences:

 1.1)   mi klama le zarci
        I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.
        I go to the store.

will become wearisomely familiar before Chapter= 21 is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple a= nd (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new= grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method = of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learne= d Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for sel= f-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-lea= rners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscu= re points about the language.

-

It is useful to talk further about Example 1.1= for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occu= py three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-wo= rd literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloqu= ial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the =E2=80=9Cl= iteral translation=E2=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Ccolloquial translation=E2=80= =9D respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or= both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally = means that they have the same meaning.

+

It is useful to talk further about Example 1.1= for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occu= py three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-wo= rd literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloqu= ial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the =E2=80=9Cl= iteral translation=E2=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Ccolloquial translation=E2=80= =9D respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or= both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally = means that they have the same meaning.

Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, the= se enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the p= articular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, = they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific L= ojban words, but don=E2=80=99t have exactly the meanings or uses that the E= nglish word would suggest. In Chapter 3, square = brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Al= phabet.

Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sect= ions, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discusse= d in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (rep= resented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the t= hird column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a = full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.

A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of the= se are explained in Chapter 2, except for a few = used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory secti= ons of those chapters.

Previous
What is this book?
diff --git a/1/7/index.html b/1/7/index.html index 1e79bb9..c3516b3 100644 --- a/1/7/index.html +++ b/1/7/index.html @@ -19,91 +19,140 @@
Boring Legalities
Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: Abou= t This Book
The Lojban Reference Gram= mar

7. Captions to Pictures

The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for= the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter=E2=80=99s picture ha= s no caption, =E2=80=9C(none)=E2=80=9D is specified instead.

-
-7.1)   coi lojban.  =
           coi rodo
-       Greetings, O Lojban!    Greetings, all-of you
-
-7.2)   (none)
-
-7.3)   .i .ai .i .ai=
 .o
-       [untranslatable]
-
-7.4)   jbobliku
-       Lojbanic-blocks
-
-7.5)   (none)
-
-7.6)   lei re nanmu =
cu bevri le re nanmu
-       The-mass-of two men carry the two men
-       Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).
-
-7.7)   ma drani danf=
u
-           .i di'e
-           .i di'u
-           .i dei
-           .i ri
-           .i do'i
-       [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
-           The-next-sentence.
-           The-previous-sentence.
-           This-sentence.
-           The-previous-sentence.
-           An-unspecified-utterance.
-
-7.8)   ko viska re p=
renu poi bruna la santas.
-       [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.
-
-7.9)   (none)
-
-7.10)  za'o klama=

-       [superfective] come/go
-       Something goes (or comes) for too long.
-
-7.11)  le si'o ku=
nti
-       The concept-of emptiness
-
-7.12)  (none)
-
-7.13)  .oi ro'i r=
o'a ro'o
-       [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
-
-7.14)  (none)
-
-7.15)  mi na'e lu=
mci le karce
-       I other-than wash the car
-       I didn=E2=80=99t wash the car.
-
-7.16)  drata mupl=
i pe'u .djan.
-       another example [please] John
-       Another example, John, please!
-
-7.17)  zai xanler=
fu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
-       [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n
-       "Lojban" in a manual alphabet
-
-7.18)  no no
-       0 0
-
-7.19)  (none)
-
-7.20)  (none)
-
-7.21)  (none)
-
+
Previous
Informal Bibliography
Next
Boring Legalities
diff --git a/14/15/index.html b/14/15/index.html index ceafc79..365d4bc 100644 --- a/14/15/index.html +++ b/14/15/index.html @@ -75,21 +75,21 @@ so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons= not explained here); how 15.8) nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau = la gliban. nu'u casnu

Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be = non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:<= /p> 

 15.9)  la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau=
 la lojban.
             nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]
        John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lo=
jban
             [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.
        John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George=E2=80=99s compulsio=
n, respectively.
-Example 14.17 associates speaking in Lojban wit= h John, and speaking under George=E2=80=99s compulsion with Frank. We do no= t know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone=E2=80= =99s compulsion. +Example 15.9 associates speaking in Lojban with = John, and speaking under George=E2=80=99s compulsion with Frank. We do not = know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone=E2=80=99= s compulsion.

Joiks may be prefixed with =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D to produce ijoiks, whic= h serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik =E2=80=9C.ice'o=E2=80= =9D indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first = bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a t= ense):

 15.10) mi ba gasnu la'edi'e
             .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki
             .ice'o lumci le karce
             .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u
        I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following:
             ( Compute the quantity of taxes.
             And-then wash the car.
             And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )
diff --git a/14/7/index.html b/14/7/index.html
index e693a45..0cb9b5c 100644
--- a/14/7/index.html
+++ b/14/7/index.html
@@ -42,21 +42,21 @@ means that one or more of the component sentences is tr=
ue.
 7.3)   mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu
             .ijo mi nanmu
        I am-German.  If-and-only-if I am-rich.
             If-and-only-if I am-a-man.
shows that Example 7.3 does not mean that either = I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate transl= ation would be: 
        Of the three properties =E2=80=94 German-ness, wealth, and manhood =
=E2=80=94 I possess either exactly one or else all three.
Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid= O with more than two sentences. Likewise, the c= onnectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when us= ed with more than two sentences. -

In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the =E2=80= =9Call or none=E2=80=9D interpretation intended (but not achieved) by Example 7.3 without repeating one of the bridi. See Example 8.11.

+

In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the =E2=80= =9Call or none=E2=80=9D interpretation intended (but not achieved) by Example 7.3 without repeating one of the bridi. See Example 8.10.

There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentenc= es. What is the meaning of:

 7.4)   mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la mar=
tas. .ija mi nelci la meris.
        I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.
Does this mean: 
 7.5)   I like John, and I like either Martha =
or Mary or both.
Or is the correct translation: diff --git a/18/17/index.html b/18/17/index.html index e962c4d..e67905c 100644 --- a/18/17/index.html +++ b/18/17/index.html @@ -74,21 +74,22 @@ Here is a classic example of operand logical connection= : su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve= 'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D-times-( =E2=80=9Cx=E2= =80=9D power two ) plus =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D-times-=E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D plus =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b ) plus or = minus the-root-of ( =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D-power-2 minus four-times-=E2= =80=9Ca=E2=80=9D-times-=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D ) ] divided-by two-times-=E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D. Iff ax2 + bx + c =3D 0, - then x =3D -b = =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A(b2 =E2=88= =92 4ac) + then x =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A(b2 =E2=88=92 4ac) + 2a Note the mixture of styles in Example 17.6: the = negation of b and the square root are represented by forethought and most o= f the operator precedence by prefixed =E2=80=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D, but explicit = parentheses had to be added to group the numerator properly. In addition, t= he square root parentheses cannot be removed here in favor of simple =E2=80= =9Cfe'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cku'e=E2=80=9D bracketing, because infix opera= tors are present in the operand. Getting Example 17.6= to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more= relaxed style would dispense with most of the =E2=80=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D cmavo= and just let the standard precedence rules be understood.

Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between oper= ands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operan= ds with =E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D to create intervals:

 17.7)  li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa
        the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one
        [0,1)
        the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one
diff --git a/2/15/index.html b/2/15/index.html index 3867703..d1a0779 100644 --- a/2/15/index.html +++ b/2/15/index.html @@ -43,21 +43,21 @@ The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti: You talk to what/whom? A =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one = sentence, in effect asking several questions at once. 
 15.4)  ma [cu]  =
tavla    ma
        What/Who talks    to what/whom?
The two separate =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D positions ask two separate questions= , and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.

The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D is the selbri analogue of =E2=80=9Cma=E2= =80=9D. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true rel= ation if inserted in place of the =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D:

-15.5)  do [cu] mo
+15.5)  do [cu] <=
span class=3D"selbri">mo
        You     are-what/do-what?

A =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri mi= ght. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, =E2=80= =9Cmo=E2=80=9D is a very non-specific question. The response to the questio= n in Example 15.5 could be:

 15.6)  mi [cu] <=
span class=3D"selbri">melbi
        I am beautiful.
or: 
 15.7)  mi [cu] <=
span class=3D"selbri">tavla
diff --git a/20/1 b/20/1
new file mode 120000
index 0000000..945c9b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20/1
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/21/1/index.html b/21/1/index.html
index dfa88c4..e30fea6 100644
--- a/21/1/index.html
+++ b/21/1/index.html
@@ -21,21 +21,21 @@
 

 
Formal Grammars

 
The Lojban Reference Gram=
mar

Chapter 21
Formal Grammars

The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojban. The= first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to describe p= arsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This parser = is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is in Exte= nded Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a more huma= n-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is official.) = There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for each sel= ma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.

1. YACC Grammar of Lojban

-
/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban M= achine Grammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its = author,The Logical Language Group, Inc.
+

/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine Grammard= ocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,The Logi= cal Language Group, Inc.



grammar.300 */

/* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process. The YA= CC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, concatenate= d so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the grammar. YAC= C is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which is LALR1= (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process success= fully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using some langu= age-coded processing.

Step 1 - Lexing

From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojban unam= biguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech will hav= e to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failures of fl= uent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text file = using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules.

The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-Lojban = text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojban text= may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allows the = filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize such port= ions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interference with= the parsing algorithm.

Step 2 - Filtering

From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing tasks = using the given order of precedence in case of conflict:

a. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZOI) is identified= , take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a paus= e for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening delimite= r. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recurs after a pause, as grammatically a single token (labelled =E2=80=99anything_699=E2=80=99 in this grammar). There is no need= for processing within this text except as necessary to find the closing de= limiter.

@@ -190,23 +190,23 @@ grammar.300 */ %token NAhU_665 /* change a selbr= i into an operator */ %token NIhE_666 /* change selbri = to operand; inverse of MOI */ %token NUhA_667 /* change operato= r to selbri; inverse of MOhE */ %token PA_672 /* numbers and nu= meric punctuation */ %token PEhO_673 /* forethought (P= olish) flag */ %token TEhU_675 /* closing gap fo= r MEX constructs */ %token VEI_677 /* left MEX brack= et */ %token VEhO_678 /* right MEX brac= ket */ %token VUhU_679 /* MEX operator *= / =20 -%token any_words_697 /* a string of lexable Lojban words */ -%token any_word_698 /* any single lexable Lojban words */ -%token anything_699 /* a possibly unlexable phoneme string */ +%token any_words_697 /* a string of le= xable Lojban words */ +%token any_word_698 /* any single lex= able Lojban words */ +%token anything_699 /* a possibly unl= exable phoneme string */ =20 =20 /* The following tokens are the actual lexer tokens. The _900 series tokens are duplicates that allow limited testing of lexer rules in the context of the total grammar. They are used in the actual parser, where the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ =20 %token lexer_A_701 /* flags a MAI ut= terance ordinal */ %token lexer_B_702 /* flags an EK un= less EK_BO, EK_KE */ %token lexer_C_703 /* flags an EK_BO= */ diff --git a/21/2/index.html b/21/2/index.html index defc1d8..56cea8f 100644 --- a/21/2/index.html +++ b/21/2/index.html @@ -21,39 +21,38 @@
Formal Grammars
The Lojban Reference Gram= mar

2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban

Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline

This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its = author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at: 2904= Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)

Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:

-
namenumber =3D bnf-expression
+

namenumber =3D bnf-expression



which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80=9D is defin= ed by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-references this gr= ammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same as = those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, C, .= .. in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In addition, = rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar but =E2=80=9Cs= tag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance.
  1. Names in lower case are grammatical constructs.
  2. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are terminals.
  3. Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator symbol.
  4. | represents alternation (choice).
  5. [] represents an optional element.
  6. & represents and/or (=E2=80=9CA & B=E2=80=9D is the same as = =E2=80=9CA | B | A B=E2=80=9D).
  7. ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the left. Left-= grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-referential r= ecursion with no =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D
  8. () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. Otherwise, = =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D binds closer than &, which binds closer than |.
  9. # is shorthand for =E2=80=9C[free ...]=E2=80=9D, a construct which app= ears in many places.
  10. // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (without chan= ge of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results.
-
-
text0 =3D
+
text0 =3D<= /dt>
[NAI ...] [CMENE ... # | (indicators & free ...)] [joik-jek] text-= 1
text-12 =3D
[(I [jek | joik] [[stag] BO] #) ... | NIhO ... #] [paragraphs]
paragraphs4 =3D
paragraph [NIhO ... # paragraphs]
paragraph10 =3D
(statement | fragment) [I # [statement | fragment]] ...
statement11 =3D
statement-1
| prenex statement @@ -307,22 +306,21 @@ which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cn= ame=E2=80=9D is defined by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expre
indicators411 =3D
[FUhE] indicator ...
indicator413 =3D
(UI | CAI) [NAI]
| Y
| DAhO
| FUhO

The following rules are non-formal:

-
-
word1100 =3D
+
word11= 00 =3D
[BAhE] any-word [indicators]
any-word =3D
=E2=80=9Cany single word (no compound cmavo)=E2=80=9D
anything =3D
=E2=80=9Cany text at all, whether Lojban or not=E2=80=9D
null1101 =3D
any-word SI
| utterance SA
| text SU
diff --git a/4/7/index.html b/4/7/index.html index 7310fb9..9567127 100644 --- a/4/7/index.html +++ b/4/7/index.html @@ -49,22 +49,22 @@ One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when = you need a word quickly i Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginni= ng of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are p= ermissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible in= itial pairs except at the beginning.

This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibili= ties within =E2=80=9Cfu'ivla space=E2=80=9D. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made ea= sily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them alway= s guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla r= equire running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and sh= ould be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all= the considerations that apply.

Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word in= to a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:

  1. Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.
  2. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban =E2=80= =9Cy=E2=80=9D, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.
  3. If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word = ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a sugges= tively chosen final vowel.
  4. If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that t= he word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or add= ing a suggestively chosen initial consonant.
  5. -
    Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes= the fu'ivla into a =E2=80=9Ctopic area=E2=80=9D. It is only safe to use a = 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate th= e rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen; if t= hat would produce a double =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, use an =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-= hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D and the rest of th= e fu'ivla begins with =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D (or vice versa), or if the rafsi = ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "d= z" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use= an =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D-hyphen. (This is the only use of =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80= =9D-hyphen in Lojban.)
    -
    Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used = instead of the long rafsi.
    +

    Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes t= he fu'ivla into a =E2=80=9Ctopic area=E2=80=9D. It is only safe to use a 4-= letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the = rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen; if tha= t would produce a double =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, use an =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hy= phen instead; if the rafsi ends in =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D and the rest of the = fu'ivla begins with =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D (or vice versa), or if the rafsi en= ds in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz"= (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use a= n =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D-hyphen. (This is the only use of =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D-= hyphen in Lojban.)

    +

    Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used in= stead of the long rafsi.

  6. Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-= to-the-last) syllable.
In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but th= ese commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounc= ed as a separate syllable.

Here are a few examples:

 7.3)   spaghetti (from English or Italian)
        spageti (Lojbanize)
        cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)
        dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)
diff --git a/8/5/index.html b/8/5/index.html
index 4d54da3..bad3584 100644
--- a/8/5/index.html
+++ b/8/5/index.html
@@ -41,21 +41,21 @@ it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the =
sentence constitutes a mi
 puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet=
 objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker =
can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way, =E2=80=9Cvoi=E2=80=
=9D is like =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D; the speaker=E2=80=99s intention determine=
s the meaning.
 
As a result, the following two sentences

 
 5.3)   le nanmu cu ninmu
        That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.
        The =E2=80=9Cguy=E2=80=9D is actually a gal.
=20
 5.4)   ti voi nanmu cu ninmu
        This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.
 

-mean essentially the same thing (except that Example =
5.5 involves pointing thanks to the use of =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, wherea=
s Example 5.4 doesn=E2=80=99t), and neither one is=
 self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a m=
an (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a wo=
man.
+mean essentially the same thing (except that Example =
5.4 involves pointing thanks to the use of =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, wherea=
s Example 5.3 doesn=E2=80=99t), and neither one is=
 self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a m=
an (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a wo=
man.
 

 

 

 
Previous
 
Multiple relative clauses: =E2=80=9Czi'e=
=E2=80=9D

 

 

 
Next

 
Relative clauses and descriptors

 

diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f6be75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,276 @@
+
+  Chapter 1
+Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book
+
+
+

+  1. What is Lojban?
+  Lojban (pronounced =E2=80=9CLOZH-bahn=E2=80=9D) is a constructed l=
anguage. Previous versions of the language were called =E2=80=9CLoglan=E2=
=80=9D by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started=
 the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were f=
irst described in the open literature in the article =E2=80=9CLoglan=E2=80=
=9D, published in Scientific American, June, 1960. Mad=
e well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fictio=
n (most notably in Robert Heinlein=E2=80=99s novel The Moon Is A =
Harsh Mistress) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban hav=
e been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of support=
ers, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers o=
f this book).
+  There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is=
 the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique i=
n several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:
+  
+    
+      Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with =
each other, and possibly in the future with computers.
+    
+    
+      Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.
+    
+    
+      Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic.<=
/para>
+    
+    
+      Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar.
+    
+    
+      Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its s=
ounds into words.
+    
+    
+      Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy to =
learn.
+    
+    
+      Lojban=E2=80=99s 1300 root words can be easily combined to for=
m a vocabulary of millions of words.
+    
+    
+      Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without excep=
tions.
+    
+    
+      Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear t=
hought and communication.
+    
+    
+      Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the=
 scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.
+    
+    
+      Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original wo=
rks of prose and poetry.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  2. What is this book?
+  This book is what is called a =E2=80=9Creference grammar=E2=80=9D.=
 It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of i=
t as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features=
, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features.=
 The word =E2=80=9Cdiscover=E2=80=9D is used advisedly; Lojban was not =E2=
=80=9Cinvented=E2=80=9D by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical =
features were introduced into the language long before their usage was full=
y understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove =
more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.
+  By intention, this book is complete in description but not in expl=
anation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in ), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewh=
ere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,  gives a brief overview of the language,  gives the formal structure of the language, and t=
he chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope tha=
t eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the =
explanations in this book will become available.
+  Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the c=
ompletion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a p=
ossible revision of the language that will not even be considered until fiv=
e years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to cor=
rect outright errors, the language described in this book will not be chang=
ing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change wi=
ll take place in the form of new vocabulary =E2=80=94 Lojban does not yet h=
ave nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the mod=
ern world, as  explains =E2=80=94 and thro=
ugh the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speake=
r evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language descr=
ibed here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Logla=
n, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to fu=
rther fiddling by language-meisters.
+  It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewha=
t piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban=
 topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structur=
e of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-refere=
nces as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as com=
prehensive as possible.
+  Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on=
 words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title o=
f  (which you are now reading), for example=
, is an allusion to the book English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of =
Hiberno-English. =E2=80=9CLojbanistan=E2=80=9D is both an imaginary country=
 where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community o=
f Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why =E2=80=9Cmangle=E2=80=9D? =
As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by =
the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstance=
s this book is meant to help remedy.
+

+
+

+  3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?
+  Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contai=
ns a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.
+  The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used t=
hroughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self=
-same sentences:
+  1.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.
+       I go to the store.
+
+
+  will become wearisomely familiar before  is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple a=
nd (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new=
 grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method =
of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learne=
d Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for sel=
f-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-lea=
rners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscu=
re points about the language.
+  It is useful to talk further about  for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Ex=
amples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the sec=
ond in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and t=
he third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes ca=
lled the =E2=80=9Cliteral translation=E2=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Ccolloquial =
translation=E2=80=9D respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrifice=
d thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban senten=
ce, it generally means that they have the same meaning.
+  Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts=
, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of =
the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translati=
ons, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of speci=
fic Lojban words, but don=E2=80=99t have exactly the meanings or uses that =
the English word would suggest. In , square=
 brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic A=
lphabet.
+  Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various=
 sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words dis=
cussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category=
 (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and =
the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typical=
ly a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.
+  A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All o=
f these are explained in , except for a few=
 used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sect=
ions of those chapters.
+

+
+

+  4. Disclaimers
+  It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book =
do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any su=
ch resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended=
 to give offense.
+  When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of =
lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the Engl=
ish-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If=
 so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given h=
ere.
+

+
+

+  5. Acknowledgements and Credits
+  Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Languag=
e Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial=
 =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=9D, certain chapters were first written by others and the=
n heavily edited by me to fit into this book.
+  In particular:  is a fusion of ori=
ginally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChev=
alier and Bob LeChevalier;  and  were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contr=
ibutions by Chuck Barton;  was originally =
written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end o=
f  was contributed by Nora Tansky LeCheval=
ier;  and parts of  were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in  is the work of several hands, but is primaril=
y by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in , was originally written by me, then rewritte=
n by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.
+  The research into natural languages from which parts of  draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski=
. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.
+  The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, e=
xcept for the picture appearing in , which =
is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.
+  The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.
+  I would like to thank the following people for their detailed revi=
ews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors i=
n Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulso=
n, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paul=
o S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzh=
anski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also =
known as =E2=80=9Cpc=E2=80=9D), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.
+  Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: =
Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for t=
heir suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his =
exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the =E2=80=9Cmans=
kapi=E2=80=9D dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive =
comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob Le=
Chevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and =
for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo;=
 Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text=
 to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carte=
r, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which ins=
pired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.
+  Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to J=
ames Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier cont=
ributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug=
 Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final =
responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.
+

+
+

+  6. Informal Bibliography
+  The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book i=
s one of the products, is Loglan 1: A Logical Language=
 by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Flo=
rida, U.S.A.) The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very clo=
se to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably nece=
ssary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, an=
d that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.
+  The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Americ=
an philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine=E2=80=99s philosophical writings, es=
pecially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lo=
jban.
+  The theory of negation expounded in  is derived from a reading of Larry Horn=E2=80=99s work The Na=
tural History of Negation.
+  Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsi=
ble for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.
+  Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be thr=
ee other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English diction=
ary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probab=
ly get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where =
you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist=
.
+

+
+

+  7. Captions to Pictures
+  The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation=
, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter=E2=80=99s pictu=
re has no caption, =E2=80=9C(none)=E2=80=9D is specified instead.
+  
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 1<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      
+coi lojban.             coi rodo
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+Greetings, O Lojban!    Greetings, all-of you
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 2<=
/mediaobject> has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 3<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      
+.i .ai .i .ai .o
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+[untranslatable]
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 4<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      
+jbobliku
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+Lojbanic-blocks
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 5<=
/mediaobject> has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 6<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      
+lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      The-mass-of two men carry the two men
+Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 7<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      ma drani danfu
+.i di'e
+.i di'u
+.i dei
+.i ri
+.i do'i
+      which has the following translation:
+      [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
+The-next-sentence.
+The-previous-sentence.
+This-sentence.
+The-previous-sentence.
+An-unspecified-utterance.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 8<=
/mediaobject> has the following text:
+      
+ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+[You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chapt=
er 9<=
/mediaobject> has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 10 has the following text:
+      
+za'o klama
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      [superfective] come/go
+Something goes (or comes) for too long.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 11 has the following text:
+      
+le si'o kunti
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+The concept-of emptiness
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 12 has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 13 has the following text:
+      
+.oi ro'i ro'a ro'o
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+[Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 14 has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 15 has the following text:
+      
+mi na'e lumci le karce
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      I other-than wash the car
+I didn=E2=80=99t wash the car.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 16 has the following text:
+      
+drata mupli pe'u .djan.
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      another example [please] John
+Another example, John, please!
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 17 has the following text:
+      
+zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n
+"Lojban" in a manual alphabet
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 18 has the following text:
+      
+no no
+
+      which has the following translation:
+      
+0 0
+
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 19 has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 20 has no text.
+    
+    
+      The picture for chap=
ter 21 has no text.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  8. Boring Legalities
+  Copyright =C2=A9 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Righ=
ts Reserved.
+  Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of th=
is book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright no=
tice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.
+  Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of =
this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and =
provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the te=
rms of a permission notice identical to this one.
+  Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this =
book into another language, under the above conditions for modified version=
s, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that h=
as been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.
+  The contents of  are in the publi=
c domain.
+  For information, contact:
+The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA
+Telephone 703-385-0273.
+Electronic address: llg-b=
oard@lojban.org
+World Wide Web: http://www.lojb=
an.org
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1360 @@
+
+  Chapter 10
+Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System
+
+
+

+  1. Introductory
+  This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense=
 system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form =
=E2=80=9CHow do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?=E2=80=9D =
Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to=
 educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is u=
nderstood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reade=
r should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being cor=
rectly understood.
+  The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex=
 because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the=
 longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. =
In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign =
languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached a=
n advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, al=
lowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how=
 they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on present=
ing an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they=
 may be creatively and productively combined.
+  What is =E2=80=9Ctense=E2=80=9D? Historically, =E2=80=9Ctense=E2=
=80=9D is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expr=
esses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally re=
cognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. Ther=
e are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is =
no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time ac=
tually expressed:
+  
+       I go to London tomorrow.
+       I will go to London tomorrow.
+       I am going to London tomorrow.
+
+  all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the p=
resent tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense=
 usually called =E2=80=9Cpresent progressive=E2=80=9D. Likewise, a newspape=
r headline says =E2=80=9CJONES DIES=E2=80=9D, although it is obvious that t=
he time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of E=
nglish: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary =
to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By c=
ontrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.
+  In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merel=
y the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information abo=
ut location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional =
in Lojban: a sentence like:
+  1.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go-to the market.
+
+  can be understood as:
+  
+      I went to the market.
+      I am going to the market.
+      I have gone to the market.
+      I will go to the market.
+      I continually go to the market.
+
+  as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is cor=
rect.
+  The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy: =
right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D=
, and can in fact always replace the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D (although in very=
 complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a re=
sult). In the following examples, =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D is the tense marker =
for =E2=80=9Cpast time=E2=80=9D:
+  1.2)   mi cu pu klama le zarci
+       mi pu klama le zarci
+       I in-the-past go-to the market.
+       I went to the market.
+
+  It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi b=
y adding =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D after it. This =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D is an eli=
dable terminator, but it=E2=80=99s almost never possible to actually elide =
it except at the end of the bridi:
+  1.3)   puku mi klama le zarci
+       In-the-past I go-to the market.
+       Earlier, I went to the market.
+
+1.4)   mi klama puku le zarci
+       I go-to in-the-past the market.
+       I went earlier to the market.
+
+1.5)   mi klama le zarci pu [ku]
+       I go-to the market in-the-past.
+       I went to the market earlier.
+
+   through  are different only in emphasi=
s. Abnormal order, such as  through  exhibit, ad=
ds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmav=
o =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more=
 noticeable.
+

+
+

+  2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     vi      VA                  short distance
+     va      VA                  medium distance
+     vu      VA                  long distance
+
+     zu'a    FAhA                left
+     ri'u    FAhA                right
+     ga'u    FAhA                up
+     ni'a    FAhA                down
+     ca'u    FAhA                front
+     ne'i    FAhA                within
+     be'a    FAhA                north of
+
+  (The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in .)
+  Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fami=
liar time tenses of , asks the re=
ader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to gra=
sp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section4"/>.
+  English doesn=E2=80=99t have mandatory spatial tenses. Although th=
ere are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there =
is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a=
 feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban po=
int of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not trea=
ted identically.
+  Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which =
it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary=
 journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the =
direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone.=
 For example:
+  2.1)   le nanmu va batci le gerku
+       The man [medium distance] bites the dog.
+       Over there the man is biting the dog.
+
+  What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi: =
the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The s=
peaker=E2=80=99s location. We can understand the =E2=80=9Cva=E2=80=9D as sa=
ying: =E2=80=9CIf you want to get from the speaker=E2=80=99s location to th=
e location of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction u=
nspecified).=E2=80=9D This =E2=80=9Cimaginary journey=E2=80=9D can be used =
to understand not only ,=
 but also every other spatial tense construct.
+  Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a d=
istance with a VA cmavo:
+  2.2)   le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku
+       The man [left] bites the dog.
+
+  Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker=E2=80=99s loc=
ation to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the=
 left (in the speaker=E2=80=99s reference frame) for an unspecified distanc=
e. So a reasonable translation is:
+  
+       To my left, the man bites the dog.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cmy=E2=80=9D does not have an explicit equivalent in t=
he Lojban, because the speaker=E2=80=99s location is understood as the star=
ting point.
+  (Etymologically, by the way, =E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D is derived fro=
m =E2=80=9Czunle=E2=80=9D, the gismu for =E2=80=9Cleft=E2=80=9D, whereas =
=E2=80=9Cvi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cva=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cvu=E2=80=9D are in=
tended to be reminiscent of =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D, and=
 =E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D, the demonstrative pronouns =E2=80=9Cthis-here=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cthat-there=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cthat-yonder=E2=80=9D.)
+  What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule he=
re is that the direction must come before the distance:
+  2.3)   le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku
+       The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog.
+       Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.
+
+  As explained in , it wou=
ld be perfectly correct to use =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D to move this tense to t=
he beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:
+  2.4)   zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku
+       [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog.
+       Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.
+
+

+
+

+  3. Compound spatial tenses
+  Humph, says the reader: this talk of =E2=80=9Cimaginary journeys=
=E2=80=9D is all very well, but what=E2=80=99s the point of it? =E2=80=94 =
=E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Con the left=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cvi=
=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cnearby=E2=80=9D, and there=E2=80=99s no more to be=
 said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compo=
und tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, b=
ut has several FAhAs run together:
+  3.1)   le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku
+       The man [up] [left] bites the dog.
+
+  The proper interpretation of  is that the imaginary journey has two stages: first move fro=
m the speaker=E2=80=99s location upward, and then to the left. A translatio=
n might read:
+  
+       Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.
+
+  (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-bi=
ting is going on at the edge of the street.)
+  In the English translation, the keywords =E2=80=9Cleft=E2=80=9D an=
d =E2=80=9Cabove=E2=80=9D occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This =
effect is typical of what happens when we =E2=80=9Cunfold=E2=80=9D Lojban c=
ompound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very=
 useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their coll=
oquial English equivalents.
+  The opposite order also makes sense:
+  3.2)   le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku
+       The man [left] [up] bites the dog.
+       Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.
+
+  In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is =
the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship =
does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then =
east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the=
 North Pole.
+  Each direction can have a distance following:
+  3.3)   le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku
+       The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites the dog.
+       Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog=
.
+
+  A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, =
without any specified direction. (, with VA alone, is really a special case of this rule when no di=
rections at all follow.)
+  3.4)   le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku
+       The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog.
+       Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.
+
+  Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or =
without specified distances for each:
+  3.5)   le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i
+            batci le gerku
+       The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [within]
+            bites the dog.
+       Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a m=
edium
+            distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me=
,
+            the man bites the dog.
+
+  Whew! It=E2=80=99s a good thing tense constructs are optional: hav=
ing to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much sho=
rter the Lojban version of  is than the English version.
+

+
+

+  4. Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pu      PU                  past
+     ca      PU                  present
+     ba      PU                  future
+
+     zi      ZI                  short time distance
+     za      ZI                  medium time distance
+     zu      ZI                  long time distance
+
+  Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two=
 main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the=
 spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and wh=
en both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense constr=
uct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed be=
fore or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)=

+  4.1)   le nanmu pu batci le gerku
+       The man [past] bites the dog.
+       The man bit the dog.
+
+  means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary jou=
rney through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of cou=
rse, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the =
previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)
+  Lojban recognizes three temporal directions: =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D =
for the past, =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D for the present, and =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=
=9D for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gi=
smu =E2=80=9Cpurci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ccabna=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbalvi=E2=
=80=9D. See  for an explanation =
of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many =
more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and r=
elative directions as well as =E2=80=9Cdirection-like relationships=E2=80=
=9D like =E2=80=9Csurrounding=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cwithin=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
touching=E2=80=9D, etc. (See  fo=
r a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forwa=
rd and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are ther=
e three cmavo of selma'o PU?
+  The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive spac=
e and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measurem=
ents. We have a sense of =E2=80=9Cnow=E2=80=9D which includes part of the o=
bjective past and part of the objective future, and so we naturally segment=
 the time line into three parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human re=
ality by providing a separate time-direction cmavo for the =E2=80=9Czero di=
rection=E2=80=9D, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for the zero space direc=
tion: =E2=80=9Cbu'u=E2=80=9D, which means something like =E2=80=9Ccoincidin=
g=E2=80=9D.
+  (Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: The=
 Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed to =
be a =E2=80=9Cpoint-like observer=E2=80=9D in the relativistic sense: they =
do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, =
still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjec=
tive but also observer-based.)
+  Here are some examples of temporal tenses:
+  4.2)   le nanmu puzi batci le gerku
+       The man [past] [short distance] bites the dog.
+       A short time ago, the man bit the dog.
+
+4.3)   le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku
+       The man [past] [past] bites the dog.
+       Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the dog.
+       The man had bitten the dog.
+       The man had been biting the dog.
+
+4.4)   le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku
+       The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog.
+       Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will bite th=
e dog.
+       Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog.
+       The man will have just bitten the dog.
+       The man will just have been biting the dog.
+
+  What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojb=
an does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs:
+  4.5)   le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku
+       The man [short] [past] bites the dog.
+       Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite th=
e dog.
+
+4.6)   le nanmu zu batci le gerku
+       The man [long] bites the dog.
+       A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the dog.
+
+   and  are perfectly legitimate, but may=
 not be very much used: =E2=80=9Czi=E2=80=9D by itself signals an event tha=
t happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is =
in the past or the future. A rough translation might be =E2=80=9Cabout now,=
 but not exactly now=E2=80=9D.
+  Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable =
with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (=E2=80=
=9Cnearby=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cfar away=E2=80=9D), but we live only from pa=
st to future, and the idea of an event which happens =E2=80=9Cnearby in tim=
e=E2=80=9D is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots of such possibilities th=
at don=E2=80=99t seem all that useful to English-speakers, even though you =
can put them together productively; this fact may be a limitation of Englis=
h.
+  Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tens=
e:
+  4.7)   le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku
+       The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog.
+       Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.
+
+  Alternatively,
+  4.8)   le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku
+       The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].
+       The man bit the dog long ago and far away.
+
+

+
+

+  5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ve'i    VEhA                short space interval
+     ve'a    VEhA                medium space interval
+     ve'u    VEhA                long space interval
+
+     ze'i    ZEhA                short time interval
+     ze'a    ZEhA                medium time interval
+     ze'u    ZEhA                long time interval
+
+  So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought of=
 as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog a=
t a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more =E2=80=
=9Cspread out=E2=80=9D than that: =E2=80=9Cmi vasxu=E2=80=9D (I breathe) is=
 something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, a=
nd over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VE=
hA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constru=
cts we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of t=
he time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.
+  5.1)   le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli
+       The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice.
+       In a small space, the child walks on the ice.
+       The child walks about a small area of the ice.
+
+  means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distance=
s, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as =E2=80=9Csmall, medium=
, large=E2=80=9D, and are relative to the context: a small part of a room m=
ight be a large part of a table in that room.
+  Here is an example using a time interval:
+  5.2)   le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli
+       The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.
+       For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.
+
+  Note that with no time direction word,  does not say when the walking happened: that would=
 be determined by context. It is possible to specify both directions or dis=
tances and an interval, in which case the interval always comes afterward:<=
/para>
+  5.3)   le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli
+       The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.
+       For a medium time, the child walked on the ice.
+       The child walked on the ice for a while.
+
+  In , the relati=
onship of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indetermi=
nate. Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it cent=
ered on the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interv=
al, this question can be conclusively answered:
+  5.4)   mi ca ze'ica cusku dei
+       I [present] [short time interval =E2=80=93 present] express this-ut=
terance.
+       I am now saying this sentence.
+
+  means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and e=
xtending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which=
 is . Of course, =E2=80=
=9Cshort=E2=80=9D is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sentence ta=
kes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, the era o=
f Homo sapiens would only be a =E2=80=9Cze'i=E2=80=9D =
interval.
+  By contrast,
+  5.5)   mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei
+       I [present] [short time interval =E2=80=93 past] express this-utter=
ance.
+       I have just been saying this sentence.
+
+  means that for a short time interval extending from the past to th=
e present I have been expressing . Here the imaginary journey starts at the present, lays down one =
end point of the interval, moves into the past, and lays down the other end=
point. Another example:
+  5.6)   mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi
+       I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal.
+       For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal.
+       I ate my meal for a while.
+
+  With =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D instead of =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D,  becomes ,
+  5.7)   mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi
+       I [past] [medium time interval =E2=80=93 present] eat my meal.
+       For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal.
+       I ate my meal for a while.
+
+  because the interval would then be centered on the past moment rat=
her than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial English =
translations are the same =E2=80=94 English is not well-suited to represent=
ing this distinction.
+  Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and with=
out specified directions:
+  5.8)   ta ri'u ve'i finpe
+       That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish.
+       That thing on my right is a fish.
+
+  In , there is n=
o equivalent in the colloquial English translation of the =E2=80=9Csmall in=
terval=E2=80=9D which the fish occupies. Neither the Lojban nor the English=
 expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare :
+  5.9)   ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe
+       That-there [right] [short space interval =E2=80=93 front] is-a-fish=
.
+       That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.
+
+  Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point =
on my right to another point in front of the first point.
+

+
+

+  6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
+  What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of=
 the type discussed in ? The Lojb=
an rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time=
 interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:
+  6.1)   mi pu klama le zarci
+       I [past] go-to the market.
+
+  really means:
+  
+       At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as
+       well, the event =E2=80=9CI went to the market=E2=80=9D was in progr=
ess.
+
+  The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speak=
er=E2=80=99s past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole=
 interval is in the speaker=E2=80=99s past! It is entirely possible that th=
e interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into=
 the speaker=E2=80=99s present or even future.
+   points up a fu=
ndamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English p=
ast-tense sentence like =E2=80=9CI went to the market=E2=80=9D generally si=
gnifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that=
 the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D=
 has no such implication.
+  This property of a past tense is sometimes called =E2=80=9Caorist=
=E2=80=9D, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classic=
al Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:
+  6.3)   le tricu ba crino
+       The tree [future] is-green.
+       The tree will be green.
+
+  does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that t=
he tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, =
in fact, green may have already started.
+  This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of ind=
icating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are s=
everal ways of expressing that concept: see  (event contours) and  (logical connection between tenses).
+

+
+

+  7. Dimensionality: VIhA
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     vi'i    VIhA                on a line
+     vi'a    VIhA                in an area
+     vi'u    VIhA                through a volume
+     vi'e    VIhA                throughout a space/time interval
+
+  The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fu=
ndamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is mult=
i-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over =
a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows f=
or this. I can specify that a motion =E2=80=9Cin a small space=E2=80=9D is =
more specifically =E2=80=9Cin a short line=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cin a small ar=
ea=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cthrough a small volume=E2=80=9D.
+  What about the child walking on the ice in  through ? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is=
 most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate me=
mber of selma'o VIhA:
+  7.1)   le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli
+       The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.
+       In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.
+
+  Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if bo=
th, VEhA must come first, as  shows.
+  The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Readers =
who don=E2=80=99t wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-=
dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is =
three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojba=
n tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the=
 third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on=
 a mountain could be called =E2=80=9Cvi'a=E2=80=9D, because relatively spea=
king the mountain is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface=
. Motion which is not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking =
through a three-dimensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains=
 rather than on a single mountain) would be properly described with =E2=80=
=9Cvi'u=E2=80=9D. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimensionalit=
y controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.
+  VIhA has a member =E2=80=9Cvi'e=E2=80=9D which indicates a 4-dimen=
sional interval, one that involves both space and time. This allows the spa=
tial tenses to invade, to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible =
to make statements about space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (Th=
ere are presently no cmavo of FAhA assigned to =E2=80=9Cpastward=E2=80=9D a=
nd =E2=80=9Cfutureward=E2=80=9D considered as space rather than time direct=
ions =E2=80=94 they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time e=
xpression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense cons=
truct with a =E2=80=9Cvi'e=E2=80=9D interval, the resulting tense may be se=
lf-contradictory.
+

+
+

+  8. Movement in space: MOhI
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     mo'i    MOhI                movement flag
+
+  All the information carried by the tense constructs so far present=
ed has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or othe=
r in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the trut=
h of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an=
 action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented=
 by the tense system, using the cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D (of selma'o MO=
hI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refer=
s to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.=

+  8.1)   le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
+       The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
+       The child walks toward my right on the ice.
+
+  This is quite different from:
+  8.2)   le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli
+       The child [right] walks-on the ice.
+       To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.
+
+  In either case, however, the reference frame for defining =E2=80=
=9Cright=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cleft=E2=80=9D is the speaker=E2=80=99s, not =
the child=E2=80=99s. This can be changed thus:
+  8.3)   le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a
+       The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-frame th=
e-x1-place.
+       The child walks toward her right on the ice.
+
+   is analogous t=
o . The cmavo =E2=80=9Cm=
a'i=E2=80=9D belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in ), and allows specifying a reference frame.
+  Both a regular and a =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D-flagged spatial tense =
can be combined, with the =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D construct coming last:
+  8.4)   le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli
+       The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on the ice=
.
+       Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my r=
ight on the ice.
+
+  It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like =E2=80=9Czu'=
a ca'u=E2=80=9D after =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D, but complex movements can be =
expressed in a separate bridi.
+  Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently i=
nvolving movement:
+  8.5)   mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi
+       I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.
+       While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.
+
+  (Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)
+  There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing =
movement in time =E2=80=94 time travel =E2=80=94 but one could be added eas=
ily if it ever becomes useful.
+

+
+

+  9. Interval properties: TAhE and =E2=80=9Croi=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     di'i    TAhE                regularly
+     na'o    TAhE                typically
+     ru'i    TAhE                continuously
+     ta'e    TAhE                habitually
+
+     di'inai TAhE                irregularly
+     na'onai TAhE                atypically
+     ru'inai TAhE                intermittently
+     ta'enai TAhE                contrary to habit
+
+     roi     ROI                 =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D times
+     roinai  ROI                 other than =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D times
+
+     ze'e    ZEhA                whole time interval
+     ve'e    VEhA                whole space interval
+
+  Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. W=
hether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involv=
ed, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojb=
an can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or n=
on-continuous actions.
+  9.1)   mi puzu ze'u velckule
+       I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attendee (pupi=
l).
+       Long ago I attended school for a long time.
+
+  probably does not mean that I attended school continuously through=
out the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every =
day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,
+  9.2)   mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule
+       I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-pupil.
+       Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.
+
+  The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows: =E2=80=9Cru'i=
=E2=80=9D covers the entirety of the interval, =E2=80=9Cdi'i=E2=80=9D cover=
s the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals; =
=E2=80=9Cna'o=E2=80=9D covers part of the interval, but exactly which part =
is determined by context; =E2=80=9Cta'e=E2=80=9D covers part of the interva=
l, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not=
 always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).
+  Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time dir=
ection or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are =
vague). For example:
+  9.3)   mi ba ta'e klama le zarci
+       I [future] [habitually] go-to the market.
+       I will habitually go to the market.
+       I will make a habit of going to the market.
+
+  specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefini=
te. Similarly,
+  9.4)   mi na'o klama le zarci
+       I [typically] go-to the market.
+       I typically go/went/will go to the market.
+
+  illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distan=
ce or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no=
 interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to=
-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine the=
se vague values.
+  =E2=80=9CIntermittently=E2=80=9D is the polar opposite notion to =
=E2=80=9Ccontinuously=E2=80=9D, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, bu=
t by adding the negation suffix =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D (which belongs to se=
lma'o NAI) to =E2=80=9Cru'i=E2=80=9D. For example:
+  9.5)   le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli
+       The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.
+       The child intermittently walks on the ice.
+
+  As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be ne=
gated with =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Cru'inai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cd=
i'inai=E2=80=9D are probably the most useful.
+  An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number=
 of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo =E2=80=9Croi=
=E2=80=9D (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to mak=
e a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so c=
ommonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs =E2=80=9Cnever=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9Conce=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctwice=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cthrice=E2=80=9D,=
 ... =E2=80=9Calways=E2=80=9D, and by the related phrases =E2=80=9Cmany tim=
es=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ca few times=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctoo many times=E2=80=
=9D, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus =E2=80=
=9C-roi=E2=80=9D:
+  9.6)   mi paroi klama le zarci
+       I [one time] go-to the market.
+       I go to the market once.
+
+9.7)    mi du'eroi klama le zarci
+       I [too-many times] go-to the market.
+       I go to the market too often.
+
+  With the quantified tense alone, we don=E2=80=99t know whether the=
 past, the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified=
 tense need not stand alone:
+  9.8)   mi pu reroi klama le zarci
+       I [past] [two times] go-to the market.
+       I went to the market twice.
+
+  The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both g=
oings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the L=
ojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interva=
l may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.
+  Adding =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Croi=E2=80=9D is also per=
mitted, and has the meaning =E2=80=9Cother than (the number specified)=E2=
=80=9D:
+  9.9)   le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla
+       The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.
+       The rat eats the cheese other than twice.
+
+  This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more ti=
mes, or not at all.
+  It is necessary to be careful with sentences like  and , where a quantified tense appears without an interval. Wha=
t  really says is that d=
uring an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in th=
e past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example say=
s nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is oft=
en less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market onc=
e and only once, we can use the cmavo =E2=80=9Cze'e=E2=80=9D which represen=
ts the =E2=80=9Cwhole time interval=E2=80=9D: conceptually, an interval whi=
ch stretches from time=E2=80=99s beginning to its end:
+  9.10)  mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci
+       I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.
+
+  Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,  might in appropriate context mean th=
e same as  after all =
=E2=80=94 but  allows u=
s to be specific when specificity is necessary.
+  A PU cmavo following =E2=80=9Cze'e=E2=80=9D has a slightly differe=
nt meaning from one that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cze'epu=E2=80=9D signifies the interval stretching from the infinite p=
ast to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken you); =
=E2=80=9Cze'eba=E2=80=9D is the interval stretching from the reference poin=
t to the infinite future. The remaining form, =E2=80=9Cze'eca=E2=80=9D, mak=
es specific the =E2=80=9Cwhole of time=E2=80=9D interpretation just given. =
These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never ha=
ppened without asserting that it never will.
+  9.11)  mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci
+       I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market.
+       I have never gone to the market.
+
+  says nothing about whether I might go in future.
+  The space equivalent of =E2=80=9Cze'e=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cve'e=E2=
=80=9D, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: s=
ee  for an explanation of space =
interval modifiers.
+

+
+

+  10. Event contours: ZAhO and =E2=80=9Cre'u=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pu'o    ZAhO                inchoative
+     ca'o    ZAhO                continuitive
+     ba'o    ZAhO                perfective
+     co'a    ZAhO                initiative
+     co'u    ZAhO                cessitive
+     mo'u    ZAhO                completitive
+     za'o    ZAhO                superfective
+     co'i    ZAhO                achievative
+     de'a    ZAhO                pausative
+     di'a    ZAhO                resumptive
+
+     re'u    ROI                 ordinal tense
+
+  The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is tr=
aditionally called =E2=80=9Caspect=E2=80=9D. This is not a notion well expr=
essed by English tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian =
among Lojban=E2=80=99s six source languages) consider it more important tha=
n the specification of mere position in time.
+  The =E2=80=9Cevent contours=E2=80=9D of selma'o ZAhO, with their b=
izarre keywords, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a=
 process, an occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a=
 middle, and an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each=
 ZAhO will be explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Loj=
ban syntax, ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if bo=
th are found in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO after=
ward. The imaginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the =
portion of the event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies.
+  It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other te=
nse cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen from =
an essentially timeless perspective. The =E2=80=9Cbeginning=E2=80=9D of an =
event is the same whether the event is in the speaker=E2=80=99s present, pa=
st, or future. It is especially important not to confuse the speaker-relati=
ve viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-relative viewpoint of the ZAhO=
 tenses.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an =
event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respe=
ctively:
+  10.1)  mi pu'o damba
+       I [inchoative] fight.
+       I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting.
+
+10.2)  la stiv. ca'o bacru
+       Steve [continuitive] utters.
+       Steve continues to talk.
+
+10.3)  le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli
+       The child [perfective] walks-on the ice.
+       The child is finished walking on the ice.
+
+  As discussed in , the si=
mple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, presen=
t, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well.  through  illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such =
assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begun, definitively; li=
kewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.
+  Note that in  =
and , =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D may appear to be reversed: =E2=80=9Cpu'o=
=E2=80=9D, although etymologically connected with =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D, is =
referring to a future event; whereas =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D, connected with=
 =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D, is referring to a past event. This is the natural re=
sult of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or =E2=80=9C=
pu'o=E2=80=9D, part of an event, is in the =E2=80=9Cpastward=E2=80=9D porti=
on of that event, when seen from the perspective of the event itself. It is=
 only by inference that we suppose that  refers to the speaker=E2=80=99s future: in fact, no PU te=
nse is given, so the inchoative part of the event need not be coincident wi=
th the speaker=E2=80=99s present: =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D is not necessarily=
, though in fact often is, the same as =E2=80=9Cca pu'o=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo in  =
through  refer to spans=
 of time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated=
 with an event: the beginning, marked by =E2=80=9Cco'a=E2=80=9D, and the en=
d, marked by =E2=80=9Cco'u=E2=80=9D. Specifically, =E2=80=9Cco'a=E2=80=9D m=
arks the boundary between the =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=
=80=9D parts of an event, and =E2=80=9Cco'u=E2=80=9D marks the boundary bet=
ween the =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D parts:
+  10.4)  mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi
+       I [future] [initiative] eat my meal.
+       I will begin to eat my meal.
+
+10.5)  mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi
+       I [past] [cessitive] eat my meal.
+       I ceased eating my meal.
+
+  Compare  with:=

+  10.6)  mi ba di'i co'a bajra
+       I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run.
+       I will regularly begin to run.
+
+  which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.
+  A process can have two end points, one reflecting the =E2=80=9Cnat=
ural end=E2=80=9D (when the process is complete) and the other reflecting t=
he =E2=80=9Cactual stopping point=E2=80=9D (whether complete or not).  may be contrasted with:
+  10.7)  mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi
+       I [past] [completitive] eat my meal.
+       I finished eating my meal.
+
+  In , the meal =
has reached its natural end; in , the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its nat=
ural end.
+  A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed unint=
errupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: t=
he point just before the interruption, marked by =E2=80=9Cde'a=E2=80=9D, an=
d the point just after the interruption, marked by =E2=80=9Cdi'a=E2=80=9D. =
Some examples:
+  10.8)  mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi
+       I [past] [pausative] eat my meal.
+       I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).
+
+10.9)  mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi
+       I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal.
+       I will resume eating my meal.
+
+  In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its n=
atural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points =
is represented by =E2=80=9Cza'o=E2=80=9D:
+  10.10) le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu=
 le tadgri
+       The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics problem=
 to the student-group.
+       The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class=
 too long.
+
+  That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already un=
derstood the problem.
+  An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo =
=E2=80=9Cco'i=E2=80=9D:
+  10.11) la djan. pu co'i catra la djim
+       John [past] [achievative] kills Jim.
+       John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.
+
+  Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be=
 referred to using a number followed by =E2=80=9Cre'u=E2=80=9D, which is th=
e other cmavo of selma'o ROI:
+  10.12) mi pare'u klama le zarci
+       I [first time] go-to the store.
+       I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).
+
+  Note the difference between:
+  10.13) mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci
+       I [first time] [one time] go-to the store.
+       For the first time, I go to the store once.
+
+  and
+  10.14) mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci
+       I [one time] [first time] go-to the store.
+       There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time=
.
+
+

+
+

+  11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     fe'e    FEhE                space interval modifier flag
+
+  Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, disco=
ntinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o=
 for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag =E2=80=9Cfe'e=E2=
=80=9D to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval pro=
perty would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensional=
ity cmavo:
+  11.1)  ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
+       You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the grain.
+       Sow the grain in a line and evenly!
+
+11.2)  mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta
+       I [space:] [three places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredients.
+       I buy salad ingredients in three locations.
+
+11.3)  ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku
+            li re su'i re du li vo
+       [whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places]
+            The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4.
+       Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.
+
+  As shown in , =
when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position bef=
ore the selbri (in this case =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D), it is emphasized.
+  The =E2=80=9Cfe'e=E2=80=9D marker can also be used for the same pu=
rpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo =E2=80=9Cbe'a=E2=80=9D belongs to =
selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning =E2=80=9Cnorth of=E2=80=9D.=
)
+  11.4)  tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci
+       That-yonder [medium space interval =E2=80=93 north] [space] [initia=
tive] is-a-rock.
+       That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north.
+       That is the south face of a rock.
+
+  Here the notion of a =E2=80=9Cbeginning point=E2=80=9D represented=
 by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cco'a=E2=80=9D is transferred from =E2=80=9Cbeginning=
 in time=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cbeginning in space=E2=80=9D under the influen=
ce of the =E2=80=9Cfe'e=E2=80=9D flag. Space is not inherently oriented, un=
like time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of o=
rientation is necessary, and the =E2=80=9Cve'abe'a=E2=80=9D provides an ori=
entation in which the south face is the =E2=80=9Cbeginning=E2=80=9D and the=
 north face is the =E2=80=9Cend=E2=80=9D, since the rock extends from south=
 (near me) to north (away from me).
+  Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: i=
n English, what is past is said to be =E2=80=9Cbehind us=E2=80=9D. In other=
 languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (o=
r space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA =
cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the f=
uture. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient =
for English-speakers.)
+  If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval m=
odifiers, the =E2=80=9Cfe'e=E2=80=9D flag must be prefixed to each.
+

+
+

+  12. Tenses as sumti tcita
+  So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equiv=
alently in meaning) floating about the bridi with =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D. The=
re is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument t=
ags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi =
as, in effect, an additional place:
+  12.1)  mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zda=
ni
+       I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the house.
+       I go to the market when you go to the house.
+
+  Here =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D does not appear before the selbri, nor w=
ith =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D; instead, it governs the following sumti, the =E2=
=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D construct. What  asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at=
 the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=
=9D, which means =E2=80=9Cnow=E2=80=9D when used with a selbri, means =E2=
=80=9Csimultaneously-with=E2=80=9D when used with a sumti. Consider another=
 example:
+  12.2)  mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le =
zdani
+       I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the house.
+
+  The second =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D is simply the past tense marker fo=
r the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the =
speaker=E2=80=99s past. How are we to understand the first =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=
=80=9D, the sumti tcita?
+  All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker=
=E2=80=99s location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary j=
ourney that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your goi=
ng to the house.  then =
says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speake=
r=E2=80=99s present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you wen=
t to the house.  can th=
erefore be translated:
+  
+       I had gone to the market before you went to the house.
+
+  (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present co=
ntext.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:
+  12.3)  le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka
+       The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.
+       The rat eats the cheese near the park.
+
+12.4)  le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka
+       The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the [long distance] park
+       The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.
+
+12.5)  le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka
+       The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance] park
+       The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.
+
+  The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, p=
refixed with =E2=80=9Cfe'e=E2=80=9D) are also useful as sumti tcita. The in=
terpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita,=
 however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the =
action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO =
specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main brid=
i itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which ph=
ase of the main bridi is intended. For example:
+  12.6)  mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive
+       I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live.
+       I die in the aftermath of my living.
+
+  Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my livin=
g-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast  with:
+  12.7)  mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive
+       I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.
+
+  As explained in ,  does not exclude the possibi=
lity that I died before I ceased to live!
+  Likewise, we might say:
+  12.8)  mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka
+       I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat
+
+  which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store, w=
hereas
+  12.9)  mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka
+       I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat
+
+  would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.<=
/para>
+  Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spat=
ial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):
+  12.10) le bloti pu za'o xelklama
+             fe'e ba'o le lalxu
+       The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism
+             [space] [perfective] the lake.
+       The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.
+
+  Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification: a=
lthough =E2=80=9Cxelklama=E2=80=9D appears to mean simply =E2=80=9Cis-a-mod=
e-of-transport=E2=80=9D, it does not =E2=80=94 the bridi of  has four omitted arguments, and th=
us has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning=
.
+  The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, di=
mension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the su=
mti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:
+  12.11) mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi
+       I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day.
+       I go/went/will go to the market twice today.
+
+  Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a ten=
se used within a seltcita sumti:
+  12.12) loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra
+       Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [present] w=
inter.
+       Snow falls during this winter.
+
+  claims that the interval specified by =E2=80=9Cthis winter=E2=80=
=9D is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas
+  12.13) loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra
+       Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.
+       Snow falls in the long winter.
+
+  claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winte=
rs go, snow falls.
+

+
+

+  13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     ki      KI                  sticky tense set/reset
+
+  So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban pr=
ovides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a sing=
le bridi. This property is known as =E2=80=9Cstickiness=E2=80=9D: the tense=
 gets =E2=80=9Cstuck=E2=80=9D and remains in effect until explicitly =E2=80=
=9Cunstuck=E2=80=9D. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the place an=
d time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way-station=
: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses are und=
erstood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than from th=
e speaker.
+  To make a tense sticky, suffix =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D to it:
+  13.1)  mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batc=
i le gerku
+       I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.
+       I went to the market. The man bit the dog.
+
+  Here the use of =E2=80=9Cpuki=E2=80=9D rather than just =E2=80=9Cp=
u=E2=80=9D ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Ot=
herwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of d=
etermining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before,=
 after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.
+  (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form par=
t of a narrative. See  for an ex=
planation of =E2=80=9Cstory time=E2=80=9D, which employs a different set of=
 conventions.)
+  What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?
+  13.2)  mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batc=
i le gerku
+       I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the dog.
+
+  Here the second =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D does not replace the sticky t=
ense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary=
 journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation =
of  is:
+  13.3)  I went to the market. The man had earlier =
bitten the dog.
+
+  and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from=
 any other sentences) to:
+  13.4)  mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batc=
i le gerku
+       I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog.
+
+  The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly gramm=
atical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:
+  13.5)  puku mi ba klama le zarci
+       [past] I [future] go-to the market.
+       Earlier, I was going to go to the market.
+
+  Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating fr=
ee and specified by =E2=80=9Cpuku=E2=80=9D, the second in the usual place a=
nd specified by =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D. They are considered cumulative in the=
 same way as the two tenses in separate sentences of .  is therefore equivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to:
+  13.6)  mi puba klama le zarci
+       I [past] [future] go-to the market.
+       I was going to go to the market.
+
+  Compare  and <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example8"/>, which have a different=
 meaning from  and :
+  13.7)  mi ba klama le zarci puku
+       I [future] go-to the market [past].
+       I will have gone to the market earlier.
+
+13.8)  mi bapu klama le zarci
+       I [future] [past] go-to the market.
+       I will have gone to the market.
+
+  So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved, =
order counts =E2=80=94 the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if =
there were only one tense to worry about.
+  But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They spe=
cify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order=
 to make part of a tense sticky. Consider , which adds a second bridi and a =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D t=
o :
+  13.9)  pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu=
 batci le gerku
+       [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.
+
+  What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not =E2=80=9Cpub=
a=E2=80=9D, but only =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D, since only =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D =
was made sticky with =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D. So the translation is:
+  
+       I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.
+
+  Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi:=
 descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions co=
ntain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bri=
di may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the t=
ense of the main bridi:
+  13.10) mi pu klama le ba'o zarci
+       I [past] go-to the [perfective] market
+       I went to the former market.
+
+  The significance of the =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D in  is that the speaker=E2=80=99s destina=
tion is described as being =E2=80=9Cin the aftermath of being a market=E2=
=80=9D; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which=
 it was no longer a market is in the speaker=E2=80=99s past, because the =
=E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D is interpreted relative to the =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D =
tense of the main bridi.
+  Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:
+  13.11) mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi
+       I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead.
+       I now believe that I will be dead.
+
+  Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with resp=
ect to the opinion, which is in the present.
+  =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D may also be used as a tense by itself. This c=
ancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the =
speaker=E2=80=99s location in both space and time.
+  In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then use=
d by adding a subscript to =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D. A time made sticky with =
=E2=80=9Ckixipa=E2=80=9D (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying =E2=80=
=9Ckixipa=E2=80=9D as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression,=
 the writer=E2=80=99s here-and-now is often different from the reader=E2=80=
=99s, and a pair of subscripted =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D tenses could be used t=
o distinguish the two.
+

+
+

+  14. Story time
+  Making strict use of the conventions explained in  would be intolerably awkward when a story is be=
ing told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unim=
portant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story its=
elf. The term =E2=80=9Cstory=E2=80=9D in this section refers to any series =
of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fic=
tional one.
+  Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly calle=
d =E2=80=9Cstory time=E2=80=9D, for inferring tense within a story. It is p=
resumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time mor=
e or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are impli=
citly tensed as =E2=80=9Cwhat happens next=E2=80=9D. In particular, any sti=
cky time setting is advanced by each sentence.
+  The following mini-story illustrates the important features of sto=
ry time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:
+  14.1)  puzuki ku ne'iki le kevna
+             le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci
+       [past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave,
+             the woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock
+       Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.
+
+14.2)  .i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu
+       She-1 [tenseless] eat some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh.
+       She was eating goat=E2=80=99s meat.
+
+14.3)  .i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri
+       She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method the wood-fire.
+       She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.
+
+14.4)  .i lei rectu cu zanglare
+       The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm.
+       The meat was pleasantly warm.
+
+14.5)  .i le labno goi ko'e bazaki nenri klama le kevna
+       The wolf defined-as it-2 [future] [medium] [sticky] within-came to-=
the cave.
+       A while later, a wolf came into the cave.
+
+14.6)  .i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a
+       It-2 [tenseless] takes the-mass-of flesh from-her-1.
+       It took the meat from her.
+
+14.7)  .i ko'e bartu klama
+       It-2 out ran
+       It ran out.
+
+   sets both the=
 time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D, just=
 like the sentence sequences in =
. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is=
 assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of  is marked for past tense also, as the co=
nventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English =
translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don=E2=80=99t notice =
how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tens=
e!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.
+   is tenseless.=
 Outside story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneou=
sly with that of , sinc=
e a sticky tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that=
 the event occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changin=
g the sticky time set in ).
+   has an explic=
it tense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; =
therefore, the event of  happens before that of . It cannot be determined if  happens before or after .
+   is again tens=
eless. Story time was not changed by the flashback in , so  happens after .
+   specifies the=
 future (relative to ) =
and makes it sticky. So all further events happen after .
+   and  are again tenseless, and so hap=
pen after . (Story time=
 is changed.)
+  So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium interv=
al) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14.1=
.
+  If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at=
 an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arb=
itrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in storie=
s that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies =
the sticky time sufficiently.
+

+
+

+  15. Tenses in subordinate bridi
+  English has a set of rules, formally known as =E2=80=9Csequence of=
 tense rules=E2=80=9D, for determining what tense should be used in a subor=
dinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are s=
ome examples:
+  15.1)  John says that George is going to the mark=
et.
+
+15.2)  John says that George went to the market.
+
+15.3)  John said that George went to the market.
+
+15.4)  John said that George had gone to the market.
+
+  In  and , the tense of the main sente=
nce is the present: =E2=80=9Csays=E2=80=9D. If George goes when John speaks=
, we get the present tense =E2=80=9Cis going=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cgoes=E2=80=
=9D would be unidiomatic); if George goes before John speaks, we get the pa=
st tense =E2=80=9Cwent=E2=80=9D. But if the tense of the main sentence is t=
he past, with =E2=80=9Csaid=E2=80=9D, then the tense required in the subord=
inate clause is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past=
 tense =E2=80=9Cwent=E2=80=9D; if George goes before John speaks, we get th=
e past-perfect tense =E2=80=9Chad gone=E2=80=9D.
+  The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the main=
 sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative t=
o the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks  through ).
+  Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A=
 tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense alr=
eady set in the main bridi. Thus  through  can=
 be expressed in Lojban respectively thus:
+  15.5)  la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca=
 klama le zarci
+       John [present] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the=
 market.
+
+15.6)  la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci
+       John [present] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the ma=
rket.
+
+15.7)  la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca klama le zarci
+       John [past] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the ma=
rket.
+
+15.8)  la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci
+       John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the marke=
t.
+
+  Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is . The =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D l=
ooks quite odd, as if George were going to the market right now, rather tha=
n back when John spoke. But this =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D is really a =E2=80=9C=
ca=E2=80=9D with respect to a reference point specified by the outer =E2=80=
=9Cpu=E2=80=9D. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior of multi=
ple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in .
+  There is a special cmavo =E2=80=9Cnau=E2=80=9D (of selma'o CUhE) w=
hich can be used to override these rules and get to the speaker=E2=80=99s c=
urrent reference point. (Yes, it sounds like English =E2=80=9Cnow=E2=80=9D.=
) It is not grammatical to combine =E2=80=9Cnau=E2=80=9D with any other cma=
vo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see ). Here is a convoluted sentence w=
ith several nested bridi which uses =E2=80=9Cnau=E2=80=9D at the lowest lev=
el:
+  15.9)  la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu c=
usku le se du'u
+                 la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zar=
ci
+       John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the statement=
-that
+                 George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to =
the market.
+       John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mar=
y is now going to the market.
+
+  The use of =E2=80=9Cnau=E2=80=9D does not affect sticky tenses.
+

+
+

+  16. Tense relations between sentences
+  The sumti tcita method, explained in , of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffer=
s from asymmetry. Specifically,
+  16.1)  le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le n=
anmu cu batci le gerku
+       The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bites the do=
g.
+       The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the d=
og.
+
+  which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting =
the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks o=
n the ice. By the nature of =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D, the man=E2=80=99s biti=
ng the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirab=
le to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, wit=
h a special form of =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D connecting them:
+  16.2)  le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le ver=
ba cu cadzu le bisli
+       The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.
+       The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.
+
+  =E2=80=9C.izu'abo=E2=80=9D is a compound cmavo: the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=
=80=9D separates the sentences and the =E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D is the tense.=
 The =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is required to prevent the =E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D=
 from gobbling up the following sumti, namely =E2=80=9Cle verba=E2=80=9D.
+  Note that the bridi in  appear in the reverse order from their appearance in . With =E2=80=9C.izu'abo=E2=80=9D (=
and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the o=
rigin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, bu=
t requires some care when converting between this form and the sumti tcita =
form.
+   means the sam=
e thing as:
+  16.3)  le nanmu cu batci le gerku
+             .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli
+       The man bites the dog.
+             [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on t=
he ice.
+       The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child wal=
ks on the ice.
+
+  If the =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is omitted in , the meaning changes:
+  16.4)  le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verb=
a cu cadzu le bisli
+       The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-on the ic=
e.
+       The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on=
 the ice.
+
+  Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, becaus=
e =E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D has absorbed the sumti =E2=80=9Cle verba=E2=80=9D.=

+  Do not confuse either  or  with the f=
ollowing:
+  16.5)  le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le ve=
rba cu cadzu le bisli
+       The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.
+       The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.
+
+  In , the origi=
n point is the speaker, as is usual with =E2=80=9Czu'aku=E2=80=9D.  makes the origin point of the =
tense the event described by the first sentence.
+  Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense rela=
tionship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connec=
tion claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space r=
elationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentenc=
es describe.
+  The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus =E2=
=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D. Another =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D is used to separate the sen=
tences:
+  16.6)  pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdan=
i
+       [past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house.
+       Before I go to the market, I go to the house.
+
+  A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationshi=
p between sumti:
+  16.7)  mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani
+       I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.
+
+  Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense=
-like relationship between nouns,  cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either i=
nto  or else into =E2=
=80=9CI go to the house before the market=E2=80=9D, which is ambiguous =E2=
=80=94 is the market going?
+  Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relati=
onship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as=
 a =E2=80=9Cbridi-tail=E2=80=9D is explained fully in ; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sum=
ti.)  is equivalent in =
meaning to  and :
+  16.8)  mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani
+       I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house.
+       I, before going to the market, go to the house.
+
+  In both  and <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example8"/>, the underlying sentenc=
es =E2=80=9Cmi klama le zarci=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmi klama le zdani=E2=80=
=9D are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.=

+  Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate wi=
th PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms ar=
e (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):
+  
+      subordinate:               X TENSE le nu Y
+      afterthought coordinate:   Y .i+TENSE+bo X
+      forethought coordinate:    TENSE+gi X gi Y
+
+

+
+

+  17. Tensed logical connectives
+  The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connecti=
ve system. That system is a separate topic, explained in  and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the lo=
gical connective system,  through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:
+  17.1)  la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. sa=
tre le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.
+
+17.2)  la teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.
+
+17.3)  la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.
+
+  Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connect=
ive =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later stro=
kes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective=
 by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmav=
o =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, thus:
+  17.4)  la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris=
. satre le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.
+
+17.5)  la teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.
+
+17.6)  la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu
+       Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.
+
+   through 17.6 =
are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to  through  respectively. The =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is required for th=
e same reason as in : t=
o prevent the =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D from functioning as a sumti tcita for th=
e following sumti (or, in , from being attached to the following selbri).
+  In addition to the =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D construction of  through , there is also a form of tensed logical connec=
tive with =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D fo=
r sentences). The logical connective system makes  through  equivalent in meaning:
+  17.7)  mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le ge=
rku .ija mi bevri le mlatu tu'u
+       I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the cat).
+       I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I car=
ry both.
+
+17.8)  mi bevri le dakli gi'eke bevri le gerku gi'a bevri le mlatu
+       I carry the sack and (carry the dog and/or carry the cat).
+       I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry =
both.
+
+17.9)  mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu
+       I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat).
+       I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.
+
+  Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variety =
of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all case=
s, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat or =
the dog or both.
+  To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and then=
 the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form  through :
+  17.10) mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri =
le gerku
+            .ijacabo mi bevri le mlatu tu'u
+       I carry the sack.  And [future] (I carry the dog.
+            And/or [present] I carry the cat.)
+       I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carry the=
 cat
+            or I will carry both at once.
+
+17.11) mi bevri le dakli gi'ebake bevri le gerku gi'acabo bevri l=
e mlatu
+       I carry the sack and [future] (carry the dog and/or [present] carry=
 the cat).
+       I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat or ca=
rry both at once.
+
+17.12) mi bevri le dakli .ebake le gerku .acabo le mlatu
+       I carry the sack and [future] (the cat and/or [present] the dog).
+       I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.
+
+   through  are equivalent in meaning=
 to each other, and correspond to the tenseless  through  respectively.
+

+
+

+  18. Tense negation
+  Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can b=
e contradicted by a =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D suffixed to the tense cmavo. Som=
e examples:
+  18.1)  mi punai klama le zarci
+       I [past] [not] go-to the market.
+       I didn=E2=80=99t go to the market.
+
+  As a contradictory negation,  implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying a=
nything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumti tcita, =E2=80=
=9C-nai=E2=80=9D negation indicates that the stated relationship does not h=
old:
+  18.2)  mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le =
zdani
+       I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to the house=
.
+       It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you =
went to the house.
+
+18.3)  le nanmu batci le gerku ne'inai le kumfa
+       The man bites the dog [within] [not] the room.
+       The man didn=E2=80=99t bite the dog inside the room.
+
+18.4)  mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive
+       I am-dead [continuitive - negated] the event-of I live.
+       It is false that I am dead during my life.
+
+  It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense cons=
tructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negati=
on, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense=
 other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation anal=
ogues of  to :
+  18.5)  mi na'e pu klama le zarci
+       I [non-] [past] go-to the market.
+       I go to the market other than in the past.
+
+18.6)  le nanmu batci le gerku to'e ne'i le kumfa
+       The man bites the dog [opposite-of] [within] the room.
+       The man bites the dog outside the room.
+
+18.7)  mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu do klama le zdani
+       I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of you go-to the hous=
e.
+       I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you wen=
t to the house.
+
+18.8)  mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive
+       I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.
+       I am dead other than during my life.
+
+  Unlike =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D contradictory negation, scalar negat=
ion of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:
+  18.9)  le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli
+       The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice
+       The child walks on the ice other than to my right.
+
+  The use of =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has alr=
eady been discussed in ; this use=
 is also a scalar negation.
+

+
+

+  19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ca'a    CAhA                actually is
+     ka'e    CAhA                is innately capable of
+     nu'o    CAhA                can but has not
+     pu'i    CAhA                can and has
+
+  Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to ac=
tual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For e=
xample:
+  19.1)  ro datka cu flulimna
+       All ducks are-float-swimmers.
+       All ducks swim by floating.
+
+  is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation =
is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi d=
oesn=E2=80=99t necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating no=
w or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to ,
+  19.2)  ro datka ca flulimna
+       All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers.
+       All ducks are now swimming by floating.
+
+  the resulting =
 might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seem=
s even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming ev=
en if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full fl=
avor of =E2=80=9CAll ducks are now swimming=E2=80=9D, we must append a mark=
er from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:
+  19.3)  ro datka ca ca'a flulimna
+       All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers.
+       All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.
+
+  A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether=
 for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before =E2=80=9Cki=E2=
=80=9D, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky.
+   is false in b=
oth Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, pre=
sent fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at leas=
t one duck that is not swimming now.
+  Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks =
have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have be=
en eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all)=
. Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming =E2=
=80=94 it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cka'e=E2=80=
=9D expresses this notion of innate capability:
+  19.4)  ro datka ka'e flulimna
+       All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers.
+       All ducks are innately capable of swimming.
+
+  Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in or=
der to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals b=
elong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselv=
es not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:
+  19.5)  la djan. ka'e viska
+       John [capable] sees.
+       John is innately capable of seeing.
+       John can see.
+
+  might be true about a human being named John, even though he has b=
een blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into hi=
s nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions mig=
ht occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for exam=
ple). On the other hand,
+  19.6)  le cukta ka'e viska
+       The book [capable] sees.
+       The book can see.
+
+  is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is no=
t part of the innate nature of a book.
+  Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. The=
y have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potent=
ial. This may be expressed using =E2=80=9Cnu'o=E2=80=9D, the cmavo of CAhA =
for undemonstrated potential:
+  19.7)  ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna
+       All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers.
+       All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimming by f=
loating.
+       Baby ducks can swim but haven=E2=80=99t yet.
+
+  Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then =E2=80=9Cpu'i=
=E2=80=9D is appropriate:
+  19.8)  la frank. pu'i viska
+       Frank [can and has] sees.
+       Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing.
+       Frank can see and has seen.
+
+  Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for =
=E2=80=9Cca'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnu'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cpu'i=E2=80=9D =
incorporate =E2=80=9Cca=E2=80=9D into their meaning, and are really correct=
 for =E2=80=9Cca ca'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cca nu'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cca =
pu'i=E2=80=9D. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other =
tenses than the present:
+  19.9)  mi pu ca'a klama le zarci
+       I [past] [actual] go-to the store.
+       I actually went to the store.
+
+19.10) la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani
+       Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store.
+       Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store
+            (at some understood moment in the future).
+
+  As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indetermina=
te meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying
+  19.11) ta jelca
+       That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.
+
+  with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different Englis=
h sentences =E2=80=9CThat is on fire=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CThat is inflamma=
ble.=E2=80=9D The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the sec=
ond merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:
+  19.12) ta ca ca'a jelca
+       That [present] [actual] burns.
+       That is on fire.
+
+  and
+  19.13) ta ka'e jelca
+       That [capable] burns.
+       That is capable of burning.
+       That is inflammable.
+
+  When no indication is given, as in the simple observative
+  19.14) jelca
+       It burns!
+
+  the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning =E2=80=9CFire!=E2=80=
=9D
+

+
+

+  20. Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
+  Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; log=
ical connection is explained in more detail in . Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you al=
ready understand logical connectives.
+  The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logica=
l connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences=
:
+  20.1)  mi pu je ba klama le zarci
+       I [past] and [future] go-to the market.
+       I went and will go to the market.
+
+  means the same as:
+  20.2)  mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi ba klama le z=
arci
+       I [past] go-to the market. And I [future] go-to the market.
+       I went to the market, and I will go to the market.
+
+  Tense connection and tense negation are combined in:
+  20.3)  mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci
+       I [past] [not] and [present] [not] and [future] go-to the market.
+       I haven=E2=80=99t yet gone to the market, but I will in future.
+
+   is far more s=
pecific than
+  20.4)  mi ba klama le zarci
+       I [future] go-to the market.
+
+  which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about my=
 past or present. =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D does not imply =E2=80=9Cpunai=E2=80=
=9D or =E2=80=9Ccanai=E2=80=9D; to compel that interpretation, either a log=
ical connection or a ZAhO is needed.
+  Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the lo=
gical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:<=
/para>
+  20.5)  mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu
+       I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk.
+       I walk not leftward but rightward.
+
+20.6)  mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu
+       I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk.
+       I walk not leftward but rightward.
+
+  There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allowe=
d by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to override =
simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default.
+  The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are als=
o permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by =
size, but by their end-points (=E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D belongs to selma'o BI=
hI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English =E2=80=
=9Cfrom ... to=E2=80=9D):
+  20.7)  mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu
+       I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.
+       I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.
+
+  (It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)
+  One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is dis=
cussed in . Other uses will prob=
ably be identified in future.
+

+
+

+  21. Sub-events
+  Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk abo=
ut sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six b=
ullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine tw=
ice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:
+  21.1)  mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti
+       I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-launcher=
.
+       On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.
+
+  It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the =E2=80=9Crer=
oi=E2=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Cxaroi=E2=80=9D directly together. However, the=
 non-logical connective =E2=80=9Cpi'u=E2=80=9D expresses a Cartesian produc=
t (also known as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set=
 of two firings each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twe=
lve shots in all (hence the name =E2=80=9Cproduct=E2=80=9D: the product of =
2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.
+  In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and event =
contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logical =
connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type:
+  21.2)  la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska
+       George [continuitive] [initiative] writes.
+       George continues to start to write.
+
+21.3)  mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri
+       I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum.
+       On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.
+
+

+
+

+  22. Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     jai     JAI                 tense conversion
+     fai     FA                  indefinite place
+
+  Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the plac=
es of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchan=
ging the first place with one of the others:
+  22.1)  mi cu klama le zarci
+       I go-to the market.
+
+22.2)  le zarci cu se klama mi
+       The market is-gone-to by-me.
+
+  It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumti =
tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front,=
 by using =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D plus the tense as the grammatical equivalen=
t of SE:
+  22.3)  le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka
+       The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.
+       The rat eats the cheese in the park.
+
+22.4)  le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu
+       The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat.
+       The park is where the rat eats the cheese.
+
+  In , the const=
ruction JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The pre=
vious first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numb=
ered place; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with =E2=80=9Cf=
ai=E2=80=9D, the indefinite member of selma'o FA.
+  (The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc. =
places of a bridi explicitly:
+  22.5)  fa mi cu klama fe le zarci
+
+  means the same as
+  22.6)  fe le zarci cu klama fa mi
+
+  as well as the simple
+  22.7)  mi cu klama le zarci
+
+  in which the place structure is determined by position.)
+  Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in d=
escriptions with LE selma'o:
+  22.8)  mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla
+       I saw the place-of eating the cheese.
+
+  Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=80=
=9D appears.
+  Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:
+  22.9)  mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan=
.
+       I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called =E2=80=9CJohn=
=E2=80=9D.
+       I know the time of John=E2=80=99s death.
+       I know when John died.
+
+

+
+

+  23. Tenses versus modals
+  Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly parallel=
ed by some use of modals as explained in . =
Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the sel=
bri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conv=
ersions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in=
 the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in histor=
ical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were =
utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have=
 they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in se=
mantics continue to be maintained.
+  The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi
+  23.1)  mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi
+       I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.
+       I like you because you like me.
+
+  places the =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D sumti in the x1 place of the gi=
smu =E2=80=9Cmukti=E2=80=9D (which underlies the modal =E2=80=9Cmu'i=E2=80=
=9D), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi
+  23.2)  mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi
+       I like you after the event-of you like me.
+       I like you after you like me.
+
+  places the =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D sumti in the x2 place of the gi=
smu =E2=80=9Cbalvi=E2=80=9D (which underlies the tense =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D=
), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of  and , employing the brivla =E2=80=9Cmukti=E2=80=9D=
 and =E2=80=9Cbalvi=E2=80=9D explicitly, would be:
+  23.3)  le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci =
do
+       The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.
+       Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.
+
+  and
+  23.4)  le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu do nelci =
mi
+       The event-of I like you is after the event of you like me.
+       My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.
+
+  (Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference in =
what is claimed;  and <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example4"/> claim only the causal a=
nd temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the even=
ts themselves.)
+  As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of  and  are, respectively:
+  23.5)  mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi
+       I like you. [That is] Because you like me.
+
+23.6)  do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do
+       You like me. Afterward, I like you.
+
+  In , the order=
 of the two bridi =E2=80=9Cmi nelci do=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdo nelci mi=E2=
=80=9D is the same as in . In , however, the o=
rder is reversed: the origin point =E2=80=9Cdo nelci mi=E2=80=9D physically=
 appears before the future-time event =E2=80=9Cmi nelci do=E2=80=9D. In bot=
h cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before =
the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of =E2=80=9Cmukti=E2=80=
=9D or =E2=80=9Cbalvi=E2=80=9D.
+  In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals =
and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of  and  are
+  23.7)  mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do
+       Because you like me, I like you.
+
+  and
+  23.8)  bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do
+       After you like me, I like you.
+
+  respectively.
+  The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sen=
tences) all have the same meaning:
+  
+       X .i BAI bo Y
+       BAI gi Y gi X
+       X BAI le nu Y
+
+  whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same =
meaning:
+  
+       X .i TENSE bo Y
+       TENSE gi X gi Y
+       Y TENSE le nu X
+
+  neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentence =
schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representing =
the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the tense=
d sentences, no such simple rule exists.
+

+
+

+  24. Tense questions: =E2=80=9Ccu'e=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     cu'e    CUhE                tense question
+
+  There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main Eng=
lish tense question words are =E2=80=9CWhen?=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CWhere?=
=E2=80=9D. These may be paraphrased respectively as =E2=80=9CAt what time?=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CAt what place?=E2=80=9D In these forms, their Lojban=
 equivalents simply involve a tense plus =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D, the Lojban s=
umti question:
+  24.1)  do klama le zdani ca ma
+       You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?].
+       You go to the house at what time?
+       When do you go to the house?
+
+24.2)  le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli
+       The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the ice.
+       The child at/near what place walked on the ice?
+       Where did the child walk on the ice?
+
+  There is also a non-specific tense and modal question, =E2=80=9Ccu=
'e=E2=80=9D, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used wherever a tense o=
r modal construct can be used.
+  24.3)  le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku
+       The man [what tense?] bites the dog.
+       When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?
+
+  Possible answers to  might be:
+  24.4)  va
+       [medium space].
+       Some ways from here.
+
+24.5)  puzu
+       [past] [long time].
+       A long time ago.
+
+24.6)  vi le lunra
+       [short space] The moon.
+       On the moon.
+
+24.7)  pu'o
+       [inchoative]
+       He hasn=E2=80=99t yet done so.
+
+  or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see ):
+  24.8)  seka'a le briju
+       With-destination the office.
+
+  The only way to combine =E2=80=9Ccu'e=E2=80=9D with other tense cm=
avo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifie=
s some information:
+  24.9)  do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni
+       You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain?
+       You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?
+
+  Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a q=
uestion word:
+  24.10) la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru
+       Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king
+       Was Arthur a king or will he be?
+
+  Answers to  w=
ould be logical connectives such as =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9C=
both=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnaje=E2=80=9D meaning =E2=80=9Cthe latter=E2=80=9D,=
 or =E2=80=9Cjenai=E2=80=9D meaning =E2=80=9Cthe former=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  25. Explicit magnitudes
+  It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitude=
s that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. I=
n order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban c=
onstruction called a =E2=80=9Ctermset=E2=80=9D is employed. (Termsets are e=
xplained further in  and .) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a ten=
se or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the im=
aginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:
+  25.1)  la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj.
+             la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u]
+         Frank stands [left] [start termset] George
+             [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end term=
set].
+       Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.
+
+  Here the termset extends from the =E2=80=9Cnu'i=E2=80=9D to the im=
plicit =E2=80=9Cnu'u=E2=80=9D at the end of the sentence, and includes the =
terms =E2=80=9Cla djordj.=E2=80=9D, which is the unmarked origin point, and=
 the tagged sumti =E2=80=9Clo mitre be li mu=E2=80=9D, which the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cla'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BAI, and meaning =E2=80=9Cwith quantity=E2=
=80=9D; see ) marks as a quantity. Both ter=
ms are governed by the tag =E2=80=9Czu'a=E2=80=9D
+  It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit m=
agnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise versi=
on of  is:
+  25.2)  la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u
+             lo mitre be li mu
+       Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]
+             a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.
+       Frank stands five meters to the left.
+
+

+
+

+  26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)
+  26.1)  .a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi=
 jimpe
+            fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste
+
+

+
+

+  27. Summary of tense selma'o
+  
+      PU    temporal direction
+            pu =3D past, ca =3D present, ba =3D future
+
+      ZI    temporal distance
+            zi =3D short, za =3D medium, zu =3D long
+
+      ZEhA  temporal interval
+            ze'i =3D short, ze'a =3D medium, ze'u =3D long, ze'e =3D infin=
ite
+
+      ROI   objective quantified tense flag
+            noroi =3D never, paroi =3D once, ..., roroi =3D always, etc.
+            pare'u =3D the first time, rere'u =3D the second time, etc.
+
+      TAhE  subjective quantified tense
+            di'i =3D regularly, na'o =3D typically, ru'i =3D continuously,=
 ta'e =3D habitually
+
+      ZAhO  event contours
+            see 
+
+      FAhA  spatial direction
+            see 
+
+      VA    spatial distance
+            vi =3D short, va =3D medium, vu =3D long
+
+      VEhA  spatial interval
+            ve'i =3D short, ve'a =3D medium, ve'u =3D long, ve'e =3D infin=
ite
+
+      VIhA  spatial dimensionality
+            vi'i =3D line, vi'a =3D plane, vi'u =3D space, vi'e =3D space-=
time
+
+      FEhE  spatial interval modifier flag
+            fe'enoroi =3D nowhere, fe'eroroi =3D everywhere, fe'eba'o =3D =
beyond, etc.
+
+      MOhI  spatial movement flag
+            mo'i =3D motion; see 
+
+      KI    set or reset sticky tense
+            tense+=E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D =3D set, =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D alone=
 =3D reset
+
+      CUhE  tense question, reference point
+            cu'e =3D asks for a tense or aspect, nau =3D use speaker=E2=80=
=99s reference point
+
+      JAI   tense conversion
+            jaica =3D the time of, jaivi =3D the place of, etc.
+
+

+
+

+  28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</titl=
e>
+  <para>The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for t=
he cmavo, first when used without =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D to express a direc=
tion, and then when used with =E2=80=9Cmo'i=E2=80=9D to express movement in=
 the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is=
 also listed.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+cmavo   gismu   without mo'i        with mo'i
+-----   -----   ------------        ---------
+ca'u    crane   in front (of)       forward
+ti'a    trixe   behind              backward
+zu'a    zunle   on the left (of)    leftward
+ri'u    pritu   on the right (of)   rightward
+ga'u    gapru   above               upward(ly)
+ni'a    cnita   below               downward(ly)
+ne'i    nenri   within              into
+ru'u    sruri   surrounding         orbiting
+pa'o    pagre   transfixing         passing through
+ne'a            next to             moving while next to
+te'e            bordering           moving along the border (of)
+re'o            adjacent (to)       along
+fa'a    farna   towards             arriving at
+to'o            away from           departing from
+zo'i            inward (from)       approaching
+ze'o            outward (from)      receding from
+zo'a            tangential (to)     passing (by)
+bu'u            coincident (with)   moving to coincide with
+be'a    berti   north (of)          northward(ly)
+ne'u    snanu   south (of)          southward(ly)
+du'a    stuna   east (of)           eastward(ly)
+vu'a            west (of)           westward(ly)
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Special note on =E2=80=9Cfa'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cto'o=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Czo'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cze'o=E2=80=9D:</para>
+  <para>=E2=80=9Czo'i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cze'o=E2=80=9D refer to directi=
on towards or away from the speaker=E2=80=99s location, or whatever the ori=
gin is.</para>
+  <para>=E2=80=9Cfa'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cto'o=E2=80=9D refer to directi=
on towards or away from some other point.</para>
+</section>
+
+
+</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdb4da0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,620 @@
+<chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11">
+  <title>Chapter 11
+Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstractio=
n
+
+
+

+  1. The syntax of abstraction
+  The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as =E2=80=9Cabstraction=
=E2=80=9D is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them u=
p, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very sim=
ple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features=
 in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by=
 discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of =
abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until =
.
+  An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and precedi=
ng it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are kno=
wn as =E2=80=9Cabstractors=E2=80=9D. The bridi is closed by the elidable te=
rminator =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi
+  1.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go-to the store
+
+  into an abstraction using =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, one of the members=
 of selma'o NU, we change it into
+  1.2)   nu mi klama le zarci [kei]
+       an-event-of my going-to the store
+
+  The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti,=
 as here. It is important to beware of eliding =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D improp=
erly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following th=
em with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if =E2=80=9Ck=
ei=E2=80=9D had been elided.
+  (Technically, =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D is never necessary, because th=
e elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D that closes every bridi can sub=
stitute for it; however, =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D is specific to abstractions,=
 and using it is almost always clearer.)
+  The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same=
 as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used=
 as observatives, as in =
, or used in tanru:
+  1.3)   la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica
+       John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.
+       John wants to be a soldier.
+
+  Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by =
=E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D (or any other member of selma'o LE):
+  1.4)   la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]
+       John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.
+
+  We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction either =
at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its =E2=80=9Ccu=
=E2=80=9D; in either of these circumstances, =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D can norm=
ally be elided.
+  The place structure of an abstraction selbri depends on the partic=
ular abstractor, and will be explained individually in the following sectio=
ns.
+  Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical for=
m used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of  we see =E2=80=9Cmy going-to the store=E2=80=
=9D rather than =E2=80=9CI go-to the store=E2=80=9D; likewise, in the gloss=
es of  and  we see =E2=80=9Cbeing-a-soldier=E2=
=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cis-a-soldier=E2=80=9D. This procedure reflects =
the desire for more understandable glosses, and does not indicate any chang=
e in the Lojban form. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it i=
s used as part of an abstraction selbri.
+

+
+

+  2. Event abstraction
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     nu      NU                  event abstractor
+
+  The examples in  made us=
e of =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most c=
ommon abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or sta=
te of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=
=9D description built on a =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D abstraction with ordinary d=
escriptions based on =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D alone. The following sumti are qu=
ite distinct:
+  2.1)   le klama
+       the comer, that which comes
+
+2.2)   le se klama
+       the destination
+
+2.3)   le te klama
+       the origin
+
+2.4)   le ve klama
+       the route
+
+2.5)   le xe klama
+       the means of transportation
+
+2.6)   le nu klama
+       the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some rou=
te using some means
+
+   through  are descriptions that isolate=
 the five individual sumti places of the selbri =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D.  describes something assoc=
iated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.
+  In Lojban, the term =E2=80=9Cevent=E2=80=9D is divorced from its o=
rdinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time=
. The description:
+  2.7)   le nu mi vasxu
+       the event-of my breathing
+
+  is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal cir=
cumstances). On the other hand,
+  2.8)   le nu la djan. cinba la djein.
+       the event-of John kissing Jane
+
+  is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstanc=
es).
+  We can see from  through  that ellipsis=
 of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main =
bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be ab=
le to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to re=
cognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for =
=E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place elli=
psized:
+  2.9)   mi nelci le nu limna
+       I like the event-of swimming.
+       I like swimming.
+
+  is elliptical, and most probably means:
+  2.10)  mi nelci le nu mi limna
+       I like the event-of I swim.
+
+  In the proper context, of course,  could refer to the event of somebody else swimming. Its=
 English equivalent, =E2=80=9CI like swimming=E2=80=9D, can=E2=80=99t be in=
terpreted as =E2=80=9CI like Frank=E2=80=99s swimming=E2=80=9D; this is a f=
undamental distinction between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted su=
mti can mean whatever the context indicates that it should mean.
+  Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometime=
s hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of , the appearance of =E2=80=9Cle se nelci=E2=80=
=9D (=E2=80=9Cthat which is liked=E2=80=9D) is in effect an abstraction:
+  2.11)  le se nelci cu cafne
+       The liked-thing is-frequent.
+       The thing which I like happens often.
+
+  which in this context means
+  
+       My swimming happens often.
+
+  Event descriptions with =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D are commonly used =
to fill the =E2=80=9Cunder conditions...=E2=80=9D places, among others, of =
gismu and lujvo place structures:
+  2.12)  la lojban. cu frili mi
+             le nu mi tadni [kei]
+       Lojban is-easy for-me
+             under-conditions-the event-of I study
+       Lojban is easy for me when I study.
+
+  (The =E2=80=9Cwhen=E2=80=9D of the English would also be appropria=
te for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence say=
s more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)
+  The place structure of a =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D abstraction selbri i=
s simply:
+  
+      x1 is an event of (the bridi)
+
+

+
+

+  3. Types of event abstractions
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     mu'e    NU                  point-event abstractor
+     pu'u    NU                  process abstractor
+     zu'o    NU                  activity abstractor
+     za'i    NU                  state abstractor
+
+  Event abstractions with =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D suffice to express al=
l kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lo=
jban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events=
, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about=
 four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.<=
/para>
+  An event considered as a point in time is called a =E2=80=9Cpoint-=
event=E2=80=9D, or sometimes an =E2=80=9Cachievement=E2=80=9D. (This latter=
 word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success=
 or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a =
point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. T=
he abstractor =E2=80=9Cmu'e=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cpoint-event-of=E2=80=9D=
:
+  3.1)   le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri
+       The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime.
+       John=E2=80=99s killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a cri=
me.
+
+  An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beg=
inning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a =E2=
=80=9Cprocess=E2=80=9D. The abstractor =E2=80=9Cpu'u=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=
=9Cprocess-of=E2=80=9D:
+  3.2)   ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a
+             cu porpi kei
+             so'i je'atru cu selcatra
+       [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up )
+             many state-rulers were-killed
+       During the fall of the Roman Empire,
+             many Emperors were killed.
+
+  An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive i=
s called an =E2=80=9Cactivity=E2=80=9D. The abstractor =E2=80=9Czu'o=E2=80=
=9D means =E2=80=9Cactivity-of=E2=80=9D:
+  3.3)   mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe
+       I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).
+       I am tired because I jump.
+
+  An event considered as something that is either happening or not h=
appening, with sharp boundaries, is called a =E2=80=9Cstate=E2=80=9D. The a=
bstractor =E2=80=9Cza'i=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cstate-of=E2=80=9D:
+  3.4)   le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do
+       The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you.
+       My being alive is dangerous to you.
+
+  The abstractors in  through  could all =
have been replaced by =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, with some loss of precision. No=
te that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four=
 ways:
+  
+    
+      the =E2=80=9Cstate of running=E2=80=9D begins when the runner =
starts and ends when the runner stops;
+    
+    
+      the =E2=80=9Cactivity of running=E2=80=9D consists of the cycl=
e =E2=80=9Clift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...=E2=80=9D (ea=
ch such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition of =
the cycle);
+    
+    
+      the =E2=80=9Cprocess of running=E2=80=9D puts emphasis on the =
initial sprint, the steady speed, and the final slowdown;
+    
+    
+      the =E2=80=9Cachievement of running=E2=80=9D is most alien to =
English, but sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like =
=E2=80=9CPheidippides=E2=80=99 run from Marathon to Athens=E2=80=9D (the or=
iginal marathon).
+    
+  
+  Further information on types of events can be found in .
+  The four event type abstractors have the following place structure=
s:
+  
+       =E2=80=9Cmu'e=E2=80=9D: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
+       =E2=80=9Cpu'u=E2=80=9D: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages =
x2
+       =E2=80=9Cza'i=E2=80=9D: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) bei=
ng true
+       =E2=80=9Czu'o=E2=80=9D: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting=
 of repeated actions x2
+
+

+
+

+  4. Property abstractions
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ka      NU                  property abstractor
+     ce'u    KOhA                abstraction focus
+
+  The things described by =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D descriptions (or, =
to put it another way, the things of which =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D selbri may =
correctly be predicated) are only moderately =E2=80=9Cabstract=E2=80=9D. Th=
ey are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, howe=
ver, are much more ethereal. What is =E2=80=9Cthe property of being blue=E2=
=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cthe property of being a go-er=E2=80=9D? They are what l=
ogicians call =E2=80=9Cintensions=E2=80=9D. If John has a heart, then =E2=
=80=9Cthe property of having a heart=E2=80=9D is an abstract object which, =
when applied to John, is true. In fact,
+  4.1)   la djan. cu se risna zo'e
+       John has-as-heart something-unspecified.
+       John has a heart.
+
+  has the same truth conditions as
+  4.2)   la djan. cu ckaji
+             le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]
+       John has-the-property
+             the property-of having-as-heart something.
+       John has the property of having a heart.
+
+  (The English word =E2=80=9Chave=E2=80=9D frequently appears in any=
 discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to =E2=80=9Chave=E2=80=9D=
 properties, but this is not the same sense of =E2=80=9Chave=E2=80=9D as in=
 =E2=80=9CI have money=E2=80=9D, which is possession.)
+  Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted t=
o fill places in brivla place structures:
+  4.3)   do cnino mi
+             le ka xunre [kei]
+       You are-new to-me
+             in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.
+       You are new to me in redness.
+
+  (The English suffix =E2=80=9C-ness=E2=80=9D often signals a proper=
ty abstraction, as does the suffix =E2=80=9C-ity=E2=80=9D.)
+  We can also move the property description to the x1 place of , producing:
+  4.4)   le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi
+       The property-of your being-red is-new to me.
+       Your redness is new to me.
+
+  It would be suitable to use  and  to so=
meone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.
+  There are several different properties that can be extracted from =
a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is =E2=80=9Cunderstood=E2=80=
=9D as being specified externally. Thus:
+  4.5)   ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei]
+       a-property-of me loving something-unspecified
+
+  is quite different from
+  4.6)   ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei]
+       a-property-of something-unspecified loving me
+
+  In particular, sentences like  and  are=
 quite different in meaning:
+  4.7)   la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami
+       John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X)
+       I love John more than I love George.
+
+4.8)   la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi
+       John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me).
+       John loves me more than George loves me.
+
+  The =E2=80=9CX=E2=80=9D used in the glosses of  through  as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis =
in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that =
can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in . Instead, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D of selma'o KOhA is employ=
ed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form =E2=80=9CX=E2=80=9D will be =
used in literal translations.)
+  Therefore, an explicit equivalent of , with no ellipsis, is:
+  4.9)   la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami =
ce'u
+       John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).
+
+  and of  is:
+  4.10)  la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka ce'u pr=
ami mi
+       John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me).
+
+  This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:
+  4.11)  le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]
+       the property-of giving the horse
+
+  into
+  4.12)  le ka ce'u dunda le xirma
+             [zo'e] [kei]
+       the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse
+             to someone-unspecified)
+       the property of being a giver of the horse
+
+  which is the most natural interpretation of , versus
+  4.13)  le ka [zo'e] dunda
+             le xirma ce'u [kei]
+       the property-of (someone-unspecified
+             is-a-giver of-the horse to X)
+       the property of being one to whom the horse is given
+
+  which is also a possible interpretation.
+  It is also possible to have more than one =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D i=
n a =E2=80=9Cka=E2=80=9D abstraction, which transforms it from a property a=
bstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions =E2=
=80=9Cpackage up=E2=80=9D a complex relationship for future use; such an ab=
straction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 plac=
e of the selbri =E2=80=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D, whose place structure is:
+  
+       =E2=80=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D: x1 is a predicate relationship with relati=
on
+             x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
+
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Cka=E2=80=9D abstraction selbri is =
simply:
+  
+       ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
+
+

+
+

+  5. Amount abstractions
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     ni      NU                  amount abstraction
+
+  Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property ab=
stractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bri=
di is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:
+  5.1)   le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]
+       the amount-of (the picture being-blue)
+       the amount of blueness in the picture
+
+  because =E2=80=9Cblueness=E2=80=9D could be measured with a colori=
meter or a similar device. However,
+  5.2)   le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei]
+       the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother)
+       the amount of Jane=E2=80=99s mother-ness (?)
+       the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)
+
+  makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do =
not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.
+  Semantically, a sumti with =E2=80=9Cle ni=E2=80=9D is a number; ho=
wever, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless =
prefixed by the mathematical cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo'e=E2=80=9D:
+  5.3)   li pa vu'u mo'e
+             le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]
+       the-number 1 minus the-operand
+             the amount-of (the picture being-blue)
+       1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture
+
+  Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is ex=
plained more fully in .
+  There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions ma=
ke sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of =
=E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D just like property abstractors. Thus,
+  5.4)   le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei]
+       The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue).
+       The picture varies in being blue.
+       The picture varies in blueness.
+
+  is not the same as
+  5.5)   le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei]
+       The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).
+       The picture varies in how blue it is.
+       The picture varies in blueness.
+
+   conveys that t=
he blueness comes and goes, whereas  conveys that its quantity changes over time.
+  Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort o=
f scale, and so the place structure of =E2=80=9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction sel=
bri is:
+  
+       ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
+
+  Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is t=
o use something like =E2=80=9Cle ni ... kei be=E2=80=9D. See  for the use of this construction.
+

+
+

+  6. Truth-value abstraction: =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D
+  The =E2=80=9Cblueness of the picture=E2=80=9D discussed in  refers to the measurable amount of blue=
 pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the c=
laim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban usin=
g =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D, which is closely related semantically to =E2=80=9C=
ni=E2=80=9D. In the simplest cases, =E2=80=9Cle jei=E2=80=9D produces not a=
 number but a truth value:
+  6.1)   le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei]
+       the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4
+       the truth of 2 + 2 being 4
+
+  is equivalent to =E2=80=9Ctruth=E2=80=9D, and
+  6.2)   le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei]
+       the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5
+       the truth of 2 + 2 being 5
+
+  is equivalent to =E2=80=9Cfalsehood=E2=80=9D.
+  However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true=
 or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and =E2=80=9Cjei=
=E2=80=9D is Lojban=E2=80=99s mechanism for indicating the shade of grey in=
tended:
+  6.3)   mi ba jdice le jei
+             la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]
+       I [future] decide the truth-value of
+             (George being-a-(crime doer)).
+       I will decide whether George is a criminal.
+
+   does not imply=
 that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal s=
ystem I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result, =E2=
=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D requires an x2 place analogous to that of =E2=80=9Cni=E2=
=80=9D:
+  
+       jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
+
+  Abstractions using =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D are the mechanism for fuz=
zy logic in Lojban; the =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D abstraction refers to a numbe=
r between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from =E2=80=9Cni=E2=80=9D abstract=
ions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for u=
sing =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establ=
ished.
+

+
+

+  7. Predication/sentence abstraction
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     du'u    NU                  predication abstraction
+
+  There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumt=
i; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians=
 call these the =E2=80=9Cpropositional attitudes=E2=80=9D, and they include=
 (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, an=
d the like. Consider the English sentence:
+  7.1)   I know that Frank is a fool.
+
+  How=E2=80=99s that in Lojban? Let us try:
+  7.2)   mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei]
+       I know the event of Frank being a fool.
+
+  Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and =
can=E2=80=99t be contained inside one=E2=80=99s mind, except for events of =
thinking, feeling, and the like;  comes close to claiming that Frank=E2=80=99s being-a-fool is pure=
ly a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact,  is an instance of improperly marked =E2=
=80=9Csumti raising=E2=80=9D, a concept discussed further in ).
+  Try again:
+  7.3)   mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]
+       I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.
+
+  Closer.  says t=
hat I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn=E2=80=99t say that he =
is one, as  does. To cat=
ch that nuance, we must say:
+  7.4)   mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]
+       I know the predication that Frank is a fool.
+
+  Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion =E2=80=9CFrank is =
a fool=E2=80=9D is not a property of =E2=80=9Cle du'u=E2=80=9D abstraction,=
 but of =E2=80=9Cdjuno=E2=80=9D; we can only know what is in fact true. (As=
 a result, =E2=80=9Cdjuno=E2=80=9D like =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D has a place f=
or epistemology, which specifies how we know.)  has no such implied assertion:
+  7.5)   mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]
+       I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.
+
+  and here =E2=80=9Cdu'u=E2=80=9D could probably be replaced by =E2=
=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D without much change in meaning:
+  7.6)   mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]
+       I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.
+
+  As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity, =E2=80=
=9Cdu'u=E2=80=9D has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of =
language) expressing the bridi:
+  
+       du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
+
+  and =E2=80=9Cle se du'u ...=E2=80=9D is very useful in filling pla=
ces of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavio=
r regarding bridi:
+  7.7)   la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama l=
e zarci [kei]
+       John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the stor=
e
+       John says that George goes to the store.
+
+   differs from
+  7.8)   la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci l=
i'u
+       John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote.
+       John says =E2=80=9CGeorge goes to the store=E2=80=9D.
+
+  because  claims=
 that John actually said the quoted words, whereas  claims only that he said some words or other wh=
ich were to the same purpose.
+  =E2=80=9Cle se du'u=E2=80=9D is much the same as =E2=80=9Clu'e le =
du'u=E2=80=9D, a symbol for the predication, but =E2=80=9Cse du'u=E2=80=9D =
can be used as a selbri, whereas =E2=80=9Clu'e=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical in=
 a selbri. (See  for a discussion of =E2=80=
=9Clu'e=E2=80=9D.)
+

+
+

+  8. Indirect questions
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     kau     UI                  indirect question marker
+
+  There is an alternative type of sentence involving =E2=80=9Cdu'u=
=E2=80=9D and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to =
sentences like
+  8.1)   I know that John went to the store.
+
+  we can also say things like
+  8.2)   I know who went to the store.
+
+  This form is called an =E2=80=9Cindirect question=E2=80=9D in Engl=
ish because the embedded English sentence is a question: =E2=80=9CWho went =
to the store?=E2=80=9D A person who says  is claiming to know the answer to this question. Indirect=
 questions can occur with many other English verbs as well: I can wonder, o=
r doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who went to the store.
+  To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a =E2=80=9Cle du'u=
=E2=80=9D abstraction, but rather than using a question word like =E2=80=9C=
who=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D in Lojban), we use any word that will fi=
t grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle =E2=80=9Ckau=E2=80=9D.=
 This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere.=
 The simplest Lojban translation of  is therefore:
+  8.3)   mi djuno le du'u
+             makau pu klama le zarci
+       I know the predication-of
+             X [indirect question] [past] going to the store.
+
+  In , we have ch=
osen to use =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D as the word marked by =E2=80=9Ckau=E2=80=
=9D. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well: =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=
=9D or =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D or even =E2=80=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D. Using =E2=
=80=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone =
to the store, however:
+  8.4)   mi djuno le du'u
+             la djan. kau pu
+                 klama le zarci
+       I know the predication-of/fact-that
+             John [indirect question] [past]
+                 going to the store.
+       I know who went to the store, namely John.
+       I know that it was John who went to the store.
+
+  Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D does not suggest any part=
icular value.
+  Why does Lojban require the =E2=80=9Ckau=E2=80=9D marker, rather t=
han using =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D as English and Chinese and many other langua=
ges do? Because =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D always signals a direct question, and =
so
+  8.5)   mi djuno le du'u
+             ma pu klama le zarci
+       I know the predication-of
+             [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store
+
+  means
+  8.6)   Who is it that I know goes to the store?
+
+  It is actually not necessary to use =E2=80=9Cle du'u=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Ckau=E2=80=9D at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; the=
re is generally a paraphrase of the type:
+  8.7)   mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci
+       I know about the [past] goer to-the store.
+       I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his i=
dentity).
+
+  because the x3 place of =E2=80=9Cdjuno=E2=80=9D is the subject of =
knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned po=
int is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good a=
lternative to =E2=80=9Ckau=E2=80=9D:
+  8.8)   mi ba zgana le du'u
+             la djan. jikau la djordj.
+                 cu zvati le panka
+       I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that
+             John [connective indirect question] George
+                 is-at the park.
+       I will see whether John or George (or both)
+             is at the park.
+
+  In addition,  i=
s only a loose paraphrase of , because it is left to the listener=E2=80=99s insight to realize that=
 what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some=
 other of his attributes.
+

+
+

+  9. Minor abstraction types
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     li'i    NU                  experience abstractor
+     si'o    NU                  concept abstractor
+     su'u    NU                  general abstractor
+
+  There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little use=
d so far. The abstractor =E2=80=9Cli'i=E2=80=9D expresses experience:
+  9.1)   mi morji le li'i mi verba
+       I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)
+
+  The abstractor =E2=80=9Csi'o=E2=80=9D expresses a mental image, a =
concept, an idea:
+  9.2)   mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno
+       I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.
+
+  Finally, the abstractor =E2=80=9Csu'u=E2=80=9D is a vague abstract=
or, whose meaning must be grasped from context:
+  9.3)   ko zgana le su'u
+             le ci smacu cu bajra
+       you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of
+             the three mice running
+       See how the three mice run!
+
+  All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience req=
uires an experiencer, so the place structure of =E2=80=9Cli'i=E2=80=9D is:<=
/para>
+  
+       li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
+
+  Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place struct=
ure of =E2=80=9Csi'o=E2=80=9D is:
+  
+       si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
+
+  Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort o=
f abstraction =E2=80=9Csu'u=E2=80=9D is representing, so its place structur=
e is:
+  
+       su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
+
+  The x2 place of =E2=80=9Csu'u=E2=80=9D allows it to serve as a sub=
stitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new=
 ones. For example,
+  9.4)   le nu mi klama
+       the event-of my going
+
+  can be paraphrased as
+  9.5)   le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu
+       the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event
+
+  and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:
+  9.6)   le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai
+             selcatra kei
+             be lo sa=E2=80=99ordzifa'a
+             ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi
+       the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape
+             type-of-killed-one)
+             of-type a slope-low-direction
+             type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition
+       The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race
+
+  Note the importance of using =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D after =E2=80=9C=
su'u=E2=80=9D when the x2 of =E2=80=9Csu'u=E2=80=9D (or any other abstracto=
r) is being specified; otherwise, the =E2=80=9Cbe lo=E2=80=9D ends up insid=
e the abstraction bridi.
+

+
+

+  10. Lojban sumti raising
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     tu'a    LAhE                an abstraction involving
+     jai     JAI                 abstraction conversion
+
+  It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract des=
cription is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we c=
an say:
+  10.1)  I try to open the door.
+
+  which in Lojban is:
+  10.2)  mi troci le nu
+             [mi] gasnu le nu
+                 le vorme cu karbi'o
+       I try the event-of
+             (I am-agent-in the event-of
+                 (the door open-becomes)).
+
+  which has an abstract description within an abstract description, =
quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we =
may also say:
+  10.3)  I try the door.
+
+  where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door it=
self, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Loj=
ban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is =
=E2=80=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalen=
t of  is:
+  10.4)  mi troci tu'a le vorme
+       I try some-action-to-do-with the door.
+
+  The term =E2=80=9Csumti-raising=E2=80=9D, as in the title of this =
section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstracti=
on (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate ab=
straction) is =E2=80=9Craised=E2=80=9D to the main bridi level. This transf=
ormation from  to  loses information: nothing =
except convention tells us what the abstraction was.
+  Using =E2=80=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D is a kind of laziness: it makes speak=
ing easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker=
 must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:
+  10.5)  tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a
+       something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]
+
+  which indicates that =E2=80=9Ctu'a le vorme=E2=80=9D cannot be und=
erstood. (The terminator for =E2=80=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Clu'u=E2=80=
=9D, and is used in  to=
 make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than t=
he word =E2=80=9Cvorme=E2=80=9D as such.) An example of a confusing raised =
sumti might be:
+  10.6)  tu'a la djan. cu cafne
+       something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs
+
+  This must mean that something which John does, or which happens to=
 John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to figur=
e out what. Note that without the =E2=80=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D,  would mean that John considered as an e=
vent frequently occurs =E2=80=94 in other words, that John has some sort of=
 on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in Engl=
ish, but the x1 place of =E2=80=9Ccafne=E2=80=9D is an event, and if someth=
ing that does not seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener w=
ill attempt to construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that =
=E2=80=9Cdjan.=E2=80=9D is the name of a person, and not the name of some e=
vent.)
+  Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to =E2=80=9Ctu'a=
=E2=80=9D which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is a=
chieved at the selbri level by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D (of selma'o =
JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in  and ; for the purposes of =
this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo=
 of selma'o SE. This conversion changes
+  10.7)  tu'a mi rinka
+             le nu do morsi
+       something-to-do-with me causes
+             the event-of you are-dead
+       My action causes your death.
+
+  into
+  10.8)  mi jai rinka le nu do morsi
+       I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.
+       I cause your death.
+
+  In English, the subject of =E2=80=9Ccause=E2=80=9D can either be t=
he actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typic=
ally); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D is always =
an event.  and  look equally convenient (or in=
convenient), but in making descriptions,  can be altered to:
+  10.9)  le jai rinka
+             be le nu do morsi
+       that-which-is associated-with causing
+             (the event-of your death)
+       the one who caused your death
+
+  because =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D modifies the selbri and can be incor=
porated into the description =E2=80=94 not so for =E2=80=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D.
+  The weakness of =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D used in descriptions in this=
 way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction=
 is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be mo=
re specific by using the modal form of =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D explained in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9"/>:
+  10.10) le jai gau rinka
+             be le nu do morsi
+       that-which-is agent-in causing
+             (the event-of your death)
+
+

+
+

+  11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
+  This section is a logical continuation of .
+  There exists a relationship between the four types of events expla=
ined in  and the event contour te=
nse cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutuall=
y interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU e=
vent types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in , and only summarized here.
+  The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of =
an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into se=
veral groups:
+  
+    
+      The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D represent spans of time: before an event begins, whi=
le it is going on, and after it is over, respectively.
+    
+    
+      The cmavo =E2=80=9Cco'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cdi'a=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cco'u=E2=80=9D represent points of time: t=
he start of an event, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of=
 an event after a stop, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all even=
ts can have breaks in them, in which case =E2=80=9Cde'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cdi'a=E2=80=9D do not apply.
+    
+    
+      The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cza'o=E2=80=9D co=
rrespond to =E2=80=9Cco'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D respectively,=
 in the case of those events which have a natural ending point that may not=
 be the same as the actual ending point: =E2=80=9Cmo'u=E2=80=9D refers to t=
he natural ending point, and =E2=80=9Cza'o=E2=80=9D to the time between the=
 natural ending point and the actual ending point (the =E2=80=9Cexcessive=
=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csuperfective=E2=80=9D part of the event).
+    
+    
+      The cmavo =E2=80=9Cco'i=E2=80=9D represents an entire event co=
nsidered as a point-event or achievement.
+    
+  
+  All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and abs=
tracted with =E2=80=9Cpu'u=E2=80=9D. Only processes have enough internal st=
ructure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.
+  For events seen as states and abstracted with =E2=80=9Cza'i=E2=80=
=9D, the meaningful event contours are the spans =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D; the starting and ending=
 points =E2=80=9Cco'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cco'u=E2=80=9D, and the achievem=
ent contour =E2=80=9Cco'i=E2=80=9D. States do not have natural endings dist=
inct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can =
be stopped and resumed.)
+  For events seen as activities and abstracted with =E2=80=9Czu'o=E2=
=80=9D, the meaningful event contours are the spans =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D, and the achievement co=
ntour =E2=80=9Cco'i=E2=80=9D. Because activities are inherently cyclic and =
repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do no=
t know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat.
+  For events seen as point-events and abstracted with =E2=80=9Cmu'e=
=E2=80=9D, the meaningful event contours are the spans =E2=80=9Cpu'o=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Cba'o=E2=80=9D but not =E2=80=9Cca'o=E2=80=9D (a point-even=
t has no duration), and the achievement contour =E2=80=9Cco'i=E2=80=9D.
+  Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be tr=
eated as such. The points in time may be seen as =E2=80=9Cmu'e=E2=80=9D poi=
nt-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Theref=
ore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities wi=
thin states, and many other complicated abstract things.
+

+
+

+  12. Abstractor connection
+  An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by=
 logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in=
 . The connection can be expanded to one b=
etween two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.  and  are equivalent in meaning:
+  12.1)  le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali
+             .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali
+       The quality-of Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad,
+             and the quantity of Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad.
+
+12.2)  le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali
+       The quality and quantity of Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad.
+
+  This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows=
 what uses it may eventually have.
+

+
+

+  13. Table of abstractors
+  The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it=
, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the ass=
ociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than=
 for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the foll=
owing line) its place structure.
+  
+nu      event of        fasnu  nun
+       x1 is an event of (the bridi)
+ka      property of     ckaji  kam
+       x1 is a property of (the bridi)
+ni      amount of       klani  nil
+       x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2
+jei     truth-value of  jetnu  jez
+       x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
+li'i    experience of   lifri  liz
+       x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2
+si'o    idea of         sidbo  siz
+       x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
+du'u    predication of  -----  dum
+       x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2
+su'u    abstraction of  sucta  sus
+       x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)
+za'i    state of        zasti  zam
+       x1 is a state of (the bridi)
+zu'o    activity of     zukte  zum
+       x1 is an activity of (the bridi)
+pu'u    process of      pruce  pup
+       x1 is a process of (the bridi)
+mu'e    point-event of  mulno  mub
+       x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cc2be9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,574 @@
+
+  Chapter 12
+Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures
+
+
+

+  1. Why have lujvo?
+  The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu, m=
ade up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not in=
tended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal li=
st of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for th=
e creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in ce=
rtain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, food=
s, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mill=
ion or so concepts expressible in all the world=E2=80=99s languages taken t=
ogether. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place struc=
tures and function as selbri.
+  There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lu=
jvo are condensed forms of tanru:
+  1.1)   ti fagri festi
+       That is-fire waste.
+
+  contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in:
+  1.2)   ti fagyfesti
+       That is-fire-waste.
+       That is-ashes.
+
+  Although the lujvo =E2=80=9Cfagyfesti=E2=80=9D is derived from the=
 tanru =E2=80=9Cfagri festi=E2=80=9D, it is not equivalent in meaning to it=
. In particular, =E2=80=9Cfagyfesti=E2=80=9D has a distinct place structure=
 of its own, not the same as that of =E2=80=9Cfesti=E2=80=9D. (In contrast,=
 the tanru does have the same place structure as =E2=80=9Cfesti=E2=80=9D.) =
The lujvo needs to take account of the places of =E2=80=9Cfagri=E2=80=9D as=
 well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of =E2=80=
=9Cbe ... bei ... be'o=E2=80=9D (described in ) to incorporate sumti into the middle of the lujvo.
+  So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hear=
ing a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru=
 might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sen=
se, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another se=
nse, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous s=
ignificance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure a=
nd a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relie=
ves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujv=
o are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru.
+  There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly c=
reated lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the compo=
nents of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can b=
e removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as=
 one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible=
 standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for these =
guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should suc=
h alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting an=
y guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for decidin=
g on a likely place structure =E2=80=94 one that others seeing the same wor=
d can also arrive at by similar consideration.
+  If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D,=
 or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=
=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well=
. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be =
dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produ=
ce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is us=
eful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.
+  The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a ta=
nru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are=
 described in .
+

+
+

+  2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
+  The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by =E2=80=94 but is not the s=
ame as =E2=80=94 the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was construc=
ted. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its =E2=80=9Cveljvo=E2=80=
=9D in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term =
will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a ta=
nru will be called the =E2=80=9Cseltau=E2=80=9D, and the right (modified) p=
art the =E2=80=9Ctertau=E2=80=9D, following the usage of . For brevity, we will speak of the seltau or tertau of a luj=
vo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the veljvo of that lujvo. (If=
 this terminology is confusing, substituting =E2=80=9Cmodifier=E2=80=9D for=
 =E2=80=9Cseltau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmodified=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cterta=
u=E2=80=9D may help.)
+  The place structure of a tanru is always the same as the place str=
ucture of its tertau. As a result, the meaning of the tanru is a modified v=
ersion of the meaning of the tertau; the tanru will typically, but not alwa=
ys, refer to a subset of the things referred to by the tertau.
+  The purpose of a tanru is to join concepts together without necess=
arily focusing on the exact meaning of the seltau. For example, in the Iliad, the poet talks about =E2=80=9Cthe wine-dark sea=E2=
=80=9D, in which =E2=80=9Cwine=E2=80=9D is a seltau relative to =E2=80=9Cda=
rk=E2=80=9D, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to =E2=80=9Csea=E2=
=80=9D. We=E2=80=99re talking about the sea, not about wine or color. The o=
ther words are there to paint a scene in the listener=E2=80=99s mind, in wh=
ich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of th=
e time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or color=
 will be rejected as irrelevant.
+  As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru =E2=80=
=9Cklama zdani=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cgoer-house=E2=80=9D. The gismu =E2=80=
=9Czdani=E2=80=9D has two places:
+  2.1)   x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x=
2
+
+  (but in this chapter we will use simply =E2=80=9Chouse=E2=80=9D, f=
or brevity), and the gismu =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D has five:
+  2.2)   x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point =
x3 via route x4 using means x5
+
+  The tanru =E2=80=9Cklama zdani=E2=80=9D will also have two places,=
 namely those of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D. Since a =E2=80=9Cklama zdani=E2=
=80=9D is a type of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, we can assume that all goer-ho=
uses =E2=80=94 whatever they may be =E2=80=94 are also houses.
+  But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed =
to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a le=
ss unlikely tanru: =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D, literally =E2=80=9Cdog ho=
use=E2=80=9D. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a =E2=80=9Cgerku zda=
ni=E2=80=9D is a house that has something to do with some dog or dogs. What=
 the precise relation might be is left unstated. Thus, the meaning of =E2=
=80=9Clo gerku zdani=E2=80=9D can include all of the following: houses occu=
pied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also houses (e.g. house=
s for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is essential is =
that the place structure of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D continues to apply.
+  For something (call it z1) to qualify as a =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=
=80=9D in Lojban, it=E2=80=99s got to be a house, first of all. For it to b=
e a house, it=E2=80=99s got to house someone (call that z2). Furthermore, t=
here=E2=80=99s got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to count as a =
dog in Lojban, it=E2=80=99s got to belong to some breed as well (called g2)=
. And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=
=80=9D, as opposed to just =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, there=E2=80=99s got to =
be some relationship (called r) between some place of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=
=9D and some place of =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D. It doesn=E2=80=99t matter wh=
ich places, because if there=E2=80=99s a relationship between some place of=
 =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D and any place of =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D, then tha=
t relationship can be compounded with the relationship between the places o=
f =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 namely, =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D itself =
=E2=80=94 to reach any of the other =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D places. Thus, i=
f the relationship turns out to be between z2 and g2, we can still state r =
in terms of z1 and g1: =E2=80=9Cthe relationship involves the dog g1, whose=
 breed has to do with the occupant of the house z1=E2=80=9D.
+  Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here=E2=80=99s an illustrat=
ion. We want to find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S=
. President lives, that is) counts as a =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D. We g=
o through the five variables. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Cli=
nton as z2, as of this writing, so it counts as a =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D. =
Let=E2=80=99s take a dog =E2=80=94 say, Spot (g1). Spot has to have a breed=
; let=E2=80=99s say it=E2=80=99s a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White House=
 counts as a =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D if there is any relationship (r)=
 at all between the White House and Spot. (We=E2=80=99ll choose the g1 and =
z1 places to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, an=
d simply gotten a different relationship.)
+  The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as =E2=80=9CT=
he other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea Clinton, who =
is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White House)=E2=80=9D=
 or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take another dog, and =
keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say that the W=
hite House cannot fit into the first place of =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D=
.
+  As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the de=
finition of =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D: the house, the house dweller, th=
e dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows)=
, and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are expli=
citly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a =
tanru (if it could, it wouldn=E2=80=99t be a tanru any more!) All the other=
 places, however, can be expressed =E2=80=94 thus:
+  2.3)   la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot.  bei =
la sankt. berNARD. be'o
+             zdani la bil. klinton.
+       The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernard)
+             type-of-house-for Bill Clinton.
+
+  Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or Eng=
lish. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White House,=
  is arguably true. If w=
e concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru =E2=80=
=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D, then the meaning of =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D =
changes. So if we understand =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D as having the sa=
me meaning as the English word =E2=80=9Cdoghouse=E2=80=9D, the White House =
would no longer be a =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D with respect to Spot, be=
cause as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and=
 the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwith=
standing).
+

+
+

+  3. The meaning of lujvo
+  This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say =E2=
=80=9Cdoghouse=E2=80=9D! The reader can take heart; we=E2=80=99re nearly th=
ere. Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a =
tanru =E2=80=94 the one left deliberately vague =E2=80=94 is the precise re=
lation between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is t=
antamount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru.
+  A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru. =
That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we do=
n=E2=80=99t need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the=
 seltau. We already know what kind of relation we=E2=80=99re looking for; i=
t=E2=80=99s given by the specific need we wish to express, and it determine=
s the place structure of the lujvo itself.
+  Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujvo =
and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more spe=
cific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one will =
be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r.
+  The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the re=
lation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, a=
bove), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be=
 quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language co=
mpounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place=
 and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship =E2=
=80=9Cdog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house=E2=80=9D i=
s too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a sin=
gle short word; the relationship =E2=80=9Cdog lives in house=E2=80=9D is no=
t. From all the various interpretations of =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D, t=
he person creating =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D should pick the most useful val=
ue of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, a=
nd the most obvious one is usually the closest one.
+  In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that the =
predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate it=
self. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like =E2=80=9Czdan=
i=E2=80=9D in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express relations; so when =
you=E2=80=99re looking for a relation to tie together =E2=80=9Cle zdani=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D, the most obvious relation to pick is=
 the very relation named by the tertau, =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D: the relati=
on between a home and its dweller. As a result, the object which fills the =
first place of =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D (the dog) also fills the second plac=
e of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D (the house-dweller).
+  The seltau-tertau relationship in the veljvo is expressed by the s=
eltau or tertau predicate itself. Therefore, at least one of the seltau pla=
ces is going to be equivalent to a tertau place. This place is thus redunda=
nt, and can be dropped from the place structure of the lujvo. As a corollar=
y, the precise relationship between the veljvo components can be implicitly=
 determined by finding one or more places to overlap in this way.
+  So what is the place structure of =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D? We=E2=
=80=99re left with three places, since the dweller, the =E2=80=9Cse zdani=
=E2=80=9D, turned out to be identical to the dog, the =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=
=9D. We can proceed as follows:
+  (The notation introduced casually in  will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using=
 the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we=E2=80=99ll use the first =
letter of the relevant gismu in place of the =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D, or more t=
han one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the firs=
t place of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, and g2 is the second place of =E2=80=9C=
gerku=E2=80=9D.)
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D is given as , but is repeated here using th=
e new notation:
+  3.1)   z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2
+
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D is:
+  3.2)   g1 is a dog of breed g2
+
+  But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure=
 for =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D now becomes:
+  3.3)   z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2
+
+  which can also be written
+  3.4)   z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2
+
+  or more comprehensively
+  3.5)   z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of bre=
ed g2
+
+  Despite the apparently conclusive nature of , our task is not yet done: we still need to d=
ecide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and wh=
at order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addresse=
d in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the termino=
logy needed for those discussions.
+

+
+

+  4. Selecting places
+  The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the place=
s of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are de=
rived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecess=
ary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning =
to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by =
a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, be=
cause omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of val=
ues for it.
+  It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from=
 scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments=
 contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reaso=
ns arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this =
chapter.
+  The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reade=
r, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to co=
nvey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she =
would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encounte=
red in order to work out what a =E2=80=9Cse jbopli=E2=80=9D or a =E2=80=9Ct=
e klagau=E2=80=9D is. But this would mean that, rather than having to learn=
 just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist would also have to l=
earn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or no apparent pattern o=
r regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines documented in this chap=
ter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional wherever possible.
+  The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the lu=
jvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are formul=
ated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulated =
may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo of =
the lujvo. If that is the case =E2=80=94 that is to say, if the lujvo place=
s are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places =E2=80=94 then it will be ver=
y difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place =
means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that =
will be further discussed in .
+  However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is usefu=
l in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the veljvo=
. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should loo=
k like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin wit=
h, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are releva=
nt or not relevant to expressing that idea.
+

+
+

+  5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
+  A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making=
 creates what is called a =E2=80=9Csymmetrical lujvo=E2=80=9D. A symmetrica=
l lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of=
 the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component =
of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, con=
sider the lujvo =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=9D: it is intended to mean =E2=80=9Cb=
oth great and a soldier=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 that is, =E2=80=9Cgreat soldier=
=E2=80=9D, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo, =
=E2=80=9Cbanli sonci=E2=80=9D. The underlying gismu place structures are:
+  5.1)   =E2=80=9Cbanli=E2=80=9D: b1 is great in prop=
erty b2 by standard b3
+       =E2=80=9Csonci=E2=80=9D: s1 is a soldier of army s2
+
+  In this case the s1 place of =E2=80=9Csonci=E2=80=9D is redundant,=
 since it is equivalent to the b1 place of =E2=80=9Cbanli=E2=80=9D. Therefo=
re the place structure of =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=9D need not include places =
for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure=
 of =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=9D is at most
+  5.2)  b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in prop=
erty b2 by standard b3
+
+  Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition=
 to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo =E2=80=9Ctinju'i=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cto listen=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cto hear attentively, to hear and=
 pay attention=E2=80=9D). The place structures of the gismu =E2=80=9Ctirna=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cjundi=E2=80=9D are:
+  5.3)   =E2=80=9Ctirna=E2=80=9D: t1 hears sound t2 a=
gainst background noise t3
+       =E2=80=9Cjundi=E2=80=9D: j1 pays attention to j2
+
+  and the place structure of the lujvo is:
+  5.4)  j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background=
 noise t3
+
+  Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attenti=
on) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing pa=
id attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).
+  A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first p=
lace of the seltau (=E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D in this case) is equivalent to =
a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be=
 =E2=80=9Casymmetrical=E2=80=9D. (There is a deliberate parallel here with =
the terms =E2=80=9Casymmetrical tanru=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Csymmetrical tan=
ru=E2=80=9D used in .)
+  In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmet=
rical lujvo. Consider =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D, discussed in , where we learned that the g1 place was equiv=
alent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert=
 =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cse zdani=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cselzda=
=E2=80=9D when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of =E2=80=9Cselzd=
a=E2=80=9D is
+  5.5)  s1 is housed by nest s2
+
+  and so the three-part lujvo =E2=80=9Cgerselzda=E2=80=9D would have=
 the place structure
+  5.6)  s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog bre=
ed g2
+
+  However, although =E2=80=9Cgerselzda=E2=80=9D is a valid lujvo, it=
 doesn=E2=80=99t translate =E2=80=9Cdoghouse=E2=80=9D; its first place is t=
he dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessar=
y; =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D is simpler than =E2=80=9Cgerselzda=E2=80=9D.
+  From the reader=E2=80=99s or listener=E2=80=99s point of view, it =
may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymm=
etrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place s=
tructure of the lujvo isn=E2=80=99t given in a dictionary or elsewhere, the=
n plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.
+  The lujvo =E2=80=9Ckarcykla=E2=80=9D, for example, is based on =E2=
=80=9Ckarce klama=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Ccar goer=E2=80=9D. The place struct=
ure of =E2=80=9Ckarce=E2=80=9D is:
+  5.7)  karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by=
 ka3
+
+  A asymmetrical interpretation of =E2=80=9Ckarcykla=E2=80=9D that i=
s strictly analogous to the place structure of =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D, eq=
uating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place =
structure
+  5.8)  kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 p=
ropelled by ka3 from origin kl3
+            via route kl4 by means of kl5
+
+  But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so =
a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the=
 kl5 place, leading to
+  5.9)  kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 v=
ia route kl4
+            by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.
+
+  instead.
+

+
+

+  6. Dependent places
+  In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely =
removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of =
dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another =
if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other p=
laces. For example, the g2 place of =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D is dependent on=
 the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, l=
et us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (=E2=
=80=9CSt. Bernard=E2=80=9D, let us say). In other words, when the value of =
the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by=
 it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains=
 many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only =
that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog=
 is meant.
+  For =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, on the other hand, there is no depend=
ency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we h=
ave not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one =
house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not k=
now the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dwel=
ler.
+  The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent pla=
ces provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=
=80=9D the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure=
 given in , leaving the =
place structure:
+  6.1)   z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1
+
+  Informally put, the reason this has happened =E2=80=94 and it happ=
ens a lot with seltau places =E2=80=94 is that the third place was describi=
ng not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence
+  6.2)   la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.
+       Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.
+
+  really means
+  6.3)   la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku
+       Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.
+
+  since that is the interpretation we have given =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=
=80=9D. But that in turn means
+  6.4)   la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku =
zo'e
+       Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.
+
+  Specifically,
+  6.5)   la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku=
 la sankt. berNARD.
+       Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.
+
+  and in that case, it makes little sense to say
+  6.6)   la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerk=
u la sankt. berNARD. ku'o
+             la sankt. berNARD.
+       Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard,
+             of breed St. Bernard.
+
+  employing the over-ample place structure of . The dog breed is redundantly given both in t=
he main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is re=
peated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information=
 about the dog, and not about the doghouse.
+  As a further example, take =E2=80=9Ccakcinki=E2=80=9D, the lujvo f=
or =E2=80=9Cbeetle=E2=80=9D, based on the tanru =E2=80=9Ccalku cinki=E2=80=
=9D, or =E2=80=9Cshell-insect=E2=80=9D. The gismu place structures are:
+  6.7)   =E2=80=9Ccalku=E2=80=9D: ca1 is a shell/husk=
 around ca2 made of ca3
+       =E2=80=9Ccinki=E2=80=9D: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2
+
+  This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one=
 gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because=
 all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits in=
to ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect =
has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equiva=
lent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is
+  6.8)   ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2
+
+  with not a single place of =E2=80=9Ccalku=E2=80=9D surviving indep=
endently!
+  (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just=
 why =E2=80=9Ccakcinki=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cbeetle=E2=80=9D (member of C=
oleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of so=
me sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a=
 prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)
+  What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belo=
ngs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of =E2=80=
=9Ccakcinki=E2=80=9D could be eliminated on the same reasoning that allowed=
 us to eliminate the g2 place of =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D above. However, i=
t is a rule that dependent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they=
 are derived from the tertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep th=
e place structures of lujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place str=
ucture; if a place is necessary in the tertau, it=E2=80=99s treated as nece=
ssary in the lujvo as well.
+  In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is =
a sign that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures=
 imply different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn th=
e wrong concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is ob=
vious when someone tries to shoehorn a =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D tertau into =
a =E2=80=9Clitru=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ccliva=E2=80=9D concept, for example: =
these gismu differ in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of =
=E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D in a lujvo doesn=E2=80=99t make any sense if the re=
sulting modified place structure is that of =E2=80=9Clitru=E2=80=9D or =E2=
=80=9Ccliva=E2=80=9D.
+  Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau a=
nd the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed furthe=
r in .
+  Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the seltau can be safel=
y removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the lujvo=E2=80=99s m=
eaning in context. It doesn=E2=80=99t matter much to a doghouse what breed =
of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the constr=
uction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools nee=
d auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and s=
o on: therefore, the place structure of =E2=80=9Ckuldi'u=E2=80=9D (from =E2=
=80=9Cckule dinju=E2=80=9D, and meaning =E2=80=9Cschool building=E2=80=9D) =
needs to be
+  6.9)   d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching =
subject c3 to audience c4
+
+  even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other place=
s of =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don=E2=
=80=99t seem to be necessary to the concept =E2=80=9Cschool building=E2=80=
=9D, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need =
for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.
+

+
+

+  7. Ordering lujvo places.
+  So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into th=
e place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In usin=
g selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumt=
i. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: t=
he set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unf=
amiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.
+  If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the o=
rder of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does=
 not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo =
=E2=80=9Cjdaselsku=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cprayer=E2=80=9D. In the sente=
nce
+  7.1)   di'e jdaselsku la dong.
+       This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.
+
+  we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, g=
iving the meaning
+  7.2)   This is a prayer by Dong
+
+  or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in
+  7.3)   This is a prayer to Dong
+
+  We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each lu=
jvo ( discusses when this is act=
ually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo mak=
es the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need co=
nsistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be fo=
und across gismu place structures (see ), and are even more necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-ca=
se consideration is still necessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after =
all. But it is helpful to take advantage of any available regularities.
+  We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and=
 one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=
=9D (from ) has the places of its=
 tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination p=
rocess. For =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=9D, the surviving places of =E2=80=9Cbanl=
i=E2=80=9D are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:
+  7.4)   b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in pro=
perty b2 by standard b3
+
+  just what appears in . In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the corr=
ect order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left=
 tacit until now.
+  The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo =
bridi-schema
+  7.5)   b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3
+       b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3
+
+  and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema
+  7.6)   b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3
+       b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-standard-=
b3
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cgi'e=E2=80=9D is the Lojban word for =E2=80=9Cand=
=E2=80=9D when placed between two partial bridi, as explained in .
+  Asymmetrical lujvo like =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D, on the other han=
d, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end o=
f the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which =
is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider =E2=80=9Cdalmikce=
=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cveterinarian=E2=80=9D: its veljvo is =E2=80=9Cd=
anlu mikce=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Canimal doctor=E2=80=9D. The place structur=
es for those gismu are:
+  7.7)   =E2=80=9Cdanlu=E2=80=9D: d1 is an animal of =
species d2
+       =E2=80=9Cmikce=E2=80=9D: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m=
3 using treatment m4
+
+  and the lujvo place structure is:
+  7.8)   m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species=
 d2 for ailment m3
+            using treatment m4
+
+  Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, the remaini=
ng seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the=
 remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.
+

+
+

+  8. lujvo with more than two parts.
+  The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two=
 parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example=
 is =E2=80=9Cbavlamdei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctomorrow=E2=80=9D: it is composed=
 of the rafsi for =E2=80=9Cfuture=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cadjacent=E2=80=9D, and=
 =E2=80=9Cday=E2=80=9D. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo l=
ike this?
+  The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify the=
m as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or th=
e tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of =E2=
=80=9Cbavlamdei=E2=80=9D as having two components: =E2=80=9Cbavla'i=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cnext=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdjedi=E2=80=9D. If we know or inv=
ent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lu=
jvo place structure in the usual way.
+  In this case, =E2=80=9Cbavla'i=E2=80=9D is given the place structu=
re
+  8.1)   b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2
+
+  making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with =E2=80=9Cdjedi=
=E2=80=9D, which has the place structure:
+  8.2)   duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by s=
tandard d3
+
+  While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places be=
fore any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept t=
han the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of =E2=80=9Cbavlamdei=
=E2=80=9D. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting=
 and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adh=
ered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative import=
ance. The resulting place structure is:
+  8.3)   d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 =
days later (default 1) by standard d3
+
+  Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo: =E2=80=9Ccladakyxa'=
i=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Clong-sword=E2=80=9D, a specific type of mediev=
al weapon. The gismu place structures are:
+  8.4)   =E2=80=9Cclani=E2=80=9D: c1 is long in direc=
tion c2 by standard c3
+       =E2=80=9Cdakfu=E2=80=9D: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade ma=
de of d3
+       =E2=80=9Cxarci=E2=80=9D: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wie=
lder xa3
+
+  Since =E2=80=9Ccladakyxa'i=E2=80=9D is a symmetrical lujvo based o=
n =E2=80=9Ccladakfu xarci=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Ccladakfu=E2=80=9D is itsel=
f a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainl=
y c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the sam=
e. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the=
 target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally,=
 the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a lo=
ngsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the=
 places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:
+  8.5)   xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use agains=
t xa2=3Dd2 by wielder xa3,
+            with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.
+
+  If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what coun=
ts legally as a =E2=80=9Csword=E2=80=9D, rather than just a =E2=80=9Cknife=
=E2=80=9D, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in di=
fferent jurisdictions). This fifth place of =E2=80=9Ccladakyxa'i=E2=80=9D m=
ay not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Beca=
use it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.
+

+
+

+  9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
+  It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of s=
elma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction =
for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on th=
e listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word sh=
ould not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujv=
o refers to a rare or unusual concept.
+  Consider as an example the lujvo =E2=80=9Cti'ifla=E2=80=9D, from t=
he veljvo =E2=80=9Cstidi flalu=E2=80=9D, and meaning =E2=80=9Cbill, propose=
d law=E2=80=9D. The gismu place structures are:
+  9.1)   =E2=80=9Cstidi=E2=80=9D: agent st1 suggests =
idea/action st2 to audience st3
+       =E2=80=9Cflalu=E2=80=9D: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3=
 under conditions f4
+            by lawgiver f5
+
+  This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the secon=
d seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely=
 f1. However, if we understand =E2=80=9Cti'ifla=E2=80=9D as an abbreviation=
 for the lujvo =E2=80=9Cselti'ifla=E2=80=9D, then we get the first places o=
f seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of =E2=80=9Cselti'i=E2=80=
=9D is:
+  9.2)   =E2=80=9Cselti'i=E2=80=9D: idea/action se1 i=
s suggested by agent se2 to audience se3
+
+  Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (=
the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure =
is:
+  9.3)   f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for communi=
ty f3 under conditions f4
+            by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3
+
+  or, relabeling the places,
+  9.4)   f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for communi=
ty f3 under conditions f4
+            by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3
+
+  where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.
+  Abbreviated lujvo like =E2=80=9Cti'ifla=E2=80=9D are more intuitiv=
e (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like =E2=80=
=9Cselti'ifla=E2=80=9D (as well as shorter). They don=E2=80=99t require the=
 coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau an=
d the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lu=
jvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then t=
he precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbre=
viated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the mo=
st straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujv=
o-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage an=
alyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like =E2=80=9Cti'ifla=E2=
=80=9D are given the place structure they would have with the appropriate S=
E added to the seltau.
+  Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE insert=
ion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely to =
be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists shoul=
d be aware of the risk of ambiguity.
+

+
+

+  10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
+  Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To un=
derstand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some type=
 of whatever their tertau describe. Thus, =E2=80=9Cposydji=E2=80=9D describ=
es a type of =E2=80=9Cdjica=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D describes a =
type of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, and so on. What is certain is that =E2=80=
=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D does not describe a =E2=80=9Cse zdani=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94=
 it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a do=
g.
+  Now consider how we would translate the word =E2=80=9Cblue-eyed=E2=
=80=9D. Let=E2=80=99s tentatively translate this word as =E2=80=9Cblakanla=
=E2=80=9D (from =E2=80=9Cblanu kanla=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cblue eye=E2=
=80=9D). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say
+  10.1)  la djak. cu blakanla
+       Jack is-a-blue-eye
+
+  because Jack is not an eye, =E2=80=9Ckanla=E2=80=9D, but someone w=
ith an eye, =E2=80=9Cse kanla=E2=80=9D. At best we can say
+  10.2)  la djak. cu se blakanla
+       Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes
+
+  But look now at the place structure of =E2=80=9Cblakanla=E2=80=9D:=
 it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:
+  10.3)  bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2
+
+  We end up being most interested in talking about the second place,=
 not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so =E2=80=
=9Cse=E2=80=9D would almost always be required.
+  What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrong=
ly, under the influence of English. The English suffix =E2=80=9C-eyed=E2=80=
=9D does not mean =E2=80=9Ceye=E2=80=9D, but someone with an eye, which is =
=E2=80=9Cselkanla=E2=80=9D.
+  Because we=E2=80=99ve got the wrong tertau (eliding a =E2=80=9Cse=
=E2=80=9D that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resu=
lting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg=
 in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elid=
ed from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counte=
rparts: in this case, =E2=80=9Cblaselkanla=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
+  People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as poss=
ible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The=
 first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can=
 usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with =
=E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D missing is less plausible t=
han that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn=E2=80=99t =
really important.
+  For example, in =E2=80=9Cbakrecpa'o=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cbee=
fsteak=E2=80=9D, the veljvo is
+  11.1)  [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo
+       ( bovine meat ) slice
+
+  because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn=E2=
=80=99t seem to be much difference between that veljvo and
+  11.2)  bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e]
+       bovine ( meat slice )
+
+  On the other hand, the lujvo =E2=80=9Czernerkla=E2=80=9D, meaning =
=E2=80=9Cto sneak in=E2=80=9D, almost certainly was formed from the veljvo<=
/para>
+  11.3)  zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e]
+       crime ( inside go )
+       to go within, criminally
+
+  because the alternative,
+  11.4)  [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama
+       (crime inside) go
+
+  doesn=E2=80=99t make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? =
To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside =E2=80=94 an interpret=
ation almost identical with  anyway?)
+  There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can pr=
oduce another lujvo, equally useful. For example, =E2=80=9Cxaskemcakcurnu=
=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Coceanic shellfish=E2=80=9D, and has the veljvo
+  11.5)  xamsi ke calku curnu
+       ocean type-of (shell worm)
+
+  (=E2=80=9Cworm=E2=80=9D in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=
 =E2=80=9Cxasycakcurnu=E2=80=9D has the veljvo
+  11.6)  [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu
+       (ocean shell) type-of worm
+
+  and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.
+  Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting=
 with =E2=80=9Csel-=E2=80=9D (from =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D), =E2=80=9Cnal-=E2=
=80=9D (from =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D) or =E2=80=9Ctol-=E2=80=9D (from =E2=80=
=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be =
as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the f=
ollowing brivla or =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D group. For that reason, if=
 we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D before it, it=E2=80=99s better t=
o leave the result as two words, or else to insert =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D, th=
an to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.
+  It is all right to replace the phrase =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D w=
ith =E2=80=9Cselkla=E2=80=9D, and the places of =E2=80=9Cselkla=E2=80=9D ar=
e exactly those of =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D. But consider the related luj=
vo =E2=80=9Cdzukla=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cto walk to somewhere=E2=80=9D=
. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo =E2=80=9Ccadzu klama=
=E2=80=9D as follows:
+  11.7)  =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=9D: c1 walks on surfa=
ce c2 using limbs c3
+       =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k=
5
+       =E2=80=9Cdzukla=E2=80=9D: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 =
using limbs k5=3Dc3
+            on surface c2
+
+  We can swap the k1 and k2 places using =E2=80=9Cse dzukla=E2=80=9D=
, but we cannot directly make =E2=80=9Cse dzukla=E2=80=9D into =E2=80=9Csel=
dzukla=E2=80=9D, which would represent the veljvo =E2=80=9Cselcadzu klama=
=E2=80=9D and plausibly mean something like =E2=80=9Cto go to a walking sur=
face=E2=80=9D. Instead, we would need =E2=80=9Cselkemdzukla=E2=80=9D, with =
an explicit rafsi for =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D. Similarly, =E2=80=9Cnalbrablo=
=E2=80=9D (from =E2=80=9Cna'e barda bloti=E2=80=9D) means =E2=80=9Cnon-big =
boat=E2=80=9D, whereas =E2=80=9Cna'e brablo=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cother t=
han a big boat=E2=80=9D.
+  If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starti=
ng with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance, =E2=80=9Cgekmau=
=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Chappier than=E2=80=9D, while =E2=80=9Cselgekmau=E2=
=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cmaking people happier than, more enjoyable than, more=
 of a =E2=80=99se gleki=E2=80=99 than=E2=80=9D. If something is less enjoya=
ble than something else, we can say it is =E2=80=9Cse selgekmau=E2=80=9D.
+  But we can also say it is =E2=80=9Cselselgekmau=E2=80=9D. Two =E2=
=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D cmavo in a row cancel each other (=E2=80=9Cse se gleki=E2=
=80=9D means the same as just =E2=80=9Cgleki=E2=80=9D), so there would be n=
o good reason to have =E2=80=9Cselsel=E2=80=9D in a lujvo with that meaning=
. Instead, we can feel free to interpret =E2=80=9Cselsel-=E2=80=9D as =E2=
=80=9Cselkemsel-=E2=80=9D. The rafsi combinations =E2=80=9Cterter-=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Cvelvel-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cxelxel-=E2=80=9D work in the same =
way.
+  Other SE combinations like =E2=80=9Cselter-=E2=80=9D, although the=
y might conceivably mean =E2=80=9Cse te=E2=80=9D, more than likely should b=
e interpreted in the same way, namely as =E2=80=9Cse ke te=E2=80=9D, since =
there is no need to re-order places in the way that =E2=80=9Cse te=E2=80=9D=
 provides. (See .)
+

+
+

+  12. Abstract lujvo
+  The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a =
particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard exa=
mple, =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D:
+  12.1)  k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 b=
y means k5.
+
+  The selbri =E2=80=9Cnu klama [kei]=E2=80=9D has only one place, th=
e event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between =E2=80=
=9Cnu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D, since a full bridi with all sumti=
 may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, =
and consequently the lujvo =E2=80=9Cnunkla=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cnun-=E2=80=9D=
 is the rafsi for =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D), needs to have six places:
+  12.2)  nu1 is the event of k1=E2=80=99s coming/go=
ing to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.
+
+  Here the first place of =E2=80=9Cnunklama=E2=80=9D is the first an=
d only place of =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, and the other five places have been p=
ushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full infor=
mation on =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, as well as the other abstractors mentioned =
in this section, is given in .
+  For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the stand=
ard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places=
 of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of =E2=80=9Cnilkla=E2=
=80=9D, the lujvo derived from =E2=80=9Cni klama=E2=80=9D, is the imposing:=

+  12.3)  ni1 is the amount of k1=E2=80=99s coming/g=
oing to k2 from k3 via route k4
+            by means k5, measured on scale ni2.
+
+  It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of=
 more complex lujvo as well. For example, =E2=80=9Cnunsoidji=E2=80=9D, from=
 the veljvo
+  12.4)  nu sonci kei djica
+       event-of being-a-soldier desirer
+
+  has the place structure
+  12.5)  d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldie=
r of army s2) for purpose d3
+
+  where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by t=
he places of the seltau. As shown in , the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau p=
laces are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists =
in the tertau.
+  The lujvo =E2=80=9Cnunsoidji=E2=80=9D is quite different from the =
ordinary asymmetric lujvo =E2=80=9Csoidji=E2=80=9D, a =E2=80=9Csoldier desi=
rer=E2=80=9D, whose place structure is just
+  12.6)  d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purp=
ose d3
+
+  A =E2=80=9Cnunsoidji=E2=80=9D might be someone who is about to enl=
ist, whereas a =E2=80=9Csoidji=E2=80=9D might be a camp-follower.
+  One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit =
=E2=80=9Ckei=E2=80=9D in tanru: =E2=80=9Cnunkalri gasnu=E2=80=9D means much=
 the same as =E2=80=9Cnu kalri kei gasnu=E2=80=9D, but is shorter. In addit=
ion, many English words ending in =E2=80=9C-hood=E2=80=9D are represented w=
ith =E2=80=9Cnun-=E2=80=9D lujvo, and other words ending in =E2=80=9C-ness=
=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9C-dom=E2=80=9D are often representable with =E2=80=9Ck=
am-=E2=80=9D lujvo (=E2=80=9Ckam-=E2=80=9D is the rafsi for =E2=80=9Cka=E2=
=80=9D); =E2=80=9Ckambla=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cblueness=E2=80=9D.
+  Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing th=
e whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-sco=
pe modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in .
+  There is also a rafsi for the cmavo =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D, namely =
=E2=80=9Cjax=E2=80=9D, which allows sentences like
+  12.7)  mi jai rinka le nu do morsi
+       I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.
+       I cause your death.
+
+  explained in , to be rendered wit=
h lujvo:
+  12.8)  mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi
+       I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.
+
+  In making a lujvo that contains =E2=80=9Cjax-=E2=80=9D for a selbr=
i that contains =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D, the rule is to leave the =E2=80=9Cfa=
i=E2=80=9D place as a =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=80=9D place of the lujvo; it does not=
 participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of =E2=80=9Cfai=
=E2=80=9D is also explained in .)
+

+
+

+  13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo
+  Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafs=
i, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the=
 tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about fr=
om an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the=
 seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.
+  A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is =
that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shor=
tenings. Eliding =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D, however, is extremely important in p=
roducing a class of lujvo called =E2=80=9Cimplicit-abstraction lujvo=E2=80=
=9D.
+  Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo =E2=80=9Cnunctikezgau=
=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cto feed=E2=80=9D. (If you think this lujvo is e=
xcessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of =E2=80=9Cnunctikezgau=E2=
=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cnu citka kei gasnu=E2=80=9D. The relevant place structur=
es are:
+  13.1)  =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D: n1 is an event
+       =E2=80=9Ccitka=E2=80=9D: c1 eats c2
+       =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2
+
+  In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo gi=
ven in , we will first create an =
intermediate lujvo, =E2=80=9Cnuncti=E2=80=9D, whose veljvo is =E2=80=9Cnu c=
itka [kei]=E2=80=9D. By the rules given in , =E2=80=9Cnuncti=E2=80=9D has the place structure
+  13.2)  n1 is the event of c1 eating c2
+
+  Now we can transform the veljvo of =E2=80=9Cnunctikezgau=E2=80=9D =
into =E2=80=9Cnuncti gasnu=E2=80=9D. The g2 place (what is brought about by=
 the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating)=
. So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place st=
ructure of
+  13.3)  g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1=
 eating c2
+
+  But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place =
describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bri=
di, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it=E2=80=99s th=
e seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they=E2=80=99re in the luj=
vo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn=E2=80=
=99t already know. In fact, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 joi=
ntly =E2=80=94 it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being depen=
dent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place struc=
ture of =E2=80=9Cnunctikezgau=E2=80=9D is:
+  13.4)  g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating =
c2
+
+  There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already se=
en with =E2=80=9Cbalsoi=E2=80=9D in , the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu a=
nd of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with =E2=80=9Cgasnu=
=E2=80=9D as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly=
 or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D i=
s defined.
+  Therefore, if we assume that =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D is the type of a=
bstraction one would expect to be a =E2=80=9Cse gasnu=E2=80=9D, then the ra=
fsi =E2=80=9Cnun=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ckez=E2=80=9D in =E2=80=9Cnunctikezga=
u=E2=80=9D are only telling us what we would already have guessed =E2=80=94=
 that the seltau of a =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D lujvo is an event. If we drop=
 these rafsi out, and use instead the shorter lujvo =E2=80=9Cctigau=E2=80=
=9D, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation (=E2=80=9Csomeone who both do=
es and eats=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Can eating doer=E2=80=9D), we can still deduc=
e that the seltau refers to an event.
+  (You can=E2=80=99t =E2=80=9Cdo an eater=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cgasnu lo=
 citka=E2=80=9D, with the meaning of =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D as =E2=80=9Cbring=
 about an event=E2=80=9D; so the seltau must refer to an event, =E2=80=9Cnu=
 citka=E2=80=9D. The English slang meanings of =E2=80=9Cdo someone=E2=80=9D=
, namely =E2=80=9Csocialize with someone=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Chave sex wit=
h someone=E2=80=9D, are not relevant to =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D.)
+  So we can simply use =E2=80=9Cctigau=E2=80=9D with the same place =
structure as =E2=80=9Cnunctikezgau=E2=80=9D:
+  13.5)  agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2
+       g1 feeds c2 to c1.
+
+  This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau se=
rves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is cal=
led an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an a=
bstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).
+  To give another example: the gismu =E2=80=9Cbasti=E2=80=9D, whose =
place structure is
+  13.6)  b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3
+
+  can form the lujvo =E2=80=9Cbasygau=E2=80=9D, with the place struc=
ture:
+  13.7)  g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumst=
ances b3
+
+  where both =E2=80=9Cbasti=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbasygau=E2=80=9D a=
re translated =E2=80=9Creplace=E2=80=9D in English, but represent different=
 relations: =E2=80=9Cbasti=E2=80=9D may be used with no mention of any agen=
t doing the replacing.
+  In addition, =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D-based lujvo can be built from=
 what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everythi=
ng is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the sa=
me way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in oth=
er languages. For example, the gismu =E2=80=9Clitki=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=
=80=9Cliquid=E2=80=9D, with the place structure
+  13.8)  l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition =
l2 under conditions l3
+
+  can give =E2=80=9Clikygau=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cto liquefy=E2=
=80=9D:
+  13.9)  g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of l=
iquid of composition l2
+            under conditions l3.
+
+  While =E2=80=9Clikygau=E2=80=9D correctly represents =E2=80=9Ccaus=
es to be a liquid=E2=80=9D, a different lujvo based on =E2=80=9Cgalfi=E2=80=
=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Cmodify=E2=80=9D) may be more appropriate for =E2=80=
=9Ccauses to become a liquid=E2=80=9D. On the other hand, =E2=80=9Cfetsygau=
=E2=80=9D is potentially confusing, because it could mean =E2=80=9Cagent in=
 the event of something becoming female=E2=80=9D (the implicit-abstraction =
interpretation) or simply =E2=80=9Cfemale agent=E2=80=9D (the parallel inte=
rpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with=
 some risk of being misunderstood.
+  Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and th=
erefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo=
. For example, lujvo based on =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D, with its place struc=
ture
+  13.10) event r1 causes event r2 to occur
+
+  are closely related to those based on =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D. How=
ever, =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D is less generally useful than =E2=80=9Cgasnu=
=E2=80=9D, because its r1 place is another event rather than a person: =E2=
=80=9Clo rinka=E2=80=9D is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure =
of =E2=80=9Clikyri'a=E2=80=9D, a lujvo analogous to =E2=80=9Clikygau=E2=80=
=9D, is
+  13.11) event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of l=
iquid
+        of composition l2 under conditions l3
+
+  and would be useful in translating sentences like =E2=80=9CThe hea=
t of the sun liquefied the block of ice.=E2=80=9D
+  Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of=
 rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and i=
ncreasing the expressive power of the language.
+

+
+

+  14. Anomalous lujvo
+  Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban w=
riting do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the pla=
ces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual posi=
tion, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or bot=
h. An example of the first kind is =E2=80=9Cjdaselsku=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=
=80=9Cprayer=E2=80=9D, which was mentioned in . The gismu places are:
+  14.1)  =E2=80=9Clijda=E2=80=9D: l1 is a religion =
with believers l2 and beliefs l3
+       =E2=80=9Ccusku=E2=80=9D: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in med=
ium c4
+
+  and =E2=80=9Cselsku=E2=80=9D, the tertau of =E2=80=9Cjdaselsku=E2=
=80=9D, has the place structure
+  14.2)  s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s=
3 in medium s4
+
+  Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: th=
e believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). T=
his is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given =
in  or ; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau =
places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the pla=
ce structure:
+  14.3)  s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to aud=
ience s3 in medium s4
+            pertaining to religion l1
+
+  The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 =
place (the religion) and so is omitted.
+  We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with =E2=80=9C=
se seljdasku=E2=80=9D, where =E2=80=9Cseljdasku=E2=80=9D is a normal symmet=
rical lujvo with place structure:
+  14.4)  c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to=
 audience c3 in medium s4
+            pertaining to religion l1
+
+  which, according to the rule expressed in , can be further expressed as =E2=80=9Cselseljdasku=E2=80=
=9D. However, there is no need for the ugly =E2=80=9Cselsel-=E2=80=9D prefi=
x just to get the rules right: =E2=80=9Cjdaselsku=E2=80=9D is a reasonable,=
 if anomalous, lujvo.
+  However, there is a further problem with =E2=80=9Cjdaselsku=E2=80=
=9D, not resolvable by using =E2=80=9Cseljdasku=E2=80=9D. No veljvo involvi=
ng just the two gismu =E2=80=9Clijda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ccusku=E2=80=9D c=
an fully express the relationship implicit in prayer. A prayer is not just =
anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor is it even anything said =
by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rather, it is what they say u=
nder the authority of that religion, or using the religion as a medium, or =
following the rules associated with the religion, or something of the kind.=
 So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical.
+  As a result, both =E2=80=9Cseljdasku=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cjdasels=
ku=E2=80=9D belong to the second class of anomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn=
=E2=80=99t really supply all that the lujvo requires.
+  Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the ta=
nru lists in , is =E2=80=9Clange'u=E2=80=9D=
, meaning =E2=80=9Csheepdog=E2=80=9D. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which=
 is a sheep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the she=
ep breed (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simpl=
y no overlap in the places of =E2=80=9Clanme=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=
=80=9D at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flock=
s, a =E2=80=9Cterlanme jitro gerku=E2=80=9D, the lujvo from which is =E2=80=
=9Cterlantroge'u=E2=80=9D with place structure:
+  14.5)  g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock=
 l3=3Dj2 made up of sheep l1
+            in activity j3 of dog breed g2
+
+  based on the gismu place structures
+  14.6)  =E2=80=9Clanme=E2=80=9D: l1 is a sheep of =
breed l2 belonging to flock l3
+       =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D: g1 is a dog of breed g2
+       =E2=80=9Cjitro=E2=80=9D: j1 controls j2 in activity j3
+
+  Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between =E2=80=9Clantro=E2=80=
=9D (sheep-controller) and =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D, but =E2=80=9Clantro=E2=
=80=9D is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, i=
s removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo =E2=80=9Clange'u=E2=80=9D =
is both shorter than =E2=80=9Cterlantroge'u=E2=80=9D and sufficiently clear=
 to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as th=
at of the longer lujvo, for which =E2=80=9Clange'u=E2=80=9D can be understo=
od as an abbreviation.
+  Another example is =E2=80=9Cxanmi'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cto command =
by hand, to beckon=E2=80=9D. The component place structures are:
+  14.7)  =E2=80=9Cxance=E2=80=9D: xa1 is the hand o=
f xa2
+       =E2=80=9Cminde=E2=80=9D: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to hap=
pen
+
+  The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for the=
re to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the =
one who commands). But interpreting =E2=80=9Cxanmi'e=E2=80=9D as a symmetri=
cal lujvo with an elided =E2=80=9Csel-=E2=80=9D in the seltau, as if from =
=E2=80=9Cse xance minde=E2=80=9D, misses the point: the real relation expre=
ssed by the lujvo is not just =E2=80=9Cone who commands and has a hand=E2=
=80=9D, but =E2=80=9Cto command using the hand=E2=80=9D. The concept of =E2=
=80=9Cusing=E2=80=9D suggests the gismu =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D, with place=
 structure
+  14.8)  p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3
+
+  Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you=
 want to constrain the veljvo)
+  14.9)  [ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde
+       (hand user) type-of commander
+
+14.10) [ke] minde xance [ke'e] pilno
+       (commander hand) type-of user
+
+  or even
+  14.11) minde ke xance pilno [ke'e]
+       commander type-of (hand user)
+
+  which lead to the three different lujvo =E2=80=9Cxanplimi'e=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cmi'erxanpli=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cminkemxanpli=E2=80=9D resp=
ectively.
+  Does this make =E2=80=9Cxanmi'e=E2=80=9D wrong? By no means. But i=
t does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of =E2=80=9Cxan=
mi'e=E2=80=9D, the gismu =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D, which is not explicit in =
the veljvo. And it also means that, for a place structure derivation that a=
ctually makes sense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probabl=
y go through a derivation for =E2=80=9Cxancypliminde=E2=80=9D or one of the=
 other possibilities that is analogous to the analysis of =E2=80=9Cterlantr=
oge'u=E2=80=9D above, even if he or she decides to stick with a shorter, mo=
re convenient form like =E2=80=9Cxanmi'e=E2=80=9D. In addition, of course, =
the possibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity en=
ormously =E2=80=94 an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.
+

+
+

+  15. Comparatives and superlatives
+  English has the concepts of =E2=80=9Ccomparative adjectives=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Csuperlative adjectives=E2=80=9D which can be formed from o=
ther adjectives, either by adding the suffixes =E2=80=9C-er=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9C-est=E2=80=9D or by using the words =E2=80=9Cmore=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cmost=E2=80=9D, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can be m=
ade from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czenba=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cjdika=E2=80=9D, and=
 =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to =
make, certain special guidelines are imposed.
+  We will begin with lujvo based on =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D, whose place structures are:
+  15.1)  =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D: z1 is more than z=
2 in property z3 in quantity z4
+       =E2=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quant=
ity m4
+
+  For example, the concept =E2=80=9Cyoung=E2=80=9D is expressed by t=
he gismu =E2=80=9Ccitno=E2=80=9D, with place structure
+  15.2)  =E2=80=9Ccitno=E2=80=9D:  c1 is young
+
+  The comparative concept =E2=80=9Cyounger=E2=80=9D can be expressed=
 by the lujvo =E2=80=9Ccitmau=E2=80=9D (based on the veljvo =E2=80=9Ccitno =
zmadu=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cyoung more-than=E2=80=9D).
+  15.3)  mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa
+       I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six.
+       I am six years younger than you.
+
+  The place structure for =E2=80=9Ccitmau=E2=80=9D is
+  15.4)  z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount =
z4
+
+  Similarly, in Lojban you can say:
+  15.5)  do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa
+       You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.
+       You are six years less young than me.
+
+  In English, =E2=80=9Cmore=E2=80=9D comparatives are easier to make=
 and use than =E2=80=9Cless=E2=80=9D comparatives, but in Lojban the two fo=
rms are equally easy.
+  Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in =E2=
=80=9C-mau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-me'a=E2=80=9D are in fact used much more =
frequently than =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D themsel=
ves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for such lujvo to be construed as anyt=
hing other than implicit-abstraction lujvo. But there is another type of am=
biguity relevant to these lujvo, and which has to do with what is being com=
pared.
+  For example, does =E2=80=9Cnelcymau=E2=80=9D mean =E2=80=9CX likes=
 Y more than X likes Z=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9CX likes Y more than Z likes Y=
=E2=80=9D? Does =E2=80=9Cklamau=E2=80=9D mean: =E2=80=9CX goes to Y more th=
an to Z=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CX goes to Y more than Z does=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
X goes to Y from Z more than from W=E2=80=9D, or what?
+  We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerati=
ons of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared alw=
ays fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the differ=
ent possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, =
and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the =
following comparative lujvo place structures:
+  15.6)  =E2=80=9Cnelcymau=E2=80=9D: z1, more than =
z2, likes n2 by amount z4
+       =E2=80=9Cselnelcymau=E2=80=9D: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in =
amount z4
+       =E2=80=9Cklamau=E2=80=9D: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via =
k4 by means of k5
+       =E2=80=9Cselklamau=E2=80=9D: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 fro=
m k3 via k4
+            by means of k5
+       =E2=80=9Cterklamau=E2=80=9D: z1, more than z2, is an origin point f=
rom destination k2
+            for k1=E2=80=99s going via k4 by means of k5
+
+  (See  for the way in which this p=
roblem is resolved when lujvo aren=E2=80=99t used.)
+  The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and the =
other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresses =
by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place w=
hose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while =E2=80=9Cnelcym=
au=E2=80=9D has z4 as its fourth place, =E2=80=9Cklamau=E2=80=9D has it as =
its sixth place. In any sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-pla=
ce can be redundantly tagged with =E2=80=9Cvemau=E2=80=9D (for =E2=80=9Czma=
du=E2=80=9D) or =E2=80=9Cveme'a=E2=80=9D (for =E2=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D) to h=
elp make the speaker=E2=80=99s intention clear.
+  It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not pres=
uppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than som=
eone else doesn=E2=80=99t imply that they=E2=80=99re young in the first pla=
ce: an octogenarian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rathe=
r, the 80-year-old has a greater =E2=80=9Cni citno=E2=80=9D than the 90-yea=
r-old. Similarly, a 5-year-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not consi=
dered =E2=80=9Cold=E2=80=9D by most standards.
+  There are some comparative concepts which are in which the =E2=80=
=9Cse zmadu=E2=80=9D is difficult to specify. Typically, these involve comp=
arisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, where stating a z2 =
place explicitly would be problematic.
+  In such cases, it is best not to use =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D and l=
eave the comparison hanging, but to use instead the gismu =E2=80=9Czenba=E2=
=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cincrease=E2=80=9D (and =E2=80=9Cjdika=E2=80=9D, me=
aning =E2=80=9Cdecrease=E2=80=9D, in place of =E2=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D). The=
 gismu =E2=80=9Czenba=E2=80=9D was included in the language precisely in or=
der to capture those notions of increase which =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D can=
=E2=80=99t quite cope with; in addition, we don=E2=80=99t have to waste a p=
lace in lujvo or tanru on something that we=E2=80=99d never fill in with a =
value anyway. So we can translate =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m stronger now=E2=80=
=9D not as
+  15.7)  mi ca tsamau
+       I now am-stronger.
+
+  which implies that I=E2=80=99m currently stronger than somebody el=
se (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as
+  15.8)  mi ca tsaze'a
+       I increase in strength.
+
+  Finally, lujvo with a tertau of =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D are used t=
o build superlatives. The place structure of =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D is
+  15.9)  t1 is superlative in property t2, being th=
e t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4
+
+  Consider the gismu =E2=80=9Cxamgu=E2=80=9D, whose place structure =
is:
+  15.10) xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3
+
+  The comparative form is =E2=80=9Cxagmau=E2=80=9D, corresponding to=
 English =E2=80=9Cbetter=E2=80=9D, with a place structure (by the rules giv=
en above) of
+  15.11) z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard=
 xa3 in amount z4
+
+  We would expect the place structure of =E2=80=9Cxagrai=E2=80=9D, t=
he superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and su=
perlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:
+  15.12)  xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for =
xa2 by standard xa3.
+
+  The t2 place in =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D, normally filled by a prop=
erty abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specif=
ying the extremum of =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D (whether the most or the least=
, that is) is presumed by default to be =E2=80=9Cthe most=E2=80=9D.
+  But the set against which the t1 place of =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D =
is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of =
=E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D fully parallel to that of =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D),=
 but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules=
 of place ordering, the t4 place of =E2=80=9Ctraji=E2=80=9D-based lujvo bec=
omes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:
+  15.13) la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli
+       Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.
+
+15.14) la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka
+       Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.
+
+

+
+

+  16. Notes on gismu place structures
+  Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gism=
u were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-cas=
e analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is=
 now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, cert=
ain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the order=
ing of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and =
which are therefore discussed here.
+  The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of fou=
r different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and re=
gularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujv=
o place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implicati=
ons of each are roughly as follows:
+  
+    
+      Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has, =
the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in , a brivla with fewer place structur=
es is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, because they must=
 thoroughly blanket all of semantic space.
+    
+    
+      Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a conce=
pt can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need to =
make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it.
+    
+    
+      Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease places:=
 it is a pressure tending to provide the =E2=80=9Cright number=E2=80=9D of =
places. If something is part of the essential nature of a concept, then a p=
lace must be made for it; on the other hand, if instances of the concept ne=
ed not have some property, then this pressure will tend to remove the place=
.
+    
+    
+      Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or dec=
rease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantical=
ly related to it are likely to have the place also.
+    
+  
+  Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discussio=
n of the pressures operating on them:
+  16.1)  =E2=80=9Cxekri=E2=80=9D:  xe1 is black
+
+  Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interp=
retation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards =
here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu, =E2=80=9Cxekri=
=E2=80=9D is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brough=
t in by an appropriate BAI tag such as =E2=80=9Cci'u=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cin =
system=E2=80=9D; see ) or by making a lujvo=
.
+  16.2)  =E2=80=9Cjbena=E2=80=9D: j1 is born to j2 =
at time j3 and location j4
+
+  The gismu =E2=80=9Cjbena=E2=80=9D contains places for time and loc=
ation, which few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which so=
mething is done is supplied by a tense tag (see ). However, providing these places makes =E2=80=9Cle te jbena=E2=80=
=9D a simple term for =E2=80=9Cbirthday=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cle ve jbena=
=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cbirthplace=E2=80=9D, so these places were provided d=
espite their lack of metaphysical necessity.
+  16.3)  =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D: event r1 is the c=
ause of event r2
+
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D does not have a pla=
ce for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward me=
taphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include =
an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause anothe=
r event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention o=
r even knowledge.
+  Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most=
 gismu except for a few such as =E2=80=9Cgasnu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Czukte=
=E2=80=9D which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place=
 when needed: see .
+  16.4)  =E2=80=9Ccinfo=E2=80=9D: c1 is a lion of s=
pecies/breed c2
+
+  The c2 place of =E2=80=9Ccinfo=E2=80=9D is provided as a result of=
 the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2=
 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of l=
ion, though they exist, aren=E2=80=99t all that important in talking about =
lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as d=
ogs, and for general terms like =E2=80=9Ccinki=E2=80=9D (insect), and are p=
rovided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.
+  Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some re=
gularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of p=
sychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the pla=
ce structure of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D, for example, that =E2=80=9Clo klam=
a=E2=80=9D (the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus mor=
e important, than =E2=80=9Clo se klama=E2=80=9D (the destination), which is=
 in turn more important than =E2=80=9Clo xe klama=E2=80=9D (the means of tr=
ansport).
+  Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed. =
For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place. =
Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the destin=
ation is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as =E2=80=
=9Cunder conditions=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cby standard=E2=80=9D, which often=
 go unfilled, are moved to near the end of the place structure.
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c087fe2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,994 @@
+
+  Chapter 13
+Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators
+
+
+

+  1. What are attitudinal indicators?
+  This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for e=
xpressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are=
 usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectl=
y) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words
+  1.1)   John is coming.
+
+  can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker=E2=80=
=99s feeling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine p=
oints of tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed =
with various sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as =
the =E2=80=9COooh!=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CArrgh!=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CUgh!=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9CYecch!=E2=80=9D in the title. These are part of the Engli=
sh language; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you wo=
n=E2=80=99t find any of these words in a dictionary.
+  In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Ther=
efore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known as =
=E2=80=9Cattitudinal indicators=E2=80=9D, or just =E2=80=9Cattitudinals=E2=
=80=9D. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, bu=
t is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.
+  The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at=
 the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker=E2=80=99s =
prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes =
mentioned following :
+  1.2)   .ui la djan klama
+       [Whee!] John is coming!
+
+1.3)   .uu la djan klama
+       [Alas!] John is coming.
+
+1.4)   .a'o la djan klama
+       [Hopefully] John is coming.
+
+1.5)   .ue la djan klama
+       [Wow!] John is coming!
+
+1.6)   .ianai la djan klama
+       [Nonsense!] John is coming.
+
+  The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV o=
r V=E2=80=99V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely=
 by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of=
 the form V=E2=80=99V, the four standard diphthongs (=E2=80=9C.ai=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9C.au=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ei=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C.oi=E2=80=9D), =
and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal in=
dicators and in names and borrowings (=E2=80=9C.ia=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ie=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ii=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.io=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.iu=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9C.ua=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ue=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ui=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9C.uo=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C.uu=E2=80=9D). Note that each of these =
cmavo has a period before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before ev=
ery word beginning with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds=
 of indicators described in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI.
+  Attitudinals can also be compound cmavo, of the types explained in=
 Sections 4-8;  illustra=
tes one such possibility, the compound attitudinal =E2=80=9C.ianai=E2=80=9D=
. In attitudinals, =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D indicates polar negation: the opp=
osite of the simple attitudinal without the =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D. Thus, a=
s you might suppose, =E2=80=9C.ia=E2=80=9D expresses belief, since =E2=80=
=9C.ianai=E2=80=9D expresses disbelief.
+  In addition to the attitudinals, there are other classes of indica=
tors: intensity markers, emotion categories, attitudinal modifiers, observa=
tionals, and discursives. All of them are grammatically equivalent, which i=
s why they are treated together in this chapter.
+  Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respect =
to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indicat=
ors can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. Ind=
icators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they appl=
y to the word that they follow. More details can be found in .
+  Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in f=
our columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a c=
orresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fourt=
h column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the approx=
imate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D.=
 The third column, which is sometimes omitted, indicates a neutral point be=
tween the second and fourth columns, and shows the approximate meaning of t=
he attitudinal when it is suffixed with =E2=80=9C-cu'i=E2=80=9D. The cmavo =
=E2=80=9Ccu'i=E2=80=9D belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more fully =
in .
+  One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is t=
hat in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing your=
 feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource of=
 the written word. So the gloss for =E2=80=9C.ui=E2=80=9D should not really=
 be =E2=80=9Chappiness=E2=80=9D but some sound or tone that expresses happi=
ness. However, there aren=E2=80=99t nearly enough of those that have unambi=
guous or obvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many di=
fferent emotions Lojban speakers can readily express.
+  Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific gis=
mu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of t=
he cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, thu=
s: [gismu].
+

+
+

+  2. Pure emotion indicators
+  Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, not =
of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no tru=
th value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that they =
modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they r=
eflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking abo=
ut; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinking=
 about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are think=
ing about a potential world that might or might not ever exist.
+  Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The =E2=
=80=9Cpure emotion indicators=E2=80=9D express the way the speaker is feeli=
ng, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators compris=
e the attitudinals which begin with =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=
=9D and many of those beginning with =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo beginning with =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D are simple emotions, =
which represent the speaker=E2=80=99s reaction to the world as it is, or as=
 it is perceived to be.
+  
+       .ua     discovery                         confusion
+       .u'a    gain                              loss
+       .ue     surprise        no surprise       expectation
+       .u'e    wonder                            commonplace
+       .ui     happiness                         unhappiness
+       .u'i    amusement                         weariness
+       .uo     completion                        incompleteness
+       .u'o    courage         timidity          cowardice
+       .uu     pity                              cruelty
+       .u'u    repentance      lack of regret    innocence
+
+  Here are some typical uses of the =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D attitudinals=
:
+  2.1)   .ua mi facki fi le mi mapku
+       [Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat]
+
+2.2)   .u'a mi facki fi le mi mapku
+       [Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]
+
+2.3)   .ui mi facki fi le mi mapku
+       [Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness]
+
+2.4)   .uo mi facki fi le mi mapku
+       [At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is complete=
]
+
+2.5)   .uu do cortu
+       [Pity!] You feel-pain. [expresses speaker=E2=80=99s sympathy]
+
+2.6)   .u'u do cortu
+       [Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels guilty]
+
+  In , note that =
the attitudinal =E2=80=9C.uo=E2=80=9D is translated by an English non-attit=
udinal phrase: =E2=80=9CAt last!=E2=80=9D It is common for the English equi=
valents of Lojban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more =
or less normal grammar, but actually expressions of emotion.
+  In particular, both =E2=80=9C.uu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C.u'u=E2=80=
=9D can be translated into English as =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m sorry=E2=80=9D; =
the difference between these two attitudes frequently causes confusion amon=
g English-speakers who use this phrase, leading to responses like =E2=80=9C=
Why are you sorry? It=E2=80=99s not your fault!=E2=80=9D
+  It is important to realize that =E2=80=9C.uu=E2=80=9D, and indeed =
all attitudinals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In Englis=
h, the exclamation =E2=80=9CPity!=E2=80=9D is just as likely to be ironical=
ly intended, but this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudin=
als is (normally) as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of=
 lying: perhaps worse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greate=
r problems than misunderstood statements.
+  The following examples display the effects of =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Ccu'i=E2=80=9D when suffixed to an attitudinal:
+  2.7)   .ue la djan. klama
+       [Surprise!] John comes.
+
+2.8)   .uecu'i la djan. klama
+       [Ho hum.] John comes.
+
+2.9)   .uenai la djan. klama
+       [Expected!] John comes.
+
+  In , John=E2=80=
=99s coming has been anticipated by the speaker. In  and , no such anticipation has been made, but in  the lack-of-anticipation goes no further =E2=
=80=94 in , it amounts t=
o actual surprise.
+  It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words be=
ginning with =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D from those beginnin=
g with =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D, but in general they represent more complex, mor=
e ambivalent, or more difficult emotions.
+  
+       .o'a    pride           modesty           shame
+       .o'e    closeness       detachment        distance
+       .oi     complaint/pain  doing OK          pleasure
+       .o'i    caution         boldness          rashness
+       .o'o    patience        mere tolerance    anger
+       .o'u    relaxation      composure         stress
+
+  Here are some examples:
+  2.10)  .oi la djan. klama
+       [Complaint!] John is coming.
+
+  Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John=E2=80=99s =
coming. The word =E2=80=9C.oi=E2=80=9D is derived from the Yiddish word =E2=
=80=9Coy=E2=80=9D of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish o=
rigin.
+  2.11)  .o'onai la djan. klama
+       [Anger!] John is coming!
+
+  Here the speaker feels anger over John=E2=80=99s coming.
+  2.12)  .o'i la djan. klama
+       [Beware!] John is coming.
+
+  Here there is a sense of danger in John=E2=80=99s arrival.
+  2.13)  .o'ecu'i la djan. klama
+       [Detachment!] John is coming.
+
+2.14)  .o'u la djan. klama
+       [Phew!] John is coming.
+
+  In  and , John=E2=80=99s arrival is n=
o problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from=
 the situation; in the latter example, John=E2=80=99s coming is actually a =
relief of some kind.
+  The pure emotion indicators beginning with =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D are=
 those which could not be fitted into the =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Co=
=E2=80=9D groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.=
 =E2=80=9C.ia=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.i'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C.ie=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9C.i'e=E2=80=9D do not appear here, as they belong in  instead.
+  
+       .ii     fear            nervousness       security
+       .i'i    togetherness                      privacy
+       .io     respect                           disrespect
+       .i'o    appreciation                      envy
+       .iu     love            no love lost      hatred
+       .i'u    familiarity                       mystery
+
+  Here are some examples:
+  2.15)  .ii smacu
+       [Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse
+       Eek! A mouse!
+
+2.16)  la djan. .iu klama
+       John [love!] is coming.
+
+2.17)  la djan. .ionai klama
+       John [disrespect!] is coming.
+
+   shows an atti=
tude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described =
by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-sp=
eaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like  a lot.
+   and  use attitudinals that follow =
=E2=80=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D rather than being at the beginning of the senten=
ce. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the e=
vent of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Com=
pare:
+  2.18)  la djan. klama .iu
+       John is-coming [love!]
+
+  where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feel=
ing.
+   is a compact =
way of swearing at John: you could translate it as =E2=80=9CThat good-for-n=
othing John is coming.=E2=80=9D
+

+
+

+  3. Propositional attitude indicators
+  As mentioned at the beginning of , attitudinals may be divided into two groups, the pure emotion in=
dicators explained in that section, and a contrasting group which may be ca=
lled the =E2=80=9Cpropositional attitude indicators=E2=80=9D. These indicat=
ors establish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting=
 to, distinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our=
 attitude towards =E2=80=9Cwhat the world would be like if ...=E2=80=9D, or=
 more directly stating our attitude towards making the potential world a re=
ality.
+  In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in Englis=
h) something like =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m going to the market, and I=E2=80=99m=
 happy about it=E2=80=9D. The emotion is present with the subject of the pr=
imary claim, but is logically independent of it. Propositional attitudes, t=
hough, look more like =E2=80=9CI intend to go to the market=E2=80=9D, where=
 the main claim is logically subordinate to the intention: I am not claimin=
g that I am actually going to the market, but merely that I intend to.
+  There is no sharp distinction between attitudinals beginning with =
=E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D and those beginning with =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D; however, =
the original intent (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many=
 attitudes into too little space) was to make the members of the =E2=80=9Ca=
=E2=80=9D-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a potential world=
, while the members of the =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D-series were more ambivalent =
or complex about the speaker=E2=80=99s intention with regard to the predica=
tion. The relationship between the =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D-series and the =E2=
=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D-series is similar to that between the =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D-=
series and the =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D-series, respectively. A few propositiona=
l attitude indicators overflowed into the =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D-series as wel=
l.
+  In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and proposit=
ional attitudes is itself a bit shaky: =E2=80=9C.u'u=E2=80=9D can be seen a=
s a propositional attitude indicator meaning =E2=80=9CI regret that ...=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C.a'e=E2=80=9D (discussed below) can be seen as a pure =
emotion meaning =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m awake/aware=E2=80=9D. The division of =
the attitudinals into pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in th=
is chapter is mostly by way of explanation; it is not intended to permit fi=
rm rulings on specific points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most dis=
tant from the =E2=80=9Clogical language=E2=80=9D aspect.
+  Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by i=
nitial letter, starting with those beginning with =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       .a'a    attentive       inattentive       avoiding
+       .a'e    alertness                         exhaustion
+       .ai     intent          indecision        refusal
+       .a'i    effort          no real effort    repose
+       .a'o    hope                              despair
+       .au     desire          indifference      reluctance
+       .a'u    interest        no interest       repulsion
+
+  Some examples (of a parental kind):
+  3.1)   .a'a do zgana le veltivni
+       [attentive] you observe the television-receiver.
+       I=E2=80=99m noticing that you are watching the TV.
+
+3.2)   .a'enai do ranji bacru
+       [exhaustion] you continuously utter.
+       I=E2=80=99m worn out by your continuous talking.
+
+3.3)   .ai mi benji do le ckana
+       [intent] I transfer you to-the bed.
+       I=E2=80=99m putting you to bed.
+
+3.4)   .a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo
+       [effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-ly becom=
e.
+       It=E2=80=99ll be hard for me to wake you up.
+
+3.5)   .a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei
+       [hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-day.
+       I hope I feel better tomorrow!
+
+3.6)   .au mi sipna
+       [desire] I sleep.
+       I want to sleep.
+
+3.7)  .a'ucu'i do pante
+       [no interest] you complain
+       I have no interest in your complaints.
+
+  (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decorate=
d by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including =E2=80=9C.oicai=
=E2=80=9D, but probably also =E2=80=9C.iucai=E2=80=9D.)
+  Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular br=
idi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between conc=
epts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these e=
xamples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unaccepta=
bly heavyweight grammar.
+  Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with =E2=
=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginning wi=
th =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with =E2=80=
=9Co=E2=80=9D do to those beginning with =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 they=
 are more complex or difficult:
+  
+       .e'a    permission                        prohibition
+       .e'e    competence                        incompetence
+       .ei     obligation                        freedom
+       .e'i    constraint      independence      resistance to constraint
+       .e'o    request                           negative request
+       .e'u    suggestion      no suggestion     warning
+
+  More examples (after a good night=E2=80=99s sleep):
+  3.8)   .e'a do sazri le karce
+       [permission] You drive the car.
+       Sure, you can drive the car.
+
+3.9)   .e'e mi lifri tu'a do
+       [competence] I experience something-related-to you
+       I feel up to dealing with you.
+
+3.10)  .ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau
+       [obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container.
+       I should fill the car=E2=80=99s gas tank.
+
+3.11)  .e'o ko ko kurji
+       [request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care.
+       Please take care of yourself!
+
+3.12)  .e'u do klama le panka
+       [suggestion] You go to-the park.
+       I suggest going to the park.
+
+  Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with =E2=
=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, which are the overflow from the other sets:
+  
+       .ia     belief          skepticism        disbelief
+       .i'a    acceptance                        blame
+       .ie     agreement                         disagreement
+       .i'e    approval        non-approval      disapproval
+
+  Still more examples (much, much later):
+  3.13)  .ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi
+       [disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me.
+       I can=E2=80=99t believe you thought you could fool me.
+
+3.14)  do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani
+       You [blame] did-not return you to-the house
+       I blame you for not coming home.
+
+3.15)  .ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika
+            be le nu xruti
+       [agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day
+            of the event-of (you return)
+       It=E2=80=99s true I didn=E2=80=99t tell you when to come back.
+
+3.16)  .i'enai do .i'e zukte
+       [disapproval] you [approval] act
+       I don=E2=80=99t approve of what you did, but I approve of you.
+
+   illustrates t=
he use of a propositional attitude indicator, =E2=80=9Ci'e=E2=80=9D, in bot=
h the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (at=
tached to =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D). The event expressed by the main bridi is d=
isapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place=
 (namely the listener) is approved of.
+  To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not m=
eant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to spl=
it the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of  which actually claimed that th=
e listener was or would be driving the car might be:
+  3.17)  do sazri le karce .i .e'a
+       You drive the car. [Permission].
+       You=E2=80=99re driving (or will drive) the car, and that=E2=80=99s =
fine.
+
+

+
+

+  4. Attitudes as scales
+  In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run=
 from some extreme value (which we=E2=80=99ll call =E2=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=
=9D) to an opposite extreme (which we=E2=80=99ll call =E2=80=9Cnegative=E2=
=80=9D). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale: =E2=
=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=9D, neutral, and =E2=80=9Cnegative=E2=80=9D. The terms=
 =E2=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnegative=E2=80=9D are put into quo=
tation marks because they are loaded words when applied to emotions, and th=
e attitudinal system reflects this loading, which is a known cultural bias.=
 Only two of the =E2=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=9D words, namely =E2=80=9C.ii=E2=
=80=9D (fear) and =E2=80=9C.oi=E2=80=9D (pain/complaint), represent emotion=
s commonly thought of as less =E2=80=9Cvirtuous=E2=80=9D in most cases than=
 their negative counterparts. But these two were felt to be instinctive, di=
stinct, and very powerful emotions that needed to be expressible in a monos=
yllable when necessary, while their counterparts are less commonly expresse=
d.
+  (Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and t=
hey will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arb=
itrarily, we give the monosyllable =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D a useful meaning a=
nd make it easier for a novice to recognize at least the positive or negati=
ve alignment of an indicator, if not the specific word. Other choices consi=
dered were =E2=80=9Crandom=E2=80=9D orientation, which would have unknown b=
iases and be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to=
 which scale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which woul=
d be biased in favor of American perceptions of =E2=80=9Cusefulness=E2=80=
=9D. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it might as well be a known b=
ias that eases learning, and in addition might as well favor a harmonious a=
nd positive world-view.)
+  In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions defined,=
 three =E2=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=9D ones (shown below on the left), three =E2=
=80=9Cnegative=E2=80=9D ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral one =
indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The following=
 chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cmavo.=
 All of these cmavo, except =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D, are in selma'o CAI.
+  
+       cai       sai       ru'e      cu'i      nairu'e   naisai    naicai
+       [carmi]   [tsali]   [ruble]   [cumki]
+
+  A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, and =
then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in becau=
se the =E2=80=9Cnegative=E2=80=9D emotions take the extra syllable =E2=80=
=9Cnai=E2=80=9D to indicate their negative position on the axis, and thus r=
equire a bit more effort to express.
+  Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude witho=
ut a scale indicator, if you don=E2=80=99t want to stop and think about how=
 strongly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we=E2=80=99ve found that=
 either no scalar value is used, or =E2=80=9Ccai=E2=80=9D is used to indica=
te especially high intensity. Less often, =E2=80=9Cru'e=E2=80=9D is used fo=
r a recognizably weak intensity, and =E2=80=9Ccu'i=E2=80=9D is used in resp=
onse to the attitudinal question =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D (see ) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.
+  The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variat=
ion:
+  4.1)   .ei
+       I ought to
+       (a non-specific obligation)
+
+4.2)   .eicai
+       I shall/must
+       (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)
+
+4.3)   .eisai
+       I should
+       (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not form=
al requirement)
+
+4.4)   .eiru'e
+       I might
+       (a weak obligation =E2=80=94 in English often mixed with permission=
 and desire)
+
+4.5)   .eicu'i
+       No matter
+       (no particular obligation)
+
+4.6)   .einai
+       I need not
+       (a non-obligation)
+
+  You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. T=
his is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about whic=
h you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator =
=E2=80=9Ccai=E2=80=9D. You could also indicate that you don=E2=80=99t care =
using =E2=80=9Ccu'i=E2=80=9D by itself.
+

+
+

+  5. The space of emotions
+  Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensi=
onal space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-di=
mensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represen=
ted by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators =
serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal invento=
ry, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of t=
he scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a =
distinct single point, which is our attitude.
+  Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals=
 to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more tha=
n one or two emotions at a time =E2=80=94 usually the ones that are stronge=
st or which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale sy=
stem provides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which=
 might be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists =
express compound emotions when they do recognize them.
+  The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion. W=
e also aren=E2=80=99t bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in  that multiply the set of scales by =
an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, which m=
ight be expressed by =E2=80=9Ccu'i=E2=80=9D, but could also be expressed by=
 using both the =E2=80=9Cpositive=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnegative=E2=80=9D s=
cale emotions at once. One expression of =E2=80=9Cfortitude=E2=80=9D might =
be =E2=80=9C.ii.iinai=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 fear coupled with security.
+  Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects s=
everal things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of i=
mportance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression refle=
cts these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to us=
 is also revealing =E2=80=94 of our attitude towards our attitude, so to sp=
eak. There is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you e=
xpress them; the =E2=80=9Cvector sum=E2=80=9D naturally expresses the resul=
t. This is vital to their nature as attitudinals =E2=80=94 if you had to st=
op and think about them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn=E2=80=99t b=
e emotions but rationalizations.
+  People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just =
like everything else; but emotions aren=E2=80=99t logical or analytical =E2=
=80=94 saying =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m awed=E2=80=9D is not the same as saying =
=E2=80=9CWow!!!=E2=80=9D. The Lojban system is intended to give the effects=
 of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simply=
 feel in Lojban.
+  A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or complex=
, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in learn=
ing. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of att=
itude words, and you=E2=80=99re ready to express your emotions Lojbanically=
. As you learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more=
 precisely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expressio=
n.
+

+
+

+  6. Emotional categories
+  The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a long=
 list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available V=
V-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in the=
 list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assigne=
d a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result i=
s a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express v=
ery complex emotions. Some examples in a moment.
+  The most significant =E2=80=9Ccommon feature=E2=80=9D we identifie=
d was that the emotional words on the list could easily be broken down into=
 six major groups, each of which was assigned its own cmavo:
+  
+       ro'a    social          asocial           antisocial
+       ro'e    mental                            mindless
+       ro'i    emotional                         denying emotion
+       ro'o    physical                          denying physical
+       ro'u    sexual                            sexual abstinence
+       re'e    spiritual       secular           sacrilegious
+
+  Using these, we were able to assign =E2=80=9Co'u=E2=80=9D to mark =
a scale of what we might call =E2=80=9Cgeneralized comfort=E2=80=9D. When y=
ou are comfortable, relaxed, satisfied, you express comfort with =E2=80=9Co=
'u=E2=80=9D, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate how comfort=
able you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this scale into s=
ix separate ones, should you wish.
+  For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as =
=E2=80=9C.o'unairo'a=E2=80=9D. Some emotions that we label =E2=80=9Cstress=
=E2=80=9D in English are expressed in Lojban with =E2=80=9C.o'unairo'i=E2=
=80=9D. Physical distress can be expressed with =E2=80=9C.o'unairo'o=E2=80=
=9D, which makes a nice groan if you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort=
 might be what you feel when you don=E2=80=99t know the answer to the test =
question, but feel that you should. Most adults can recall some instance wh=
ere we felt sexual discomfort, =E2=80=9Co'unairo'u=E2=80=9D. Spiritual disc=
omfort, =E2=80=9Co'unaire'e=E2=80=9D, might be felt by a church-goer who ha=
s wandered into the wrong kind of religious building.
+  Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won=E2=80=99t cat=
egorize it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expres=
sible without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed =
emotions within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with =
physical comfort or vice versa.
+  Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of whic=
h has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional ex=
pression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you=E2=80=99=
ll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojb=
an possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that prob=
ably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them (=E2=80=
=9C.eiro'u=E2=80=9D, for example =E2=80=94 look it up).
+  You can use scale markers and =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D on these six c=
ategory words, and you can also use category words without specifying the e=
motion. Thus, =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m trying to concentrate=E2=80=9D could be =
expressed simply as =E2=80=9Cro'e=E2=80=9D, and if you are feeling anti-soc=
ial in some non-specific way, =E2=80=9Cro'anai=E2=80=9D will express it.
+  There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based o=
n moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above yo=
ur head and move down your body in sequence.
+  
+       ro'a    hands above head       social
+       ro'e    hands on head          intellectual
+       ro'i    hands on heart         emotional
+       ro'o    hands on belly         physical
+       ro'u    hands on groin         sexual
+       re'e    hands moving around    spiritual
+
+  The implicit metaphors =E2=80=9Cheart=E2=80=9D for emotional and =
=E2=80=9Cbelly=E2=80=9D for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they work=
 fine for English-speakers.
+

+
+

+  7. Attitudinal modifiers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+    ga'i    [galtu]        hauteur            equal rank      meekness
+                           rank                               lack of rank
+
+    le'o                   aggressive         passive         defensive
+
+    vu'e    [vrude]        virtue (zabna)                     sin (mabla)
+
+    se'i    [sevzi]        self-orientation                   other-orient=
ation
+
+    ri'e    [zifre]        release            restraint       control
+
+    fu'i    [frili]        with help          without help    with opposit=
ion
+                           easily                             with difficu=
lty
+
+    be'u                   lack/need          presence        satiation
+                           need               satisfaction
+
+    se'a    [sevzi]        self-sufficiency                   dependency
+
+  It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories=
, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended =
to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought =
of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to b=
e placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the a=
ttitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understand these =
modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the attitudina=
ls found in  and , and see what emotional pictures you can build:<=
/para>
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cga'i=E2=80=9D expresses the scale used to indic=
ate condescension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which =
is =E2=80=9C.io=E2=80=9D. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being bel=
ow (for =E2=80=9Cga'i=E2=80=9D) or above (for =E2=80=9Cga'inai=E2=80=9D) th=
e speaker=E2=80=99s rank or social position. Note that it is always the ref=
erent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked: in order to mark the =
listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, as with =E2=80=9Cdoi ga=
'inai=E2=80=9D, which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social =
superior.
+  7.1)   ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani
+       You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.
+       I would be honored if you would enter my residence.
+
+  Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Correspondi=
ng examples with =E2=80=9Cga'icu'i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cga'inai=E2=80=9D:<=
/para>
+  7.2)   ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani
+       You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.
+       Come on in to my place.
+
+7.3)   ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani
+       You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.
+       You! Get inside!
+
+  Since =E2=80=9Cga'i=E2=80=9D expresses the relative rank of the sp=
eaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to =E2=80=
=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, unless the speaker is using =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D to refer t=
o a group (as in English =E2=80=9Cwe=E2=80=9D), or a past or future version=
 of himself with a different rank.
+  It is also possible to attach =E2=80=9Cga'i=E2=80=9D to a whole br=
idi, in which case it expresses the speaker=E2=80=99s superiority to the ev=
ent the bridi refers to:
+  7.4)   ga'i le xarju pu citka
+       [High-rank!] the pig [past] eats
+       The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).
+
+  When used without being attached to any bridi, =E2=80=9Cga'i=E2=80=
=9D expresses the speaker=E2=80=99s superiority to things in general, which=
 may represent an absolute social rank: =E2=80=9Cga'icai=E2=80=9D is an app=
ropriate opening word for an emperor=E2=80=99s address from the throne.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cle'o=E2=80=9D represents the scale of aggressiv=
eness. We seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defens=
ive, but perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage som=
eone to express these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be u=
rged on by their coach using =E2=80=9Cro'ole'o=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cle'o=E2=
=80=9D is also useful in threats as an alternative to =E2=80=9Co'onai=E2=80=
=9D, which expresses anger.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cvu'e=E2=80=9D represents ethical virtue or its =
absence. An excess of almost any emotion is usually somewhat =E2=80=9Csinfu=
l=E2=80=9D in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the other hand, we often=
 feel virtuous about our feelings =E2=80=94 what we call righteous indignat=
ion might be =E2=80=9Co'onaivu'e=E2=80=9D. Note that this is distinct from =
lack of guilt: =E2=80=9C.u'unai=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cse'i=E2=80=9D expresses the difference between =
selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with =E2=80=9C.au=
=E2=80=9D):
+  7.5)   .ause'i
+       [desire] [self]
+       I want it!
+
+7.6)   .ause'inai
+       [desire] [other]
+       I want you to have it!
+
+  In both cases, the English =E2=80=9Cit=E2=80=9D is vague, reflecti=
ng the absence of a bridi.  and  are pure expres=
sions of attitude. Analogously, =E2=80=9C.uuse'i=E2=80=9D is self-pity, whe=
reas =E2=80=9C.uuse'inai=E2=80=9D is pity for someone else.
+  The modifier =E2=80=9Cri'e=E2=80=9D indicates emotional release ve=
rsus emotional control. =E2=80=9CI will not let him know how angry I am=E2=
=80=9D, you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much sh=
orter:
+  7.7)   .o'onai ri'enai
+       [anger] [control]
+
+  On the other hand, =E2=80=9Cri'e=E2=80=9D can be used by itself to=
 signal an emotional outburst.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cfu'i=E2=80=9D may express a reason for feeling =
the way we do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that i=
s more emotionally determined than most. For example, it could show the dif=
ference between the mental discomfort mentioned in  when it is felt on an easy test, as opposed to on a hard=
 test. When someone gives you a back massage, you could use =E2=80=9C.o'ufu=
'i=E2=80=9D to show appreciation for the assistance in your comfort.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cbe'u=E2=80=9D expresses, roughly speaking, whet=
her the emotion it modifies is in response to something you don=E2=80=99t h=
ave enough of, something you have enough of, or something you have too much=
 of. It is more or less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quanti=
fier cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Crau=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdu'e=
=E2=80=9D (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in ). For example,
+  7.8)   .uiro'obe'unai
+       [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]
+
+  might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.
+  Like all modifiers, =E2=80=9Cbe'u=E2=80=9D can be used alone:
+  7.9)   le cukta be'u cu zvati ma
+       The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?]
+       Where=E2=80=99s the book? =E2=80=94 I need it!
+
+  Lastly, the modifier =E2=80=9Cse'a=E2=80=9D shows whether the feel=
ing is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.
+  7.10)  .e'ese'a
+       [I can!] [self-sufficient!]
+       I can do it all by myself!
+
+  is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other hand,=

+  7.11)  .e'ese'anai
+       [I can!] [dependent]
+       I can do it if you help me.
+
+  from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of=
 self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the =E2=80=9C.e'e=E2=80=9D =
in  and , leading to:
+  7.12)  .e'enaise'a
+       [I can=E2=80=99t!] [self-sufficient]
+       I can=E2=80=99t do it if you insist on =E2=80=9Chelping=E2=80=9D me=
!
+
+  and
+  7.13)  .e'enaise'anai
+       [I can=E2=80=99t!] [dependent]
+       I can=E2=80=99t do it by myself!
+
+  Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use.=
 They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations =
will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, anoth=
er person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what e=
motion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known a=
nd internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations wil=
l come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.
+

+
+

+  8. Compound indicators
+  The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are o=
ptional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still gramma=
tical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of th=
e parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is =
presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo h=
as some meaning.
+  Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interp=
retation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifi=
er words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (=
There is an =E2=80=9Cunspecified emotion=E2=80=9D word, =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=
=9D, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a modifier without a ro=
ot emotion, it doesn=E2=80=99t attach to and modify a previous but distinct=
 emotional expression.)
+  For example, =E2=80=9C.ieru'e=E2=80=9D expresses a weak positive v=
alue on the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the lis=
tener or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degr=
ee of intensity. But =E2=80=9C.ie ge'eru'e=E2=80=9D expresses agreement (at=
 an unspecified level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is fe=
lt at a weak level. A rough English equivalent of =E2=80=9C.ie ge'eru'e=E2=
=80=9D might be =E2=80=9CI agree, but ...=E2=80=9D where the =E2=80=9Cbut=
=E2=80=9D is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren=E2=80=99t always expresse=
d in English by English attitudinals.)
+  A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You=
 put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the la=
tter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of infor=
mation expressible. For example, =E2=80=9C.oinaicu'i ro'ucai=E2=80=9D expre=
sses a feeling midway between pain (=E2=80=9C.oi=E2=80=9D) and pleasure (=
=E2=80=9C.oinai=E2=80=9D) which is intensely sexual (=E2=80=9Cro'u=E2=80=9D=
) in nature.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D is the most tightly bound modifier=
 in the language: it always negates exactly one word =E2=80=94 the precedin=
g one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs, =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D=
 is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try =
to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=
=80=9D negator, the =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D will end up negating the last wor=
d of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. F=
or example,
+  8.1)   mi .e .ui nai do
+       I and [Yay!] [Not!] you
+
+  means =E2=80=9CI and (unfortunately) you=E2=80=9D, whereas
+  8.2)   mi .e nai .ui do
+       I and [Not!] [Yay!] you
+
+  means =E2=80=9CI but (fortunately) not you=E2=80=9D. Attitudinal =
=E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D expresses a =E2=80=9Cscalar negation=E2=80=9D, a conc=
ept explained in ; since every attitudinal=
 word implies exactly one scale, the effect of =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D on eac=
h should be obvious.
+  Thus, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each=
 listed part optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality,=
 though it obviously would affect meaning.
+  
+      attitudinal =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D intensity-word =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=
=9D modifier =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D intensity-word =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D
+                                  (possibly repeated)
+
+  =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=9D, the non-specific emotion word, functions a=
s an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then i=
n the 2nd or greater position, either =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=9D or a VV word m=
ust be used to prevent any modifiers from modifying the previous attitudina=
l.
+

+
+

+  9. The uses of indicators
+  The behavior of indicators in the =E2=80=9Coutside grammar=E2=80=
=9D is nearly as simple as their internal structure. Indicator groupings ar=
e identified immediately after the metalinguistic erasers =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D and some, though not al=
l, kinds of quotations. The details of such interactions are discussed in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19"/>.
+  A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicator =
may, except in those few situations (as in =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D quotation, =
explained in ) where compound cmavo may no=
t be used.
+  At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything following=
 them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, an=
d we normally don=E2=80=99t turn off our emotions when we start and stop se=
ntences. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) att=
aches to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude =
is being expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refer=
s.
+  If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a c=
mavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pe=
rtains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, =
discussed in , for explicitly marking the =
range of words to which an indicator applies.
+  More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they intera=
ct with other specialized cmavo, are given in . It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessar=
ily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotio=
ns when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on th=
at expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically an=
alyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could poss=
ibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be ass=
umed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.
+  For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, t=
he combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to in=
terpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or =
to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For ex=
ample, in
+  9.1)   mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi
+       I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]
+
+  can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in whi=
ch case it means =E2=80=9CDamn, I snapped at you=E2=80=9D; or as expressing=
 both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means =E2=80=
=9CI told you, you pest!=E2=80=9D
+  Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be t=
aken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there =E2=80=
=94 as the rules have it =E2=80=94 or about the entire bridi which hinges o=
n that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expression=
s of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.
+  Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be imprac=
tical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in writ=
ten expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move wor=
ds around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body=
 language and intonation to convey the writer=E2=80=99s intent.
+

+
+

+  10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pei           attitude question
+     dai           empathy
+     bu'o          start emotion       continue emotion    end emotion
+
+  You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sente=
nce, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be t=
rue or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more lo=
gical than the emotion itself, this isn=E2=80=99t appropriate.
+  The word =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D is therefore reserved for attitude =
questions. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English =
=E2=80=9CHow are you?=E2=80=9D coupled with =E2=80=9CHow do you feel?=E2=80=
=9D (which has a slightly different range of usage).
+  When asked in the context of discourse, =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D acts=
 like other Lojban question words =E2=80=94 it requests the respondent to =
=E2=80=9Cfill in the blank=E2=80=9D, in this case with an appropriate attit=
udinal describing the respondent=E2=80=99s feeling about the referent expre=
ssion. As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with =
an irrelevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun o=
f the questioner. (A =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=9D, however, is always in order =
=E2=80=94 you are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same =
as =E2=80=9C.i'inai=E2=80=9D, which is privacy as the reverse of conviviali=
ty.)
+  Most often, however, the asker will use =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D as a=
 place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result, =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D =
is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as app=
ropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such u=
sage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:=

+  10.1)  .iepei
+       [agreement] [question]
+       Do you agree?
+
+10.2)  .iare'epei
+       [belief] [spiritual] [question]
+       Are you a Believer?
+
+10.3)  .aipei
+       [intention] [question]
+       Are you going to do it?
+
+   might appear =
at the end of a command, to which the response
+  10.4)  .aicai
+       [intention] [maximal]
+
+  corresponds to =E2=80=9CAye! Aye!=E2=80=9D (hence the choice of cm=
avo).
+  10.5)  .e'apei
+       [permission] [question]
+       Please, Mommy!  Can I??
+
+  Additionally, when =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D is used at the beginning =
of an indicator construct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects =
the attitude of the respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or=
 in pain):
+  10.6)  pei.o'u
+       [question] [comfort]
+       Are you comfortable?
+
+10.7)  pei.o'ucu'i
+       [question] [comfort] [neutral]
+       Are you no longer in pain?
+
+10.8)  pei.o'usai
+       [question] [comfort] [strong]
+       Are you again healthy?
+
+  Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indic=
ator =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=9D. (Don=E2=80=99t confuse empathy with sympathy, w=
hich is =E2=80=9C.uuse'inai=E2=80=9D.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, =
you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bri=
di claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also mak=
e use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=
=9D, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to someone else =E2=80=94 e=
xactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use =E2=80=9Cdai=
=E2=80=9D conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else=E2=80=
=99s emotion as if it were your own:
+  10.9)  .oiro'odai
+       [Pain!] [physical] [empathy]
+       Ouch, that must have hurt!
+
+  It is even possible to =E2=80=9Cempathize=E2=80=9D with a non-livi=
ng object:
+  10.10) le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi
+       The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean-floor.
+       Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.
+
+  suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, a=
nd simultaneously reporting the speaker=E2=80=99s pity for it.
+  Both =E2=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=9D represent exc=
eptions to the normal rule that attitudinals reflect the speaker=E2=80=99s =
attitude.
+  Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing. I=
f our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Theref=
ore, =E2=80=9C.ui .ui .ui=E2=80=9D is not the same as =E2=80=9C.uicai=E2=80=
=9D, but simply means that we are continuing to be happy.) If we want to re=
port that we are beginning to feel, continuing to feel, or ceasing to feel =
an emotion, we can use the attitudinal contour cmavo =E2=80=9Cbu'o=E2=80=9D=
.
+  When attached to an attitudinal, =E2=80=9Cbu'o=E2=80=9D means that=
 you are starting to have that attitude, =E2=80=9Cbu'ocu'i=E2=80=9D that yo=
u are continuing to have it, and =E2=80=9Cbu'onai=E2=80=9D that you are cea=
sing to have it. Some examples:
+  10.11) .o'onai bu'o
+       [Anger!] [start emotion]
+       I=E2=80=99m getting angry!
+
+10.12) .iu bu'onai .uinai
+       [Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!]
+       I don=E2=80=99t love you any more; I=E2=80=99m sad.
+
+  Note the difference in effect between  and:
+  10.13) mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri
+       I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (I am-sad=
).
+       I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.
+
+  which is a straightforward bridi claim.  states that you have (or have had) certain emot=
ions;  expresses those=
 emotions directly.
+

+
+

+  11. Evidentials
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ja'o    [jalge]     I conclude
+     ca'e                I define
+     ba'a    [balvi]     I expect      I experience        I remember
+     su'a    [sucta]     I generalize                      I particularize
+     ti'e    [tirna]     I hear (hearsay)
+     ka'u    [kulnu]     I know by cultural means
+     se'o    [senva]     I know by internal experience
+     za'a    [zgana]     I observe
+     pe'i    [pensi]     I opine
+     ru'a    [sruma]     I postulate
+     ju'a    [jufra]     I state
+
+  Now we proceed from the attitudinal indicators and their relatives=
 to the other, semantically unrelated, categories of indicators. The indica=
tors known as =E2=80=9Cevidentials=E2=80=9D show how the speaker came to sa=
y the utterance; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban=E2=
=80=99s list of evidentials was derived from lists describing several Ameri=
can Indian languages. Evidentials are also essential to the constructed lan=
guage L=C3=A1adan, designed by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgi=
n. L=C3=A1adan=E2=80=99s set of indicators was drawn on extensively in deve=
loping the Lojban indicator system.
+  It is important to realize, however, that evidentials are not some=
 odd system used by some strange people who live at the other end of nowher=
e: although their English equivalents aren=E2=80=99t single words, English-=
speakers have vivid notions of what constitutes evidence, and of the differ=
ent kinds of evidence.
+  Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o=
 UI, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them =
are not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scal=
es.
+  A bridi with an evidential in it becomes =E2=80=9Cindisputable=E2=
=80=9D, in the sense that the speaker is saying =E2=80=9Chow it is with him=
 or her=E2=80=9D, which is beyond argument. Claims about one=E2=80=99s own =
mental states may be true or false, but are hardly subject to other people=
=E2=80=99s examination. If you say that you think, or perceive, or postulat=
e such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discourse that uses =
evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than discourse that=
 does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogues or alterna=
ting monologues, depending on your prejudices.
+  Evidentials are most often placed at the beginning of sentences, a=
nd are often attached to the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D that separates sentences =
in connected discourse. It is in the nature of an evidential to affect the =
entire bridi in which it is placed: like the propositional attitude indicat=
ors, they strongly affect the claim made by the main bridi.
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cja'o=E2=80=9D is a conclusion by the sp=
eaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. Rough Engli=
sh equivalents of =E2=80=9Cja'o=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=9Cthus=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Ctherefore=E2=80=9D.
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cca'e=E2=80=9D is true because the speak=
er says so. In addition to definitions of words, =E2=80=9Cca'e=E2=80=9D is =
also appropriate in what are called performatives, where the very act of sp=
eaking the words makes them true. An English example is =E2=80=9CI now pron=
ounce you husband and wife=E2=80=9D, where the very act of uttering the wor=
ds makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be=
:
+  11.1)  ca'e le re do cu simxu speni
+       [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.
+
+  The three scale positions of =E2=80=9Cba'a=E2=80=9D, when attached=
 to a bridi, indicate that it is based on the speaker=E2=80=99s view of the=
 real world. Thus =E2=80=9Cba'a=E2=80=9D means that the statement represent=
s a future event as anticipated by the speaker; =E2=80=9Cba'acu'i=E2=80=9D,=
 a present event as experienced by the speaker; =E2=80=9Cba'anai=E2=80=9D, =
a past event as remembered by the speaker. It is accidental that this scale=
 runs from future to past instead of past to future.
+  11.2)  ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu
+       [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain.
+       My leg hurts.
+
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Csu'a=E2=80=9D is a generalization by th=
e speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The dif=
ference between =E2=80=9Csu'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cja'o=E2=80=9D is that =
=E2=80=9Cja'o=E2=80=9D suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not ne=
cessarily rigorous), whereas =E2=80=9Csu'a=E2=80=9D suggests some sort of i=
nduction or pattern recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rig=
orous).
+  The opposite point of the scale, =E2=80=9Csu'anai=E2=80=9D, indica=
tes abduction, or drawing specific conclusions from general premises or pat=
terns.
+  This cmavo can also function as a discursive (see ), in which case =E2=80=9Csu'a=E2=80=9D means =
=E2=80=9Cabstractly=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cin general=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C=
su'anai=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cconcretely=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cin particul=
ar=E2=80=9D.
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cti'e=E2=80=9D is relayed information fr=
om some source other than the speaker. There is no necessary implication th=
at the information was relayed via the speaker=E2=80=99s ears; what we read=
 in a newspaper is an equally good example of =E2=80=9Cti'e=E2=80=9D, unles=
s we have personal knowledge of the content.
+  11.3)  ti'e la .uengas cu zergau
+       [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer.
+       I hear that Wenga is a crook.
+
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cka'u=E2=80=9D is one held to be true in=
 the speaker=E2=80=99s cultural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for=
 example. Such statements should be agreed on by a community of people =E2=
=80=94 you cannot just make up your own cultural context =E2=80=94 although=
 =E2=80=9Cobjectivity=E2=80=9D in the sense of actual correspondence with t=
he facts is certainly not required.
+  On the other hand, =E2=80=9Cse'o=E2=80=9D marks a bridi whose trut=
h is asserted by the speaker as a result of an internal experience not dire=
ctly available to others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. =
In some cultures, the line between =E2=80=9Cka'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cse'o=
=E2=80=9D is fuzzy or even nonexistent.
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cza'a=E2=80=9D is based on perception or=
 direct observation by the speaker. This use of =E2=80=9Cobserve=E2=80=9D i=
s not connected with the Lojban =E2=80=9Cobservative=E2=80=9D, or bridi wit=
h the first sumti omitted. The latter has no explicit aspect, and could be =
a direct observation, a conclusion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of=
 view.
+  11.4)  za'a do tatpi
+       [I observe!] You are-tired.
+       I see you are tired.
+
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cpe'i=E2=80=9D is the opinion of the spe=
aker. The form =E2=80=9Cpe'ipei=E2=80=9D is common, meaning =E2=80=9CIs thi=
s your opinion?=E2=80=9D. (Strictly, this should be =E2=80=9Cpeipe'i=E2=80=
=9D, in accordance with the distinction explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, bu=
t since =E2=80=9Cpe'i=E2=80=9D is not really a scale, there is no real diff=
erence between the two orders.)
+  11.5)  pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo
+       [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed.
+       In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.
+
+  A bridi marked by =E2=80=9Cru'a=E2=80=9D is an assumption made by =
the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of =E2=80=9C.e'u=E2=80=9D.=

+  11.6)  ru'a doi livinston.
+       Dr. Livingstone, I presume?
+            (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)
+
+  Finally, the evidential =E2=80=9Cju'a=E2=80=9D is used to avoid st=
ating a specific basis for a statement. It can also be used when the basis =
for the speaker=E2=80=99s statement is not covered by any other evidential.=
 For the most part, using =E2=80=9Cju'a=E2=80=9D is equivalent to using no =
evidential at all, but in question form it can be useful: =E2=80=9Cju'apei=
=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9CWhat is the basis for your statement?=E2=80=9D and=
 serves as an evidential, as distinct from emotional, question.
+

+
+

+  12. Discursives
+  The term =E2=80=9Cdiscursive=E2=80=9D is used for those members of=
 selma'o UI that provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a g=
iven word or utterance relates to the whole discourse. To express these con=
cepts in regular bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than a=
sserting that =E2=80=9CI also came=E2=80=9D, we would have to say =E2=80=9C=
I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional instance of th=
e relationship expressed by the previous sentence=E2=80=9D, which is intole=
rably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are words or phras=
es like =E2=80=9Chowever=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csummarizing=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
in conclusion=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfor example=E2=80=9D.
+  Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emoti=
on. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that reference=
 the sentence or text they are found in.
+  Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, oft=
en attached to the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D that separates sentences in running=
 discourse, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words=
 when it seems necessary or useful.
+  The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, rou=
ghly organized by function. First, the =E2=80=9Cconsecutive discourse=E2=80=
=9D group:
+  
+    ku'i    [karbi]             however/but/in contrast
+    ji'a    [jmina]             additionally
+    si'a    [simsa]             similarly
+    mi'u    [mintu]             ditto
+    po'o                        the only relevant case
+
+  These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore they =
are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecutiv=
e discourse. The first, =E2=80=9Cku'i=E2=80=9D, makes an exception to the p=
revious argument. The second, =E2=80=9Cji'a=E2=80=9D, adds weight to the pr=
evious argument. The third, =E2=80=9Csi'a=E2=80=9D, adds quantity to the pr=
evious argument, enumerating an additional example. The fourth, =E2=80=9Cmi=
'u=E2=80=9D, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, and can also be=
 used in tables or the like to show that something is being repeated from t=
he previous column. It is distinct from =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D (of selma'o =
GOhA, discussed in ), which is a non-discur=
sive version of =E2=80=9Cditto=E2=80=9D that explicitly repeats the claim o=
f the previous bridi.
+  Lastly, =E2=80=9Cpo'o=E2=80=9D is used when there is no other comp=
arable case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of =E2=80=9Conly=E2=
=80=9D, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:
+  12.1)  mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi
+       I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose.
+       Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.
+
+12.2)  mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi
+       I hit [only] my cousin at-locus the nose.
+       I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).
+
+12.3)  mi darxi le mi tamne po'o fo le nazbi
+       I hit my cousin [only] at-locus the nose.
+       I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).
+
+12.4)  mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o
+       I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only].
+       I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).
+
+  Note that =E2=80=9Conly=E2=80=9D can go before or after what it mo=
difies in English, but =E2=80=9Cpo'o=E2=80=9D, as an indicator, always come=
s afterward.
+  Next, the =E2=80=9Ccommentary on words=E2=80=9D group:
+  
+    va'i [valsi]    in other words                   in the same words
+    ta'u [tanru]    expanding a tanru                making a tanru
+
+  The discursives =E2=80=9Cva'i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cta'u=E2=80=9D =
operate at the level of words, rather than discourse proper, or if you like=
, they deal with how things are said. An alternative English expression for=
 =E2=80=9Cva'i=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Crephrasing=E2=80=9D; for =E2=80=9Cva'in=
ai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Crepeating=E2=80=9D. Also compare =E2=80=9Cva'i=E2=80=
=9D with =E2=80=9Cke'u=E2=80=9D, discussed below.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cta'u=E2=80=9D is a discursive unique to Lojban;=
 it expresses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are se=
mantically ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity =
can be removed by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous st=
ructure, often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional=
 brivla. The discursive =E2=80=9Cta'u=E2=80=9D marks the transition from th=
e use of a brief but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expans=
ion; the discursive =E2=80=9Cta'unai=E2=80=9D marks a transition in the rev=
erse direction.
+  Next, the =E2=80=9Ccommentary on discourse=E2=80=9D group:
+  
+    li'a [klina]    clearly                          obscurely
+                    obviously
+    ba'u [banli]    exaggeration       accuracy      understatement
+    zo'o            humorously         dully         seriously
+    sa'e [satci]    precisely speaking               loosely speaking
+    to'u [tordu]    in brief                         in detail
+    do'a [dunda]    generously                       parsimoniously
+    sa'u [sampu]    simply                           elaborating
+    pa'e [pajni]    justice                          prejudice
+    je'u [jetnu]    truly                            falsely
+
+  This group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of th=
e discourse, so as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that liste=
ners often fail to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or=
 miss an exaggeration, or try to read more into a statement than the speake=
r intends to put there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the nec=
essary cue, but the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse =
is often simply clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo =
may seem fussy to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that =E2=
=80=9Czo'o=E2=80=9D, for example, is the equivalent of smiling while you sp=
eak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like =E2=80=9CWhat I=E2=80=99=
m about to say is supposed to be funny.=E2=80=9D
+  A few additional English equivalents: for =E2=80=9Csa'enai=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Croughly speaking=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Capproximately speaking=
=E2=80=9D; for =E2=80=9Csa'unai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfurthermore=E2=80=9D; fo=
r =E2=80=9Cto'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cin short=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cskipping d=
etails=E2=80=9D; for =E2=80=9Cdo'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbroadly construed=E2=
=80=9D; for =E2=80=9Cdo'anai=E2=80=9D (as you might expect), =E2=80=9Cnarro=
wly construed=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpa'e=E2=80=9D is used to claim (truly or falsel=
y) that one is being fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas =E2=80=
=9Cpa'enai=E2=80=9D admits (or proclaims) a bias in favor of one party.
+  The scale of =E2=80=9Cje'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cje'unai=E2=80=9D =
is a little different from the others in the group. By default, we assume t=
hat people speak the truth =E2=80=94 or at least, that if they are lying, t=
hey will do their best to conceal it from us. So under what circumstances w=
ould =E2=80=9Cje'unai=E2=80=9D be used, or =E2=80=9Cje'u=E2=80=9D be useful=
? For one thing, =E2=80=9Cje'u=E2=80=9D can be used to mark a tautology: a =
sentence that is a truth of logic, like =E2=80=9CAll cats are cats.=E2=80=
=9D Its counterpart =E2=80=9Cje'unai=E2=80=9D then serves to mark a logical=
 contradiction. In addition, =E2=80=9Cje'unai=E2=80=9D can be used to expre=
ss one kind of sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what=
 he/she says, but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion.=
 Other forms of irony can be marked with =E2=80=9Czo'o=E2=80=9D (humor) or =
=E2=80=9C.ianai=E2=80=9D (disbelief).
+  When used as a discursive, =E2=80=9Csu'a=E2=80=9D (see ) belongs to this group.
+  Next, the =E2=80=9Cknowledge=E2=80=9D group:
+  
+    ju'o [djuno]    certainly          uncertain     certainly not
+    la'a [lakne]    probably                         improbably
+
+  These two discursives describe the speaker=E2=80=99s state of know=
ledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the prop=
ositional attitudes of , as they =
create a hypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true=
, and label our bridi with =E2=80=9Cju'o=E2=80=9D; but it may be false all =
the same.
+  Next, the =E2=80=9Cdiscourse management=E2=80=9D group:
+  
+    ta'o [tanjo]  by the way                         returning to point
+    ra'u [ralju]  chiefly              equally       incidentally
+    mu'a [mupli]  for example          omitting      end examples
+                                        examples
+    zu'u          on the one hand                    on the other hand
+    ke'u [krefu]  repeating                          continuing
+    da'i          supposing                          in fact
+
+  This final group is used to perform what may be called =E2=80=9Cma=
naging the discourse=E2=80=9D: providing reference points to help the liste=
ner understand the flow from one sentence to the next.
+  Other English equivalents of =E2=80=9Cta'onai=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=
=9Canyway=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Canyhow=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cin any case=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Cin any event=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cas I was saying=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9Ccontinuing=E2=80=9D.
+  The scale of =E2=80=9Cra'u=E2=80=9D has to do with the importance =
of the point being, or about to be, expressed: =E2=80=9Cra'u=E2=80=9D is th=
e most important point, =E2=80=9Cra'ucu'i=E2=80=9D is a point of equal impo=
rtance, and =E2=80=9Cra'unai=E2=80=9D is a lesser point. Other English equi=
valents of =E2=80=9Cra'u=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=9Cabove all=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cprimarily=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cke'u=E2=80=9D is very similar to =E2=80=9Cva'i=
=E2=80=9D, although =E2=80=9Cke'unai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cva'inai=E2=80=9D=
 are quite different. Both =E2=80=9Cke'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cva'i=E2=80=
=9D indicate that the same idea is going to be expressed using different wo=
rds, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using =E2=80=9Cke'u=E2=80=9D emp=
hasizes that the content is the same; using =E2=80=9Cva'i=E2=80=9D emphasiz=
es that the words are different. Therefore, =E2=80=9Cke'unai=E2=80=9D shows=
 that the content is new (and therefore the words are also); =E2=80=9Cva'in=
ai=E2=80=9D shows that the words are the same (and therefore so is the cont=
ent). One English equivalent of =E2=80=9Cke'unai=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cfurth=
ermore=E2=80=9D.
+  The discursive =E2=80=9Cda'i=E2=80=9D marks the discourse as possi=
bly taking a non-real-world viewpoint (=E2=80=9CSupposing that=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9CBy hypothesis=E2=80=9D), whereas =E2=80=9Cda'inai=E2=80=9D insists=
 on the real-world point of view (=E2=80=9CIn fact=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CIn tr=
uth=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CAccording to the facts=E2=80=9D). A common use of =
=E2=80=9Cda'i=E2=80=9D is to distinguish between:
+  12.5)  ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi j=
u'o do djuno
+            le du'u ri pazvau
+       If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] you know =
that
+            she is-pregnant.
+       If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she =
is pregnant.
+
+  and:
+  12.6)  ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi g=
i ju'o do djuno
+            le du'u ri pazvau
+       If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you know tha=
t
+            she is-pregnant.
+       If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregn=
ant.
+
+  It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, an=
d leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese alway=
s leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence
+  12.7)  ru2guo3 ni3 kan4dao4 wo3 mei4mei, ni3 yi2ding4 zhi1dao4 ta1 huai2yun4 le
+       if you see-arrive my younger-sister, you certainly know she pregnan=
t
+
+  is the equivalent of either  or .)
+

+
+

+  13. Miscellaneous indicators
+  Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitudi=
nal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following miscel=
laneous indicators:
+  
+     ki'a    metalinguistic confusion
+     na'i    metalinguistic negator
+     jo'a    metalinguistic affirmer
+     li'o    omitted text (quoted material)
+     sa'a    material inserted by editor/narrator
+     xu      true-false question
+     pau     question premarker                      rhetorical question
+     pe'a    figurative language                     literal language
+     bi'u    new information                         old information
+     ge'e    non-specific indicator
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cki'a=E2=80=9D is one of the most common of the =
miscellaneous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confu=
sion about what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the disc=
ourse (which is =E2=80=9C.uanai=E2=80=9D). The confusion may be about the m=
eaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a =
sumti. One of the uses of English =E2=80=9Cwhich=E2=80=9D corresponds to =
=E2=80=9Cki'a=E2=80=9D:
+  13.1)  mi nelci le ctuca
+       .i le ki'a ctuca
+
+       I like the teacher
+       Which teacher?
+
+  Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the s=
umti =E2=80=9Cle ctuca=E2=80=9D, and so echoes back the sumti with the conf=
usion marker.
+  The metalinguistic negation cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D and its o=
pposite =E2=80=9Cjo'a=E2=80=9D are explained in full in . In general, =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D indicates that there is =
something wrong with a piece of discourse: either an error, or a false unde=
rlying assumption, or something else of the sort. The discourse is invalid =
or inappropriate due to the marked word or construct.
+  Similarly, =E2=80=9Cjo'a=E2=80=9D marks something which looks wron=
g but is in fact correct. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept =
apart for two reasons: =E2=80=9Cna'inai=E2=80=9D means the same as =E2=80=
=9Cjo'a=E2=80=9D, but would be too confusing as an affirmation; =E2=80=9Cjo=
'anai=E2=80=9D means the same as =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D, but is too long to=
 serve as a convenient metalinguistic negator.
+  The next two cmavo are used to assist in quoting texts written or =
spoken by others. It is often the case that we wish to quote only part of a=
 text, or to supply additional material either by way of commentary or to m=
ake a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cli'o=E2=80=9D serves=
 the former function. It indicates that words were omitted from the quotati=
on. What remains of the quotation must be grammatical, however, as =E2=80=
=9Cli'o=E2=80=9D does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot, for ex=
ample, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the missing=
 tail of a description sumti: =E2=80=9Cle li'o=E2=80=9D in isolation is not=
 grammatical.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D indicates in a quotation that the=
 marked word or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for e=
ditorial, narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a =E2=80=9Cli'=
o=E2=80=9D should appear in the form =E2=80=9Cli'osa'a=E2=80=9D, since the =
=E2=80=9Cli'o=E2=80=9D was not part of the original quotation. In practice,=
 this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic expr=
essions, such as =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SEI) or =E2=80=9Cto'i=E2=
=80=9D (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where confusion might resu=
lt.
+  In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or =
more instances of =E2=80=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D, they can be changed to =E2=80=9Cs=
a'asa'a=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D marks truth questions, which are di=
scussed in detail in . In general, =E2=80=
=9Cxu=E2=80=9D may be translated =E2=80=9CIs it true that ... ?=E2=80=9D an=
d questions whether the attached bridi is true. When =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D i=
s attached to a specific word or construct, it directs the focus of the que=
stion to that word or construct.
+  Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do not =
stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpau=E2=
=80=9D at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener realize that the brid=
i is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of written Spanish questi=
ons that looks like an upside-down question mark. The listener is then warn=
ed to watch for the actual question word.
+  Although =E2=80=9Cpau=E2=80=9D is grammatical in any location (lik=
e all indicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning =
of a bridi. Its scalar opposite, =E2=80=9Cpaunai=E2=80=9D, signals that a b=
ridi is not really a question despite its form. This is what we call in Eng=
lish a rhetorical question: an example appears in the English text near the=
 beginning of .
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpe'a=E2=80=9D is the indicator of figurative sp=
eech, indicating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather=
 than literally:
+  13.2)  mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani
+       I see the blue [figurative] house.
+       I see the =E2=80=9Cblue=E2=80=9D house.
+
+  Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some othe=
r sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of =E2=80=
=9Cpe'a=E2=80=9D unambiguously marks a cultural reference: =E2=80=9Cblanu=
=E2=80=9D in  could mea=
n =E2=80=9Csad=E2=80=9D (as in English) or something completely different.<=
/para>
+  The negated form, =E2=80=9Cpe'anai=E2=80=9D, indicates that what h=
as been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; n=
atural-language intuition is to be ignored.
+  Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI, =E2=80=9Cpe'a=E2=80=9D has a =
rafsi, namely =E2=80=9Cpev=E2=80=9D. This rafsi is used in forming figurati=
ve (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to=
 do with the place structure of the components. Thus =E2=80=9Crisnyjelca=E2=
=80=9D (heart burn) might have a place structure like:
+  
+       x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4
+
+  whereas =E2=80=9Cpevrisnyjelca=E2=80=9D, explicitly marked as figu=
rative, might have the place structure:
+  
+      x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2
+
+  which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either =E2=80=
=9Crisna=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cjelca=E2=80=9D.
+  The uses of =E2=80=9Cbi'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbi'unai=E2=80=9D c=
orrespond to one of the uses of the English articles =E2=80=9Cthe=E2=80=9D =
and =E2=80=9Ca/an=E2=80=9D. An English-speaker telling a story may begin wi=
th =E2=80=9CI saw a man who ...=E2=80=9D. Later in the story, the same man =
will be referred to with the phrase =E2=80=9Cthe man=E2=80=9D. Lojban does =
not use its articles in the same way: both =E2=80=9Ca man=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cthe man=E2=80=9D would be translated =E2=80=9Cle nanmu=E2=80=9D, sinc=
e the speaker has in mind a specific man. However, the first use might be m=
arked =E2=80=9Cle bi'u nanmu=E2=80=9D, to indicate that this is a new man, =
not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged =E2=80=9Cl=
e bi'unai nanmu=E2=80=9D.
+  Most of the time, the distinction between =E2=80=9Cbi'u=E2=80=9D a=
nd =E2=80=9Cbi'unai=E2=80=9D need not be made, as the listener can infer th=
e right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still later =
in the story, =E2=80=9Cle bi'u nanmu=E2=80=9D would clearly show that this =
man was different from the previous one.
+  Finally, the indicator =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=9D has been discussed i=
n  and . It is used to express an attitude which is not covered b=
y the existing set, or to avoid expressing any attitude.
+  Another use for =E2=80=9Cge'e=E2=80=9D is to explicitly avoid expr=
essing one=E2=80=99s feeling on a given scale; in this use, it functions li=
ke a member of selma'o CAI: =E2=80=9C.iige'e=E2=80=9D means roughly =E2=80=
=9CI=E2=80=99m not telling whether I=E2=80=99m afraid or not.=E2=80=9D
+  
+       kau             indirect question
+
+  This cmavo is explained in detail in . It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect quest=
ion:
+  13.3)  mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci
+       I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the store.
+       I know who goes to the store.
+
+

+
+

+  14. Vocative scales
+  =E2=80=9CVocatives=E2=80=9D are words used to address someone dire=
ctly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as =E2=80=
=9Cla=E2=80=9D (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to re=
fer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators =E2=80=94 in fact, di=
scursives =E2=80=94 but the need to tie them to names and other description=
s of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the =
cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be =E2=80=9Cnegated=E2=80=9D wi=
th =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D to get the opposite part of the scale.
+  Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lojb=
an design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales. =
Doing so would make a non-redundant =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D too often vital t=
o interpretation of a protocol signal, as explained later in this section.<=
/para>
+  The grammar of vocatives is explained in ; but in brief, a vocative may be followed by a name (without =E2=80=
=9Cla=E2=80=9D), a description (without =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D or its relativ=
es), a complete sumti, or nothing at all (if the addressee is obvious from =
the context). There is an elidable terminator, =E2=80=9Cdo'u=E2=80=9D (of s=
elma'o DOhU) which is almost never required unless no name (or other indica=
tion of the addressee) follows the vocative.
+  Using any vocative except =E2=80=9Cmi'e=E2=80=9D (explained below)=
 implicitly defines the meaning of the pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D, as t=
he whole point of vocatives is to specify the listener, or at any rate the =
desired listener =E2=80=94 even if the desired listener isn=E2=80=99t liste=
ning! We will use the terms =E2=80=9Cspeaker=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clistener=
=E2=80=9D for clarity, although in written Lojban the appropriate terms wou=
ld be =E2=80=9Cwriter=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Creader=E2=80=9D.
+  In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the s=
ymbol X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever)=
 of the listener.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D is the general-purpose vocative. U=
nlike the cmavo of selma'o COI, explained below, =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D can =
precede a name directly without an intervening pause. It is not considered =
a scale, and =E2=80=9Cdoinai=E2=80=9D is not grammatical. In general, =E2=
=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D needs no translation in English (we just use names by th=
emselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we sometimes=
 say =E2=80=9COh X=E2=80=9D, which is equivalent to =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D).=
 One may attach an attitudinal to =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D to express various =
English vocatives. For example, =E2=80=9Cdoi .io=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9CSi=
r/Madam!=E2=80=9D, whereas =E2=80=9Cdoi .ionai=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9CYou =
there!=E2=80=9D.
+  All members of selma'o COI require a pause when used immediately b=
efore a name, in order to prevent the name from absorbing the COI word. Thi=
s is unlike selma'o DOI and LA, which do not require pauses because the syl=
lables of these cmavo are not permitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. Wh=
en calling out to someone, this is fairly natural, anyway. =E2=80=9CHey! Jo=
hn!=E2=80=9D is thus a better translation of =E2=80=9Cju'i .djan.=E2=80=9D =
than =E2=80=9CHey John!=E2=80=9D. No pause is needed if the vocative refere=
nce is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal, =
=E2=80=9Cju'i lobypli=E2=80=9D.
+  (Alternatively, =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D can be inserted between the =
COI cmavo and the name, making a pause unnecessary: =E2=80=9Ccoi doi djan.=
=E2=80=9D)
+  
+   coi                 greetings
+
+  =E2=80=9CHello, X=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9CGreetings, X=E2=80=9D; indica=
tes a greeting to the listener.
+  
+   co'o                partings
+
+  =E2=80=9CGood-bye, X=E2=80=9D; indicates parting from immediate co=
mpany by either the speaker or the listener. =E2=80=9Ccoico'o=E2=80=9D mean=
s =E2=80=9Cgreeting in passing=E2=80=9D.
+  
+   ju'i [jundi]        attention     at ease       ignore me/us
+
+  =E2=80=9CAttention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X=E2=80=9D; indicat=
es an important communication that the listener should listen to.
+  
+   nu'e [nupre]        promise   release promise   non-promise
+
+  =E2=80=9CI promise, X=E2=80=9D; indicates a promise to the listene=
r. In some contexts, =E2=80=9Cnu'e=E2=80=9D may be prefixed to an oath or o=
ther formal declaration.
+  
+   ta'a [tavla]        interruption
+
+  =E2=80=9CI interrupt, X=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CI desire the floor, X=
=E2=80=9D; a vocative expression to (possibly) interrupt and claim the floo=
r to make a statement or expression. This can be used for both rude and pol=
ite interruptions, although rude interruptions will probably tend not to us=
e a vocative at all. An appropriate response to an interruption might be =
=E2=80=9Cre'i=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cre'inai=E2=80=9D to ignore the interrup=
tion).
+  
+   pe'u [cpedu]        request
+
+  =E2=80=9CPlease, X=E2=80=9D; indicates a request to the listener. =
It is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of =E2=80=9C.e'o=E2=80=9D with =
a specific recipient being addressed. On the other hand, =E2=80=9C.e'o=E2=
=80=9D may be used when there is no specific listener, but merely a =E2=80=
=9Csense of petition floating in the air=E2=80=9D, as it were.
+  
+   ki'e [ckire]        appreciation                disappreciation
+                       gratitude                   ingratitude
+
+  =E2=80=9CThank you, X=E2=80=9D; indicates appreciation or gratitud=
e toward the listener. The usual response is =E2=80=9Cje'e=E2=80=9D, but =
=E2=80=9Cfi'i=E2=80=9D is appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanatio=
n of =E2=80=9Cfi'i=E2=80=9D.
+  
+   fi'i [friti]        welcome,                    unwelcome,
+                       offering                    inhospitality
+
+  =E2=80=9CAt your service, X=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9CMake yourself at ho=
me, X=E2=80=9D; offers hospitality (possibly in response to thanks, but not=
 necessarily) to the listener. Note that =E2=80=9Cfi'i=E2=80=9D is not the equivalent of American English =E2=80=9CYou=E2=80=99re=
 welcome=E2=80=9D as a mechanical response to =E2=80=9CThank you=E2=80=9D; =
that is =E2=80=9Cje'e=E2=80=9D, as noted below.
+  
+   be'e [benji]        request to send
+
+  =E2=80=9CRequest to send to X=E2=80=9D; indicates that the speaker=
 wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is lis=
tening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired con=
versant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is =E2=80=9CHello? Can I speak to =
X?=E2=80=9D.
+  
+   re'i [bredi]        ready to receive            not ready
+
+  =E2=80=9CReady to receive, X=E2=80=9D; indicates that the speaker =
is attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used i=
nstead of =E2=80=9Cmi'e=E2=80=9D to respond when called to the telephone. T=
he negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to tal=
k when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated =E2=80=
=9CHold on!=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9CJust a minute=E2=80=9D.
+  
+   mu'o [mulno]        completion of utterance     more to follow
+
+  =E2=80=9COver, X=E2=80=9D; indicates that the speaker has complete=
d the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. =
The negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which foll=
ows does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,=
 =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m not done talking!=E2=80=9D
+  
+   je'e [jimpe]        successful receipt          unsuccessful receipt
+
+  =E2=80=9CRoger, X!=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CI understand=E2=80=9D; ackno=
wledges the successful receipt of a communication from the listener. The ne=
gative form indicates failure to receive correctly, and is usually followed=
 by =E2=80=9Cke'o=E2=80=9D. The colloquial English equivalents of =E2=80=9C=
je'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cje'enai=E2=80=9D are the grunt typically written=
 =E2=80=9Cuh-huh=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CWhat?/Excuse me?=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9C=
je'e=E2=80=9D is also used to mean =E2=80=9CYou=E2=80=99re welcome=E2=80=9D=
 when that is a response to =E2=80=9CThank you=E2=80=9D.
+  
+    vi'o               will comply                 will not comply
+
+  =E2=80=9CWilco, X=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CI understand and will comply=
=E2=80=9D. Similar to =E2=80=9Cje'e=E2=80=9D but signals an intention (simi=
lar to =E2=80=9C.ai=E2=80=9D) to comply with the other speaker=E2=80=99s re=
quest. This cmavo is the main way of saying =E2=80=9COK=E2=80=9D in Lojban,=
 in the usual sense of =E2=80=9CAgreed!=E2=80=9D, although =E2=80=9C.ie=E2=
=80=9D carries some of the same meaning. The negative form indicates that t=
he message was received but that you will not comply: a very colloquial ver=
sion is =E2=80=9CNo way!=E2=80=9D.
+  
+    ke'o [krefu]       please repeat               no repeat needed
+
+  =E2=80=9CWhat did you say, X?=E2=80=9D; a request for repetition o=
r clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the v=
ocative equivalent of =E2=80=9Cki'a=E2=80=9D, and is related to =E2=80=9Cje=
'enai=E2=80=9D. The negative form may be rendered =E2=80=9COkay, already; I=
 get the point!=E2=80=9D
+  
+    fe'o [fanmo]       end of communication        not done
+
+  =E2=80=9COver and out, X=E2=80=9D; indicates completion of stateme=
nt(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to termi=
nate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already=
 been identified (as in memos). The negative form means =E2=80=9CWait, hold=
 it, we=E2=80=99re not done!=E2=80=9D and differs from =E2=80=9Cmu'onai=E2=
=80=9D in that it means more exchanges are to follow, rather than that the =
current exchange is incomplete.
+  Do not confuse =E2=80=9Cfe'o=E2=80=9D with =E2=80=9Cfa'o=E2=80=9D =
(selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-grammatical signal that a text =
is complete. One may say =E2=80=9Cfe'o=E2=80=9D to one participant of a mul=
ti-way conversation and then go on speaking to the others.
+  
+    mi'e [cmavo: mi]   self-identification         non-identification
+
+  =E2=80=9CAnd I am X=E2=80=9D; a generalized self-vocative. Althoug=
h grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI, =E2=80=9Cmi'e=
=E2=80=9D is quite different semantically. In particular, rather than speci=
fying the listener, the person whose name (or description) follows =E2=80=
=9Cmi'e=E2=80=9D is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using =E2=80=9Cmi'e=
=E2=80=9D specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D. It c=
an be used to introduce oneself, to close letters, or to identify oneself o=
n the telephone.
+  This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI: =E2=80=9Cf=
e'omi'e=E2=80=9D would be an appropriate closing at the end of a letter; =
=E2=80=9Cre'imi'e=E2=80=9D would be a self-vocative used in delayed respons=
es, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as the=
 =E2=80=9Cmi'e=E2=80=9D comes last, the following name is that of the speak=
er; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listene=
r. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocativ=
e expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one vocat=
ive expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear.
+  The negative form denies an identity which someone else has attrib=
uted to you; =E2=80=9Cmi'enai .djan.=E2=80=9D means that you are saying you=
 are not John.
+  Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations which are=
 drawn from radio use: =E2=80=9Croger=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cwilco=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cover and out=E2=80=9D. This form of translation does not mean that=
 Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural la=
nguages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in specifi=
c domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Lojba=
n, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener may =
not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protocol=
 for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compute=
r communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the pr=
otocol question =E2=80=9Cta'apei=E2=80=9D would mean =E2=80=9CWill the spea=
ker yield?=E2=80=9D
+

+
+

+  15. A sample dialogue
+  The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudin=
als and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in =E2=80=
=9Csei ... se'u=E2=80=9D indicate the speaker of each sentence.
+  15.1)  la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja
+       Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar.
+       Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.
+
+15.2)  .i sei la rik. cusku se'u ta'a ro zvati be ti
+            mi baza speni ti .iu
+       [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Interrupt] all at this-place,
+            I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love].
+       Rick said, =E2=80=9CSorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I=E2=
=80=99m getting married
+            to my love here.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.3)  .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u
+            .a'o ko gleki doi ma
+       [Comment] George says, [end-comment]
+            [Hope] [You-imperative] are-happy, O [who?].
+       George said, =E2=80=9CI hope you=E2=80=99ll be happy, um, ...?=E2=
=80=9D
+
+15.4)  .i sei la pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis.
+            xu mi ba terfriti le nunspenybi'o
+       [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice,
+            [Is it true?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-=
becoming?
+       Pam said, =E2=80=9CPlease, Alice, am I going to be invited to the w=
edding?=E2=80=9D
+
+15.5)  .i sei la mark. cusku se'u
+            coi baza speni
+            a'o le re do lifri le ka gleki
+       [Comment] Mark says, [end-comment]
+            [Greetings] [future] [medium] spouse(s),
+            [Hope] the two of-you experience the-property-of being-happy
+       Mark said, =E2=80=9CHello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will b=
e very happy.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.6)  .i sei la rik. cusku se'u mi'e .rik. doi terpreti
+       [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [I am] Rick, O questioners.
+    Rick said, =E2=80=9CMy name is Rick, for those of you who want to know=
.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.7)  .i sei la .alis. cusku se'u
+            nu'e .pam. .o'ero'i do ba zvati
+       [Comment] Alice says, [end-comment]
+            [Promise-to] Pam, [closeness] [emotional] you [future] are-at.
+       Alice said, =E2=80=9CI promise you=E2=80=99ll be there, Pam honey.=
=E2=80=9D
+
+15.8)  .i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i
+            mi ji'a prami la .alis. fe'o .rik.
+       [Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic] [emotio=
nal]
+            I [additionally] love Alice.  [Over and out to] Rick.
+       =E2=80=9CI love Alice too,=E2=80=9D said Fred miserably. =E2=80=9CH=
ave a nice life, Rick.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.9)  .i la fred. cliva
+       Fred leaves.
+       And he left.
+
+15.10) .i sei la rik. cusku se'u
+            fi'i ro zvati
+            ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'o pleji mi
+       [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment]
+            [Welcome-to] all at-place,
+            [You-imperative] drink one coffee with-payer me.
+       Rick said, raising his voice, =E2=80=9CA cup of coffee for the hous=
e, on me.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.11) .i sei la pam. cusku se'u be'e selfu
+       [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Request to speak to] server.
+       Pam said, =E2=80=9CWaiter!=E2=80=9D
+
+15.12) .i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i [end-comment]
+       [Comment] The server says, [Ready to receive].
+       The waiter replied, =E2=80=9CMay I help you?=E2=80=9D
+
+15.13) .i sei la pam. cusku se'u
+            .e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi
+            le baza speni fi'o pleji mi
+       [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment]
+            [Petition] [You-imperative] serve the (superlatively good) cof=
fee
+            to-the [future] [medium] spouse with-payer me.
+       Pam said, =E2=80=9COne Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my t=
ab.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.14) .i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o
+       [Comment] The server says, [end-comment] [Will comply].
+       =E2=80=9CGotcha=E2=80=9D, said the waiter.
+
+15.15) .i sei la rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam.
+       [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks O] Pam.
+       =E2=80=9CThanks, Pam=E2=80=9D, said Rick.
+
+15.16) .i sei la pam. cusku se'u je'e
+       [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge].
+       =E2=80=9CSure=E2=80=9D, said Pam.
+
+15.17) .i sei la djan. cusku se'u
+            .y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y.
+            le nu le speni si .y.  ba speni .y. .y.
+            su .yyyyyy. mu'o
+       [Comment] John says, [end-comment]
+            [Uh] I [uh] very [nonexistent gismu] [uh]
+            the event-of the spouse [erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh] [uh]
+            [erase all] [uh] [over]
+       John said, =E2=80=9CI, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage=
, ....  Oh, forget it.
+            Er, later.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.18) .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u ke'o .djan. zo'o
+       [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Repeat O] John [humor].
+       =E2=80=9CHow=E2=80=99s that again, John?=E2=80=9D said George.
+
+15.19) .i sei la pam. cusku se'u
+            ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi farlu
+       [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment]
+            [Attention] George, [Warning] the cup [future] [short] falls
+       =E2=80=9CGeorge, watch out!=E2=80=9D said Pam. =E2=80=9CThe cup=E2=
=80=99s falling!=E2=80=9D
+
+15.20) .i le kabri cu je'a farlu
+       The cup indeed falls.
+       The cup fell.
+
+15.21) .i sei la djan. cusku se'u
+            e'o doi djordj. zo'o rapygau
+       [Comment] John says, [end-comment]
+            [Petition] O George [humor] repeat-cause.
+       John said, =E2=80=9CTry that again, George!=E2=80=9D
+
+15.22) .i sei la djordj. cusku se'u
+            co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. ga'i
+       [Comment] George says, [end-comment]
+            [Partings] all at-place without John [superiority]
+       =E2=80=9CGoodbye to all of you,=E2=80=9D said George sneeringly, =
=E2=80=9Cexcept John.=E2=80=9D
+
+15.23) .i la djordj. cliva
+       George leaves.
+       George left.
+
+

+
+

+  16. Tentative conclusion
+  The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage ar=
e unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before=
. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcri=
ption, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When =
communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are of=
ten used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we eve=
r ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be=
 vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, =
is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, no=
ting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to =
attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identi=
fy all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things li=
ke body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.
+  We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctio=
ns possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But=
 it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to ch=
oose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in=
 which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using t=
he cmavo =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D, explained in , to create metalinguistic comments that act like indicators.
+  We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the system=
 is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playi=
ng around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out wha=
t emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may e=
ven find an expression for which there currently is no good English word an=
d start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings?
+  There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universally=
 =E2=80=93 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers=
. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious lev=
el. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of n=
ew words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with=
 those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.
+  Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of attit=
udes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are buil=
t on some fairly nebulous root emotions =E2=80=94 words that cannot be defi=
ned with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very =
quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve=
 into a true system of emotions.
+  There are several theories as to the nature of emotion, and they c=
hange from year to year as we learn more about ourselves. Whether or not Lo=
jban=E2=80=99s additive/scalar emotional model is an accurate model for hum=
an emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for expressing those emot=
ions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of human emotions by expl=
oring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They also may be able to us=
e the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recording emotions.
+  The full list of scales and attitudes will probably not be used un=
til someone speaks the language from birth. Until then, people will use the=
 attitudes that are important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bia=
s =E2=80=94 if a culture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain =
emotions more than others, its members will use only those out of the enorm=
ous set available. If a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply =
won=E2=80=99t express them.
+  Perhaps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear abo=
ut their emotions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more st=
rongly than others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; an=
y difference from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychol=
ogists have devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality=
; this may be the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural e=
ffect of the type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already =
have tools in existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among language=
s in having such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a S=
apir-Whorf effect will occur and will be recognized.
+  It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system li=
ke this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-cu=
ltural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in th=
e realm of emotional communication =E2=80=9Cat our mother=E2=80=99s knee=E2=
=80=9D. Such children will have a Lojban system that has stronger reinforce=
ment than any typical culture system. The second generation of such childre=
n, then, could be said to be the start of a true Lojbanic culture.
+  We shouldn=E2=80=99t need to wait that long to detect significant =
effects. Emotion is so basic to our lives that even a small change or impro=
vement in emotional communication would have immediately noticeable effects=
. Perhaps it will be the case that the most important contribution of our =
=E2=80=9Clogical language=E2=80=9D will be in the non-logical realm of emot=
ion!
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..713ec0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1399 @@
+
+  Chapter 14
+If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System
+
+
+

+  1. Logical connection and truth tables
+  Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself mean=
s =E2=80=9Clogical language=E2=80=9D. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t=
here are variant logics, which aren=E2=80=99t addressed in this book) inclu=
de the notions of a =E2=80=9Csentence=E2=80=9D (sometimes called a =E2=80=
=9Cstatement=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cproposition=E2=80=9D), which asserts a tr=
uth or falsehood, and a small set of =E2=80=9Ctruth functions=E2=80=9D, whi=
ch combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have=
 the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or fal=
sehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sen=
tences. For example,
+  1.1)   John is a man or James is a woman.
+
+  is true if =E2=80=9CJohn is a man=E2=80=9D is true, or if =E2=80=
=9CJames is a woman=E2=80=9D is true. If we know whether John is a man, and=
 we know whether James is a woman, we know whether =E2=80=9CJohn is a man o=
r James is a woman=E2=80=9D is true, provided we know the meaning of =E2=80=
=9Cor=E2=80=9D. Here =E2=80=9CJohn is a man=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CJames is =
a woman=E2=80=9D are the component sentences.
+  We will use the phrase =E2=80=9Cnegating a sentence=E2=80=9D to me=
an changing its truth value. An English sentence may always be negated by p=
refixing =E2=80=9CIt is false that ... =E2=80=9D, or more idiomatically by =
inserting =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D at the right point, generally before the ve=
rb. =E2=80=9CJames is not a woman=E2=80=9D is the negation of =E2=80=9CJame=
s is a woman=E2=80=9D, and vice versa. Recent slang can also negate a sente=
nce by following it with the exclamation =E2=80=9CNot!=E2=80=9D
+  Words like =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D are called =E2=80=9Clogical connec=
tives=E2=80=9D, and Lojban has many of them, as befits a logical language. =
This chapter is mostly concerned with explaining the forms and uses of the =
Lojban logical connectives. There are a number of other logical connectives=
 in English such as =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cand/or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cif=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Conly if=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cwhether or not=E2=80=9D=
, and others; however, not every use of these English words corresponds to =
a logical connective. This point will be made clear in particular cases as =
needed. The other English meanings are supported by different Lojban connec=
tive constructs.
+  The Lojban connectives form a system (as the title of this chapter=
 suggests), regular and predictable, whereas natural-language connectives a=
re rather less systematic and therefore less predictable.
+  There exist 16 possible different truth functions. A truth table i=
s a graphical device for specifying a truth function, making it clear what =
the value of the truth function is for every possible value of the componen=
t sentences. Here is a truth table for =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D:
+  
+    
+      
+      
+      
+      
+        
+          first
+          second
+          result
+        
+      
+      
+        
+          True
+          True
+          True
+        
+        
+          True
+          False
+          True
+        
+        
+          False
+          True
+          True
+        
+        
+          False
+          False
+          False
+        
+      
+    
+  
+  This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and th=
e second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function is =
also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth v=
alues except the one where both the first and the second sentences are fals=
e, in which case the truth value of the result is also false.
+  Suppose that =E2=80=9CJohn is a man=E2=80=9D is true (and =E2=80=
=9CJohn is not a man=E2=80=9D is false), and that =E2=80=9CJames is a woman=
=E2=80=9D is false (and =E2=80=9CJames is not a woman=E2=80=9D is true). Th=
en the truth table tells us that
+  
+       =E2=80=9CJohn is a man, or James is not a woman=E2=80=9D           =
  (true   true )  is true;
+       =E2=80=9CJohn is a man, or James is a woman=E2=80=9D               =
  (true , false)  is true;
+       =E2=80=9CJohn is not a man, or James is not a woman=E2=80=9D       =
  (false, true )  is true;
+       =E2=80=9CJohn is not a man, or James is a woman=E2=80=9D           =
  (false, false)  is false.
+
+  Note that the kind of =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D used in this example ca=
n also be expressed (in formal English) with =E2=80=9Cand/or=E2=80=9D. Ther=
e is a different truth table for the kind of =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D that mean=
s =E2=80=9Ceither ... or ... but not both=E2=80=9D.
+  To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format henc=
eforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will alw=
ays be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentences=
. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result column=
, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third colum=
n of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the =E2=80=
=9Cor=E2=80=9D truth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functions, wi=
th an English version of what it means to assert that each function is, in =
fact, true (=E2=80=9Cfirst=E2=80=9D refers to the first sentence, and =E2=
=80=9Csecond=E2=80=9D to the second sentence):
+  
+    TTTT    (always true)
+    TTTF    first is true and/or second is true.
+    TTFT    first is true if second is true.
+    TTFF    first is true whether or not second is true.
+    TFTT    first is true only if second is true.
+    TFTF    whether or not first is true, second is true.
+    TFFT    first is true if and only if second is true.
+    TFFF    first is true and second is true
+
+    FTTT    first and second are not both true.
+    FTTF    first or second is true, but not both.
+    FTFT    whether or not first is true, second is false.
+    FTFF    first is true, but second is false.
+    FFTT    first is false whether or not second is true.
+    FFTF    first is false, but second is true.
+    FFFT    neither first nor second is true.
+    FFFF    (always false)
+
+  Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.
+

+
+

+  2. The Four basic vowels
+  Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, an=
d assigns them the four vowels A, <=
phrase role=3D"logical-vowel">E, O<=
/phrase>, and U. These letters do n=
ot represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from whi=
ch actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next s=
ection. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equ=
ivalents:
+  A   TTTF    or, =
and/or
+    E   TFFF    and
+    O   TFFT    if and only if
+    U   TTFF    whether or not
+
+  More precisely:
+  A   is true if e=
ither or both sentences are true;
+    E   is true if both sentences =
are true, but not otherwise;
+    O   is true if the sentences a=
re both true or both false;
+    U   is true if the first sente=
nce is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence.
+
+  With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and t=
he ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, =
we can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, =
which are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to cre=
ate each of the 14 remaining truth functions:
+  
+    TTTF   A
+    TTFT   A with second sentence =
negated
+    TTFF   U
+    TFTT   A with first sentence n=
egated
+    TFTF   U with sentences exchan=
ged
+    TFFT   O
+    TFFF   E
+
+    FTTT   A with both sentences n=
egated
+    FTTF   O with either first or =
second negated (not both)
+    FTFT   U with sentences exchan=
ged and then second negated
+    FTFF   E with second sentence =
negated
+    FFTT   U with first sentence n=
egated
+    FFTF   E with first sentence n=
egated
+    FFFT   E with both sentences n=
egated
+
+  Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with U. The three other basic truth functions ar=
e commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of=
 the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these tru=
th tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.
+

+
+

+  3. The six types of logical connectives
+  In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single l=
ogical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the gra=
mmar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must h=
ave its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumt=
i were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.
+  Consider the English sentence:
+  3.1)   Mary went to the window and  ...
+
+  where the last word could be followed by =E2=80=9Cthe door=E2=80=
=9D, a noun phrase, or by =E2=80=9Csaw the horses=E2=80=9D, a sentence with=
 subject omitted, or by =E2=80=9CJohn went to the door=E2=80=9D, a full sen=
tence, or by one of a variety of other English grammatical constructions. L=
ojban cannot tolerate such grammatical looseness.
+  Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for logi=
cal connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cmav=
o, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel in =
the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo.
+  Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function A is =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D. (Do not confuse A, which is =
a selma'o, with A, which is a truth=
 function, or =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo f=
or E in selma'o GIhA is =E2=80=9Cgi=
'e=E2=80=9D, and the cmavo for U in=
 selma'o GA is =E2=80=9Cgu=E2=80=9D. This systematic regularity makes the c=
mavo easier to learn.
+  Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth funct=
ions explained in . Therefore, co=
mpound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern=
: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart,=
 and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D. Which auxiliaries are =
used with which logical connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning=
, will be explained in the following sections. The uses of each of these au=
xiliary cmavo relates to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar.
+  For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for logi=
cal connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by chang=
ing the final =E2=80=9C-A=E2=80=9D of the selma'o name to =E2=80=9C-ek=E2=
=80=9D; the reasons for using =E2=80=9C-ek=E2=80=9D are buried deep in the =
history of the Loglan Project. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are =
known as eks, and those based on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writin=
g in English, it is conventional to use =E2=80=9Ceks=E2=80=9D as the plural=
 of =E2=80=9Cek=E2=80=9D.) When the term =E2=80=9Clogical connective=E2=80=
=9D is used in this chapter, it refers to one or more of these kinds of com=
pound cmavo.
+  Why does the title of this section refer to =E2=80=9Csix types=E2=
=80=9D when there are only five selma'o? A jek may be preceded by =E2=80=9C=
.i=E2=80=9D, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences. The compo=
und produced by =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D followed by a jek is known as an ijek.=
 It is useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, para=
llel to eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks.
+  There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not l=
ogical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be int=
roduced later.
+

+
+

+  4. Logical connection of bridi
+  Now we are ready to express  in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed bet=
ween two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:
+  4.1)   la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.
+
+  Here we have two separate Lojban bridi, =E2=80=9Cla djan. nanmu=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla djeimyz. ninmu=E2=80=9D. These bridi are connected b=
y =E2=80=9C.ija=E2=80=9D, the ijek for the truth function A. The =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D portion of the ijek tell=
s us that we are dealing with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can no=
w say:
+  4.2)   la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man and James is-a-woman.
+
+4.3)   la djan. nanmu .ijo la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.
+
+4.4)   la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.
+
+  To obtain the other truth tables listed in , we need to know how to negate the two bridi which repr=
esent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place =
the negation within the connective itself.
+  To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=
=9D to the JA cmavo but after the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D. To negate the secon=
d or right-hand bridi, suffix =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D to the JA cmavo. In ei=
ther case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that i=
s closest to the bridi being negated.
+  So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires O with either of the two bridi negated (not both),=
 we can say either:
+  4.5)   la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.
+
+4.6)   la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman
+
+  The meaning of both  and  is the same a=
s that of:
+  4.7)   John is a man or James is a woman, but not b=
oth.
+
+  Here is another example:
+  4.8)   la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.
+       John is a man if James is a woman.
+
+  How=E2=80=99s that again? Are those two English sentences in  really equivalent? In Englis=
h, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed =E2=80=9CA if B=E2=80=
=9D, but the =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D does not quite have its English sense.  is true so long as John i=
s a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because Ja=
mes is not a woman, regardless of John=E2=80=99s gender. This kind of =E2=
=80=9Cif-then=E2=80=9D is technically known as a =E2=80=9Cmaterial conditio=
nal=E2=80=9D.
+  Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in ), the English sentence =E2=80=9CJohn is a man if =
James is a woman=E2=80=9D seems to be neither true nor false, since it assu=
mes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to trea=
t this =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D as TTFT, which on investigation means that  is true. , however, is equally true:
+  4.9)   la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is a woman if James is a woman.
+
+  This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be p=
araphrased as follows: =E2=80=9CIf a false statement is true, any statement=
 follows from it.=E2=80=9D All uses of English =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D must be=
 considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they real=
ly fit this Lojban mold.
+  , which uses t=
he TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of T=
FTT as =E2=80=9Conly if=E2=80=9D works naturally only when the right-hand b=
ridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or fal=
se. The last gloss of  =
illustrates the use of =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2=80=9D as a more natural subs=
titute for =E2=80=9Conly if=E2=80=9D.
+  4.10)  la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman.
+       John is a man only if James is a woman.
+       If John is a man, then James is a woman.
+
+  The following example illustrates the use of =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D =
to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of =E2=80=9Cse=E2=
=80=9D is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in .
+  4.11)  la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu
+       Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.
+
+  If both =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D are present,=
 which is legal but never necessary, =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D would come before=
 =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D.
+  The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:
+  
+       .i [na] [se] JA [nai]
+
+  where the cmavo in brackets are optional.
+

+
+

+  5. Forethought bridi connection
+  Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, gen=
erally referred to as =E2=80=9Cafterthought=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cforethoug=
ht=E2=80=9D.  discussed what is c=
alled =E2=80=9Cafterthought bridi logical connection=E2=80=9D. The word =E2=
=80=9Cafterthought=E2=80=9D is used because the connective cmavo and the se=
cond bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form=
 of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a stateme=
nt and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been compl=
eted. Thus,
+  5.1)   la djan. nanmu
+
+  is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make=

+  5.2)   la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is a man or James is a woman (or both)
+
+  provides additional information without requiring any change in th=
e form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practi=
cal, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the u=
se of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to =
construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of =
ways.
+  In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expres=
sing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethou=
ght and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The f=
orethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks=
:
+  5.3)   ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+       Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).
+
+  =E2=80=9Cga=E2=80=9D is the cmavo which represents the A truth function in selma'o GA. The word =E2=
=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own sel=
ma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any content o=
f its own. The English translation of =E2=80=9Cga ... gi=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=
=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, but in the English form the truth function is sp=
ecified both by the word =E2=80=9Ceither=E2=80=9D and by the word =E2=80=9C=
or=E2=80=9D: not so in Lojban.
+  Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not ha=
ve any =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D in them. The forethought construct binds up the=
 two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned.
+  Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:
+  5.4)   ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+       (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.
+
+5.5)   gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+       It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.
+
+  It is worth emphasizing that  does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The =E2=
=80=9Cgu=E2=80=9D which indicates that =E2=80=9Cla djeimyz. ninmu=E2=80=9D =
may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus aff=
ected.
+  Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly express=
ed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as =E2=80=9Cif ... then=
 ... =E2=80=9D:
+  5.6)   ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+       Either John is not a man, or James is a woman.
+       If John is a man, then James is a woman.
+
+  Note the placement of the =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D in . When added to afterthought selma'o =
such as JA, a following =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D negates the second bridi, to =
which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following =
=E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D negates the first bridi instead.
+  Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of ? Possibly because it would b=
e confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (wh=
ich, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which =
involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic =
understanding, when expressed using afterthought.
+  It must be reiterated here that not every use of English =E2=80=9C=
if ... then=E2=80=9D is properly translated by =E2=80=9C.inaja=E2=80=9D or =
=E2=80=9Cganai ... gi=E2=80=9D; anything with implications of time needs a =
somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in . Causal sentences like =E2=80=9CIf you f=
eed the pig, then it will grow=E2=80=9D are not logical connectives of any =
type, but rather need a translation using =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D as the se=
lbri joining two event abstractions, thus:
+  5.7)   le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le=
 nu ri ba banro
+       The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it wil=
l grow).
+
+  Causality is discussed in far more detail in .
+   and  illustrates a truth function, FTT=
F, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already u=
nderstand how to negate the first bridi:
+  5.8)   gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman,
+       Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.
+
+  How can the second bridi be negated? By adding =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=
=9D to the =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D.
+  5.9)   go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman.
+       Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.
+
+  A compound cmavo based on =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D is called a gik; th=
e only giks are =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D itself and =E2=80=9Cginai=E2=80=9D.
+  Further examples:
+  5.10)  ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.
+
+5.11)  ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu
+       John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.
+
+  The syntax of geks is:
+  
+      [se] GA [nai]
+
+  and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the=
 machinery of forethought connection) is:
+  
+      gi [nai]
+
+

+
+

+  6. sumti connection
+  Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical conn=
ection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to b=
e logically connected have one or more portions in common:
+  6.1)   la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama=
 le zarci
+       John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.
+
+  Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban doe=
s not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi=
 can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical=
 connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:
+  6.2)   la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci
+       John and Alice go-to the market.
+
+   means exactly =
the same thing as : one =
may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical =
meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical c=
onnection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see ), can always be transformed into a logical conne=
ction between sentences that expresses the same truth function.
+  The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which =
contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in , the meaning would be changed:
+  6.3)   la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci
+       John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.
+
+  leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.
+  Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct Engli=
sh equivalent:
+  6.4)   la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci
+       John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market.
+       John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.
+
+  The second line of  is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a litera=
l translation) is excellent Lojban.
+  What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi =
connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethou=
ght logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.
+  6.5)   ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci
+       Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.
+
+  Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo tha=
t ijeks do. When =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D is part of an=
 ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:<=
/para>
+  6.6)   la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci
+       John only if Alice goes-to the market.
+       John goes to the market only if Alice does.
+
+  Note the period in =E2=80=9Cna.a=E2=80=9D. The cmavo of A begin wi=
th vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventi=
onal to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), bu=
t this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D would tend to run together.
+

+
+

+  7. More than two propositions
+  So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly tw=
o sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban=
? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.
+  Of the four primitive truth functions A, E, O, and U, al=
l but O have the same truth values =
no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,=

+  7.1)   mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu
+       I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.
+
+  means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise,
+  7.2)  mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu
+    I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.
+
+  means that one or more of the component sentences is true.
+  O, however, is different. =
Working out the truth table for
+  7.3)   mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu
+            .ijo mi nanmu
+       I am-German.  If-and-only-if I am-rich.
+            If-and-only-if I am-a-man.
+
+  shows that  doe=
s not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; inst=
ead, an accurate translation would be:
+  
+       Of the three properties =E2=80=94 German-ness, wealth, and manhood =
=E2=80=94 I possess either exactly one or else all three.
+
+  Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest =
to avoid O with more than two sente=
nces. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected=
 truth values when used with more than two sentences.
+  In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the =E2=
=80=9Call or none=E2=80=9D interpretation intended (but not achieved) by  without repeating one of =
the bridi. See .
+  There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two se=
ntences. What is the meaning of:
+  7.4)   mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .=
ija mi nelci la meris.
+       I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.
+
+  Does this mean:
+  7.5)   I like John, and I like either Martha or Mar=
y or both.
+
+  Or is the correct translation:
+  7.6)   Either I like John and I like Martha, or I l=
ike Mary, or both.
+
+   is the correct=
 translation of . The re=
ason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many c=
onstructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is eas=
y to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought con=
nectives are not subject to this problem:
+  7.7)   ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la marta=
s. gi mi nelci la meris.
+       Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to , whereas
+  7.8)   ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la marta=
s. gi mi nelci la meris.
+       Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).
+
+  is not equivalent to , but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, =
of .
+

+
+

+  8. Grouping of afterthought connectives
+  There are several ways in Lojban to render  using afterthought only. The simplest method i=
s to make use of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BO). This cmavo=
 has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high preced=
ence and short scope. In particular, if =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is placed afte=
r an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overri=
des the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=
=80=9D are interpreted before connections not so marked.  is equivalent in meaning to :
+  8.1)   mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .=
ijabo mi nelci la meris.
+       I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.
+
+  The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the Loj=
ban marks far more clearly: the =E2=80=9CI like Martha=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9CI like Mary=E2=80=9D sentences are joined by =E2=80=9C.ija=E2=80=9D firs=
t, before the result is joined to =E2=80=9CI like John=E2=80=9D by =E2=80=
=9C.ije=E2=80=9D. Eks can have =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D attached in exactly the=
 same way, so that  is e=
quivalent in meaning to Example 8.1:
+  8.2)   mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meri=
s.
+
+  Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with =E2=
=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, for every use of forethought connectives clearly indicat=
es the intended pattern of grouping.
+  What happens if =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is used on both connectives, =
giving them the same high precedence, as in ?
+  8.3)   mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la me=
ris.
+
+  Does this wind up meaning the same as  and ? Not at all. A second rule relating to =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is that wh=
ere several =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D-marked connectives are used in succession,=
 the normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule.=
 As a result,  in fact m=
eans the same as  and . This rule may be occasio=
nally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in wri=
ting intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives ma=
rked with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D should be avoided.
+  The use of =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, therefore, gets tricky in complex=
 connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English tran=
slations of  and , parentheses were used to clar=
ify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets=
 of them actually. =E2=80=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D are us=
ed with ijeks, and =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D with eks=
 and other connectives to be discussed later. (=E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D are also used in other roles in the language, but alway=
s as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:
+  8.4)   I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you an=
d you love me.
+
+  where the semantics tells us that the instances of =E2=80=9Cand=E2=
=80=9D are meant to have higher precedence than that of =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=
=9D. If we wish to express  in afterthought, we can say:
+  8.5)   mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi =
prami do .ijebo do prami mi
+       I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.
+
+  marking two of the ijeks with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D for high preced=
ence. (The first =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is not strictly necessary, because of=
 the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)
+  But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:
+  8.6)   tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u
+            .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]
+       ( I kiss you and you kiss me )
+            if ( I love you and you love me ).
+
+  where the =E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D pairs set off the struct=
ure. The cmavo =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D is an elidable terminator, and its se=
cond occurrence in  is b=
racketed, because all terminators may be elided at the end of a text.
+  In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parenthe=
ses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought material =
may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these two=
 advantages apply to =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D grouping. In general, afterthough=
t constructions trade generality for simplicity.
+  Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of =E2=80=9Ctu'e =
... tu'u=E2=80=9D parentheses may actually be left off altogether, producin=
g:
+  8.7)   mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi
+            .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]
+       I kiss you and you kiss me
+            if ( I love you and you love me ).
+
+  What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider
+  8.8)   I walk to either the market and the house, o=
r the school and the office.
+
+  Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to , would seem to be the right approach. However, it =
is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with =E2=80=9Cke=E2=
=80=9D, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing , which is instead parallel to <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example7"/>:
+  8.9)   mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckul=
e .e le briju [ke'e]
+       I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the office )=
.
+
+  If sumti were allowed to begin with =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D, unavoida=
ble ambiguities would result, so =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D grouping of sumti is =
allowed only just after a logical connective. This rule does not apply to =
=E2=80=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D grouping of bridi, as  shows.
+  Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of : =E2=80=9CI am German, rich, and a=
 man =E2=80=94 or else none of these.=E2=80=9D The following paraphrase has=
 the correct meaning:
+  8.10)  [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]
+            .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]
+       ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )
+            and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).
+
+  The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all th=
ree component sentences are true or all three are false.
+

+
+

+  9. Compound bridi
+  So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no =
similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical excep=
t for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural t=
o ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for havi=
ng different selbri.
+  Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed t=
o handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as=
 part of a more general-purpose mechanism called =E2=80=9Ccompound bridi=E2=
=80=9D. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that diff=
er in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.
+  The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common poi=
nt:
+  9.1)   mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan.
+       I go to the market, and I like John.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:
+  9.2)   mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.
+       I go-to the market and like John.
+
+  As  indicates, =
giheks are used in afterthought to create compound bridi; =E2=80=9Cgi'e=E2=
=80=9D is the gihek corresponding to =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D. The actual phra=
ses =E2=80=9Cklama le zarci=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnelci la djan.=E2=80=9D t=
hat the gihek connects are known as =E2=80=9Cbridi-tails=E2=80=9D, because =
they represent (in this use) the =E2=80=9Ctail end=E2=80=9D of a bridi, inc=
luding the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that pre=
cede the selbri:
+  9.3)   mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci
+       I am-rich and go-to the market.
+
+  In , the first =
bridi-tail is =E2=80=9Cricfu=E2=80=9D, a simple selbri, and the second brid=
i-tail is =E2=80=9Cklama le zarci=E2=80=9D, a selbri with one following sum=
ti.
+  Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two=
 sentences:
+  9.4)   mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu =
do
+       I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-you.
+
+  In , the first =
and last sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti=
 are different. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogou=
s to  can be achieved:
+  9.5)   fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rup=
nu
+       to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units.
+
+  where the =E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D does not have an exact English tran=
slation because it merely places =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D in the third place of=
 both =E2=80=9Clebna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdunda=E2=80=9D. However, a form =
that preserves natural sumti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect tw=
o bridi-tails, but also allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. T=
hese sumti are known as tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightfo=
rward gihek version of  =
therefore is:
+  9.6)   mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do
+       I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the =
bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidab=
le =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D, but only in connection with compound bridi is it =
ever necessary to express this =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D. Thus:
+  9.7)   mi klama le zarci [vau]
+       I go-to the market.
+
+  has a single elided =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D, and  is equivalent to:
+  9.8)   mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. =
[vau] [vau]
+
+  where the double =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D at the end of  terminates both the right-hand bridi=
-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.
+  A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete s=
entences, the Lojban observative:
+  9.9)   klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju
+       A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.
+
+  Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying , this compound bridi does not necess=
arily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of=
 an explicit x1 (other than =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D, which is equivalent to =
omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.
+  A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of t=
he following example:
+  9.10)  klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la=
 nu,IORK. la rom.
+       A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Rome.
+
+  If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi we=
re considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), th=
e unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the sa=
me, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is=
 the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=
=9D, meaning roughly =E2=80=9Csomething=E2=80=9D, into the x1 place cures t=
he problem:
+  9.11)  da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks.
+            gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.
+       Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix
+           and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.
+
+  The syntax of giheks is:
+  
+      [na] [se] GIhA [nai]
+
+  which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.
+

+
+

+  10. Multiple compound bridi
+  Giheks can be combined with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D in the same way a=
s eks:
+  10.1)  mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi=
'abo nelci la meris.
+       I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to  and . Like=
wise, =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D grouping can be used after giheks:
+  10.2)  mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani
+            gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]
+       I walk-to the market and walk-to the house,
+            or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.
+
+  is the gihek version of . The same rule about using =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D bracketi=
ng only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the =
first two bridi-tails in  cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associa=
te them.
+  Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can hav=
e its own set of tail-terms:
+  10.3)  mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda=
 le cukta la djan.
+            .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.
+       [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to Joh=
n
+            or I take the book from John.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to:
+  10.4)  mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebn=
a vau le cukta vau la djan.
+       [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/from J=
ohn.
+
+  The literal English translation in  is almost unintelligible, but the Lojban is perfectly=
 grammatical. =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D fills the x1 place of all three selbri; =
=E2=80=9Clo rupnu=E2=80=9D is the x2 of =E2=80=9Cdejni=E2=80=9D, whereas =
=E2=80=9Cle cukta=E2=80=9D is a tail-term shared between =E2=80=9Cdunda=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clebna=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D is a tail-te=
rm shared by =E2=80=9Cdejni=E2=80=9D and by =E2=80=9Cdunda gi'abo lebna=E2=
=80=9D. In this case, greater clarity is probably achieved by moving =E2=80=
=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D to the beginning of the sentence, as in :
+  10.5)  fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a du=
nda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta
+       To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or take =
the book.
+
+  Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails?=
 There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allo=
ws a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-=
tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. =
For example:
+  10.6)  mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan.
+       I both go to the market and like John.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to .
+  Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:
+  10.7)  mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani =
gi nelci la djan.
+       I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.
+
+  The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole b=
y prefixing =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D:
+  10.8)  mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani
+       [False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house.
+
+  Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a br=
idi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example6"/> is:
+  10.9)  mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau=
 do
+       I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/from y=
ou.
+
+  Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equiva=
lent of :
+  10.10) ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju
+       Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.
+
+  Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both s=
hared and unshared terms before their selbri:
+  10.11) mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli c=
u dansu
+       I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.
+       I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).
+
+

+
+

+  11. Termset logical connection
+  So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and r=
equire bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permi=
t sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly on=
e or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connecti=
ves are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not i=
n the selbri, such as:
+  11.1)  I go to the market from the office and to =
the house from the school.
+
+  The Lojban version of  requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A =E2=80=9Ct=
erm=E2=80=9D is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag =
such as =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbai=E2=80=9D. Afterthought termset=
s are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo =E2=80=9Cce'e=
=E2=80=9D (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical =
connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpe'e=E2=
=80=9D (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of =E2=80=9Cpe=
'e=E2=80=9D and a jek as a =E2=80=9Cpehejek=E2=80=9D, I suppose.)
+  11.2)  mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je
+            le zdani ce'e le ckule
+       I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and
+            to-the house [plus] from-the school.
+
+  The literal translation uses =E2=80=9C[plus]=E2=80=9D to indicate =
the termset connective, and =E2=80=9C[joint]=E2=80=9D to indicate the posit=
ion of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi=
-connection form:
+  11.3)  mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama l=
e zdani le ckule
+       I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from-the =
school.
+
+  which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 place=
s only.
+  What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length=
? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in w=
hich place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 pl=
ace of one bridi and the x3 place of another:
+  11.4)  mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le br=
iju
+       I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office.
+
+  can be clearly understood by expansion to:
+  11.5)  mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klam=
a le briju
+       I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office.
+
+  So =E2=80=9Cle briju=E2=80=9D is your origin but my destination, a=
nd thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D simultaneo=
usly! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri, =E2=80=9C=
klama=E2=80=9D, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition, =
=E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D in  is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox ap=
plies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within=
 the connected bridi-tails:
+  11.6)  mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju
+       I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.
+
+  means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the o=
ffice; =E2=80=9Cle briju=E2=80=9D is the x3 place of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=
=9D and the x2 place of =E2=80=9Cdzukla=E2=80=9D.
+  Forethought termsets also exist, and use =E2=80=9Cnu'i=E2=80=9D of=
 selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and =E2=80=9Cnu'u=E2=80=9D of selma'o=
 NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted betwe=
en the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical co=
nnection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the =
=E2=80=9Cnu'i=E2=80=9D, and an extra =E2=80=9Cnu'u=E2=80=9D just before the=
 gik:
+  11.7)  mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju
+            nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
+       I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office
+            [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].
+
+  Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one =
=E2=80=9Cnu'i=E2=80=9D is used.
+  The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical conne=
ctives are explained in  and .
+

+
+

+  12. Logical connection within tanru
+  As noted at the beginning of , there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothi=
ng but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a=
 selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consid=
er the simple tanru =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D, blue house. Now anything=
 that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at l=
east, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of =E2=80=9Cblanu bolci=
=E2=80=9D, Lojbanists can say =E2=80=9Cblanu je bolci=E2=80=9D, using a jek=
 connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in  also, but there they were always prefixed by =E2=80=9Cp=
e'e=E2=80=9D; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examp=
les:
+  12.1)  ti blanu zdani
+       This is-a-blue type-of house.
+
+12.2)  ti blanu je zdani
+       This is-blue and a-house.
+
+  But of course =
 and  are not necessari=
ly equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanr=
u that  might just as w=
ell mean
+  12.3)  This is a house for blue inhabitants.
+
+  and  certainly=
 is not equivalent in meaning to .
+  A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rath=
er to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in gener=
al. Why? Because although  happens to mean the same as
+  12.4)  ti blanu gi'e zdani
+
+  and therefore as
+  12.5)  ti blanu .ije ti zdani
+
+  the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always w=
ork for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue =
houses, then
+  12.6)  la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu
+       Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.
+
+  would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher preced=
ence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:
+  12.7)  la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu=
 zdani prenu
+       Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.
+
+  is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the hou=
se, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say=
 =E2=80=9CAlice is a blue person=E2=80=9D. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue=
 team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make su=
ch logical manipulations impossible.
+  It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points ab=
out tanru logical connection. =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D may be appended to jeks =
as to eks, with the same rules:
+  12.8)  la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi
+       Terry is rich and ( male or female ).
+
+  The components of tanru may be grouped with =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D b=
oth before and after a logical connective:
+  12.9)  la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] j=
e ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]
+       Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).
+
+  where the first =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D pair may be omitted =
altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In an=
y case, the last instance of =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D may be elided.
+  The syntax of jeks is:
+  
+       [na] [se] JA [nai]
+
+  parallel to eks and giheks.
+  Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks in=
stead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:
+  
+       [se] GUhA [nai]
+
+  Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what =
would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru c=
onnection:
+  12.10) la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi
+       Alice is both rich and female.
+
+  Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they a=
re used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru =
grouping does:
+  12.11) la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu
+       Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.
+
+  is the forethought version of .
+  A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru withi=
n descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In cor=
rectly reducing
+  12.12) mi viska pa nanmu .ije mi viska pa ninmu
+       I see a man, and I see a woman.
+
+  to
+  12.13) mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu
+       I see a man and a woman.
+
+  there is a great temptation to reduce further to:
+  12.14) mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu
+       I see a man and woman.
+
+  But  means th=
at you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A =E2=
=80=9Cnanmu je ninmu=E2=80=9D is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent crea=
ture who is both a =E2=80=9Cnanmu=E2=80=9D and a =E2=80=9Cninmu=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  13. Truth questions and connective questions
+  So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojb=
an, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are q=
uestions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of th=
ese (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in ot=
her chapters.
+  The simplest kind of question is of the type =E2=80=9CIs it true t=
hat ... =E2=80=9D where some statement follows. This type is called a =E2=
=80=9Ctruth question=E2=80=9D, and can be represented in English by :
+  13.1)  Is it true that Fido is a dog?
+       Is Fido a dog?
+
+  Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be f=
ormed by prefixing =E2=80=9CIs is true that=E2=80=9D to the beginning of a =
statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the=
 verb before its subject. =E2=80=9CIs Fido a dog?=E2=80=9D is the truth que=
stion corresponding to =E2=80=9CFido is a dog=E2=80=9D. In Lojban, the equi=
valent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D (of selma'o UI=
) to the statement:
+  13.2)  xu la faidon. gerku
+       Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?
+
+   and  are equivalent in meaning.
+  A truth question can be answered =E2=80=9Cyes=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=
=9Cno=E2=80=9D, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the und=
erlying statement. The standard way of saying =E2=80=9Cyes=E2=80=9D in Lojb=
an is =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D and of saying =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=
=9Cnago'i=E2=80=9D. (The reasons for this rule are explained in .) In answer to , the possible answers are:
+  13.3)  go'i
+       Fido is a dog.
+
+  and
+  13.4)  nago'i
+       Fido is not a dog.
+
+  Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth q=
uestions so far discussed. Consider
+  13.5)  Is Fido a dog or a cat?
+
+  Superficially,  seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:
+  13.6)  Fido is a dog or a cat.
+
+  By translating  into Lojban and prefixing =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D to signal a truth question=
, we get:
+  13.7)  xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu
+       Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?
+
+  Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate a=
nswer would be =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate=
 answer would be =E2=80=9Cnago'i=E2=80=9D.
+  But that is not what an English-speaker who utters  is asking! The true significance of=
  is that the speaker d=
esires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is=
 presupposed that only one is true).
+  Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of questio=
n which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the tr=
uth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth function=
 which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: there=
 is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by th=
e following table:
+  
+    ge'i    GA         forethought connective question
+    gi'i    GIhA       bridi-tail connective question
+    gu'i    GUhA       tanru forethought connective question
+    je'i    JA         tanru connective question
+    ji      A          sumti connective question
+
+  (This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the=
 other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUh=
A, make use of the cmavo ending in =E2=80=9C-i=E2=80=9D which is not used f=
or a truth function, but =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D were=
 not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simpl=
y be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)
+  One correct translation of  employs a question gihek:
+  13.8)  la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu
+       Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?
+
+  Here are some plausible answers:
+  13.9) nagi'e
+       Alice is not a dog and is a cat.
+
+13.10) gi'enai
+       Alice is a dog and is not a cat.
+
+13.11) nagi'enai
+       Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.
+
+13.12) nagi'o
+       gi'onai
+       Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I=E2=80=99m not saying whi=
ch).
+
+   is correct b=
ut uncooperative.
+  As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank le=
ft by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore i=
t is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anyth=
ing for it to connect.
+  The answer =E2=80=9Cgi'e=E2=80=9D, meaning that Alice is a dog and=
 is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:
+  13.13) do djica tu'a loi ckafi
+            ji loi tcati
+       You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee
+            [truth function?] a-mass-of tea?
+       Do you want coffee or tea?
+
+  the answer =E2=80=9C.e=E2=80=9D, meaning that I want both, is perf=
ectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.
+  The forethought questions =E2=80=9Cge'i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgu'i=
=E2=80=9D are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolat=
ed forethought connectives as answers =E2=80=94 they sound like the start o=
f forethought-connected bridi. So although  is the forethought version of :
+  13.14) do djica tu'a
+            ge'i loi ckafi
+            gi loi tcati
+       You desire something-about
+            [truth function?] a-mass-of coffee
+            [or] a-mass-of tea?
+
+  the answer must be in afterthought form.
+  There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Loj=
banic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence
+  13.15) ni3 zou3 hai2shi pao3=

+       You walk [or?] run?
+
+  means =E2=80=9CDo you walk or run?=E2=80=9D, and is exactly parall=
el to the Lojban:
+  13.16) do cadzu gi'i bajra
+       You walk [or?] run?
+
+  However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply to =
such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.
+  Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of sent=
ence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the conventio=
n that a truth question is true if the answer is =E2=80=9Cyes=E2=80=9D and =
false if the answer is =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D. Analogously, an imperative sen=
tence (involving the special pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D, which means =
=E2=80=9Cyou=E2=80=9D but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the c=
ommand is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln=E2=80=
=99s may be translated thus:
+  13.17) ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi
+       .ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi
+       If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me,
+       and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.
+       If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffe=
e.
+
+  In logical terms, however, =E2=80=9Cbut=E2=80=9D is the same as =
=E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D; the difference is that the sentence after a =E2=80=
=9Cbut=E2=80=9D is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence befo=
re it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo =
=E2=80=9Cku'i=E2=80=9D (of selma'o UI), which is explained in , to the logical =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=9D.)
+

+
+

+  14. Non-logical connectives
+  Way back in , the point =
was made that not every use of English =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif .=
.. then=E2=80=9D, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In part=
icular, consider the =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D of:
+  14.1)  John and Alice carried the piano.
+
+  Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried =
one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:
+  14.2)  John carried the piano, and Alice carried =
the piano.
+
+  which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/he=
rself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a =E2=80=
=9Cmass=E2=80=9D. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-=
Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them sepa=
rately. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o JOI) is used to join tw=
o or more components into a mass:
+  14.3)  la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
+    John massed-with Alice carry the piano.
+
+   covers the ca=
se mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean tha=
t John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility =
arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its component=
s, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is=
 large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discus=
sed in .
+  Grammatically, =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D can appear between two sumti =
(like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility=
 must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elid=
ed:
+  14.4)  le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le =
zarci
+       The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D is the elidable terminator for =E2=
=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, which can almost always be elided, but not in this case.=
 If the first =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D were elided here, Lojban=E2=80=99s parsi=
ng rules would see =E2=80=9Cle nanmu joi=E2=80=9D and assume that another t=
anru component is to follow; since the second =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D cannot b=
e part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with =
logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a fo=
llowing tanru component unambiguously.
+  Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are call=
ed joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not gram=
matical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.
+  In tanru, =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D has the connotation =E2=80=9Cmixed=
 with=E2=80=9D, as in the following example:
+  14.5)  ti blanu joi xunre bolci
+       This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.
+       This is a blue and red ball.
+
+  Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly bl=
ue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue some=
thing has to be to count as =E2=80=9Cwholly blue=E2=80=9D is an unsettled q=
uestion, though. A =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D may be so even though not =
every part of it is blue.)
+  There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in =
the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet=
 in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those de=
finitions are shown in the following table:
+  
+    A joi B     the mass with components A and B
+    A ce B      the set with elements A and B
+    A ce'o B    the sequence with elements A and B in order
+    A sece'o B  the sequence with elements B and A in order
+    A jo'u B    A and B considered jointly
+    A fa'u B    A and B respectively
+    A sefa'u B  B and A respectively
+    A jo'e B    the union of sets A and B
+    A ku'a B    the intersection of sets A and B
+    A pi'u B    the cross product of sets A and B
+    A sepi'u B  the cross product of sets B and A
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D is grammatical before any JOI cmavo=
, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some exampl=
es of joiks:
+  14.6)  mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. =
ce la djeimyz.
+       I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James.
+       I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.
+
+  The x3 place of =E2=80=9Ccuxna=E2=80=9D is a set from which the ch=
oice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by spec=
ifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unr=
elated to its members=E2=80=99 properties: the set of all rats is large (si=
nce many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does =
not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detai=
l: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!
+  In  we specify=
 that set by listing the members with =E2=80=9Cce=E2=80=9D joining them.
+  14.7)  ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan.
+       This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John.
+       This is a list of you, me, and John.
+
+  The x2 place of =E2=80=9Cliste=E2=80=9D is a sequence of the thing=
s which are mentioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that =E2=80=9C=
lo liste=E2=80=9D means a physical object such as a grocery list: a purely =
abstract list is =E2=80=9Clo porsi=E2=80=9D, a sequence.) Here the three su=
mti connected by =E2=80=9Cce'o=E2=80=9D are in a definite order, not just l=
umped together in a set or a mass.
+  So =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cce=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cce'o=
=E2=80=9D are parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken to be individ=
uals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a sequence respec=
tively. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cjo'u=E2=80=9D serves as a fourth element in this=
 pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still indi=
viduals =E2=80=94 but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that =
James and George are brothers is:
+  14.8)  la djeimyz. bruna la djordj.
+       James is-the-brother-of George.
+
+  possibly adding a discursive element meaning =E2=80=9Cand vice ver=
sa=E2=80=9D. However, =E2=80=9CJames and George are brothers=E2=80=9D canno=
t be correctly translated as:
+  14.9)  la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna
+       James and George is-a-brother.
+
+  since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother =
and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the =E2=80=9C.e=E2=
=80=9D is changed to =E2=80=9Cjo'u=E2=80=9D, however, the meaning of  is preserved:
+  14.10) la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bru=
na
+       James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.
+
+  The tanru =E2=80=9Cremei bruna=E2=80=9D is not strictly necessary =
in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that Jam=
es and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alterna=
tively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of =E2=80=9Cremei=E2=
=80=9D is a mass with two components, leading to:
+  14.11) la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna reme=
i
+       James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D is used to create the necessary mass.<=
/para>
+  Likewise, =E2=80=9Cfa'u=E2=80=9D can be used to put two individual=
s together where order matters. Typically, there will be another =E2=80=9Cf=
a'u=E2=80=9D somewhere else in the same bridi:
+  14.12) la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la mer=
is. fa'u la martas.
+       James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-order-with=
 Martha.
+       James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.
+
+  Here the information carried by the English adverb =E2=80=9Crespec=
tively=E2=80=9D, namely that James loves Mary and George loves Martha, is d=
ivided between the two occurrences of =E2=80=9Cfa'u=E2=80=9D. If both uses =
of =E2=80=9Cfa'u=E2=80=9D were to be changed to =E2=80=9C.e=E2=80=9D, we wo=
uld get:
+  14.13) la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris=
. .e la martas.
+       James and George love Mary and Martha.
+
+  which can be transformed to four bridi:
+  14.14) la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djor=
dj. prami la meris.
+            .ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la mar=
tas.
+       James loves Mary, and George loves Mary,
+            and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.
+
+  which represents quite a different state of affairs from . The meaning of  can also be conveyed by a termset:=

+  14.15) la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la dj=
ordj. ce'e la martas. prami
+    James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.
+
+  at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the =
pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only =
described rather than enumerated:
+  14.16) la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re men=
si
+    James and-respectively George love two sisters.
+
+  which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, th=
ough we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.
+

+
+

+  15. More about non-logical connectives
+  The final three JOI cmavo, =E2=80=9Cjo'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cku'a=
=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cpi'u=E2=80=9D, are probably only useful when talkin=
g explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usuall=
y called =E2=80=9Cunion=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cintersection=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Ccross product=E2=80=9D (also known as =E2=80=9CCartesian product=E2=
=80=9D). The union of two sets is a set containing all the members that are=
 in either set; the intersection of two sets is a set containing all the me=
mbers that are in both sets. The cross product of two sets is the set of al=
l possible ordered pairs, where each ordered pair contains a single element=
 from the first set followed by a single element from the second. This may =
seem very abstract; hopefully, the following examples will help:
+  15.1)  lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda
+       The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large.
+
+15.2)  lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu
+       The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is sma=
ll.
+
+  There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes  and  equivalent respectively to:
+  15.3)  lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda
+       The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large.
+
+  and
+  15.4)  lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu
+       The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.
+
+  The following example uses =E2=80=9Cse remei=E2=80=9D, which is a =
set (not a mass) of two elements:
+  15.5)  la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meri=
s. cebo la martas.
+            cu prami se remei
+       James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha
+            are-lover type-of-pairs.
+
+  means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha=
, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to =
; however, that exampl=
e speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.
+  Joiks may be combined with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D or with =E2=80=9Ck=
e=E2=80=9D in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-log=
ical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism wit=
h logical connections:
+  15.6)  mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein.
+            cu gunma se remei
+       (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane)
+            are-a-mass type-of-two-set
+
+  asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.<=
/para>
+  Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; thi=
s is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each s=
ide of the non-logical connection. The place structure of =E2=80=9Ccasnu=E2=
=80=9D is:
+  
+      casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
+
+  so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explai=
ned here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in differe=
nt languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we ca=
n say:
+  15.7)  mi ce'e bau la lojban.
+            pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu
+       ( I [plus] in-language Lojban
+            massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.
+
+  Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in  cannot be mechanically converted in=
to a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The fo=
rethought equivalent of  is:
+  15.8)  nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la g=
liban. nu'u casnu
+
+  Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things t=
o be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) t=
ags:
+  15.9)  la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la =
lojban.
+            nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]
+       John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lo=
jban
+            [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.
+       John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George=E2=80=99s compulsio=
n, respectively.
+
+   associates sp=
eaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George=E2=80=99s compulsion =
with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks=
 under anyone=E2=80=99s compulsion.
+  Joiks may be prefixed with =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D to produce ijoiks,=
 which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik =E2=80=9C.ice'o=
=E2=80=9D indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the =
first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled wi=
th a tense):
+  15.10) mi ba gasnu la'edi'e
+            .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki
+            .ice'o lumci le karce
+            .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u
+       I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following:
+            ( Compute the quantity of taxes.
+            And-then wash the car.
+            And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )
+       List of things to do:
+            Figure taxes.
+            Wash car.
+            Walk dog.
+
+   represents a=
 list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence=
 the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a t=
ime order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of =E2=80=
=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D as general brackets around the =
whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in , because there is no logical connective bet=
ween the introductory phrase =E2=80=9Cmi ba gasnu la'edi'e=E2=80=9D and the=
 rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word =E2=80=
=9Cdi'e=E2=80=9D, which means =E2=80=9Cthe following utterance=E2=80=9D, re=
fers to.
+  Similarly, =E2=80=9C.ijoi=E2=80=9D is used to connect sentences th=
at represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Loj=
ban equivalent of =E2=80=9CFran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so t=
hat she drowned=E2=80=9D would join the events =E2=80=9CFran hit her head=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CFran fell out of the boat=E2=80=9D with =E2=80=9C.ij=
oi=E2=80=9D.
+  The following =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D, if present, does not negate e=
ither of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other =
connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:=

+  15.11) mi jo'unai do cu remei
+    I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome
+
+  The result of =E2=80=9Cmi jo'u do=E2=80=9D would be two individual=
s, not a mass, therefore =E2=80=9Cjo'u=E2=80=9D is not applicable; =E2=80=
=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D would be the correct connective.
+  There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks=
 may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, =
as in the following exchange:
+  15.12) do djica tu'a
+            loi ckafi ji loi tcati
+       You desire something-about
+            a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea?
+       Do you want coffee or tea?
+
+15.13) joi
+       Mixed-mass-and.
+       Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).
+
+  Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)
+

+
+

+  16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</=
title>
+  <para>In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explaine=
d in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14"/> and <xref linkend=3D"cll_c=
hapter14-section15"/>, there are three other connectives which can appear i=
n joiks: =E2=80=9Cbi'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cmi'i=
=E2=80=9D, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify int=
ervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cbi'i=
=E2=80=9D is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas =E2=
=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csebi'o=E2=80=9D are used when order matters=
.</para>
+  <para>An example of =E2=80=9Cbi'i=E2=80=9D in sumti connection:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example1"/>16.1)  mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.
+       I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.
+       I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>In <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example1"/>, it is all=
 the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Fr=
ankfurt and Dresden, so =E2=80=9Cbi'i=E2=80=9D is the appropriate interval =
connective. The sumti =E2=80=9Cla drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.=E2=80=9D falls=
 into the x2 place of =E2=80=9Csanli=E2=80=9D, which is the surface I stand=
 on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am no=
t standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of =E2=80=9Csanli=E2=
=80=9D specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just th=
e size of the stander=E2=80=99s feet.)</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example2"/>16.2)  mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac.
+    I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Second-hour.
+    I walk from one o=E2=80=99clock to two o=E2=80=99clock.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>In <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example2"/>, on the ot=
her hand, it is essential that =E2=80=9Cla pacac.=E2=80=9D comes before =E2=
=80=9Cla recac.=E2=80=9D; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interva=
l rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole in=
terval is probably intended, or at least most of it.</para>
+  <para><xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example2"/> is equivalent=
 to:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example3"/>16.3)  mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac.
+       I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour=
.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>English cannot readily express =E2=80=9Csebi'o=E2=80=9D, but its m=
eaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.</para>
+  <para>The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely =E2=80=9Cmi'i=E2=80=9D, ex=
presses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoint=
s, but a center point and a distance. For example:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example4"/>16.4)  le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn.  mi'i lo m=
inli be li muno
+       The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measured-in-mi=
les by 50.
+       The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose dist=
ance, or radius, is fifty miles.</para>
+  <para>In <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example1"/>, is it pos=
sible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connect=
ives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves a=
re included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo =E2=80=9C=
ga'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'i=E2=80=9D (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indica=
te the status of the endpoints: =E2=80=9Cga'o=E2=80=9D means that the endpo=
int is included, =E2=80=9Cke'i=E2=80=9D that it is excluded:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d5"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example5"/>16.5)  mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la f=
rankfurt.
+       I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankf=
urt.
+       I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d6"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-exa=
mple6"/>16.6)  mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.
+       I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankf=
urt.
+       I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive)=
.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d7"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-exa=
mple7"/>16.7)  mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.
+       I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankf=
urt.
+       I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive)=
.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d8"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-exa=
mple8"/>16.8)  mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.
+       I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankf=
urt.
+       I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies t=
o a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the le=
ft-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand endpo=
int by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO.</para>
+  <para>(Etymologically, =E2=80=9Cga'o=E2=80=9D is derived from =E2=80=9Cg=
anlo=E2=80=9D, which means =E2=80=9Cclosed=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cke'i=E2=
=80=9D from =E2=80=9Ckalri=E2=80=9D, which means =E2=80=9Copen=E2=80=9D. In=
 mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and =
exclusive intervals as open ones.)</para>
+  <para>BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, includin=
g in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have b=
een found for these uses.</para>
+  <para>Negated intervals, marked with a =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D following =
the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is b=
etween the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section16-example9"/>16.9)  do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la =
gaicac.
+       You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12
+       You can contact me except from 10 to 12.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The complete syntax of joiks is:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+            [se] JOI  [nai]
+            [se] BIhI [nai]
+       GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Notice that the colloquial English translations of =E2=80=9Cbi'i=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D have forethought form: =E2=80=9Cbetwee=
n ... and=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cbi'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfrom ... to=E2=
=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives c=
an be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the f=
orethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones b=
y suffixing =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally =
called a =E2=80=9Cjoigik=E2=80=9D; the syntax of joigiks is any of:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+            [se] JOI  [nai] GI
+            [se] BIhI [nai] GI
+       GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bri=
di-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
+  <para><xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example3"/> in forethough=
t becomes:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section16-example10"/>16.10) joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pip=
no
+       [Together] John and Alice carry the piano.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The first =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D is part of the joigik; the second =
=E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D is the regular gik that separates the two things being=
 connected in all forethought forms.</para>
+  <para><xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example6"/> can be expres=
sed in forethought as:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section16-example11"/>16.11) mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn.=
 gi la frankfurt.
+       I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frank=
furt.
+       I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive)=
.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separat=
ed from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to =
the first endpoint.</para>
+</section>
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17">
+  <title>17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
+  Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for=
 representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as =E2=80=
=9C2 + 2=E2=80=9D. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in . The basic components of mekso are operands, like=
 =E2=80=9C2=E2=80=9D, and operators, like =E2=80=9C+=E2=80=9D. Both of thes=
e may be either logically or non-logically connected.
+  Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought=
 with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in=
 afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru com=
ponents. (However, jeks and joiks with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D are not allowed=
 for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.
+  In addition, eks with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D and with =E2=80=9Cke ..=
. ke'e=E2=80=9D are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and =
=E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D is allowed for grouping logically connected o=
perators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators.
+  Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given=
. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is=
 of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connecti=
ve scheme of things. These examples are drawn from , and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.
+   exhibits afte=
rthought logical connection between operands:
+  17.1)  vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarc=
i
+       ( Three or four ) people go-to the market.
+
+   is equivalent=
 in meaning, but uses forethought connection:
+  17.2)  vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le z=
arci
+       ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.
+
+  Note that the mekso in  and  are bein=
g used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple n=
umber be enclosed in =E2=80=9Cvei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D paren=
theses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark, =E2=80=9Cve'o=
=E2=80=9D, is an elidable terminator.
+  Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard t=
o come by. A contrived example is:
+  17.3)  li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo
+       The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4.
+       2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4.
+
+  The forethought form of  is:
+  17.4)  li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo
+       The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.
+       Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4.
+
+  Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted bet=
ween operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to conne=
ct operands with =E2=80=9Cbi'i=E2=80=9D to create mathematical intervals:
+  17.5)  li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa
+       the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one
+       [0,1)
+       the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one
+
+  You can also combine two operands with =E2=80=9Cce'o=E2=80=9D, the=
 sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:
+  17.6)  xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]
+       =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D sub ( =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D sequence =E2=80=9Cd=
=E2=80=9D )
+       xb,d
+  Note that the =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D in  is not elidable, because the =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D=
 subscript needs something to attach to.
+

+
+

+  18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection
+  The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical co=
nnective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so=
 each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emp=
hasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter,=
 the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI ar=
e represented by the simple time cmavo =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cca=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the=
 present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo stat=
e the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English ve=
rb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi =
is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which =
is generally a =E2=80=9Cle nu=E2=80=9D abstraction; see ).
+  The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connective=
s are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former=
 are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two con=
nected bridi that differ only in tense:
+  18.1)  la .artr. pu nolraitru
+            .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru
+       Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor.
+            And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.
+       Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.
+
+  can be reduced to:
+  18.2)  la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru
+       Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor.
+       Arthur was and will be king.
+
+   and  are equivalent in meaning; neit=
her says anything about whether Arthur is king now.
+  Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:=

+  18.3)  mi pu bi'o ba vasxu
+       I [past] from ... to [future] breathe.
+       I breathe from a past time until a future time.
+
+  The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expre=
ssible, such as =E2=80=9Cfrom a medium time ago until a long time from now=
=E2=80=9D.
+  No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the gra=
mmar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; thes=
e limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can b=
e said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the=
 time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at l=
east some complications.
+  Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more importan=
t than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:
+  18.4)  I went to the market, and I bought food.
+
+  The verbatim translation of , namely:
+  18.5)  mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu l=
o cidja
+       I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.
+
+  fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the=
 buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying w=
as a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is di=
scussed in .) However, the tense informatio=
n =E2=80=94 that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of =
my buying food =E2=80=94 can be added to the logical connective as follows.=
 The =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=9D is replaced by =E2=80=9C.ijebo=E2=80=9D, and th=
e tense cmavo =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D is inserted between =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D:
+  18.6)  mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervec=
nu lo cidja
+       I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.
+
+  Here the =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D cmavo in the two bridi-tails express=
 the time of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The =E2=
=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D relates the two items to one another: the second item is =
later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the =E2=80=
=9Cbo=E2=80=9D; if it were omitted, the =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D and the second=
 =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D would run together to form a compound tense =E2=80=9C=
bapu=E2=80=9D applying to the second bridi-tail only.
+  Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permi=
tted only in the following situations:
+  Between an ek (or joik) and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.7)  la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci
+       John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market.
+       John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.
+
+  Between an ek (or joik) and =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.8)  mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le c=
kule [ke'e]
+       I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the school ).
+       I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.
+
+  Between a gihek and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.9)  mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu =
vau do
+        I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/to you.
+       I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from y=
ou.
+
+  Between a gihek and =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.10) mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e l=
a djan. [ke'e]
+       I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something to-John.
+       I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.
+
+  Between an ijek (or ijoik) and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.11) mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa n=
inmu
+       I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.
+       I see a man, and then I see a woman.
+
+  Between an ijek (or ijoik) and =E2=80=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  18.12) mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa=
 ninmu [tu'u]
+       I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.
+       I see a man, and then I see a woman.
+
+  And finally, between a jek (or joik) and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, as =
in:
+  18.13) mi mikce jebabo ricfu
+       I-am-a doctor and [later] rich
+       I am a doctor and future rich person.
+
+  As can be seen from  and , the choi=
ce between =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Ctu'e=
=E2=80=9D) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be connected. If =
there were no tense information to include, of course neither would be requ=
ired; it is only the rule that tense information must always be sandwiched =
between the logical connective and a following =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cke=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D that requires the use of one of t=
hese grouping cmavo in =
 and  through .
+  Non-logical connectives with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke=
=E2=80=9D can include tense information in exactly the same way as logical =
connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted below) are u=
nable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathematical operands=
 and operators can also include tense information in their logical connecti=
ves as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanru components =
respectively:
+  18.14) vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati l=
e kumfa
+       ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room.
+       Three and, later, four students were in the room.
+
+  is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use w=
hen a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail conne=
ction: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense.=
 For example:
+  18.15) mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo c=
idja
+       I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food
+       I went to the market and bought some food.
+
+   is similar t=
o . There is no time re=
lationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set =
in the past.
+

+
+

+  19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</tit=
le>
+  <para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allo=
wed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can=
 be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in a=
bstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective. <xref linkend=3D"cl=
l_chapter14-section19-example1"/> and <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-sectio=
n19-example2"/> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d1"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section19-example1"/>19.1)  le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni =
la frank. ciska cu xlali
+       The quality-of Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad, and the quantity of =
Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d2"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-exa=
mple2"/>19.2)  le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali
+       The quality and quantity of Frank=E2=80=99s writing is bad.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to o=
verride the left-grouping rule.</para>
+  <para>Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as =
well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a l=
ogical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into=
 two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d3"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section19-example3"/>19.3)  mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'ona=
i na zvati vau la .iupiter.
+       I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-else isn=E2=
=80=99t-at) Jupiter.
+       I believe there either is or isn=E2=80=99t life on Jupiter.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er14-section19-example4"/>19.4)  mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iu=
piter.
+            .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.
+       I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter
+            or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn=E2=
=80=99t-at Jupiter
+</programlisting>
+  <para>is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=E2=80=9C=
jinvi=E2=80=9D requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike =E2=
=80=9Ckrici=E2=80=9D).</para>
+</section>
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section20">
+  <title>20. Constructs and appropriate connectives
+  The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can=
 be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective=
 is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. A=
n asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.
+  A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not poss=
ible.
+  
+    
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+        
+          construct
+          afterthought
+logical
+          forethought
+logical
+          afterthought
+non-logical
+          forethought
+non-logical
+        
+      
+      
+        
+          bridi
+          ijek*
+          gek
+          ijoik*
+          joigik
+        
+        
+          sumti
+          ek*
+          gek
+          joik*
+          joigik
+        
+        
+          bridi-tails
+          gihek*
+          gek
+          =E2=80=94
+          joigik
+        
+        
+          termsets
+          ek*
+          gek
+          joik*
+          joigik
+        
+        
+          tanru parts
+          jek
+          guhek
+          joik*
+          =E2=80=94
+        
+        
+          operands
+          ek*
+          gek
+          joik*
+          joigik
+        
+        
+          operators
+          jek
+          guhek
+          joik
+          =E2=80=94
+        
+        
+          tenses/modals
+          jek
+          =E2=80=94
+          joik
+          =E2=80=94
+        
+        
+          abstractors
+          jek
+          =E2=80=94
+          joik
+          =E2=80=94
+        
+      
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  21. Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
+  The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most-o=
ften used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six ty=
pes of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for ex=
ample, =E2=80=9Cse.a=E2=80=9D means the same as =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, and co=
uld be used instead.)
+  
+    
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+        
+          truth
+          ek
+          jek
+          gihek
+          gek=E2=80=93gik
+          guhek=E2=80=93gik
+        
+      
+      
+        
+          TTTF
+          .a
+          ja
+          gi'a
+          ga=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'a=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          TTFT
+          .anai
+          janai
+          gi'anai
+          ga=E2=80=93ginai
+          gu'a=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+        
+          TTFF
+          .u
+          ju
+          gi'u
+          gu=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'u=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          TFTT
+          na.a
+          naja
+          nagi'a
+          ganai=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'anai=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          TFTF
+          se.u
+          seju
+          segi'u
+          segu=E2=80=93gi
+          segu'u=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          TFFT
+          .o
+          jo
+          gi'o
+          go=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'o=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          TFFF
+          .e
+          je
+          gi'e
+          ge=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'e=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          FTTT
+          na.anai
+          najanai
+          nagi'anai
+          ganai=E2=80=93ginai
+          gu'anai=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+        
+          FTTF
+          .onai
+          jonai
+          gi'onai
+          go=E2=80=93ginai
+          gu'o=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+        
+          FTFT
+          se.unai
+          sejunai
+          segi'unai
+          segu=E2=80=93ginai
+          segu'u=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+        
+          FTFF
+          .enai
+          jenai
+          gi'enai
+          ge=E2=80=93ginai
+          gu'e=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+        
+          FFTT
+          na.u
+          naju
+          nagi'u
+          gunai=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'unai=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          FFTF
+          na.e
+          naje
+          nagi'e
+          genai=E2=80=93gi
+          gu'enai=E2=80=93gi
+        
+        
+          FFFT
+          na.enai
+          najenai
+          nagi'enai
+          genai=E2=80=93ginai
+          gu'enai=E2=80=93ginai
+        
+      
+    
+  
+  Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except=
 for the prefixed =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives
+  The full set of rules for inserting =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cse=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D into any connective is:
+  Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):
+  
+    
+      Negate first construct:
+Place =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D before the connective cmavo (but after the =E2=
=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D of an ijek).
+    
+    
+      Negate second construct:
+Place =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D after the connective cmavo.
+    
+    
+      Exchange constructs:
+Place =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D before the connective cmavo (after =E2=80=9Cna=
=E2=80=9D if any).
+    
+  
+  Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks):
+  
+    
+      Negate first construct:
+Place =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D after the connective cmavo.
+    
+    
+      Negate second construct:
+Place =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D after the =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Exchange constructs:
+Place =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D before the connective cmavo.
+    
+  
+  Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks):
+  
+    
+      Negate connection:
+Place =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D after the connective cmavo (but before the =E2=
=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D of a joigik).
+    
+    
+      Exchange constructs:
+Place =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D before the connective cmavo.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  23. Locations of other tables
+  : a table explaining the=
 meaning of each truth function in English.
+  : a table relating the t=
ruth functions to the four basic vowels.
+  : a table of the connec=
tive question cmavo.
+  : a table of the meanin=
gs of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b7872b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,597 @@
+
+  Chapter 15
+=E2=80=9CNo=E2=80=9D Problems: On Lojban Negation
+
+
+

+  1. Introductory
+  The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojba=
n=E2=80=99s claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is=
 to come up with a complete definition of the word =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D. F=
or Lojban=E2=80=99s unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings o=
f =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D with different grammatical effect must be different=
 words, and even different grammatical structures.
+  Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; =
thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban=E2=80=99s logic=
al connectives and other structures.
+  In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, w=
e have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called =E2=80=9C=
subject=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cpredicate=E2=80=9D. In the statement
+  1.1)   John goes to the store
+
+  =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D is the subject, and =E2=80=9Cgoes to the st=
ore=E2=80=9D is the predicate. Negating  to produce
+  1.2)   John doesn=E2=80=99t go to the store.
+
+  has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for t=
he subject.  says nothin=
g about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides J=
ohn goes to the store.
+  We will call this kind of negation =E2=80=9Cnatural language negat=
ion=E2=80=9D. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools=
 of logic, because it doesn=E2=80=99t always follow the rules of logic. Log=
ical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a=
 statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is terme=
d contradictory negation.
+  Let=E2=80=99s look at some examples of how natural language negati=
on can violate the rules of contradictory negation.
+  1.3)   Some animals are not white.
+
+1.4)   Some animals are white.
+
+  Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negat=
ion of the other. Another example:
+  1.5)   I mustn=E2=80=99t go to the dance.
+
+1.6)   I must go to the dance.
+
+  At first thought,  negates . Thinking f=
urther, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitt=
ed to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible tha=
t both statements are false.
+  Sometimes order is significant:
+  1.7)   The falling rock didn=E2=80=99t kill Sam.
+
+1.8)   Sam wasn=E2=80=99t killed by the falling rock.
+
+  Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because  is written in what is called the =E2=
=80=9Cactive voice=E2=80=9D, we immediately get confused about whether =E2=
=80=9Cthe falling rock=E2=80=9D is a suitable subject for the predicate =E2=
=80=9Cdid kill Sam=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9CKill=E2=80=9D implies volition to us,=
 and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of=
 gun control who use the argument =E2=80=9CGuns don=E2=80=99t kill people; =
people kill people.=E2=80=9D
+  Somehow, we don=E2=80=99t have the same problem with . The subject is Sam, and we determin=
e the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn=E2=80=99t=
 killed by the falling rock.
+   also helps us =
focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit i=
n this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling roc=
k killed him. If Sam wasn=E2=80=99t killed, the question of what killed him=
 is moot.
+  This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the =
sentence turns out not to exist:
+  1.9)   The King of Mexico didn=E2=80=99t come to di=
nner.
+
+1.10)  The King of Mexico did come to dinner.
+
+  In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of=
 these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.
+  The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model o=
f negation.
+

+
+

+  2. bridi negation
+  In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical ne=
gation that simply denies the truth of a statement =E2=80=9Cbridi negation=
=E2=80=9D. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of =E2=80=9CI ha=
ven=E2=80=99t stopped beating my wife=E2=80=9D without implying that I ever=
 started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply =E2=80=9CIt isn=E2=80=
=99t true that I have stopped beating my wife.=E2=80=9D Since Lojban uses b=
ridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitte=
d in these components as well at the sentence level.
+  For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence bein=
g negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negat=
ive response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory=
, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to
+  2.1)   Did you go to the store?
+
+  is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to
+  2.2)   No, I didn=E2=80=99t go to the store.
+
+  The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is=
 true, its negation is false, and vice versa.
+  The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative for=
m of the bridi (but after the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D, if there is one):
+  2.3)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go-to the store.
+
+  when negated becomes:
+  2.4)   mi na klama le zarci
+       I [false] go-to the store.
+
+  Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English=
 that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word =E2=80=9Cn=
ot=E2=80=9D, because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negatio=
n marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But th=
ere is a major difference between Lojban=E2=80=99s bridi negation with =E2=
=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and natural language negation with =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D.=
 In English, the word =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D can apply to a single word, to =
a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition, =
=E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D may indicate either contradictory negation or another=
 form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban=E2=80=99s internal bri=
di negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is a=
lways a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the wh=
ole bridi.
+  Because of the ambiguity of English =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=80=9D, we will=
 use =E2=80=9C[false]=E2=80=9D in the translation of Lojban examples to rem=
ind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are mo=
re examples of bridi negation:
+  2.5)   mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci
+       I [false] now am-a-go-er to the market.
+       I am not going to the market now.
+
+2.6)   lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau
+       The-actual present noblest-governor of the French country [false] i=
s-hair-without.
+       The current king of France isn=E2=80=99t bald.
+
+2.7)   ti na barda prenu co melbi mi
+       This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me).
+       This isn=E2=80=99t a big person who is beautiful to me.
+
+  Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban=E2=80=
=99s internal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cas=
es, especially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the c=
mavo =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D o=
f selma'o KOhA, explained in ) in the brid=
i, you can indeed translate Lojban =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D as =E2=80=9Cnot=E2=
=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cisn=E2=80=99t=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cdoesn=E2=80=99t=E2=
=80=9D, as appropriate).
+  The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is=
 true, its negation is false, and vice versa.
+  In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain br=
idi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of =E2=
=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D. For example:
+  2.8)   mi na gleki le nu
+            na klama le nu dansu
+       I [false] am-happy-about the event-of
+            ([false] going-to the event-of dancing).
+       It is not the case that I am happy about it not being
+            the case that I am going to the dance.
+       I am not happy about not going to the dance.
+
+  In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction=
 bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For =
example:
+  2.9)   mi nelci le na melbi
+       I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful).
+       I am fond of the one who isn=E2=80=99t beautiful.
+
+  A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is:
+  2.10)  mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'=
e
+       I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the French-cou=
ntry).
+       I am fond of one who isn=E2=80=99t the current king of France.
+
+  The claim of  =
could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since t=
he relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readil=
y express these situations in colloquial English.
+  Negation with =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D applies to an entire bridi, and=
 not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won=E2=80=99t likely have rea=
son to put =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar curren=
tly does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constru=
cts involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation wh=
ere you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru=
 form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kep=
t separate from other forms of negation.
+  The grammar of =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D allows multiple adjacent negat=
ions, which cancel out, as in normal logic:
+  2.11)  ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi
+       This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me).
+
+  which is the same as:
+  2.12)  ti barda prenu co melbi mi
+       This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me).
+
+  When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with =E2=
=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. N=
o semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is=
 not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and b=
ridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be=
 seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:
+  2.13)  mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci
+       I habitually go to the market.
+
+  mean the same thing with =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D before the =E2=80=9C=
ta'e=E2=80=9D, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we=E2=80=99ll let fu=
ture, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.
+  A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if y=
ou translate the English literally, you=E2=80=99ll get the wrong one. With =
English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, thi=
s problem is more likely.
+  Thus, if you translate the English:
+  2.14)  I do not go to the market because the car =
is broken.
+
+  as:
+  2.15)  mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu=
 spofu
+       I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.
+       It is false that: =E2=80=9CI go to the market because the car is br=
oken.=E2=80=9D
+
+  you end up negating too much.
+  Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compound=
ed by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of =
the normal interpretation of  is:
+  2.16)  lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu
+                 lenu le karce cu spofu
+       The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by
+                 the event-of (the car being broken).
+       My not going to the market is because the car is broken.
+
+  In , the negat=
ion is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does =
not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expresse=
d by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we=E2=80=
=99ll not go into here).
+  The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:
+  2.17)  I was not conscripted into the Army with t=
he help of my uncle the Senator.
+
+  we do not intend the uncle=E2=80=99s help to be part of the negati=
on. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate=
 sentences. The event-clause version would look like:
+  2.18)  The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted=
-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.
+
+  It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negatio=
ns into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi =E2=80=9C-nar-=E2=80=9D has been =
reserved for =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D. However, before using this rafsi, make s=
ure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar ne=
gation described in , which will =
be much more common in tanru and lujvo.
+

+
+

+  3. Scalar Negation
+  Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, whe=
n we say:
+  3.1)   The chair is not brown.
+
+  we make a positive inference =E2=80=94 that the chair is some othe=
r color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:
+  3.2)   It is green.
+
+  Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the=
 statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some =
responses. If we hear the following exchange:
+  3.3)   The chair is not brown.
+       Correct. The chair is wooden.
+
+  we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn=E2=
=80=99t brown. If we hear the exchange:
+  3.4)   Is the chair green?
+       No, it is in the kitchen.
+
+  we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. =
But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can=
=E2=80=99t say it is entirely irrelevant!
+  What is going on in these statements is something called =E2=80=9C=
scalar negation=E2=80=9D. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an=
 implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar val=
ue is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This=
 can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably =
natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will h=
elp):
+  3.5)   That isn=E2=80=99t a blue house.
+       Right! That is a green house.
+
+  We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct valu=
e which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While=
 a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:
+  3.6)   That isn=E2=80=99t a blue house.
+       Right! That is a blue car.
+
+  Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a d=
ifferent object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.
+  Now, if the following exchange occurs:
+  3.7)   That isn=E2=80=99t a blue house.
+       Right! That is a green car.
+
+  we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two c=
orrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of co=
ntext, =E2=80=9Cblue house=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgreen car=E2=80=9D seem to=
 be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a se=
ntence. It=E2=80=99s just that we don=E2=80=99t have a clear way in English=
 to say:
+  3.8)   That isn=E2=80=99t a =E2=80=9Cblue-house=E2=
=80=9D.
+
+  aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting=
 the pair of words as a single unit.
+  Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the s=
entence:
+  3.9)   John didn=E2=80=99t go to Paris from Rome.
+
+  Might  imply th=
at John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from=
 Rome? Or perhaps he didn=E2=80=99t go anywhere at all: maybe someone else =
did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circum=
stances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferr=
ed by a listener.
+  In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation =
from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the=
 partial word =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D as a prefix. But this is not always co=
nsidered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clear=
er. For example, we can clearly distinguish
+  3.10)  That is a non-blue house.
+
+  from the related sentence
+  3.11)  That is a blue non-house.
+
+   and  have the advantage that, while =
they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. T=
hey say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.=

+  We can=E2=80=99t always use =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D though, because=
 of the peculiarities of English=E2=80=99s grammar. It would sound strange =
to say:
+  3.12)  John went to non-Paris from Rome.
+
+  or
+  3.13)  John went to Paris from non-Rome.
+
+  although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumloc=
ution for English scalar negation is =E2=80=9Cother than=E2=80=9D, which wo=
rks where =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D does not, but is wordier.
+  Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar =
negations, or opposites:
+  3.14)  John is moral
+
+3.15)  John is immoral
+
+  To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies t=
he opposite condition. Statements like  are strong negations which not only deny the truth of a st=
atement, but assert its opposite. Since, =E2=80=9Copposite=E2=80=9D implies=
 a scale, polar negations are a special variety of scalar negations.
+  To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale, =
showing two examples of how the scale is used:
+  
+    Affirmations (positive)      Negations (negative)
+    |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
+    All       Most        Some         Few       None
+    Excellent Good        Fair         Poor     Awful
+
+  Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thus =
we have =E2=80=9Cnot necessary=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cunnecessary=E2=80=9D be=
ing the polar opposite of necessary. Another scale, especially relevant to =
Lojban, is interpreted based on situations modified by one=E2=80=99s philos=
ophy: =E2=80=9Cnot true=E2=80=9D may be equated with =E2=80=9Cfalse=E2=80=
=9D in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tri-valued logic an int=
ermediate between =E2=80=9Ctrue=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cfalse=E2=80=9D is per=
mitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scale exists from true to false. Th=
e meaning of =E2=80=9Cnot true=E2=80=9D requires a knowledge of which varie=
ty of truth scale is being considered.
+  We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indicat=
ing only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not va=
lid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This i=
s the intent expressed in most contexts by =E2=80=9Cnot mild=E2=80=9D, for =
example.
+  Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive th=
an scalar negation =E2=80=94 it says that the point or value stated is inco=
rrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or=
 value, whether or not on the scale.
+  In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such as =
=E2=80=9Cother than=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Creverse of=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Copp=
osite from=E2=80=9D expressions and their equivalents. More commonly, scala=
r negation is expressed in English by the prefixes =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cun-=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cil-=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cim-=E2=80=9D. Ju=
st which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is de=
pendent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and=
 on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled va=
riations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.
+  In the examples of , we =
will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formul=
a =E2=80=9Cother than=E2=80=9D when a phrase is scalar-negated, and =E2=80=
=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D when a single word is scalar-negated.
+

+
+

+  4. selbri and tanru negation
+  All the scalar negations illustrated in  are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=
=80=9D (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D is =
as a prefix to the selbri:
+  4.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go to the market.
+
+4.2)   mi na'e klama le zarci
+       I non-go to the market.
+
+  Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used =
in  is =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=
=80=9D. But what exactly does =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D negate? Does the negat=
ion include only the gismu =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D, which is the entire sel=
bri in this case, or does it include the =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D as well=
? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously =E2=80=9Conly the gismu=E2=80=9D. =
The cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D always applies only to what follows it.
+   looks as if it=
 were parallel to:
+  4.3)   mi na klama le zarci
+       I [false] go-to the market.
+
+  but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negat=
ion with =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D asserts that a relationship exists other th=
an that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the=
 statement. The grammar allotted to =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D allows us to una=
mbiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range wit=
hin the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the sc=
ope of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D is determined.
+  In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combi=
ning it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-se=
lbri-scope negation, for which we can use =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D as well. T=
he positive sentence
+  4.4)   mi cadzu klama le zarci
+       I walking-ly go to the market.
+
+  can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:
+  4.5)   mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci
+       I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.
+
+4.6)   mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci
+       I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.
+
+  These negations show the default scope of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D i=
s close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru.  says that I am going to the market, but in som=
e kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other =
possible interpretations, but we=E2=80=99ll assume this one =E2=80=94 see <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5"/> for a discussion of tanru meaning).
+  In neither  nor=
  does the =E2=80=9Cna'e=
=E2=80=9D negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations =
that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a com=
ponent which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clea=
rer in , which says that=
 I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In , we have claimed that the relationship between me and=
 the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of =E2=80=9Cgoing =
to=E2=80=9D (perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place =
while at the market).
+  The =E2=80=9Cscale=E2=80=9D, or actually the =E2=80=9Cset=E2=80=9D=
, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be subs=
tituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way t=
hat answers to a =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D question must be plausible =E2=80=94 =
the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti val=
ues appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or rele=
vant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intenti=
onally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker=
 who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asse=
rting a different relationship.
+  We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a=
 single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as e=
xemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given t=
wice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the =E2=80=
=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D):
+  4.7)   mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci
+       mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci
+       I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.
+
+  This negation uses the same =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=
=E2=80=9D delimiters (the =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D is always elidable at the =
end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the e=
ntire selbri. The =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D, whether elided or not, reminds us=
 that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-=
sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing =
sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by =E2=
=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D.
+  Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:
+  4.8)   mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci
+       mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci
+       I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.
+
+  In , only the =
=E2=80=9Csutra cadzu=E2=80=9D tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed go=
ing to the market, but not by walking quickly.
+  Negations made with =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cna'eke=E2=
=80=9D also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or =
tanru with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbei=E2=80=9D. Such attached sum=
ti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:
+  4.9)   mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e k=
lama le zarci
+       I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.
+
+  Note that  and=
  do not express the sa=
me thing:
+  4.10)  mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka
+       mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka
+       I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.
+
+4.11)  mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]
+       mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])
+       I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).
+
+  The translations show that the negation in  is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the=
 sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D).
+  Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban=E2=80=99s claims=
 to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of =E2=80=9Cna'=
e=E2=80=9D as an operator. Grouping with =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
ke'e=E2=80=9D, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage. =E2=
=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding o=
f tanru, with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D, is not as tightly bound as =E2=80=9Cna'=
e=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D, the tanru inversion operator has a scope =
that is longer than all other tanru constructs.
+  In short, =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cna'eke=E2=80=9D defi=
ne a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and w=
hich affects all or part of a selbri. The result of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D =
negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denia=
l of another claim.
+  The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi =
=E2=80=9C-nal-=E2=80=9D, representing =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D when a tanru i=
s condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of =
=E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gi=
ves:
+  4.12)  na'e klama becomes nalkla
+       na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla
+       na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla
+       nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla
+
+  Note: =E2=80=9C-kem-=E2=80=9D is the rafsi for =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=
=9D, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous =E2=80=94 =E2=80=
=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a=
 =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D after the =E2=80=9C-nal-=E2=80=9D, since it needs to =
close something; only a =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D immediately after the negation=
 would make the =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D meaningful in the tanru expressed in=
 this lujvo.
+  In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate =E2=80=9C-nal-=E2=
=80=9D as =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D, to match the English combining forms, exc=
ept when the =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D has single word scope and English uses =
=E2=80=9Cun-=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cim-=E2=80=9D to negate that single word. =
Translation style should determine the use of =E2=80=9Cother than=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D, or another negator for =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D in t=
anru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in =
context. Let=E2=80=99s go back to our simplest example:
+  4.13)  mi na'e klama le zarci
+       I am other-than-(going-to) the market.
+       ?I am not going-to the market.
+
+4.14)  mi nalkla le zarci
+       I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.
+
+  Note that to compare with the English translation form using =E2=
=80=9Cnon-=E2=80=9D, we=E2=80=99ve translated the Lojban as if the selbri w=
ere a noun. Since Lojban =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D is indifferently a noun, v=
erb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a tru=
e change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due =
to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of En=
glish negation.
+  Consider the following highly problematic sentence:
+  4.15)  lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau
+       An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-hair-=
without.
+       The current King of France is bald.
+
+  The selbri =E2=80=9Ckrecau=E2=80=9D negates with =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=
=80=9D as:
+  4.16)  lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e kre=
cau
+       An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other=
-than hair-without.
+       The current King of France is other-than-bald.
+
+  or, as a lujvo:
+  4.17)  lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkreca=
u
+       An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-h=
air-without.
+       The current King of France is a non-bald-one.
+
+   and  express the predicate negation =
forms using a negation word (=E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D) or rafsi (=E2=80=9C-na=
l-=E2=80=9D); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of F=
rance; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the c=
lose binding of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D to the brivla. The lujvo form makes =
this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.
+  Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that =
he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. =
Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri nega=
tion is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri =
negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is inva=
riably =E2=80=9Cfalse=E2=80=9D, since no affirmative statement about the cu=
rrent King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does pr=
oduce a truth:
+  4.18)  lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na kreca=
u
+       An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [false] is=
-hair-without.
+       It is false that the current King of France is bald.
+
+  Note: =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D is used in these sentences because nega=
tion relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditio=
ns in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the descripti=
on actually applies to the referent. A sentence using =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D =
instead of =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D can be true even if there is no current kin=
g of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe some=
thing as the current king of France. (See the explanations of =E2=80=9Cle=
=E2=80=9D in .)
+

+
+

+  5. Expressing scales in selbri negation
+  In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of=
 the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is bei=
ng dealt with in an assertion. As stated in , the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we s=
ay:
+  5.1)   le stizu cu na'e xunre
+       The chair is a non-(red-thing).
+
+  the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and=
 not
+  5.2)   le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci
+       The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market.
+
+  However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or contr=
ary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that we =
are referring to a color by saying:
+  5.3)   le stizu cu na'e xunre skari
+       The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something under =
some conditions).
+
+  We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the t=
wo trailing sumti values explicit (the =E2=80=9Cas perceived by=E2=80=9D an=
d =E2=80=9Cunder conditions=E2=80=9D places have been added to the place st=
ructure of =E2=80=9Cxunre=E2=80=9D). But assume we have a really stubborn l=
istener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to=
 misinterpret  even with=
 three specific sumti provided.
+  In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita =E2=80=9C=
ci'u=E2=80=9D, which translates roughly as =E2=80=9Con a scale of X=E2=80=
=9D, where =E2=80=9CX=E2=80=9D is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagge=
d sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D. To =
clarify , we might say:<=
/para>
+  5.4)   le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari
+       The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.
+
+  We can alternately use the sumti tcita =E2=80=9Cteci'e=E2=80=9D, b=
ased on =E2=80=9Cciste=E2=80=9D, which translates roughly as =E2=80=9Cof a =
system of components X=E2=80=9D, for universes of discourse; in this case, =
we would express  as:
+  5.5)   le stizu cu na'e xunre be teci'e le skari
+       The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors)-thi=
ng.
+
+  Other places of =E2=80=9Cciste=E2=80=9D can be brought out using t=
he grammar of selma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expr=
ession, thus:
+  5.6)   le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'e lo'i skari
+       The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thi=
ng.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cle'a=E2=80=9D, also in selma'o BAI, can be used=
 to specify a category:
+  5.7)   le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari
+       The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-t=
hing.
+
+  which is minimally different in meaning from .
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D is not the only member of selma'o=
 NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, w=
e use the cmavo =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D, which is grammatically equivalent t=
o =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D:
+  5.8)   le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari
+       The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.
+
+  Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo =
=E2=80=9Cno'e=E2=80=9D, also grammatically equivalent to =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=
=80=9D. Here are some parallel examples of =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cno'e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D:
+  5.9)   ta melbi
+       That is-beautiful.
+
+5.10)  ta na'e melbi
+       That is-non-beautiful.
+       That is other than beautiful.
+       That is ugly [in one sense].
+
+5.11)  ta no'e melbi
+       That is-neutrally beautiful.
+       That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).
+
+5.12)  ta to'e melbi
+       That is-opposite-of beautiful.
+       That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D has the assigned rafsi =E2=80=9C-=
tol-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-to'e-=E2=80=9D; the cmavo =E2=80=9Cno'e=E2=80=
=9D has the assigned rafsi =E2=80=9C-nor-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-no'e-=E2=
=80=9D. The selbri in  =
through  could be repla=
ced by the lujvo =E2=80=9Cnalmle=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnormle=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9Ctolmle=E2=80=9D respectively.
+  This large variety of scalar negations is provided because differe=
nt scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both dir=
ections: there is no =E2=80=9Cultimately ugly=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cultimate=
ly beautiful=E2=80=9D. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end =
and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called =E2=80=
=9Cabsolute zero=E2=80=9D) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales a=
re closed at both ends.
+  Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=
=9D =E2=80=94 what is the opposite of a dog? =E2=80=94 while others have mo=
re than one, and need =E2=80=9Cci'u=E2=80=9D to specify which opposite is m=
eant.
+

+
+

+  6. sumti negation
+  There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice=
 of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator =E2=
=80=9Cna'ebo=E2=80=9D before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantifica=
tion serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies, =E2=80=
=9Cna'ebo=E2=80=9D forms a scalar negation.
+  Let us show examples of each.
+  6.1)   no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau
+       Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the French cou=
ntry are-hair-without.
+       No current king of France is bald.
+
+  Is  true? Yes, =
because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many =
there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such=
 current Kings of France.
+  Now let us look at the same sentence using =E2=80=9Cna'ebo=E2=80=
=9D negation:
+  6.2)   na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu kre=
cau
+       [Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French =
country) is-hair-without.
+       Something other than the current King of France is bald.
+
+   is true provid=
ed that something reasonably describable as =E2=80=9Cother than a current K=
ing of France=E2=80=9D, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King =
of France, is in fact bald.
+  In place of =E2=80=9Cna'ebo=E2=80=9D, you may also use =E2=80=9Cno=
'ebo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cto'ebo=E2=80=9D, to be more specific about the s=
umti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples=
 are hard to come by, but here=E2=80=99s a valiant try:
+  6.3)   mi klama to'ebo la bastn.
+       I go to the-opposite-of Boston.
+       I go to Perth.
+
+  (Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In =
a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better =E2=80=9Cop=
posite=E2=80=9D.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attach=
ing =E2=80=9Cto'ebo=E2=80=9D to a description sumti is usually the same as =
attaching =E2=80=9Cto'e=E2=80=9D to the selbri of the description.
+  It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type int=
o bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be us=
ed in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logi=
cally will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natura=
l languages attempt corresponding manipulations.
+

+
+

+  7. Negation of minor grammatical constructs
+  We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them ba=
sed on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-comb=
ining negator, which is =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D, by th=
e way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that i=
t is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole me=
mber of selma'o NAI.
+  Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be di=
scussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular co=
nstruct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.
+  The following are places where =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D is used:
+  When attached to tenses and modals (see ), the =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D suffix usually indicates a contradictor=
y negation of the tagged bridi. Thus =E2=80=9Cpunai=E2=80=9D as a tense inf=
lection means =E2=80=9Cnot-in-the-past=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cnot-previously=
=E2=80=9D, without making any implication about any other time period unles=
s explicitly stated. As a result,
+  7.1)   mi na pu klama le zarci
+       I [false] [past] go-to the store.
+       I didn=E2=80=99t go to the store.
+
+  and
+  7.2)   mi punai klama le zarci
+       I [past-not] go-to the store.
+       I didn=E2=80=99t go to the store.
+
+  mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of=
 emphasis.
+  Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical con=
nectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and=
 modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus =E2=80=
=9Cpunai je ca=E2=80=9D means the same thing as =E2=80=9Cpu naje ca=E2=80=
=9D.
+  As a special case, a =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D attached to the interv=
al modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in ) signals a scalar negation:
+  7.3)   mi paroinai dansu le bisli
+       I [once] [not] dance-on the ice
+
+  means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more time=
s within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.  is very different from the English u=
se of =E2=80=9Cnot once=E2=80=9D, which is an emphatic way of saying =E2=80=
=9Cnever=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 that is, exactly zero times.
+  In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI, =E2=80=9Cnai=
=E2=80=9D denotes a polar negation. As discussed in , most indicators have an implicit scale, and =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=
=9D changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end of the scale. Thus =
=E2=80=9C.uinai=E2=80=9D expresses unhappiness, and =E2=80=9C.ienai=E2=80=
=9D expresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is expressed with the ne=
utral or undecided intensity as =E2=80=9C.iecu'i=E2=80=9D).
+  Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator, =
but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense with=
 about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For exam=
ple, =E2=80=9Cco'o=E2=80=9D could be expressed as =E2=80=9Ccoinai=E2=80=9D.=
 However, this is not generally done.
+  Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called protoco=
l situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversations=
, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protocol =
words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as m=
ight be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on =
=E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D: negative acknowledgement, which is =E2=80=9Cje'enai=
=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9CI didn=E2=80=99t get that=E2=80=9D).
+  Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant in=
 noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, in =
a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=
=9D, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledgement and repeat tran=
smission or otherwise respond accordingly.  provides more detail on this topic.
+  The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and=
 modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractio=
ns connected by logical connectives: =E2=80=9Csu'ujeninai=E2=80=9D, which c=
orresponds to =E2=80=9Csu'u jenai ni=E2=80=9D just as =E2=80=9Cpunai je ca=
=E2=80=9D corresponds to =E2=80=9Cpu naje ca=E2=80=9D. It is not clear how =
much use logically connected abstractors will be: see .
+  A =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D attached to a non-logical connective (of s=
elma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false =
under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non=
-logical connectives are discussed in .
+

+
+

+  8. Truth questions
+  One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those=
 which expect the answers =E2=80=9CYes=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9CNo=E2=80=9D). T=
he truth question cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D is in selma'o UI; placed at th=
e beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true =
or false.
+  8.1)   xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom.
+       Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)
+
+  You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we=E2=80=99v=
e discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for =
each answer).
+  The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to=
 the expanded sentence with the =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D immediately after the =
=E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D (and before any tense/modal):
+  8.2)   na go'i
+       [false] [repeat previous]
+       No.
+
+  which means
+  8.3)   la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la ro=
m.
+       John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.
+       It=E2=80=99s not true that John went to Paris and Rome.
+
+  The respondent can change the tense, putting the =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=
=9D in either before or after the new tense:
+  8.4)   na ba go'i
+       [false] [future] [repeat previous]
+
+  meaning
+  8.5)   la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la ro=
m.
+       John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome.
+       It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.
+
+  or alternatively
+  8.6)   ba na go'i
+       [false] [future] [repeat previous]
+
+  meaning
+  8.7)   la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la ro=
m.
+       John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.
+
+  We stated in  that sente=
nces like  and  appear to be semantically identi=
cal, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.
+  You can also use a scalar negation with =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D, in=
 which case, it is equivalent to putting a =E2=80=9Cna'eke=E2=80=9D immedia=
tely after any tense:
+  8.8)   na'e go'i
+       other-than [repeat previous]
+
+  which means
+  8.9)   la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama
+            [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.
+       John previously other-than(went-to)
+            [both] Paris and Rome.
+
+  He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. Th=
e unnecessary =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D would have be=
en essential if the selbri had been a tanru.
+

+
+

+  9. Affirmations
+  There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=E2=80=9Cj=
a'a=E2=80=9D) and selma'o NAhE (=E2=80=9Cje'a=E2=80=9D), each of which woul=
d supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allo=
wing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or state=
ment without confusion. Assuming the same context as in :
+  9.1)   xu na go'i
+       Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?
+
+  or equivalently
+  9.2)   xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama
+            la paris. .e la rom.
+       Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to
+            [both] Paris and Rome.]
+
+  The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative que=
stion is:
+  9.3)   go'i
+       [repeat previous]
+
+  A plain =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D does not mean =E2=80=9CYes it is=E2=
=80=9D; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, =
including any negators present; and  actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris =
and Rome.
+  When considering:
+  9.4)   na go'i
+       [false] [repeat previous]
+
+  as a response to a negative question like , Lojban designers had to choose between two equ=
ally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does  create a double negative in the sentenc=
e by adding a new =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D to the one already there (forming a =
double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the =E2=80=9Cna=E2=
=80=9D replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?
+  It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the p=
referable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a =
negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way Eng=
lish usually works, but not all languages work this way =E2=80=94 Russian, =
Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question =
as positive.
+  The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can a=
lso replace the =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D in the context, giving:
+  9.5)   ja'a go'i
+       (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)
+
+  =E2=80=9Cja'a=E2=80=9D can replace =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D in a simil=
ar manner wherever the latter is used:
+  9.6)   mi ja'a klama le zarci=20
+       I indeed go to the store.
+
+  =E2=80=9Cje'a=E2=80=9D can replace =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D in exact=
ly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the =
relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it e=
mphasizes the positive:
+  9.7)   ta je'a melbi
+       that is-indeed beautiful.
+
+

+
+

+  10. Metalinguistic negation forms
+  The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with n=
egation. Consider the English sentence
+  10.1)  I have not stopped beating my wife.
+
+  If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is =
neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong=
 with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voic=
e or else a correction to express a preferred true claim: =E2=80=9CI never =
have beaten my wife.=E2=80=9D
+  Negations which follow such a pattern are called =E2=80=9Cmetaling=
uistic negations=E2=80=9D. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic=
 negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost al=
ways, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used t=
o clarify the error.
+  Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are =
inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When suc=
h negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims a=
bout the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negation=
s which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojb=
an allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is pla=
usible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.
+  Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would de=
stroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need oth=
er means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. Whe=
n the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express me=
talinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.
+  Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation =
with English-language examples:
+  10.2)  I have not stopped be=
ating my wife
+       (I never started =E2=80=94 failure of presupposition).
+
+10.3)  5 is not blue
+       (color does not apply to abstract concepts =E2=80=94 failure of cat=
egory).
+
+10.4)  The current King of France is not bald.
+       (there is no current King of France =E2=80=94 existential failure)
+
+10.5)  I do not have THREE children.
+       (I have two =E2=80=94 simple undue quantity)
+
+10.6)  I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.
+       (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is t=
hat
+       someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)
+
+10.7)  It is not good, but bad.
+       (undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a
+       scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)
+
+10.8)  She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.
+       (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)
+
+10.9)  The house is not blue, but green.
+       (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category=
 applies)
+
+10.10) The house is not blue, but is colored.
+       (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category=
 applies)
+
+10.11) The cat is not blue, but long-haired.
+       (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated categ=
ory applies)
+
+10.12) A: He ain=E2=80=99t coming today.
+       B: =E2=80=9CAin=E2=80=99t=E2=80=9D ain=E2=80=99t a word.
+       (solecism, or improper grammatical action)
+
+10.13) I haven=E2=80=99t STOOPED beating my wife; I=E2=80=99ve ST=
OPPED.
+       (spelling or mispronunciation error)
+
+10.14) Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.
+       (non-contradictory correction)
+
+  The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.
+  Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples tha=
t we=E2=80=99ve discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation d=
oesn=E2=80=99t claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it=
 claims that, due to some error in the statement, =E2=80=9Ctrue=E2=80=9D an=
d =E2=80=9Cfalse=E2=80=9D don=E2=80=99t really apply.
+  Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intendi=
ng a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (o=
r ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of ou=
r logical negation schemes using =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=
=9D and kin. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D is assigned this function. If=
 it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that somethi=
ng in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must overrid=
e any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in bo=
th positive and negative statements.
+  Since =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D is not a logical operator, multiple o=
ccurrences of =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D need not be assumed to cancel each oth=
er. Indeed, we can use the position of =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D to indicate m=
etalinguistically what is incorrect, preparatory to correcting it in a late=
r sentence; for this reason, we give =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D the grammar of =
UI. The inclusion of =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D anywhere in a sentence makes it=
 a non-assertion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth va=
lue.
+  Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic err=
ors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked by =
devising analogies to these examples:
+  Existential failure can be marked by attaching =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=
=9D to the descriptor =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D or the =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D in =
a =E2=80=9Cda poi=E2=80=9D-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and  for details on these constructions.) Remember that if a =
=E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you m=
ay not understand what the speaker has in mind =E2=80=94 the appropriate re=
sponse is then =E2=80=9Cki'a=E2=80=9D, asking for clarification.
+  Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presuppositio=
n is overt; if not, one can insert a =E2=80=9Cmock presupposition=E2=80=9D =
to question with the sumti tcita (selma'o BAI) word =E2=80=9Cji'u=E2=80=9D;=
 =E2=80=9Cji'uku=E2=80=9D thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumpti=
on, and =E2=80=9Cji'una'iku=E2=80=9D metalinguistically says that something=
 is wrong with that assumption. (See .)
+  Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with s=
elma'o BAI. =E2=80=9Cle'a=E2=80=9D has meaning =E2=80=9Cof category/class/t=
ype X=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cci'u=E2=80=9D has meaning =E2=80=9Con scale X=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cci'e=E2=80=9D, based on =E2=80=9Cciste=E2=80=9D, can b=
e used to talk about universes of discourse defined either as systems or se=
ts of components, as shown in . =
=E2=80=9Ckai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla'u=E2=80=9D also exist in BAI for disc=
ussing other quality and quantity errors.
+  We have to make particular note of potential problems in the areas=
 of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the relat=
ionships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It is=
 thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is co=
lored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban, =E2=80=
=9Cblanu=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cblue=E2=80=9D) is not explicitly defined as a =
=E2=80=9Cskari=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Ccolor=E2=80=9D). Similarly, it is not imp=
licit that the opposite of =E2=80=9Cgood=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cbad=E2=80=9D.=

+  This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmatically,=
 people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write di=
ctionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some o=
f these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these ass=
umptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break down =
(or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation, =
however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a p=
resumably obvious scale or category assumption.
+  Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by marki=
ng the offending word or phrase with =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D (in the manner =
of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this sense, =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D becomes equ=
ivalent to the English metalinguistic marker =E2=80=9C[sic]=E2=80=9D. Puris=
ts may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quotes or =E2=80=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D-mark=
ed corrections to avoid repeating a truly unparsable passage, especially if=
 a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See  for explanations of these usages.
+  In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form o=
f referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more =E2=80=
=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been made, and=
 then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previous stat=
ements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA. =E2=80=
=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D at the beginning of a statement merely says that something=
 is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.
+  In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected s=
tatement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible t=
o completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correc=
ting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic=
 negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metali=
nguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless =
expression.
+  Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitim=
ate negative answer to a =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D question (see ). =E2=80=9Cna'i=E2=80=9D will be used when so=
mething about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questio=
ns like =E2=80=9CHave you stopped beating your wife?=E2=80=9D:
+  10.15) xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fet=
spe
+       Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?
+
+  Responses could include:
+  10.16) na'i go'i
+       The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.
+
+10.17) go'i na'i
+       The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way.
+
+  One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by =
explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguisti=
cally negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:<=
/para>
+  10.18) go'i ji'una'iku
+       Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.
+
+  Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with =E2=80=9Cj=
o'a=E2=80=9D, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for =E2=80=9Cjo'a=
=E2=80=9D might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual=
 or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagre=
e with =E2=80=94 by overriding =E2=80=94 a respondent=E2=80=99s metalinguis=
tic negation.
+

+
+

+  11. Summary =E2=80=94 Are All Possible Questions About Negation N=
ow Answered?
+  11.1)  na go'i  .ije na'e go'i  .ije na'i go'i
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4212d22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,654 @@
+
+  Chapter 16
+=E2=80=9CWho Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody=E2=80=9D: Lojban And Logic</=
title>
+
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1">
+  <title>1. What=E2=80=99s wrong with this picture?
+  The following brief dialogue is from  of Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll.
+  1.1)   =E2=80=9CWho did you pass on the road?=E2=80=
=9D the King went on,
+       holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.
+
+1.2)   =E2=80=9CNobody,=E2=80=9D said the Messenger.
+
+1.3)   =E2=80=9CQuite right,=E2=80=9D said the King:  =E2=80=9Cthis y=
oung lady saw him too.
+       So of course Nobody walks slower than you.=E2=80=9D
+
+1.4)   =E2=80=9CI do my best,=E2=80=9D the Messenger said in a sulky =
tone.
+       =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m sure nobody walks much faster than I do!=E2=80=
=9D
+
+1.5)   =E2=80=9CHe can=E2=80=99t do that,=E2=80=9D said the King,
+       =E2=80=9Cor else he=E2=80=99d have been here first.=E2=80=9D
+
+  This nonsensical conversation results because the King insists on =
treating the word =E2=80=9Cnobody=E2=80=9D as a name, a name of somebody. H=
owever, the essential nature of the English word =E2=80=9Cnobody=E2=80=9D i=
s that it doesn=E2=80=99t refer to somebody; or to put the matter another w=
ay, there isn=E2=80=99t anybody to which it refers.
+  The central point of contradiction in the dialogue arises in , when the King says =E2=80=
=9C... Nobody walks slower than you=E2=80=9D. This claim would be plausible=
 if =E2=80=9CNobody=E2=80=9D were really a name, since the Messenger could =
only pass someone who does walk more slowly than he. But the Messenger inte=
rprets the word =E2=80=9Cnobody=E2=80=9D in the ordinary English way, and s=
ays (in ) =E2=80=9C... n=
obody walks much faster than I do=E2=80=9D (i.e., I walk faster, or as fast=
 as, almost everyone), which the King then again misunderstands. Both the K=
ing and the Messenger are correct according to their respective understandi=
ngs of the ambiguous word =E2=80=9Cnobody/Nobody=E2=80=9D.
+  There are Lojban words or phrases corresponding to the problematic=
 English words =E2=80=9Csomebody=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnobody=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Canybody=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceverybody=E2=80=9D (and their counterparts =
=E2=80=9Csome/no/any/everyone=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Csome/no/any/everything=
=E2=80=9D), but they obey rules which can often be surprising to English-sp=
eakers. The dialogue above simply cannot be translated into Lojban without =
distortion: the name =E2=80=9CNobody=E2=80=9D would have to be represented =
by a Lojban name, which would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a ma=
tter of fact, this is the desired result: a logical language should not all=
ow two conversationalists to affirm =E2=80=9CNobody walks slower than the M=
essenger=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CNobody walks faster than the Messenger=E2=80=
=9D and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messe=
nger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)
+  This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the cor=
rect and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. T=
here are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, =
it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speaker=
s to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. H=
owever, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, al=
though readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions i=
n Lojban guise.
+  Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of=
 it is =E2=80=9Clogical=E2=80=9D. In particular, the use of =E2=80=9Cle=E2=
=80=9D is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selb=
ri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from =
my statement that
+  1.6)   mi viska le nanmu
+       I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.
+       I see the man/men.
+
+  that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is tha=
t there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cann=
ot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although commun=
ication is served if you already know from the context).
+  In addition, the use of attitudinals (see ) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about th=
e bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope =
George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George=E2=80=
=99s actual victory or defeat.
+

+
+

+  2. Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
+  Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dial=
ogue:
+  2.1)   Something sees me.
+
+  There are two plausible Lojban translations of . The simpler one is:
+  2.2)   [zo'e] viska mi
+       Something-unspecified sees me.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D indicates that a sumti has been o=
mitted (indeed, even =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D itself can be omitted in this c=
ase, as explained in ) and the listener mus=
t fill in the correct value from context. In other words,  means =E2=80=9C=E2=80=98You-know-what=E2=
=80=99 sees me.=E2=80=9D
+  However,  is ju=
st as likely to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which c=
ase a correct translation is:
+  2.3)   da zo'u da viska mi
+       There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.
+
+   does not presu=
ppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the li=
stener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind =
are called =E2=80=9Cexistential claims=E2=80=9D. (Formally, the one doing t=
he seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or =E2=
=80=94 in principle =E2=80=94 an inanimate object. We will see in  how to represent such restrictions.)
+   has a two-part=
 structure: there is the part =E2=80=9Cda zo'u=E2=80=9D, called the prenex,=
 and the part =E2=80=9Cda viska mi=E2=80=9D, the main bridi. Almost any Loj=
ban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of=
 sumti followed by the cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ZOhU). For =
the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cda=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o KOhA)=
, glossed in the literal translations as =E2=80=9CX=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CY=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9CZ=E2=80=9D respectively. By analogy to the terminology=
 of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called =E2=80=9Cvariables=E2=80=9D.
+  Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:
+  2.4)   da de zo'u da prami de
+       There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y.
+       Somebody loves somebody.
+
+  In , the litera=
l interpretation of the two variables =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cde=
=E2=80=9D as =E2=80=9Cthere-is-an-X=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthere-is-a-Y=E2=
=80=9D tells us that there are two things which stand in the relationship t=
hat one loves the other. It might be the case that the supposed two things =
are really just a single thing that loves itself; nothing in the Lojban ver=
sion of  rules out that =
interpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say =E2=80=
=9CSomebody loves somebody else.=E2=80=9D The things referred to by differe=
nt variables may be different or the same. (We use =E2=80=9Csomebody=E2=80=
=9D here rather than =E2=80=9Csomething=E2=80=9D for naturalness; lovers an=
d beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)
+  It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than on=
ce in the main bridi:
+  2.5)   da zo'u da prami da
+       There-is-an-X such that X loves X
+       Somebody loves himself/herself.
+
+  What  claims is=
 fundamentally different from what  claims, because =E2=80=9Cda prami da=E2=80=9D is not structural=
ly the same as =E2=80=9Cda prami de=E2=80=9D. However,
+  2.6)   de zo'u de prami de
+       There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y
+
+  means exactly the same thing as ; it does not matter which variable is used as long as the=
y are used consistently.
+  It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi=
 directly:
+  2.7)   da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi
+       There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me
+       Somebody=E2=80=99s dog sees me
+
+  is perfectly correct even though the =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D is used =
only in a possessive construction. (Possessives are explained in .)
+  It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for=
 the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:
+  2.8)   da zo'u la ralf. gerku
+       There is something such that Ralph is a dog.
+
+  has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of t=
he following bridi is completely unspecified.
+

+
+

+  3. Universal claims
+  What happens if we substitute =E2=80=9Ceverything=E2=80=9D for =E2=
=80=9Csomething=E2=80=9D in ? We get:
+  3.1)   Everything sees me.
+
+  Of course, this example is false, because there are many things wh=
ich do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples=
 of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear =
with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claim=
s even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)
+  The Lojban translation of  is
+  3.2)   ro da zo'u da viska mi
+       For-every X : X sees me.
+
+  When the variable cmavo =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D is preceded by =E2=80=
=9Cro=E2=80=9D, the combination means =E2=80=9CFor every X=E2=80=9D rather =
than =E2=80=9CThere is an X=E2=80=9D. Superficially, these English formulat=
ions look totally unrelated:  wil=
l bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of =
=E2=80=9Cro da=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Ceverything=E2=80=9D on faith.
+  Here is a universal claim with two variables:
+  3.3)   ro da ro de zo'u da prami de
+       For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y.
+       Everything loves everything.
+
+  Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so  does not mean =E2=80=9CEverything loves e=
verything else.=E2=80=9D Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is=
 about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use =E2=80=9Cever=
yone=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ceverybody=E2=80=9D in the translation.
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D appears before both =E2=80=9Cda=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D. If =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D is omitted before =
either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of , partly universal.
+  3.4)   ro da de zo'u da viska de
+       For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y.
+       Everything sees something.
+
+3.5)   da ro de zo'u da viska de
+       There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y.
+       Something sees everything.
+
+   and  mean completely different things.=
  says that for everythi=
ng, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen f=
or every seer. , on the =
other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything =
that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they =
are different kinds of silliness.
+  There are various possible translations of universal claims in Eng=
lish: sometimes we use =E2=80=9Canybody/anything=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=
=80=9Ceverybody/everything=E2=80=9D. Often it makes no difference which of =
these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one wh=
ich is explained in .
+

+
+

+  4. Restricted claims: =E2=80=9Cda poi=E2=80=9D
+  The universal claims of =
 are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that=
 is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, w=
e have been glossing over the distinction between =E2=80=9Ceverything=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Ceverybody=E2=80=9D and the other pairs ending in =E2=80=9C=
-thing=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-body=E2=80=9D. It is time to bring up the mos=
t useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.=

+  In Lojban, a variable =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, =
or =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D may be followed by a =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D relative=
 clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describe=
s. Relative clauses are described in detail in , but the kind we will need at present consist of =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D=
 followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=
=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D (which can usually be elided). Consider the=
 difference between
+  4.1)   da zo'u da viska la djim.
+       There-is-an-X : X sees Jim.
+       Something sees Jim.
+
+  and
+  4.2)   da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim.
+       There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim.
+       Someone sees Jim.
+
+  In , the variab=
le =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D can refer to any object whatever; there are no rest=
rictions on it. In , =E2=
=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D is restricted by the =E2=80=9Cpoi prenu=E2=80=9D relative=
 clause to persons only, and so =E2=80=9Cda poi prenu=E2=80=9D translates a=
s =E2=80=9Csomeone.=E2=80=9D (The difference between =E2=80=9Csomeone=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Csomebody=E2=80=9D is a matter of English style, with no re=
al counterpart in Lojban.) If  is true, then  mu=
st be true, but not necessarily vice versa.
+  Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relative =
clauses. Consider
+  4.3)   ro da zo'u da vasxu
+       For-every X : X breathes
+       Everything breathes
+
+  and
+  4.4)   ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu
+       For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes.
+       Every dog breathes.
+       Each dog breathes.
+       All dogs breathe.
+
+   is a silly fal=
sehood, but  is an impor=
tant truth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see ). Note the various colloquial translations =E2=
=80=9Cevery dog=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceach dog=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Call dogs=
=E2=80=9D. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of=
 every dog is true of all dogs. =E2=80=9CAll dogs=E2=80=9D is treated as an=
 English plural and the others as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction=
.
+  If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal=
 one, we get:
+  4.5)   da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu
+       There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.
+       Some dog breathes.
+
+

+
+

+  5. Dropping the prenex
+  It isn=E2=80=99t really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving=
 variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we=
=E2=80=99ve seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the=
 prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bri=
di as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any =
=E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D appearing in the prenex must =
be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of =
the bridi. Thus,  become=
s just:
+  5.1)   da viska mi
+       There-is-an-X-which sees me.
+       Something sees me.
+
+  and  becomes:
+  5.2)   ro da poi gerku cu vasxu
+       For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.
+       Every dog breathes.
+
+  You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to=
 allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi or=
der, and that would be correct. Consider
+  5.3)   ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u =
de batci da
+       For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y bites=
 X.
+
+  The prenex of  =
is like that of  (but wi=
th relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every pe=
rson with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But i=
n the main bridi part, the =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D appears before the =E2=80=
=9Cda=E2=80=9D. Therefore, the true translation is
+  5.4)   Every person is bitten by some dog (or other=
).
+
+  If we tried to omit the prenex and move the =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D a=
nd the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:
+  5.5)   de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu
+       There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person
+       Some dog bites everyone.
+
+  which has the structure of : it says that there is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bi=
tten, or will bite every person that has ever existed! We can safely rule o=
ut Fido=E2=80=99s existence, and say that  is false, while agreeing to .
+  Even so,  is mo=
st probably false, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples lik=
e 5.3 and 4.4 (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because =
they died as embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims ev=
en when restricted. In English we are prone to say that =E2=80=9CEveryone s=
ays=E2=80=9D or that =E2=80=9CEverybody does=E2=80=9D or that =E2=80=9CEver=
ything is=E2=80=9D when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we =
are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are=
 plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) whic=
h implicitly restricts them.
+  How can we express  in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables a=
ppear that matters, we can say:
+  5.6)   ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku
+       Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.
+
+  using the conversion operator =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D (explained in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5"/>) to change the selbri =E2=80=9Cbatci=E2=80=
=9D (=E2=80=9Cbites=E2=80=9D) into =E2=80=9Cse batci=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cis =
bitten by=E2=80=9D). The translation given in  uses the corresponding strategy in English, since En=
glish does not have prenexes (except in strained =E2=80=9Clogician=E2=80=99=
s English=E2=80=9D). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and=
 an existential variable can=E2=80=99t be freely converted with =E2=80=9Cse=
=E2=80=9D; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.
+  If a variable occurs more than once, then any =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D=
 or =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D decorations are moved only to the first occurrenc=
e of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,
+  5.7)   di poi prenu zo'u
+            ti xarci di di
+       There-is-a-Z which is-a-person :
+            this-thing is-a-weapon for-use-against-Z by-Z
+       This is a weapon for someone to use against
+            himself/herself.
+
+  (in which =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D is used rather than =E2=80=9Cda=E2=
=80=9D just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:
+  5.8)   ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di
+       This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-=
Z.
+
+  As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes fo=
r terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban i=
s meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose o=
ne), provided the rules are observed.
+

+
+

+  6. Variables with generalized quantifiers
+  So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or wi=
th the cmavo =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D in front. Now =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D is a L=
ojban number, and means =E2=80=9Call=E2=80=9D; thus =E2=80=9Cro prenu=E2=80=
=9D means =E2=80=9Call persons=E2=80=9D, just as =E2=80=9Cre prenu=E2=80=9D=
 means =E2=80=9Ctwo persons=E2=80=9D. In fact, unadorned =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=
=9D is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely =E2=80=
=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, which means =E2=80=9Cat least one=E2=80=9D. Why is this? =
Consider  again, this ti=
me with an explicit =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D:
+  6.1)   su'o da zo'u da viska mi
+       For-at-least-one X : X sees me.
+       Something sees me.
+
+  From this version of , we understand the speaker=E2=80=99s claim to be that of all the thi=
ngs that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding=
 universal claim, , says=
 that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.<=
/para>
+  Any other number can be used instead of =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D or =
=E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:
+  6.2)   re da zo'u da viska mi
+       For-two-Xes : X sees me.
+       Two things see me.
+
+  This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speak=
er on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take =E2=80=9CTwo things =
see me=E2=80=9D to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there=
 might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:
+  6.3)   su'ore da zo'u da viska mi
+       For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.
+
+  which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the speake=
r, but not otherwise. We note the =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D here meaning =E2=
=80=9Cat least=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D by itself is short for =E2=
=80=9Csu'opa=E2=80=9D where =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cone=E2=80=
=9D, as is explained in .
+  The prenex may be removed from  and  as=
 from the others, leading to:
+  6.4)   re da viska mi
+       Two Xes see me.
+
+  and
+  6.5)   su'ore da viska mi
+       At-least-two Xes see me.
+
+  respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in .
+  Now we can explain the constructions =E2=80=9Cro prenu=E2=80=9D fo=
r =E2=80=9Call persons=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cre prenu=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=
=9Ctwo persons=E2=80=9D which were casually mentioned at the beginning of t=
his Section. In fact, =E2=80=9Cro prenu=E2=80=9D, a so-called =E2=80=9Cinde=
finite description=E2=80=9D, is shorthand for =E2=80=9Cro DA poi prenu=E2=
=80=9D, where =E2=80=9CDA=E2=80=9D represents a fictitious variable that ha=
sn=E2=80=99t been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all thr=
ee of =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D =
have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more v=
ariables, discussed in .) So in =
fact
+  6.6)   re prenu cu viska mi
+       Two persons see me.
+
+  is short for
+  6.7)   re da poi prenu cu viska mi
+       Two Xes which are-persons see me.
+
+  which in turn is short for:
+  6.8)   re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi
+       For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.
+
+  Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along=
 with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables a=
re in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.
+

+
+

+  7. Grouping of quantifiers
+  Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions n=
either of which is =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D (remember=
ing that =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D is implicit where no explicit quantifier is=
 given):
+  7.1)   ci gerku cu batci re nanmu
+       Three dogs bite two men.
+
+  The question raised by  is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible=
 that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the f=
ormer interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; =
but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there mi=
ght be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform  step by step as we did wi=
th :
+  7.2)   ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu
+       Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.
+
+  (Note that we need separate variables =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, because of the rule that says each indefinite descriptio=
n gets a variable never used before or since.)
+  7.3)   ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da=
 batci de
+       For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bites Y.
+
+  Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, =
and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altog=
ether.
+  How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just=
 two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the=
 prenex to
+  7.4)   re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da=
 batci de
+       For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y
+
+  for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two,=
 we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The dis=
tinction is called a =E2=80=9Cscope distinction=E2=80=9D: in , =E2=80=9Cci gerku=E2=80=9D is said =
to have wider scope than =E2=80=9Cre nanmu=E2=80=9D, and therefore precedes=
 it in the prenex. In  t=
he reverse is true.
+  The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either=
 joined by =E2=80=9Cce'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or e=
lse surrounded by =E2=80=9Cnu'i=E2=80=9D (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=
 =E2=80=9Cnu'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are eit=
her sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a=
 termset are understood to have equal scope:
+  7.5)   ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci
+       nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci
+       Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.
+
+  which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two=
 men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second=
 Lojban version uses forethought; note that =E2=80=9Cnu'u=E2=80=9D is an el=
idable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.
+  What about descriptors, like =E2=80=9Cci lo gerku=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cle nanmu=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cre le ci mlatu=E2=80=9D? They too can be g=
rouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the =E2=80=9Clo=E2=
=80=9D case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an a=
ctual quantifier precedes it, =E2=80=9Cle nanmu=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cro =
le nanmu=E2=80=9D, as is explained in . Two=
 sumti with =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D quantifiers are independent of order, so:<=
/para>
+  7.6)   [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu
+       [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.
+
+  means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specif=
ied, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit qu=
antifier before =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D other than =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D, the p=
roblems of this section reappear.
+

+
+

+  8. The problem of =E2=80=9Cany=E2=80=9D
+  Consider the English sentence
+  8.1)   Anyone who goes to the store, walks across t=
he field.
+
+  Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation mi=
ght be
+  8.2)   ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi
+       All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.
+       Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.
+
+  But there is a subtle difference between  and .  tells us that,=
 in fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across t=
he field. A sumti of the type =E2=80=9Cro da poi klama=E2=80=9D requires th=
at there are things which =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D: Lojban universal claims =
always imply the corresponding existential claims as well. , on the other hand, does not require th=
at there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionall=
y, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across th=
e field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation =
of :
+  8.3)   ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu =
le foldi
+       For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the =
field.
+
+  Although  is a =
universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objec=
ts of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim =
is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-stor=
e or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also t=
he other.
+  There is another use of =E2=80=9Cany=E2=80=9D in English that is n=
ot universal but existential. Consider
+  8.4)   I need any box that is bigger than this one.
+
+   does not at al=
l mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I r=
equire only one box. But the naive translation
+  8.5)   mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti
+       I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one
+
+  does not work either, because it asserts that there really is such=
 a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates:
+  8.6)   da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da
+       There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need X.
+
+  What to do? Well, the x2 place of =E2=80=9Cnitcu=E2=80=9D can be f=
illed with an event as well as an object, and in fact  can also be paraphrased as:
+  8.7)   mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau =
ti
+       I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-than thi=
s-one.
+
+  Rewritten using variables,  becomes
+  8.8)   mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u
+            da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti
+       I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that :
+            X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thin=
g.
+
+  So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within =
a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the =
prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and =
its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be p=
laced in an outer prenex explicitly:
+  8.9)   da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u
+            mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da
+       There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that =
:
+            I need the event-of my possessing X.
+
+  But what are the implications of  and ?=
 The main difference is that in , the =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D is said to exist in the real world of th=
e outer bridi; but in , =
the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that ne=
ed not necessarily come to pass. So  means
+  8.10)  There=E2=80=99s a box, bigger than this on=
e, that I need
+
+  which is what  =
says, whereas  turns out=
 to be an effective translation of our original . So uses of =E2=80=9Cany=E2=80=9D that aren=E2=80=
=99t universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a=
 subordinate bridi.
+

+
+

+  9. Negation boundaries
+  This section, as well as  through , are in effect a con=
tinuation of , introducing features of Loj=
ban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In th=
e examples below, =E2=80=9Cthere is a Y=E2=80=9D and the like must be under=
stood as =E2=80=9Cthere is at least one Y, possibly more=E2=80=9D.
+  As explained in , the negation of=
 a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D at the b=
eginning of the selbri:
+  9.1)   mi na klama le zarci
+       I [false] go-to the store.
+       It is false that I go to the store.
+       I don=E2=80=99t go to the store.
+
+  The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the compoun=
d cmavo =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D in the prenex, which is identified and compo=
unded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban gramma=
r, =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex, =E2=80=
=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D means precisely the same thing as the logician=E2=80=99s =
=E2=80=9Cit is not the case that=E2=80=9D in a similar English context. (Ou=
tside of a prenex, =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D is also grammatically treated as =
a single entity =E2=80=94 the equivalent of a sumti =E2=80=94 but does not =
have this exact meaning; we=E2=80=99ll discuss these other situations in .)
+  To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the =E2=80=9C=
na=E2=80=9D from before the selbri and place =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D at the =
left end of the prenex. This form is called =E2=80=9Cexternal bridi negatio=
n=E2=80=9D, as opposed to =E2=80=9Cinternal bridi negation=E2=80=9D using =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D. The prenex version of  is
+  9.2)   naku zo'u la djan. klama
+       It is not the case that: John comes.
+       It is false that: John comes.
+
+  However, =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D can appear at other points in the =
prenex as well. Compare
+  9.3)   naku de zo'u de zutse
+       It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits.
+       It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits.
+       It is false that something sits.
+       Nothing sits.
+
+  with
+  9.4)   su'ode naku zo'u de zutse
+       For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits.
+       There is something that doesn=E2=80=99t sit.
+
+  The relative position of negation and quantification terms within =
a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we c=
an have:
+  9.5)   roda su'ode zo'u da prami de
+       For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y.
+       Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same =
thing).
+
+  or:
+  9.6)   su'ode roda zo'u da prami de
+       There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y.
+       There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.
+
+  The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the =
negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:
+  9.7)   naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de
+       It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X loves Y.
+       It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing.
+       (At least) someone doesn=E2=80=99t love anything.
+
+  the negation of , and
+  9.8)   naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de
+       It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X loves Y.
+       It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved by ever=
ybody.
+       There isn=E2=80=99t any one thing that everybody loves.
+
+  the negation of .
+  The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundar=
y within a prenex, you must =E2=80=9Cinvert any quantifier=E2=80=9D that th=
e negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any =
=E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (all) is changed to =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D (at least o=
ne) and vice versa. Thus,  and  can be restated =
as, respectively:
+  9.9)   su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de
+       For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X loves Y.
+       There is somebody who doesn=E2=80=99t love anything.
+
+  and:
+  9.10)  rode naku roda zo'u da prami de
+       For every Y, it is false that: for every X, X loves Y.
+       For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.
+
+  Another movement of the negation boundary produces:
+  9.11)  su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de
+       There is an X such that, for every Y, it is false that X loves Y.
+       There is someone who, for each thing, doesn=E2=80=99t love that thi=
ng.
+
+  and
+  9.12)  rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de
+       For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X loves Y.
+       For each thing there is someone who doesn=E2=80=99t love it.
+
+  Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preserve=
s the meanings of  and <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example8"/>.
+  The quantifier =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Czero of=E2=
=80=9D) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing =
a variable quantified with =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D, we must first expand it. C=
onsider
+  9.13)  noda rode zo'u da prami de
+       There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y.
+       Nobody loves everything.
+
+  which is negated by:
+  9.14)  naku noda rode zo'u da prami de
+       It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves Y.
+       It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.
+
+  We can simplify  by transforming the prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prene=
x, we must first expand the =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D quantifier. Thus =E2=80=9C=
for no x=E2=80=9D means the same thing as =E2=80=9Cit is false for some x=
=E2=80=9D, and the corresponding Lojban =E2=80=9Cnoda=E2=80=9D can be repla=
ced by =E2=80=9Cnaku su'oda=E2=80=9D. Making this substitution, we get:
+  9.15)  naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de
+       It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y=
.
+
+  Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped=
, so this means the same as:
+  9.16)  su'oda rode zo'u da prami de
+       There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y.
+       At least one person loves everything.
+
+  which is clearly the desired contradiction of .
+  The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you ca=
nnot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move =
the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers t=
hey cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.
+

+
+

+  10. bridi negation and logical connectives
+  A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in . What is said here is intentionally quite incomplet=
e and makes several oversimplifications.
+  A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapter=
, we will make use of the logical connectives =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D (where =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D really means =E2=80=9Cand/or=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither or both=E2=80=9D). The following simplified reci=
pes explain how to make some logical connectives:
+  
+    
+      To logically connect two Lojban sumti with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=
=9D, put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo =E2=80=9C.=
e=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      To logically connect two Lojban bridi with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=
=9D, replace the regular separator cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D with the comp=
ound cmavo =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      To logically connect two Lojban sumti with =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=
=9D, put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo =E2=80=9C.=
a=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      To logically connect two Lojban bridi with =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=
=9D, replace the regular separator cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D with the comp=
ound cmavo =E2=80=9C.ija=E2=80=9D.
+    
+  
+  More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one ma=
y place =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D before =E2=80=9C.e=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9C.a=E2=
=80=9D, or between =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=
=9Cja=E2=80=9D; likewise, one may place =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D at the end of=
 a connective. Both =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D have neg=
ative effects on the sumti or bridi being connected. Specifically, =E2=80=
=9Cna=E2=80=9D negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and =E2=80=9C=
nai=E2=80=9D negates the second or right-hand one.
+  Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentence =
can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and joinin=
g the sentences by a logical connective beginning with =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D=
. Thus the following sentence:
+  10.1)  mi .e do klama ti
+       I and you come here.
+
+  can be expanded to:
+  10.2)  mi klama ti .ije do klama ti
+       I come here, and, you come here.
+
+  The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical connec=
tive, with any valid combination of =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=
=80=9D attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a transformation.
+  Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence f=
orms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does n=
egation mean between sentences?
+  The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression i=
s identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at=
 the beginning of the prenex. Thus:
+  10.3)  mi .enai do prami roda
+       I, and not you, love everything.
+
+  expands to:
+  10.4)  mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda
+       I love everything, and-not, you love everything.
+
+  and then into prenex form as:
+  10.5)  roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do pr=
ami da
+       For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same)=
 it.
+
+  By the rules of predicate logic, the =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D quantifi=
er on =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D has scope over both sentences. That is, once you=
=E2=80=99ve picked a value for =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D for the first sentence,=
 it stays the same for both sentences. (The =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D continues =
with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the =
meaning.)
+  Thus the following example has the indicated translation:
+  10.6)  su'oda zo'u mi prami da
+            .ije naku zo'u do prami da
+       For at least one thing: I love that thing.
+            And it is false that: you love that (same) thing.
+       There is something that I love that you don=E2=80=99t.
+
+  If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negation=
s, you won=E2=80=99t go wrong:
+  
+    
+      Within a prenex, whenever you move =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D past=
 a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.
+    
+    
+      A =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D before the selbri is always transformed=
 into a =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice=
 versa.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  11. Using =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D outside a prenex
+  Let us consider the English sentence
+  11.1)  Some children do not go to school.
+
+  We cannot express this directly with =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D; the app=
arently obvious translation
+  11.2)  su'oda poi verba
+            na klama su'ode poi ckule
+       At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to
+            at-least-one Y which-are school(s).
+
+  when converted to the external negation form produces:
+  11.3)  naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode=
 poi ckule
+       It is false that some which are children go-to some which are schoo=
ls.
+       All children don=E2=80=99t go to some school (not just some childre=
n).
+
+  Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natura=
l language negation. This involves putting =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D before th=
e selbri, instead of a =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D is clea=
rly a contradictory negation, given its parallel with prenex bridi negation=
. Using =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D,  can be expressed as:
+  11.4)  su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi cku=
le
+       Some which-are children don=E2=80=99t go-to some which-are schools.
+       Some children don=E2=80=99t go to a school.
+
+  Although it is not technically a sumti, =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D can=
 be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We=E2=80=99ll see =
what this means in a moment.
+  When you use =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D within a bridi, you are explic=
itly creating a negation boundary. As explained in , when a prenex negation boundary expressed by =E2=80=9Cn=
aku=E2=80=9D moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. Th=
e same is true for =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D in the bridi proper. We can move =
=E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, i=
nverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the foll=
owing are equivalent to  (no good English translations exist):
+  11.5)  su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule n=
aku
+       For some children, for every school, they don=E2=80=99t go to it.
+
+11.6)  su'oda poi verba cu klama naku su'ode poi ckule
+       Some children don=E2=80=99t go to (some) school(s).
+
+11.7)  naku roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule
+       It is false that all children go to some school(s).
+
+  In , we moved =
the negation boundary rightward across the quantifier of =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=
=9D, forcing us to invert it. In  we moved the negation boundary across the quantifier of =E2=80=
=9Cda=E2=80=9D, forcing us to invert it instead.  merely switched the selbri and the negation boun=
dary, with no effect on the quantifiers.
+  The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the qua=
ntifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can=E2=80=99t just convert=
 the selbri of  and rea=
rrange the sumti to produce
+  11.8)  su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda p=
oi verba
+       Some schools aren=E2=80=99t gone-to-by every child.
+
+  or rather,  me=
ans something completely different from . Conversion with =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D under =E2=80=9Cnaku=
=E2=80=9D negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically,=
 and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation=
 with =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D is considered an advanced technique, used to a=
chieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.
+  It isn=E2=80=99t always easy to see which quantifiers have to be i=
nverted in a sentence. =
 is identical in meaning to:
+  11.9)  su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule
+       Some children don=E2=80=99t go-to some school.
+
+  but in , the b=
ound variables =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D have been hidd=
en.
+  It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D to the prenex, as we saw in ; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In compar=
ison, it is non-trivial to export a =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D to the prenex be=
cause of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D re=
quire that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit=
) along with =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D, and you must export them from left to =
right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus  goes into prenex form as:
+  11.10) su'oda poi verba ku'o naku
+            su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de
+       For some X which is a child, it is not the case that
+            there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.
+
+  We can now move the =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D to the left end of the =
prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with =E2=80=
=9Cna=E2=80=9D:
+  11.11) naku roda poi verba
+            su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de
+       It is not the case that for all X=E2=80=99s which are children,
+            there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.
+
+  from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence=
, giving:
+  11.12) naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode=
 poi ckule
+       It is not the case that all children go to some school.
+
+  or more briefly
+  11.13) ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule
+       All children [false] go-to some school(s).
+
+  As noted in , a sentence=
 with two different quantified variables, such as , cannot always be converted with =E2=80=9Cse=
=E2=80=9D without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variab=
les have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quant=
ifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:
+  11.14) roda poi verba
+            su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da
+       It is not the case that for all X=E2=80=99s which are children,
+            there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.
+
+  While you can=E2=80=99t freely convert with =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D w=
hen you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely m=
ove sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn=E2=80=99t =
changed. If you use =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D negation in such a sentence, nothi=
ng special need be done. If you use =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D negation, then q=
uantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.
+  Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=
=80=9D negation instead of =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D negation, logical manipulat=
ion in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In , for example, we=E2=80=99ll discuss DeMorg=
an=E2=80=99s Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connec=
tion is moved across a negation boundary.
+  Since =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D has the grammar of a sumti, it can be=
 placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cbei=E2=80=9D clauses; it isn=E2=80=99t clear what these mean, and =
we recommend avoiding such constructs.
+  You can put multiple =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9Ds in a sentence, each f=
orming a separate negation boundary. Two adjacent =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9Ds i=
n a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:
+  11.15) mi naku naku le zarci cu klama
+
+  Other expressions using two =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9Ds may or may not=
 cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the =E2=
=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9Ds cancel.
+  Negation with internal =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D is clumsy and non-in=
tuitive for logical manipulations, but then, so are the natural language fe=
atures it is emulating.
+

+
+

+  12. Logical Connectives and DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law
+  DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law states that when a logical connective betwe=
en terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a ch=
ange in the connective. Thus (where =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cq=E2=
=80=9D stand for terms or sentences) =E2=80=9Cnot (p or q)=E2=80=9D is iden=
tical to =E2=80=9Cnot p and not q=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cnot (p and q)=E2=
=80=9D is identical to =E2=80=9Cnot p or not q=E2=80=9D. The corresponding =
changes for the other two basic Lojban connectives are: =E2=80=9Cnot (p equ=
ivalent to q)=E2=80=9D is identical to =E2=80=9Cnot p exclusive-or not q=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cnot (p whether-or-not q)=E2=80=9D is identical to both=
 =E2=80=9Cnot p whether-or-not q=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnot p whether-or-not=
 not q=E2=80=9D. In any Lojban sentence having one of the basic connectives=
, you can substitute in either direction from these identities. (These basi=
c connectives are explained in .)
+  The effects of DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law on the logical connectives m=
ade by modifying the basic connectives with =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D can be derived directly from these =
rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law by substituti=
ng from the above identities, and then, apply each =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D modifier of the original conn=
ectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.
+  When do we apply DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law? Whenever we wish to =E2=
=80=9Cdistribute=E2=80=9D a negation over a logical connective; and, for in=
ternal =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D negation, whenever a logical connective moves=
 in to, or out of, the scope of a negation =E2=80=94 when it crosses a nega=
tion boundary.
+  Let us apply DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law to some sample sentences. Thes=
e sentences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explaine=
d in . It suffices to know that =E2=80=9Cg=
a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D, used before each of a pair of sumti or=
 bridi, mean =E2=80=9Ceither=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D respectively=
, and that =E2=80=9Cge=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D used similarly mea=
n =E2=80=9Cboth=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D. Furthermore, =E2=80=9Cg=
a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cge=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D can all be suffi=
xed with =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.
+  We have defined =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnaku zo'u=E2=80=
=9D as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms bei=
ng identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the p=
renex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal =
bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law to be applied. <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example1"/> and  are exactly equivalent:
+  12.1)  la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom.
+       John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.
+
+12.2)  naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom.
+       It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.
+
+  It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator fro=
m the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,  and related examples are not sumti negations, bu=
t rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situat=
ion, DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law must be applied. For instance,  expands to:
+  12.3)  ge la djan. la paris. na klama
+            gi la djan. la rom. na klama
+       [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,
+            and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cga=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=
=9Ceither-or=E2=80=9D, have become =E2=80=9Cge=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=
=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cboth-and=E2=80=9D, as a consequence of moving the =
negators into the individual bridi.
+  Here is another example of DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law in action, invol=
ving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in ):
+  12.4)  la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykl=
a
+       Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.
+
+12.5)  la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla
+       Jane to-the market either [false] walks or [false] runs.
+       Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs).
+
+  (Placing =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D before the selbri makes sure t=
hat it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Ot=
herwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.)<=
/para>
+  It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one fr=
om  to , that you become familiar with expandi=
ng logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the sentences, a=
nd then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation correct by t=
he following steps. By moving its =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D to the beginning of =
the prenex as a =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D,  becomes:
+  12.6)  naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi =
bajrykla
+       It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs).
+
+  And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two=
 bridi,
+  12.7)  naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla
+            gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla
+       It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks)
+            and (Jane to-the market runs).
+
+  is the result.
+  At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law to distrib=
ute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get
+  12.8)  ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla
+            gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla
+       Either Jane to-the market [false] walks,
+            or Jane to-the market [false] runs.
+
+  which is the same as
+  12.9)  ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla
+            ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla
+       If Jane to-the market walks,
+            then Jane to-the market [false] runs.
+       If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn=E2=80=99t run.
+
+  which then condenses down to .
+  DeMorgan=E2=80=99s Law must also be applied to internal =E2=80=9Cn=
aku=E2=80=9D negations:
+  12.10) ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la=
 djan.
+       (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.
+
+12.11) la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.
+       John doesn=E2=80=99t go-to both Paris and Rome.
+
+  That  and  mean the same should bec=
ome evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through =
the Lojban and prove that they are the same.
+

+
+

+  13. selbri variables
+  In addition to the variables =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D that we have seen so far, which function a=
s sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables=
 =E2=80=9Cbu'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbu'e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbu'i=E2=80=9D=
 which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA. These new variables a=
llow existential or universal claims which are about the relationships betw=
een objects rather than the objects themselves. We will start with the usua=
l silly examples; the literal translation will represent =E2=80=9Cbu'a=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbu'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbu'i=E2=80=9D with F, G, and H =
respectively.
+  13.1)  su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.
+       For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-J=
ohn.
+       There=E2=80=99s some relationship between Jim and John.
+
+  The translations of  show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentenc=
es like  need to be tot=
ally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in th=
e prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as =E2=80=9C=
su'o=E2=80=9D; it is ungrammatical to just say =E2=80=9Cbu'a zo'u=E2=80=9D.=
 This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and =
=E2=80=9Csu'o bu'a=E2=80=9D is technically a sumti =E2=80=94 in fact, it is=
 an indefinite description like =E2=80=9Cre nanmu=E2=80=9D, since =E2=80=9C=
bu'a=E2=80=9D is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like =E2=80=9Cnanmu=
=E2=80=9D. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series canno=
t be imported from the prenex.
+  When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted=
 too:
+  13.2)  la djim. bu'a la djan.
+       Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John.
+
+  As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but =E2=
=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, the prenex is required:
+  13.3)  ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.
+       For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.
+       Every relationship exists between Jim and John.
+
+   and  are almost certainly true: Jim =
and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least hav=
e the property of being jointly human.  is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related b=
y every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and=
 father-and-son, which is impossible.
+

+
+

+  14. A few notes on variables
+  A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though=
 it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appe=
arance, as in:
+  14.1)  ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu bar=
da
+       Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.
+
+  What does  mea=
n? The appearance of =E2=80=9Cci da=E2=80=9D quantifies =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=
=9D as referring to three things, which are restricted by the relative clau=
se to be cats. When =E2=80=9Cre da=E2=80=9D appears later, it refers to two=
 of those three things =E2=80=94 there is no saying which ones. Further use=
s of =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D alone, if there were any, would refer once more t=
o the three cats, so the requantification of =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D is purely=
 local.
+  In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends=
 to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in ) such as the =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=9D in . Theoretically, a bare =E2=80=9C.i=
=E2=80=9D terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, however, variable=
s may persist for a while even after an =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D, as if it were=
 an =E2=80=9C.ije=E2=80=9D. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as re=
lative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as ex=
plained in . A prenex preceding =
=E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D long-scope brackets persists until the =E2=
=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.<=
/para>
+  If the variables =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D (or the selbri variables =E2=80=9Cbu'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cbu'e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbu'i=E2=80=9D) are insufficient in number=
 for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscri=
pt to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a=
 variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are exp=
lained in full in , but in general consist=
 of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, on=
e or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical ex=
pression enclosed in parentheses.
+  A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been b=
ound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:
+  14.2)  ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da
+       Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X
+       Three people are led by one of them.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cpa da=E2=80=9D in  does not specify the number of things to which =E2=80=9Cd=
a=E2=80=9D refers, as the preceding =E2=80=9Cci da=E2=80=9D does. Instead, =
it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents =
of =E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D remains three, but a single one (there is no way of=
 knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.
+

+
+

+  15. Conclusion
+  This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic t=
hat I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in ab=
stract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a languag=
e that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely =
will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better =
than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-unde=
rstood (and by implication, those that are not).
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e521a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,604 @@
+
+  Chapter 17
+As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses
+
+
+

+  1. What=E2=80=99s a letteral, anyway?
+  James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the w=
ord =E2=80=9Cletteral=E2=80=9D (by analogy with =E2=80=9Cnumeral=E2=80=9D) =
to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cz=
=E2=80=9D. A typical example of its use might be
+  1.1)   There are fourteen occurrences of the letter=
al =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D in this sentence.
+
+  (Don=E2=80=99t forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the w=
ord =E2=80=9Cletteral=E2=80=9D avoids confusion with =E2=80=9Cletter=E2=80=
=9D, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly, there is a Lojban gis=
mu for =E2=80=9Cletteral=E2=80=9D, namely =E2=80=9Clerfu=E2=80=9D, and this=
 word will be used in the rest of this chapter.
+  Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? Then =
why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can re=
ad it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold:
+  First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to and =
represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in English=
 and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabet =
to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in sp=
elling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents o=
f these words are standardized and must be documented somehow.
+  Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in writing Engli=
sh. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: English-speak=
ers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled =E2=80=9Cphi=E2=
=80=9D as =E2=80=9Cfye=E2=80=9D, whereas =E2=80=9Cfee=E2=80=9D would more n=
early represent the name used by Greek-speakers. Still, not all English-spe=
akers know these English names.) Lojban, in order to be culturally neutral,=
 needs a more comprehensive system that can handle, at least potentially, a=
ll of the world=E2=80=99s alphabets and other writing systems.
+  Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and abb=
reviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti =E2=80=94 the equival=
ent of English pronouns.
+  In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to use=
 the word =E2=80=9Clerfu=E2=80=9D for both the letterals themselves and for=
 the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will=
 be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term =E2=80=9Clerfu word=E2=80=9D will i=
nvariably be used for the latter. The Lojban equivalent would be =E2=80=9Cl=
erfu valsi=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Clervla=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one
+  The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language =
is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu=
 words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between =E2=80=9Cdou=
bleyou=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cw=E2=80=9D is strictly historical in nature; =
=E2=80=9Caitch=E2=80=9D represents =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D but has no clear rel=
ationship to it at all; and =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D has two distinct lerfu word=
s, =E2=80=9Czee=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Czed=E2=80=9D, depending on the dialec=
t of English in question.
+  All of Lojban=E2=80=99s basic lerfu words are made by one of three=
 rules:
+  
+    
+      to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D;
+    
+    
+      to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D;<=
/para>
+    
+    
+      the lerfu word for =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9C.y'y=E2=80=
=9D.
+    
+  
+  Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alphabe=
t:
+  
+    '      a      b      c      d      e
+    .y'y.  .abu   by.    cy.   dy.    .ebu
+
+    f      g      i      j      k      l
+    fy.    gy.    .ibu   jy.    ky.    ly.
+
+    m      n      o      p      r      s
+    my.    ny.    .obu   py.    ry.    sy.
+
+    t      u      v      x      y      z
+    ty.    .ubu   vy.    xy.    .ybu   zy.
+
+  There are several things to note about this table. The consonant l=
erfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D=
 lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they al=
l begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but importa=
nt nonetheless, is that =E2=80=9Cby=E2=80=9D and its like are single cmavo =
of selma'o BY, as is =E2=80=9C.y'y=E2=80=9D. The vowel lerfu words, on the =
other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cma=
vo =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the =
vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence se=
parator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when =E2=80=
=9Cbu=E2=80=9D follows.
+  Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out usi=
ng the alphabet above:
+  2.1)   ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu
+       =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D =E2=80=
=9Cr=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D
+
+2.2)   ky. .obu .y'y. .abu
+       =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D =E2=80=
=9Ca=E2=80=9D
+
+  Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for t=
wo reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute ab=
out how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than=
 the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English wo=
rds =E2=80=9Cfail=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cvale=E2=80=9D sound similar, but ju=
st hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely =E2=80=9Ceff=E2=80=9D or =
=E2=80=9Cvee=E2=80=9D, is enough to discriminate easily between them =E2=80=
=94 and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither =E2=80=
=9Cvail=E2=80=9D nor =E2=80=9Cfale=E2=80=9D is a word of ordinary English, =
so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capa=
bility of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.
+  Note that the lerfu words ending in =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D were writt=
en (in  and ) with pauses after them. It is not =
strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so ca=
n in some cases lead to ambiguities:
+  2.3)   mi cy. claxu
+       I lerfu-=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D without
+       I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter =E2=80=9Cc=E2=
=80=9D.
+
+  without a pause after =E2=80=9Ccy=E2=80=9D would be interpreted as=
:
+  2.4)   micyclaxu
+       (Observative:) doctor-without
+       Something unspecified is without a doctor.
+
+  A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in =E2=80=9Cy=
=E2=80=9D unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=
=9D. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.
+

+
+

+  3. Upper and lower cases
+  Lojban doesn=E2=80=99t use lower-case (small) letters and upper-ca=
se (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not be=
gin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters ar=
e used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:
+  3.1)   .iVAN.
+       the name =E2=80=9CIvan=E2=80=9D in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.
+
+  It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-c=
ase and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo=
 =E2=80=9Cga'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cto'a=E2=80=9D representing upper case =
and lower case respectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic l=
erfu words, namely BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them.
+  The effect of =E2=80=9Cga'e=E2=80=9D is to change the interpretati=
on of all lerfu words following it to be the upper-case version of the lerf=
u. An occurrence of =E2=80=9Cto'a=E2=80=9D causes the interpretation to rev=
ert to lower case. Thus, =E2=80=9Cga'e .abu=E2=80=9D means not =E2=80=9Ca=
=E2=80=9D but =E2=80=9CA=E2=80=9D, and Ivan=E2=80=99s name may be spelled o=
ut thus:
+  3.2)   .ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a
+       i [upper] V A N [lower]
+
+  The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called =E2=80=9C=
shift words=E2=80=9D.
+  How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shi=
ft word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is co=
mmon to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word oth=
er than a lerfu word is found.
+  It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case=
. The cmavo =E2=80=9Ctau=E2=80=9D, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpos=
e. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equ=
ivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter17-section14"/> for details.)
+  A likely use of =E2=80=9Ctau=E2=80=9D is in the internationally st=
andardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented u=
sing either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by o=
ne lower-case lerfu:
+  3.3)   tau sy.
+       [single shift] S
+       S (chemical symbol for sulfur)
+
+3.4)   tau sy. .ibu
+       [single shift] S i
+       Si (chemical symbol for silicon)
+
+  If a shift to upper-case is in effect when =E2=80=9Ctau=E2=80=9D a=
ppears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usu=
al effect.
+

+
+

+  4. The universal =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D
+  So far we have seen =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D only as a suffix to vowel=
 cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of =
=E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it prov=
ed to be useful to allow =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D to be attached to any word wh=
atsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word se=
t.
+  Formally, =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D may be attached to any single Lojba=
n word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special =
cmavo =E2=80=9Cba'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cza'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=
u=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfa'o=E2=80=9D may not have =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D at=
tached, because they are interpreted before =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D detection =
is done; in particular,
+  4.1)   zo bu
+       the word =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D
+
+  is needed when discussing =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D in Lojban. It is al=
so illegal to attach =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D to itself, but more than one =E2=
=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D may be attached to a word; thus =E2=80=9C.abubu=E2=80=9D =
is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably differ=
ent from =E2=80=9C.abu=E2=80=9D.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo=
, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D are=
 treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. Howev=
er, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it =
by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following w=
ords.
+  The ability to attach =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D to words has been used =
primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters.=
 For example, the Lojban name for the =E2=80=9Chappy face=E2=80=9D is =E2=
=80=9C.uibu=E2=80=9D, based on the attitudinal =E2=80=9C.ui=E2=80=9D that m=
eans =E2=80=9Chappiness=E2=80=9D. Likewise, the =E2=80=9Csmiley face=E2=80=
=9D, written =E2=80=9C:-)=E2=80=9D and used on computer networks to indicat=
e humor, is called =E2=80=9Czo'obu=E2=80=9D The existence of these names do=
es not mean that you should insert =E2=80=9C.uibu=E2=80=9D into running Loj=
ban text to indicate that you are happy, or =E2=80=9Czo'obu=E2=80=9D when s=
omething is funny; instead, use the appropriate attitudinal directly.
+  Likewise, =E2=80=9Cjoibu=E2=80=9D represents the ampersand charact=
er, =E2=80=9C&=E2=80=9D, based on the cmavo =E2=80=9Cjoi=E2=80=9D meani=
ng =E2=80=9Cmixed and=E2=80=9D. Many more such lerfu words will probably be=
 invented in future.
+  The =E2=80=9C.=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C,=E2=80=9D characters used in=
 Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have b=
een assigned the lerfu words =E2=80=9Cdenpa bu=E2=80=9D (literally, =E2=80=
=9Cpause bu=E2=80=9D) and =E2=80=9Cslaka bu=E2=80=9D (literally, =E2=80=9Cs=
yllable bu=E2=80=9D). The written space is mandatory here, because =E2=80=
=9Cdenpa=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cslaka=E2=80=9D are normal gismu with normal =
stress: =E2=80=9Cdenpabu=E2=80=9D would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from an=
other language into Lojban) stressed =E2=80=9CdenPAbu=E2=80=9D. No pause is=
 required between =E2=80=9Cdenpa=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cslaka=E2=80=9D) and =
=E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D, though.
+

+
+

+  5. Alien alphabets
+  As stated in , Lojban=E2=
=80=99s goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words f=
or the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet the=
se lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematica=
l text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.
+  There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing system=
s in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to creat=
e a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not d=
emanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban =
provides.
+  One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the=
 language itself, Lojbanized and with =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D added. Indeed, a=
n isolated Greek =E2=80=9Calpha=E2=80=9D in running Lojban text is probably=
 most easily handled by calling it =E2=80=9C.alfas. bu=E2=80=9D. Here the G=
reek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding =E2=80=9Cs=
=E2=80=9D and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D.=
 Note that the pause after =E2=80=9C.alfas.=E2=80=9D is still needed.
+  Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters =E2=80=9Ch=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cq=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cw=E2=80=9D that are not used i=
n Lojban is by a consonant lerfu word with =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D attached. T=
he following assignments have been made:
+  
+        .y'y.bu     h
+        ky.bu       q
+        vy.bu       w
+
+  As an example, the English word =E2=80=9Cquack=E2=80=9D would be s=
pelled in Lojban thus:
+  5.1)   ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.
+       =E2=80=9Cq=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D =E2=80=
=9Cc=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D
+
+  Note that the fact that the letter =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D in this wor=
d has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D=
 is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control t=
he choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control t=
he pronunciations of those letters.
+  A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in langua=
ges other than English:
+  
+        ty.bu       =C3=BE (thorn)
+        dy.bu       =C3=B0 (edh)
+
+  However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thing,=
 it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with =E2=
=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu=
 word would be =E2=80=9C.Omikron. bu=E2=80=9D, with four syllables and two =
mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages ha=
ve separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban =
to choose?
+  The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to=
 those introduced in . After the =
appearance of such a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted=
 to represent the lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Gr=
eek alphabet, for example, the lerfu word =E2=80=9Cty=E2=80=9D would repres=
ent not Latin =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D but Greek =E2=80=9Ctau=E2=80=9D. Why =E2=
=80=9Ctau=E2=80=9D? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterpart o=
f =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would =
be all right to map =E2=80=9Cty.=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cphi=E2=80=9D or even =
=E2=80=9Comega=E2=80=9D, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extrem=
ely hard to remember.
+  Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less arb=
itrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shifte=
d equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D fo=
rm. Since a =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D form may mean different things in differen=
t alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=
=80=9D forms are in use.
+  Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o B=
Y:
+  
+    lo'a    Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet
+    ge'o    Greek alphabet
+    je'o    Hebrew alphabet
+    jo'o    Arabic alphabet
+    ru'o    Cyrillic alphabet
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Czai=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LAU) is used to create=
 shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LA=
U cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with =E2=80=9Cb=
u=E2=80=9D suffixed:
+  5.2)   zai .devanagar. bu
+       Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet
+
+5.3)   zai .katakan. bu
+       Japanese katakana syllabary
+
+5.4)   zai .xiragan. bu
+       Japanese hiragana syllabary
+
+  Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardiz=
ed and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (No=
te the =E2=80=9C.=E2=80=9D characters marking leading and following pauses.=
)
+  In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within =
a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. pr=
int, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional =E2=80=9Cfont and face=E2=80=
=9D distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cm=
avo =E2=80=9Cce'a=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:
+  5.5)   ce'a .xelveticas. bu
+       Helvetica font
+
+5.6)   ce'a .xancisk. bu
+       handwriting
+
+5.7)   ce'a .pavrel. bu
+       12-point font size
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'a=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BY) is a universal sh=
ift-word cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the defaul=
t of lower-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than =E2=
=80=9Clo'a=E2=80=9D, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving f=
ont and case shifts in place.
+  Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of prop=
osed lerfu word assignments for various languages.
+

+
+

+  6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words
+  Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special mar=
ks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent ma=
rks above vowels, called (in English) =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgra=
ve=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Ccircumflex=E2=80=9D. Likewise, German uses a mark=
 called =E2=80=9Cumlaut=E2=80=9D; a mark which looks the same is also used =
in French, but with a different name and meaning.
+  These marks may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding =
lerfu word in Lojban. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, =
whereas the words must be spoken (or written) either before or after the le=
rfu word representing the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons)=
 and the computer programs that emulate them usually require their users to=
 type the accent mark before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent =
mark is often pronounced afterwards (for example, in German =E2=80=9Ca umla=
ut=E2=80=9D is preferred to =E2=80=9Cumlaut a=E2=80=9D).
+  Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left=
 up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the=
 lerfu-word compounding cmavo =E2=80=9Ctei=E2=80=9D (of selma'o TEI) and =
=E2=80=9Cfoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always=
 used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the =
whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word =E2=80=9C=
=C3=A9t=C3=A9=E2=80=9D, with acute accent marks on both =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D=
 lerfu, could be spelled as:
+  6.1)   tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .eb=
u foi
+       ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D acute ) =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D ( acute =E2=80=9C=
e=E2=80=9D )
+
+  and it does not matter whether =E2=80=9Cakut. bu=E2=80=9D appears =
before or after =E2=80=9C.ebu=E2=80=9D; the =E2=80=9Ctei ... foi=E2=80=9D g=
rouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct ler=
fu. Of course, the level of precision represented by  would rarely be required: it might be needed =
by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription=
 by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.
+  This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accen=
t mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing wh=
ich accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is =
to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to =
the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be re=
solved by further conventions not yet established.
+  Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accente=
d lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lo=
jban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters look =
the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition,=
 some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like =E2=80=9Cll=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cch=E2=80=9D in Spanish) to be letters; this may be repr=
esented by enclosing the combination in =E2=80=9Ctei ... foi=E2=80=9D.
+  In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissibl=
e to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally =
or well understood from context: thus Spanish =E2=80=9Cll=E2=80=9D or Croat=
ian =E2=80=9Clj=E2=80=9D could be called =E2=80=9Clibu=E2=80=9D, but that u=
sage would not necessarily be universally understood.
+   contains a table of pr=
oposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.
+

+
+

+  7. Punctuation marks
+  Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and t=
he slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, us=
e punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for=
 these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cma=
vo =E2=80=9Clau=E2=80=9D of selma'o LAU. =E2=80=9Clau=E2=80=9D must always =
be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from=
 a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or =
brivla with a =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D suffix.
+  Why is =E2=80=9Clau=E2=80=9D necessary at all? Why not just use a =
=E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D-marked word and announce that it is always to be inter=
preted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The =E2=80=9Cbu=
=E2=80=9D mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban user=
s to make up =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D words without bothering to explain what t=
hey mean. Using the =E2=80=9Clau=E2=80=9D cmavo flags at least the most imp=
ortant of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation.=
 (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of =E2=80=9Czai=E2=80=9D to =
signal an alphabet shift or =E2=80=9Cce'a=E2=80=9D to signal a font shift.)=

+  Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the=
 interpretation of a =E2=80=9Clau=E2=80=9D-marked lerfu word is affected by=
 the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.
+

+
+

+  8. What about Chinese characters?
+  Chinese characters (=E2=80=9Chan4zi4=E2=80=9D in Chinese, =E2=80=9Ckanji=E2=80=9D in Ja=
panese) represent an entirely different approach to writing from alphabets =
or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanese hiragana or Amharic writing,=
 has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoken language.) Very roughly, Chi=
nese characters represent single elements of meaning; also very roughly, th=
ey represent single syllables of spoken Chinese. There is in principle no l=
imit to the number of Chinese characters that can exist, and many thousands=
 are in regular use.
+  It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift words,=
 to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there are =
various possible ways around the problem.
+  First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet repr=
esentations, known as =E2=80=9Cpinyin=E2=80=9D for Chinese and =E2=80=9Crom=
aji=E2=80=9D for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the word =E2=80=9Ch=
an4zi4=E2=80=9D is co=
nventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:
+  8.1)   .y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo
+       =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D 4 =E2=
=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D 4
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cvo=E2=80=9D is the Lojban digit =E2=80=9C4=E2=
=80=9D. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a stri=
ng of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole wi=
ll be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be=
 used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks=
, the mechanism for which was explained in .
+  The Japanese company named =E2=80=9CMitsubishi=E2=80=9D in English=
 is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus=
:
+  8.2)   my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .=
ibu
+       =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D =E2=80=
=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D =
=E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D
+
+  Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu wor=
ds to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are ab=
out seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 i=
f you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with=
 a =E2=80=9Ctei=E2=80=9D, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (w=
hich is standardized for each character), and a =E2=80=9Cfoi=E2=80=9D. No o=
ne has as yet attempted this project.
+

+
+

+  9. lerfu words as pro-sumti
+  So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spellin=
g out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within=
 Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Th=
erefore, the term =E2=80=9Clerfu string=E2=80=9D is introduced: it is short=
 for =E2=80=9Csequence of one or more lerfu words=E2=80=9D.
+  A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to=
 some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cko'e=E2=80=9D, and so on:
+  9.1)   .abu prami by.
+       A loves B
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C.=
abu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cby.=E2=80=9D represent specific sumti, but which =
sumti they represent must be inferred from context.
+  Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=
=9D, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:
+  9.2)   le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zd=
ani
+       The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.
+
+  There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more ad=
vantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be found =
for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to r=
efer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban wi=
th that lerfu. So  can b=
e rephrased:
+  9.3)   le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani
+       The dog is black. G goes to the house.
+
+  (A less literal English translation would use =E2=80=9CD=E2=80=9D =
for =E2=80=9Cdog=E2=80=9D instead.)
+  Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:
+  9.4)   la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksand=
r. paliitc. kuzNIETsyf. rusko
+            .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban.
+       Steven Mark Jones is-American.  Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov is-R=
ussian.
+            SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.
+
+  Perhaps Alexander=E2=80=99s name should be given as =E2=80=9Cru'o.=
abupyky=E2=80=9D instead.
+  What about
+  9.5)   .abu dunda by. cy.
+       A gives B C
+
+  Does this mean that A gives B to C? No. =E2=80=9Cby. cy.=E2=80=9D =
is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a s=
ingle pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unsp=
ecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminato=
r =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate l=
erfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these=
 appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D i=
s to attach a free modifier =E2=80=94 subscript, parenthesis, or what have =
you =E2=80=94 to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:
+  9.6)   .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]
+       A gives B to C
+
+  where the two occurrences of =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D in brackets are=
 elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:
+  9.7)   xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami
+       X all persons loves.
+       X loves everybody.
+
+  requires the first =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D to separate the lerfu str=
ing =E2=80=9Cxy.=E2=80=9D from the digit string =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  10. References to lerfu
+  The rules of  make it im=
possible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the s=
entence:
+  10.1)  .abu. cu lerfu
+       A is-a-letteral.
+
+  the hearer would try to find what previous sumti =E2=80=9C.abu=E2=
=80=9D refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti =
representing that very string of lerfu. This use of =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D =
is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathemat=
ical expression used literally rather than for its value.
+  10.2)  me'o .abu cu lerfu
+       The-expression =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D is-a-letteral.
+
+  Now we can translate  into Lojban:
+  10.3)  dei vasru vo lerfu
+            po'u me'o .ebu
+       this-sentence contains four letterals
+            which-are the-expression =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D.
+       This sentence contains four =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9Ds.
+
+  Since the Lojban sentence has only four =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D lerfu =
rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one =E2=80=94 but  is a Lojban truth just a=
s  is an English truth. =
Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of  is also true!
+  The reader might be tempted to use quotation with =E2=80=9Clu ... =
li'u=E2=80=9D instead of =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D, producing:
+  10.4)  lu .abu li'u cu lerfu
+       [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.
+
+  (The single-word quote =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D cannot be used, becaus=
e =E2=80=9C.abu=E2=80=9D is a compound cmavo.) But  is false, because it says:
+  10.5)  The word =E2=80=9C.abu=E2=80=9D is a lette=
ral
+
+  which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word =
=E2=80=9C.abu=E2=80=9D is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:
+  10.6)  la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu
+       The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.
+
+  which is correct.
+

+
+

+  11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
+  This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained i=
n , so the mathematical uses of lerfu stri=
ngs will be listed and exemplified but not explained.
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as mathematical variable:
+    
+  
+  11.1)  li .abu du li by. su'i cy.
+       the-number a equals the-number b plus c
+       a =3D b + c
+
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as function name (preceded by =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=
=80=9D of selma'o MAhO):
+    
+  
+  11.2)  li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy.
+       the-number y equals the number the-function f of x
+       y =3D f(x)
+
+  Note the =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D here to separate the lerfu strings =
=E2=80=9Cfy=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cxy=E2=80=9D.
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):=

+    
+  
+  11.3)  le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu
+       the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats
+       This rat is my Nth rat.
+
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of se=
lma'o MAI):
+    
+  
+  11.4)  ny.mai
+       Nthly
+
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D =
of selma'o XI):
+    
+  
+  11.5)  xy. xi ky.
+       x sub k
+
+  
+    
+      A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in =E2=80=9Cvei ... ve'=
o=E2=80=9D parentheses):
+    
+  
+  11.6)  vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu
+       (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D) persons
+
+  The parentheses are required because =E2=80=9Cny. lo prenu=E2=80=
=9D would be two separate sumti, =E2=80=9Cny.=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clo pren=
u=E2=80=9D. In general, any mathematical expression other than a simple num=
ber must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the right parenthesis=
 mark, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D, can usually be elided.
+  All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather th=
an lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematic=
s. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or fun=
ction name: in Lojban, =E2=80=9C.abu by. cy.=E2=80=9D is not the multiplica=
tion =E2=80=9Ca =C3=97 b =C3=97 c=E2=80=9D but is the variable =E2=80=9Cabc=
=E2=80=9D. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the v=
alue of a variable like =E2=80=9Cabc=E2=80=9D, with a multi-lerfu-word name=
, equal to the values of the variables =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cb=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D multiplied together.)
+  There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: sh=
ifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing ou=
tside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.
+

+
+

+  12. Acronyms
+  An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are =
=E2=80=9CDNA=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CNATO=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CCIA=E2=80=9D. In En=
glish, some of these are spelled out (like =E2=80=9CDNA=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9CCIA=E2=80=9D) and others are pronounced more or less as if they were ord=
inary English words (like =E2=80=9CNATO=E2=80=9D). Some acronyms fluctuate =
between the two pronunciations: =E2=80=9CSQL=E2=80=9D may be =E2=80=9Cess c=
ue ell=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csequel=E2=80=9D.
+  In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends i=
n a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acro=
nym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D wh=
erever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and add=
ing a final consonant:
+  12.1)  la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub.
+       .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl.
+       .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc.
+       DNA. NATO.
+       CIA. SQL.
+       IBM. NYC.
+
+  There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In=
 , the last consonant o=
f the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.
+  Some compression can be done by leaving out =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D a=
fter vowel lerfu words (except for =E2=80=9C.y.bu=E2=80=9D, wherein the =E2=
=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is mode=
rately important because it=E2=80=99s hard to say long names without introd=
ucing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:
+  12.2)  la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om.
+       .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym.
+       .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym.
+       DNA. NATO.
+       CIA. SQL.
+       IBM. NYC.
+
+  In , the final=
 consonant =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D stands for =E2=80=9Cmerko=E2=80=9D, indicati=
ng the source culture of these acronyms.
+  Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is c=
ompatible with older versions of the language that did not have a =E2=80=9C=
'=E2=80=9D character, is to use the consonant =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D instead o=
f =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D:
+  12.3)  la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz.
+       .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz.
+       .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz.
+       DNA. NATO.
+       CIA. SQL.
+       IBM. NYC.
+
+  One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu st=
ring itself prefixed with =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D, the cmavo that makes sumti =
into selbri:
+  12.4)  la me dy ny. .abu
+       that-named what-pertains-to =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D=
 =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D
+
+  This works because =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, the cmavo that normally i=
ntroduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indic=
ate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:
+  12.5)  la cribe cu ciska
+       That-named =E2=80=9CBear=E2=80=9D writes.
+       Bear is a writer.
+
+   does not of c=
ourse refer to a bear (=E2=80=9Cle cribe=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Clo cribe=E2=
=80=9D) but to something else, probably a person, named =E2=80=9CBear=E2=80=
=9D. Similarly, =E2=80=9Cme dy ny. .abu=E2=80=9D is a predicate which can b=
e used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between=
 the individual lerfu words.
+

+
+

+  13. Computerized character codes
+  Since the first application of computers to non-numerical informat=
ion, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called =E2=80=9Ccharacte=
r codes=E2=80=9D) into selected lerfu, digits, and punctuation marks (colle=
ctively called =E2=80=9Ccharacters=E2=80=9D). Historically, these character=
 sets have only covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation=
 marks. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character=
 set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all t=
he world=E2=80=99s writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these enco=
ding schemes by using the cmavo =E2=80=9Cse'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BY). Thi=
s cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representin=
g the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in =
some computerized character set:
+  13.1)  me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is.
+            loi merko rupnu
+       The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII
+            for-the-mass-of American currency-units.
+       The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.
+       =E2=80=9C$=E2=80=9D represents American dollars.
+
+  Understanding =
 depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simple=
st and oldest) of the =E2=80=9C$=E2=80=9D character. Therefore, the =E2=80=
=9Cse'e=E2=80=9D convention is only intelligible to those who know the unde=
rlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, howe=
ver, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutralit=
y, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descripti=
ons of such character sets to take advantage of them.
+  As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 1=
0646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in =
a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist =
may say:
+  13.2)  me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi
+       the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-pea=
ce
+
+  When a =E2=80=9Cse'e=E2=80=9D string appears in running discourse,=
 some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 =
or some other base, and which character set is in use.
+

+
+

+  14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
+  
+     cmavo   selma'o     meaning
+
+     bu      BU          makes previous word into a lerfu word
+
+     ga'e    BY          upper case shift
+     to'a    BY          lower case shift
+     tau     LAU         case-shift next lerfu word only
+
+     lo'a    BY          Latin/Lojban alphabet shift
+     ge'o    BY          Greek alphabet shift
+     je'o    BY          Hebrew alphabet shift
+     jo'o    BY          Arabic alphabet shift
+     ru'o    BY          Cyrillic alphabet shift
+
+     se'e    BY          following digits are a character code
+     na'a    BY          cancel all shifts
+
+     zai     LAU         following lerfu word specifies alphabet
+     ce'a    LAU         following lerfu word specifies font
+     lau     LAU         following lerfu word is punctuation
+
+     tei     TEI         start compound lerfu word
+     foi     FOI         end compound lerfu word
+
+  Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivale=
nt, where =E2=80=9Cequivalent=E2=80=9D means: either any Lojban word follow=
ed by =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or=
 a =E2=80=9Ctei ... foi=E2=80=9D compound cmavo.
+

+
+

+  15. Proposed lerfu words =E2=80=94 introduction
+  The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for =
some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The fi=
rst column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name suffi=
cient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu w=
ord, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on=
 using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.
+  These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authoritie=
s within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreei=
ng with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working b=
asis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of ler=
fu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat b=
efore settling down into a final, conventional form.
+  For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see  (for Lojban) and  (f=
or non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).
+

+
+

+  16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet
+  
+     alpha       .alfas. bu      .abu
+     beta        .betas. bu      by
+     gamma       .gamas. bu      gy
+     delta       .deltas. bu     dy
+     epsilon     .Epsilon. bu    .ebu
+     zeta        .zetas. bu      zy
+     eta         .etas. bu       .e'ebu
+     theta       .tetas. bu      ty. bu
+     iota        .iotas. bu      .ibu
+     kappa       .kapas. bu      ky
+     lambda      .lymdas. bu     ly
+     mu          .mus. bu        my
+     nu          .nus. bu        ny
+     xi          .ksis. bu       ksis. bu
+     omicron     .Omikron. bu    .obu
+     pi          .pis. bu        py
+     rho         .ros. bu        ry
+     sigma       .sigmas. bu     sy
+     tau         .taus. bu       ty
+     upsilon     .Upsilon. bu    .ubu
+     phi         .fis. bu        py. bu
+     chi         .xis. bu        ky. bu
+     psi         .psis. bu       psis. bu
+     omega       .omegas. bu     .o'obu
+     rough       .dasei,as. bu   .y'y
+     smooth      .psiles. bu     xutla bu
+
+

+
+

+  17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet
+  The second column in this listing is based on the historical names=
 of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian =
are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as nee=
ded.
+  
+     a           .azys. bu         .abu
+     b           .bukys. bu        by
+     v           .vedis. bu        vy
+     g           .glagolis. bu     gy
+     d           .dobros. bu       dy
+     e           .iestys. bu       .ebu
+     zh          .jivet. bu        jy
+     z           .zemlias. bu      zy
+     i           .ije,is. bu       .ibu
+     short i     .itord. bu        .itord. bu
+     k           .kakos. bu        ky
+     l           .liudi,ies. bu    ly
+     m           .myslites. bu     my
+     n           .naciys. bu       ny
+     o           .onys. bu         .obu
+     p           .pokois. bu       py
+     r           .riytsis. bu      ry
+     s           .slovos. bu       sy
+     t           .tyvriydos. bu    ty
+     u           .ukys. bu         .ubu
+     f           .friytys. bu      fy
+     kh          .xerys. bu        xy
+     ts          .tsis. bu         tsys. bu
+     ch          .tcriyviys. bu    tcys. bu
+     sh          .cas. bu          cy
+     shch        .ctas. bu         ctcys. bu
+     hard sign   .ier. bu          jdari bu
+     yeri        .ierys. bu        .y.bu
+     soft sign   .ieriys. bu       ranti bu
+     reversed e  .ecarn. bu        .ecarn. bu
+     yu          .ius. bu          .iubu
+     ya          .ias. bu          .iabu
+
+

+
+

+  18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
+  
+     aleph       .alef. bu       .alef. bu
+     bet         .bet. bu        by
+     gimel       .gimel. bu      gy
+     daled       .daled. bu      dy
+     he          .xex. bu        .y'y
+     vav         .vav. bu        vy
+     zayin       .zai,in. bu     zy
+     khet        .xet. bu        xy. bu
+     tet         .tet. bu        ty. bu
+     yud         .iud. bu        .iud. bu
+     kaf         .kaf. bu        ky
+     lamed       .LYmed. bu      ly
+     mem         .mem. bu        my
+     nun         .nun. bu        ny
+     samekh      .samex. bu      samex. bu
+     ayin        .ai,in. bu      .ai,in bu
+     pe          .pex. bu        py
+     tzadi       .tsadik. bu     tsadik. bu
+     quf         .kuf. bu        ky. bu
+     resh        .rec. bu        ry
+     shin        .cin. bu        cy
+     sin         .sin. bu        sy
+     taf         .taf. bu        ty.
+     dagesh      .daGEC. bu      daGEC. bu
+     hiriq       .xirik. bu      .ibu
+     tzeirekh    .tseirex. bu    .eibu
+     segol       .seGOL. bu      .ebu
+     qubbutz     .kubuts. bu     .ubu
+     qamatz      .kamats. bu     .abu
+     patach      .patax. bu      .a'abu
+     sheva       .cyVAS. bu      .y.bu
+     kholem      .xolem. bu      .obu
+     shuruq      .curuk. bu      .u'ubu
+
+

+
+

+  19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple lette=
rs
+  This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are le=
rfu such as Polish =E2=80=9Cdark=E2=80=9D l and Maltese h-bar that do not y=
et have symbols.
+  
+     acute              .akut. bu
+                  or    .pritygal. bu          [pritu galtu]
+     grave              .grav. bu
+                  or    .zulgal. bu            [zunle galtu]
+     circumflex         .cirkumfleks. bu
+                  or    .midgal. bu            [midju galtu]
+     tilde              .tildes. bu
+     macron             .makron. bu
+     breve              .brevis. bu
+     over-dot           .gapmoc. bu            [gapru mokca]
+     umlaut/trema       .relmoc. bu             [re mokca]
+     over-ring          .gapyjin. bu            [gapru djine]
+     cedilla            .seDIlys. bu
+     double-acute       .re'akut. bu           [re akut.]
+     ogonek             .ogoniek. bu
+     hacek              .xatcek. bu
+     ligatured fi       tei fy. ibu foi
+     Danish/Latin ae    tei .abu .ebu foi
+     Dutch ij           tei .ibu jy. foi
+     German es-zed      tei sy. zy. foi
+
+

+
+

+  20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
+  There is a set of English words which are used, by international a=
greement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in n=
oisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are kno=
wn as the =E2=80=9CICAO Phonetic Alphabet=E2=80=9D, and are used even in no=
n-English-speaking countries.
+  This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lo=
jban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the=
 English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of=
 the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus =E2=80=9Ccar=
lis. bu=E2=80=9D, not =E2=80=9Ctcarlis. bu=E2=80=9D).
+  
+     Alfa        .alfas. bu
+     Bravo       .bravos. bu
+     Charlie     .carlis. bu
+     Delta       .deltas. bu
+     Echo        .ekos. bu
+     Foxtrot     .fokstrot. bu
+     Golf        .golf. bu
+     Hotel       .xoTEL. bu
+     India       .indias. bu
+     Juliet      .juliet. bu
+     Kilo        .kilos. bu
+     Lima        .limas. bu
+     Mike        .maik. bu
+     November    .novembr. bu
+     Oscar       .oskar. bu
+     Papa        .paPAS. bu
+     Quebec      .keBEK. bu
+     Romeo       .romios. bu
+     Sierra      .sieras. bu
+     Tango       .tangos. bu
+     Uniform     .Uniform. bu
+     Victor      .viktas. bu
+     Whiskey     .uiskis. bu
+     X-ray       .eksreis. bu
+     Yankee      .iankis. bu
+     Zulu        .zulus. bu
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f2ab8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1224 @@
+
+  Chapter 18
+lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban
+
+
+

+  1. Introductory
+  lojbau mekso (=E2=80=9CLojbanic mathematical-expression=E2=80=9D) =
is the part of the Lojban language that is tailored for expressing statemen=
ts of a mathematical character, or for adding numerical information to non-=
mathematical statements. Its formal design goals include:
+  
+    
+      representing all the different forms of expression used by mat=
hematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambigu=
ously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expect =
a listener to understand it;
+    
+    
+      providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms whi=
ch can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full res=
ources of Lojban;
+    
+    
+      permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, of =
unambiguous mathematical text;
+    
+    
+      encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in natur=
al languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary language=
 situations than natural languages allow.
+    
+  
+  Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notation=
 such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision for=
 all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used.
+  Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so=
 that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either=
 side at many points.
+  Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is cult=
urally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the wo=
rld understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However, i=
nternational mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For exa=
mple, the expression
+  1.1)   3x + 2y
+
+  contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other pos=
sible interpretations for the strings =E2=80=9C3x=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C2y=
=E2=80=9D than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the Lojban verbal=
 (spoken and written) form of  must not omit the multiplication operators.
+  The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is cu=
rrently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete a=
s regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those compone=
nts =E2=80=94 as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of=
 mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be full=
y clarified.
+

+
+

+  2. Lojban numbers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pa      PA                  1
+     re      PA                  2
+     ci      PA                  3
+     vo      PA                  4
+     mu      PA                  5
+     xa      PA                  6
+     ze      PA                  7
+     bi      PA                  8
+     so      PA                  9
+     no      PA                  0
+
+  The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compoun=
d cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers gre=
ater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples:
+  2.1)   pa re ci
+       one two three
+       123
+       one hundred and twenty three
+
+2.2)   pa no
+       one zero
+       10
+       ten
+
+2.3)   pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no
+       one two three four five six seven eight nine zero
+       1234567890
+       one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and =
sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.
+
+  Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for =E2=80=9Cten=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Chundred=E2=80=9D, etc.
+  There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for =E2=80=9Cno=E2=
=80=9D, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowe=
ls =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 lik=
ewise end in the vowels =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D respectively. None of the digit cmavo b=
egin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy envi=
ronments.
+

+
+

+  3. Signs and numerical punctuation
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ma'u    PA  positive sign
+     ni'u    PA  negative sign
+     pi      PA  decimal point
+     fi'u    PA  fraction slash
+     ra'e    PA  repeating decimal
+     ce'i    PA  percent sign
+     ki'o    PA  comma between digits
+
+  A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of =E2=80=9Cma'u=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cni'u=E2=80=9D, which are the positive and negative s=
igns as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. Fo=
r example:
+  3.1)   ni'u pa
+       negative-sign 1
+       -1
+
+  Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are =
attached. It is also possible to use =E2=80=9Cma'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cni=
'u=E2=80=9D by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numbers is expla=
ined in .
+  Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cmav=
o, as illustrated in the following examples:
+  3.2)   ci pi pa vo pa mu
+       three point one four one five
+       3.1415
+
+  (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symb=
olic version of ; =E2=80=
=9Cpi=E2=80=9D is still the Lojban representation for the decimal point.)
+  3.3)   re fi'u ze
+       two fraction seven
+       2/7
+
+   is the name of=
 the number two-sevenths; it is not the same as =E2=80=9Cthe result of 2 di=
vided by 7=E2=80=9D in Lojban, although numerically these two are equal. If=
 the denominator of the fraction is present but the numerator is not, the n=
umerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the reciprocal of the following =
number:
+  3.4)   fi'u ze
+       fraction seven
+       1/7
+
+3.5)   pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze
+       point three five repeating one four two eight five seven
+       .35142857142857...
+
+  Note that the =E2=80=9Cra'e=E2=80=9D marks unambiguously where the=
 repeating portion =E2=80=9C142857=E2=80=9D begins.
+  3.6)   ci mu ce'i
+       three five percent
+       35%
+
+3.7)   pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze
+       one comma two three four comma five six seven
+       1,234,567
+
+  (In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representation =
of ; =E2=80=9Cki'o=E2=80=
=9D is still the Lojban representation.)
+  It is also possible to have less than three digits between success=
ive =E2=80=9Cki'o=E2=80=9Ds, in which case zeros are assumed to have been e=
lided:
+  3.8)   pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo
+       one comma two three comma four
+       1,023,004
+
+  In the same way, =E2=80=9Cki'o=E2=80=9D can be used after =E2=80=
=9Cpi=E2=80=9D to divide fractions into groups of three:
+  3.9)   pi ki'o re re
+       point comma two two
+       .022
+
+3.10)  pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa
+       point one comma one two comma one
+       .001012001
+
+

+
+

+  4. Special numbers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ci'i    PA  infinity
+     ka'o    PA  imaginary i, sqrt(-1)
+     pai     PA  =CF=80, pi (approx 3.14159.=
..)
+     te'o    PA  exponential e (approx 2.71828...)
+     fi'u    PA  golden ratio, =CE=A6, phi, =
(1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.61803...)
+
+  The last cmavo is the same as the fraction sign cmavo: a fraction =
sign with neither numerator nor denominator represents the golden ratio.
+  Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-numb=
er cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination:
+  4.1)   ma'u ci'i
+       +=E2=88=9E4.2)   ci ka'o re
+       3i2 (a complex number equivalent to =E2=80=9C3 + 2i=E2=80=9D)
+
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cka'o=E2=80=9D is both a special number (meaning=
 =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real an=
d the imaginary parts of a complex number).
+  4.3)   ci'i no
+       infinity zero
+       =E2=84=B50 (a =
transfinite cardinal)
+
+  The special numbers =E2=80=9Cpai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cte'o=E2=80=
=9D are mathematically important, which is why they are given their own cma=
vo:
+  4.4)   pai
+       pi, =CF=804.5)   te'o
+       e
+
+  However, many combinations are as yet undefined:
+  4.6)   pa pi re pi ci
+       1.2.3
+
+4.7)   pa ni'u re
+       1 negative-sign 2
+
+   is not =E2=80=
=9C1 minus 2=E2=80=9D, which is represented by a different cmavo sequence a=
ltogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. The=
re are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be us=
ed for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number s=
ystem.
+  It is possible, of course, that some of these =E2=80=9Coddities=E2=
=80=9D do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A m=
athematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to co=
nsider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure dif=
ferently.
+  More information on numbers may be found in  to .
+

+
+

+  5. Simple infix expressions and equations
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     du      GOhA    equals
+     su'i    VUhU    plus
+     vu'u    VUhU    minus
+     pi'i    VUhU    times
+     te'a    VUhU    raised to the power
+     ny.     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D
+     vei     VEI     left parenthesis
+     ve'o    VEhO    right parenthesis
+
+  Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojban,=
 that sentence translates to:
+  5.1)   li pa su'i pa du li re
+       The-number one plus one equals the-number two.
+       1 + 1 =3D 2
+
+  , a mekso sente=
nce, is a regular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features. =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=
=80=9D is the predicate meaning =E2=80=9Cx1 is mathematically equal to x2=
=E2=80=9D. It is a cmavo for conciseness, but it has the same grammatical u=
ses as any brivla. Outside mathematical contexts, =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D mean=
s =E2=80=9Cx1 is identical with x2=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cx1 is the same obje=
ct as x2=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D is the number article. It is requir=
ed whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using =
numbers to quantify things. For example:
+  5.2)   le ci prenu
+       the three persons
+
+  requires no =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D article, because the =E2=80=9Cci=
=E2=80=9D is being used to specify the number of =E2=80=9Cprenu=E2=80=9D. H=
owever, the sentence
+  5.3)   levi sfani cu grake li ci
+       This fly masses-in-grams the-number three.
+       This fly has a mass of 3 grams.
+
+  requires =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D because =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D is bein=
g used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stat=
ed in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, an=
d so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the sec=
ond place. Using =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D in  would produce
+  5.4)   li ci prenu
+       The-number 3 is-a-person.
+
+  which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Csu'i=E2=80=9D belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is=
 composed of mathematical operators, and means =E2=80=9Caddition=E2=80=9D. =
As mentioned before, it is distinct from =E2=80=9Cma'u=E2=80=9D which means=
 the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:
+  5.5)   li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no
+       The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals the-numb=
er zero.
+       +1 + -1 =3D 0
+
+  Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of =E2=
=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D:
+  5.6)   li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci
+       The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three.
+       5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3
+
+  Why don=E2=80=99t we say =E2=80=9Cli mu su'i li pa=E2=80=9D rather=
 than just =E2=80=9Cli mu su'i pa=E2=80=9D? The answer is that VUhU operato=
rs connect mekso operands (numbers, in ), not general sumti. =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D is used to make t=
he entire mekso into a sumti, which then plays the roles applicable to othe=
r sumti: in , filling th=
e places of a bridi
+  By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathemati=
cs: there is no notion of =E2=80=9Coperator precedence=E2=80=9D. Consider t=
he following example, where =E2=80=9Cpi'i=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Ctimes=E2=
=80=9D, the multiplication operator:
+  5.7)   li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci
+       The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two-three.
+       3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23
+
+  Is the Lojban version of  true? No! =E2=80=9C3 + 4 =C3=97 5=E2=80=9D is indeed 23, because=
 the usual conventions of mathematics state that multiplication takes prece=
dence over addition; that is, the multiplication =E2=80=9C4 =C3=97 5=E2=80=
=9D is done first, giving 20, and only then the addition =E2=80=9C3 + 20=E2=
=80=9D. But VUhU operators by default are done left to right, like other Lo=
jban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be:
+  5.8)   li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu
+       The-number three plus four times five equals the-number three-five.
+       3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35
+
+  Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 =C3=
=97 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of s=
implicity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards o=
f mathematics. What can be done?
+  There are three solutions, all of which will probably be used to s=
ome degree. The first solution is to ignore the problem. People will say =
=E2=80=9Cli ci su'i vo pi'i mu=E2=80=9D and mean 23 by it, because the noti=
on that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrain=
ed to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. Thi=
s convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one ar=
ea.
+  (Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done in=
 computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many ope=
rators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according to=
 usage. The programming language =E2=80=99C=E2=80=99 has 13 levels of prece=
dence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this ap=
proach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not =
be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conven=
tions are different.)
+  The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the preced=
ence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be =
explained in .
+  The third solution is simple but not very general. When an operato=
r is prefixed with the cmavo =E2=80=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BIhE), it b=
ecomes automatically of higher precedence than other operators not so prefi=
xed. Thus,
+  5.9)   li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci
+       The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two-three.
+       3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23
+
+  is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a =E2=80=
=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple =E2=80=9Cbi'e=
=E2=80=9D prefixes on a single operator are not allowed.
+  In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses =
=E2=80=9Cvei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D, which can be used just li=
ke their written equivalents =E2=80=9C(=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C)=E2=80=9D to=
 group expressions in any way desired:
+  5.10)  li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i =
pa [ve'o] du
+            li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa
+       The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=
=9D plus one)
+            equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=
=9D plus 1.
+       (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n2 + 2n + 1
+
+  There are several new usages in : =E2=80=9Cte'a=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Craised to the pow=
er=E2=80=9D, and we also see the use of the lerfu word =E2=80=9Cny=E2=80=9D=
, representing the letter =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D. In mekso, letters stand for =
just what they do in ordinary mathematics: variables. The parser will accep=
t a string of lerfu words (called a =E2=80=9Clerfu string=E2=80=9D) as the =
equivalent of a single lerfu word, in agreement with computer-science conve=
ntions; =E2=80=9Cabc=E2=80=9D is a single variable, not the equivalent of =
=E2=80=9Ca =C3=97 b =C3=97 c=E2=80=9D. (Of course, a local convention could=
 state that the value of a variable like =E2=80=9Cabc=E2=80=9D, with a mult=
i-lerfu name, was equal to the values of the variables =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D multiplied together.)
+  The explicit operator =E2=80=9Cpi'i=E2=80=9D is required in the Lo=
jban verbal form whereas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. N=
ote that =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D (the right parenthesis) is an elidable term=
inator: the first use of it in  is required, but the second use (marked by square brackets) could =
be elided. Additionally, the first =E2=80=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D (also marked by s=
quare brackets) is not necessary to get the proper grouping, but it is incl=
uded here for symmetry with the other one.
+

+
+

+  6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     boi     BOI     numeral/lerfu string terminator
+     va'a    VUhU    negation/additive inverse
+     pe'o    PEhO    forethought flag
+     ku'e    KUhE    forethought terminator
+     py.     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D
+     xy.     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D
+     zy.     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D
+     ma'o    MAhO    convert operand to operator
+     fy.     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D
+
+  The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes, b=
ut it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators have=
 exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from con=
text or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.
+  But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or wh=
ich have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression in=
 such cases is the use of =E2=80=9Cforethought operators=E2=80=9D, also kno=
wn as Polish notation. In this style of writing mathematics, the operator c=
omes first and the operands afterwards:
+  6.1)   li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa
+       The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.
+       sum(1,2,3) =3D 6
+
+  Note that the normally elidable number terminator =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=
=80=9D is required after =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D beca=
use otherwise the reading would be =E2=80=9Cpareci=E2=80=9D =3D 123. It is =
not required after =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D but is inserted here in brackets fo=
r the sake of symmetry. The only time =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D is required is,=
 as in , when there are =
two consecutive numbers or lerfu strings.
+  Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in , three. How do we know how many oper=
ands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban solution is emp=
loyed: an elidable terminator, namely =E2=80=9Cku'e=E2=80=9D. Here is an ex=
ample:
+  6.2)   li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.
+       The-number =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D plus negative-of(=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D=
) plus =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D equals the-number =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D.
+       p + -n + z =3D x
+
+  where we know that =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D is a forethought operato=
r because there is no operand preceding it.
+  =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D is the numerical negation operator, of selm=
a'o VUhU. In contrast, =E2=80=9Cvu'u=E2=80=9D is not used for numerical neg=
ation, but only for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do =
not confuse =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cvu'u=E2=80=9D, which are op=
erators, with =E2=80=9Cni'u=E2=80=9D, which is part of a number.
+  In , the operat=
or =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D and the terminator =E2=80=9Cku'e=E2=80=9D serve i=
n effect as parentheses. (The regular parentheses =E2=80=9Cvei=E2=80=9D and=
 =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D are NOT used for this purpose.) If the =E2=80=9Cku'=
e=E2=80=9D were omitted, the =E2=80=9Csu'i zy=E2=80=9D would be swallowed u=
p by the =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D forethought operator, which would then appe=
ar to have two operands, =E2=80=9Cny=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Csu'i zy.=E2=80=
=9D, where the latter is also a forethought expression.
+  Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functional =
notation. How do we represent =E2=80=9Cz =3D f(x)=E2=80=9D? The answer is:<=
/para>
+  6.3)   li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy.
+       The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x.
+       z =3D f(x)
+
+  Again, no parentheses are used. The construct =E2=80=9Cma'o fy.boi=
=E2=80=9D is the equivalent of an operator, and appears in forethought here=
 (although it could also be used as a regular infix operator). In mathemati=
cs, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes mean variables, with onl=
y the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept the variable interpre=
tation as the default, and uses the special flag =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D to =
mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxy.=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Czy.=E2=80=9D are variables, but =E2=80=9Cfy.=E2=80=9D is an operator =
(a function) because =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D marks it as such. The =E2=80=9C=
boi=E2=80=9D is required because otherwise the =E2=80=9Cxy.=E2=80=9D would =
look like part of the operator name. (The use of =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D can=
 be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso operand: see .)
+  When using forethought mekso, the optional marker =E2=80=9Cpe'o=E2=
=80=9D may be placed in front of the operator. This usage can help avoid co=
nfusion by providing clearly marked =E2=80=9Cpe'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cku'=
e=E2=80=9D pairs to delimit the operand list.  to , respectively, with explicit =E2=80=9Cpe'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cku'e=E2=
=80=9D:
+  6.4)   li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa
+
+6.5)   li py. su'i pe'o va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.
+
+6.6)   li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e
+
+  Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands real=
ly are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless paren=
thesized with =E2=80=9Cvei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D. An earlier =
version of the complex =
 came to grief because I forgot this rule.
+

+
+

+  7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
+  So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have =
a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving =E2=80=
=9Cdu=E2=80=9D. What about inequalities such as =E2=80=9Cx < 5=E2=80=9D?=
 The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:
+  7.1)   li xy. mleca li mu
+       The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.
+
+  Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:
+  
+     du          x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...
+     dunli       x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens=
ion/quantity x3
+     mleca       x1 is less than x2
+     zmadu       x1 is greater than x2
+     dubjavme'a  x1 is less than or equal to x2         [du ja mleca, equa=
l or less]
+     dubjavmau   x1 is greater than or equal to x2      [du ja zmadu, equa=
l or greater]
+     tamdu'i     x1 is similar to x2                    [tarmi dunli, shap=
e-equal]
+     turdu'i     x1 is isomorphic to x2                 [stura dunli, stru=
cture-equal]
+     cmima       x1 is a member of set x2
+     gripau      x1 is a subset of set x2               [girzu pagbu, set-=
part]
+     na'ujbi     x1 is approximately equal to x2        [namcu jibni, numb=
er-near]
+     terci'e     x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3
+
+  Note the difference between =E2=80=9Cdunli=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cd=
u=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Cdunli=E2=80=9D has a third place that specifies the ki=
nd of equality that is meant. =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D refers to actual identit=
y, and can have any number of places:
+  7.2)   py. du xy.boi zy.
+       =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D is-identical-to =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cz=
=E2=80=9D
+       p =3D x =3D z
+
+  Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=
=9D is not repeated.
+  Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with =E2=80=9Cna=E2=
=80=9D, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that the relation is =
false:
+  7.3)   li re su'i re na du li mu
+       the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.
+       2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5
+
+  As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not sa=
y anything about what might be true.
+

+
+

+  8. Indefinite numbers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ro      PA      all
+     so'a    PA      almost all
+     so'e    PA      most
+     so'i    PA      many
+     so'o    PA      several
+     so'u    PA      a few
+     no'o    PA      the typical number of
+     da'a    PA      all but (one) of
+
+     piro    PA+PA   the whole of/all of
+     piso'a  PA+PA   almost the whole of
+     piso'e  PA+PA   most of
+     piso'i  PA+PA   much of
+     piso'o  PA+PA   a small part of
+     piso'u  PA+PA   a tiny part of
+     pino'o  PA+PA   the typical portion of
+
+     rau     PA      enough
+     du'e    PA      too many
+     mo'a    PA      too few
+
+     pirau   PA+PA   enough of
+     pidu'e  PA+PA   too much of
+     pimo'a  PA+PA   too little of
+
+  Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathematica=
l sense. For example, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Call=E2=
=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ceach=E2=80=9D. This number does not have a definite valu=
e in the abstract: =E2=80=9Cli ro=E2=80=9D is undefined. But when used to c=
ount or quantify something, the parallel between =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D is clearer:
+  8.1)   mi catlu pa prenu
+       I look-at one person
+
+8.2)   mi catlu ro prenu
+       I look-at all persons
+
+   might be true,=
 whereas  is almost cert=
ainly false.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cso'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cso'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cso'u=E2=80=9D repres=
ent a set of indefinite numbers less than =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D. As you go d=
own an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:
+  8.3)   mi catlu so'a prenu
+       I look-at almost-all persons
+
+8.4)   mi catlu so'e prenu
+       I look-at most persons
+
+8.5)   mi catlu so'i prenu
+       I look-at many persons
+
+8.6)   mi catlu so'o prenu
+       I look-at several persons
+
+8.7)   mi catlu so'u prenu
+       I look-at a-few persons
+
+  The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space fo=
r up to five indefinite numbers between =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cn=
o=E2=80=9D, with a built-in ordering. In particular, =E2=80=9Cso'e=E2=80=9D=
 does not mean =E2=80=9Cmost=E2=80=9D in the sense of =E2=80=9Ca majority=
=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmore than half=E2=80=9D.
+  Each of these numbers, plus =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D, may be prefixed =
with =E2=80=9Cpi=E2=80=9D (the decimal point) in order to make a fractional=
 form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a total=
ity. =E2=80=9Cpiro=E2=80=9D therefore means =E2=80=9Cthe whole of=E2=80=9D:=

+  8.8)   mi citka piro lei nanba
+       I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread
+
+  Similarly, =E2=80=9Cpiso'a=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Calmost the whol=
e of=E2=80=9D; and so on down to =E2=80=9Cpiso'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ca tiny =
part of=E2=80=9D. These numbers are particularly appropriate with masses, w=
hich are usually measured rather than counted, as  shows.
+  In addition to these cmavo, there is =E2=80=9Cno'o=E2=80=9D, meani=
ng =E2=80=9Cthe typical value=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cpino'o=E2=80=9D, meani=
ng =E2=80=9Cthe typical portion=E2=80=9D: Sometimes =E2=80=9Cno'o=E2=80=9D =
can be translated =E2=80=9Cthe average value=E2=80=9D, but the average in q=
uestion is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these wou=
ld be more appropriately represented by operators.
+  8.9)   mi catlu no'o prenu
+       I look-at a-typical-number-of persons
+
+8.10)  mi citka pino'o lei nanba
+       I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.
+
+  =E2=80=9Cda'a=E2=80=9D is a related cmavo meaning =E2=80=9Call but=
=E2=80=9D:
+  8.11)  mi catlu da'a re prenu
+       I look-at all-but two persons
+
+8.12)  mi catlu da'a so'u prenu
+       I look-at all-but a-few persons
+
+   is similar in=
 meaning to .
+  If no number follows =E2=80=9Cda'a=E2=80=9D, then =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=
=80=9D is assumed; =E2=80=9Cda'a=E2=80=9D by itself means =E2=80=9Call but =
one=E2=80=9D, or in ordinal contexts =E2=80=9Call but the last=E2=80=9D:
+  8.13)  ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu
+       All rats can eat all-but-one rats.
+       All rats can eat all other rats.
+
+  (The use of =E2=80=9Cda'a=E2=80=9D means that  does not require that all rats can eat the=
mselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot eat, but that on=
e might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictates that =E2=80=
=9Citself=E2=80=9D is, indeed, the =E2=80=9Cother=E2=80=9D rat.)
+  As mentioned in , =E2=80=
=9Cma'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cni'u=E2=80=9D are also legal numbers, and the=
y mean =E2=80=9Csome positive number=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Csome negative nu=
mber=E2=80=9D respectively.
+  8.14)  li ci vu'u re du li ma'u
+       the-number 3 =E2=88=92 2 =3D some-positive-number
+
+8.15)  li ci vu'u vo du li ni'u
+       the-number 3 =E2=88=92 4 =3D some-negative-number
+
+8.16)  mi ponse ma'u rupnu
+       I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.
+
+  All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indefin=
ite. If there are exactly six superpowers (=E2=80=9Crairgugde=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Csuperlative-states=E2=80=9D) in the world, then =E2=80=9Cro rairgugde=
=E2=80=9D means the same as =E2=80=9Cxa rairgugde=E2=80=9D. It is often use=
ful, however, to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cr=
au=E2=80=9D (enough), =E2=80=9Cdu'e=E2=80=9D (too many), and =E2=80=9Cmo'a=
=E2=80=9D (too few) are then appropriate:
+  8.17)  mi ponse rau rupnu
+       I possess enough currency-units.
+
+  Like the =E2=80=9Cso'a=E2=80=9D-series, =E2=80=9Crau=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cdu'e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cmo'a=E2=80=9D can be preceded by =E2=80=
=9Cpi=E2=80=9D; for example, =E2=80=9Cpirau=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Ca suffi=
cient part of.=E2=80=9D
+  Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite n=
umbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbe=
rs have the same value in the given context:
+  8.18)  mi viska le rore gerku
+       I saw the all-of/two dogs.
+       I saw both dogs.
+
+8.19)  mi speni so'ici prenu
+       I am-married-to many/three persons.
+       I am married to three persons (which is =E2=80=9Cmany=E2=80=9D in t=
he circumstances).
+
+   assumes a mos=
tly monogamous culture by stating that three is =E2=80=9Cmany=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  9. Approximation and inexact numbers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ji'i    PA  approximately
+     su'e    PA  at most
+     su'o    PA  at least
+     me'i    PA  less than
+     za'u    PA  more than
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cji'i=E2=80=9D (of selma'o PA) is used in severa=
l ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beg=
inning of a number, the whole number is approximate:
+  9.1)   ji'i vo no
+       approximation four zero
+       approximately 40
+
+  If =E2=80=9Cji'i=E2=80=9D appears in the middle of a number, all t=
he digits following it are approximate:
+  9.2)   vo no ji'i mu no
+       four zero approximation five zero
+       roughly 4050 (where the =E2=80=9Cfour thousand=E2=80=9D is exact, b=
ut the =E2=80=9Cfifty=E2=80=9D is approximate)
+
+  If =E2=80=9Cji'i=E2=80=9D appears at the end of a number, it indic=
ates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed=
 by a sign cmavo (=E2=80=9Cma'u=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cni'u=E2=80=9D), which =
indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.
+  9.3)   re pi ze re ji'i
+       two point seven two approximation
+       2.72 (rounded)
+
+9.4)   re pi ze re ji'i ma'u
+       two point seven two approximation positive-sign
+       2.72 (rounded up)
+
+9.5)   re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u
+       two point seven one approximation negative-sign
+       2.71 (rounded down)
+
+   through  are all approximations to =E2=
=80=9Cte'o=E2=80=9D (exponential e). =E2=80=9Cji'i=E2=80=9D can also appear=
 by itself, in which case it means =E2=80=9Capproximately the typical value=
 in this context=E2=80=9D.
+  The four cmavo =E2=80=9Csu'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cme'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cza'u=E2=80=9D, also of selma'o PA, expres=
s inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:
+  9.6)   mi catlu su'e re prenu
+       I look-at at-most two persons
+
+9.7)   mi catlu su'o re prenu
+       I look-at at-least two persons
+
+9.8)   mi catlu me'i re prenu
+       I look-at less-than two persons
+
+9.9)   mi catlu za'u re prenu
+       I look-at more-than two persons
+
+  Each of these is a subtly different claim:  is true of two or any greater number, whereas =
 requires three persons =
or more. Likewise,  refe=
rs to zero, one, or two;  to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than no=
n-negative integers, =E2=80=9Cme'i re=E2=80=9D can be any number less than =
2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier, =E2=80=9Cexact=
ly 2, neither more nor less=E2=80=9D is just =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D. Note tha=
t =E2=80=9Csu'ore=E2=80=9D is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plural=
s.
+  If no number follows one of these cmavo, =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D is u=
nderstood: therefore,
+  9.10)  mi catlu su'o prenu
+       I look-at at-least [one] person
+
+  is a meaningful claim.
+  Like the numbers in , al=
l of these cmavo may be preceded by =E2=80=9Cpi=E2=80=9D to make the corres=
ponding quantifiers for part of a whole. For example, =E2=80=9Cpisu'o=E2=80=
=9D means =E2=80=9Cat least some part of=E2=80=9D. The quantifiers =E2=80=
=9Cro=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cpiro=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=
=9Cpisu'o=E2=80=9D are particularly important in Lojban, as they are implic=
itly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA and LE,=
 as explained in . Descriptions in general =
are outside the scope of this chapter.
+

+
+

+  10. Non-decimal and compound bases
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+    ju'u     VUhU    to the base
+
+    dau      PA      hex digit A =3D 10
+    fei      PA      hex digit B =3D 11
+    gai      PA      hex digit C =3D 12
+    jau      PA      hex digit D =3D 13
+    rei      PA      hex digit E =3D 14
+    vai      PA      hex digit F =3D 15
+    pi'e     PA      compound base point
+
+  In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed =
in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may=
 be appropriate in particular circumstances.
+  To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator =E2=80=
=9Cju'u=E2=80=9D is suitable:
+  10.1)  li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no
+       The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.
+
+  Here, the final =E2=80=9Cpa no=E2=80=9D is assumed to be base 10, =
as usual; so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed perma=
nently by a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has a=
s yet been worked out.)
+  Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a=
 base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to u=
se the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten thro=
ugh fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided:
+  10.2)  li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi
+       The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.
+
+10.3)  li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze
+       The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.
+
+  Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs =E2=80=9Cau=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D are used twice in the same ord=
er. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the d=
ecimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 =E2=80=94 there w=
as simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation p=
ossible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.
+  The base point =E2=80=9Cpi=E2=80=9D is used in non-decimal bases j=
ust as in base 10:
+  10.4)  li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu
+       The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5.
+
+  Since =E2=80=9Cju'u=E2=80=9D is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is=
 grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however=
, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The rea=
son for making =E2=80=9Cju'u=E2=80=9D an operator is to allow reference to =
a base which is not a constant.
+  There are some numerical values that require a =E2=80=9Cbase=E2=80=
=9D that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hour=
s, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three =E2=80=9Cdigits=E2=80=9D: th=
e first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbe=
rs, the compound base separator =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=9D is used:
+  10.5)  ci pi'e rere pi'e vono
+       3:22:40
+
+  Each digit sequence separated by instances of =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=
=9D is expressed in decimal notation, but the number as a whole is not deci=
mal and can only be added and subtracted by special rules:
+  10.6)  li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'=
e cici du li ci pi'e rexa pi'e paci
+       The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13.
+       3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13
+
+  Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the numbe=
rs in  and  is hours, the second minutes, and =
the third seconds.
+  The same mechanism using =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=9D can be used to exp=
ress numbers which have a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan m=
athematics might use digits from =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cpaso=E2=
=80=9D, each separated by =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=9D:
+  10.7)  li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovo=
ci
+       the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443
+
+  Carefully note the difference between:
+  10.8)  pano ju'u reno
+       the-digit-10 base 20
+
+  which is equal to ten, and:
+  10.9)  pa pi'e no ju'u reno
+       1;0 base 20
+
+  which is equal to twenty.
+  Both =E2=80=9Cpi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=9D can be used t=
o express large-base fractions:
+  10.10) li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re v=
o pi ci mu
+       The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.
+
+  =E2=80=9Cpi'e=E2=80=9D is also used where the base of each digit i=
s vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:
+  10.11) dei jufra panopi'epapamoi
+       This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing.
+       This is Sentence 10.11.
+
+

+
+

+  11. Special mekso selbri
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     mei     MOI     cardinal selbri
+     moi     MOI     ordinal selbri
+     si'e    MOI     portion selbri
+     cu'o    MOI     probability selbri
+     va'e    MOI     scale selbri
+
+     me      ME      make sumti into selbri
+
+     me'u    MEhU    terminator for ME
+
+  Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on m=
ekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of se=
lma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serves =
to create number-based selbri with specific place structures.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmei=E2=80=9D creates cardinal selbri. The basic=
 place structure is:
+  
+       x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh=
ich is/are x3
+
+  A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of member=
s, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up=
. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical=
 necessity.
+  Some examples:
+  11.1)  lei mi ratcu cu cimei
+       Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome.
+       My rats are three.
+       I have three rats.
+
+  Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that i=
s, I have three rats.
+  Another example, with one element this time:
+  11.2)  mi poi pamei cu cusku dei
+       I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C=
mi=E2=80=9D refers to a mass, =E2=80=9Cthe mass consisting of me=E2=80=9D. =
Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.
+  However, when the number expressed before =E2=80=9C-mei=E2=80=9D i=
s an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in , a slightly different place structure is required=
:
+  
+       x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of whic=
h is/are x3,
+            measured relative to the set x4.
+
+  An example:
+  11.3)  lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo=
 lo'i ratcu
+       The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-respect-t=
o the-set-of rats.
+       The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.
+
+  In , the x2 an=
d x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by =E2=80=9Clo'i ratcu=
=E2=80=9D, which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means =E2=80=
=9Cthe whole of the set of all those things which are rats=E2=80=9D, or sim=
ply =E2=80=9Cthe set of all rats.=E2=80=9D
+  11.4)  le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'ime=
i
+       The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome.
+       There are many rats in the park.
+
+  In , the conve=
rsion cmavo =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that th=
e new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that =
the rats are =E2=80=9Cmany=E2=80=9D with respect to some unspecified compar=
ison set.
+  More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and=
 individuals can be found in .
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmoi=E2=80=9D creates ordinal selbri. The place =
structure is:
+  
+       x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
+
+  Some examples:
+  11.5)  ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu
+       This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me.
+       This is my first rat.
+
+11.6)  ta romoi le'i mi ratcu
+       That is-the-allth-of the rats associated-with me.
+       That is my last rat.
+
+11.7)  mi raumoi le velskina porsi
+       I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence
+       I am enough-th in the movie line.
+
+   means, in the=
 appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the f=
ront that I will get a seat for the movie.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Csi'e=E2=80=9D creates portion selbri. The place=
 structure is:
+  
+       x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
+
+  Some examples:
+  11.8)  levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidj=
a
+       This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.
+       This meal is one-third of my daily food.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Ccu'o=E2=80=9D creates probability selbri. The p=
lace structure is:
+  
+       event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
+
+  The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:
+  11.9)  le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o
+       The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cva'e=E2=80=9D creates a scale selbri. The place=
 structure is:
+  
+       x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
+
+  If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like =E2=
=80=9Ccifi'uxa=E2=80=9D (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the sam=
e as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the=
 same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example=
:
+  11.10) le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre
+       This rose is 9/10-scale red.
+       This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness.
+       This rose is very red.
+
+  When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjectiv=
e numbers =E2=80=9Crau=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdu'e=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cmo'a=
=E2=80=9D (enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for=
 =E2=80=9Cby standard=E2=80=9D. For example:
+  11.11) lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei =
fo mi
+       The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-standard me.
+       There are too many rats in the park for me.
+
+  The extra place (which for =E2=80=9C-mei=E2=80=9D is the x4 place =
labeled by =E2=80=9Cfo=E2=80=9D) is provided rather than using a BAI tag su=
ch as =E2=80=9Cma'i=E2=80=9D because a specification of the standard for ju=
dgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like =E2=80=9Cenough=
=E2=80=9D.
+  This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjecti=
ve numbers directly as a number. Therefore, =E2=80=9Cdu'e ratcu=E2=80=9D me=
ans =E2=80=9Ctoo many rats=E2=80=9D without specifying any standard.
+  It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:<=
/para>
+  11.12) ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu
+       That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats.
+       That is my nth rat.
+
+  More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due =
to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial fo=
rm of expression is required.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ME) has the function of=
 making a sumti into a selbri. A whole =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D construction ca=
n have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:
+  11.13) ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ra=
tcu
+       That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats.
+       That is my (n+1)-th rat.
+
+  Here the mekso =E2=80=9Cny. su'i pa=E2=80=9D is made into a sumti =
(with =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D) and then changed into a mekso selbri with =E2=
=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cme'u moi=E2=80=9D. The elidable terminator =
=E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D is required here in order to keep the =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=
=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Cmoi=E2=80=9D separate; otherwise, the parser will c=
ombine them into the compound =E2=80=9Cpamoi=E2=80=9D and reject the senten=
ce as ungrammatical.
+  It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after =E2=80=
=9Cme=E2=80=9D and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed=
:
+  11.14) le nu mi nolraitru
+            cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o
+       The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler
+            has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability.
+       I have a snowball=E2=80=99s chance in Hell of being king.
+
+  Note: the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D is not used be=
tween a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D=
 in  could also be rep=
laced by a =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D, which would serve the same function of pr=
eventing the =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmoi=E2=80=9D from joining in=
to a compound.
+

+
+

+  12. Number questions
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+      xo      PA      number question
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxo=E2=80=9D, a member of selma'o PA, is used to=
 ask questions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, =
it fills the blank where the answer should go. (See  for more on Lojban questions.)
+  12.1)  li re su'i re du li xo
+       The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what?
+       What is 2 + 2?
+
+12.2)  le xomoi prenu cu darxi do
+       The what-number-th person hit you?
+       Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?
+
+  =E2=80=9Cxo=E2=80=9D can also be combined with other digits to ask=
 questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could b=
e very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:
+  12.3)  li remu pi'i xa du li paxono
+       The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0
+
+  to which the correct reply would be =E2=80=9Cmu=E2=80=9D, or 5. Th=
e ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primaril=
y intended for giving answers to =E2=80=9Cxo=E2=80=9D questions. (Another u=
se, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)
+

+
+

+  13. Subscripts
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     xi      XI      subscript
+
+  Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; =
there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically =
a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of c=
ourse, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:
+  13.1)  li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boi=
xire
+       The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.
+       x3  =3D x1  + x2
+  Subscripts always begin with the flag =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D (of sel=
ma'o XI). =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D may be followed by a number, a lerfu string,=
 or a general mekso expression in parentheses:
+  13.2)  xy.boixino
+       x013.3)  xy.boixiny.
+       xn13.4)  xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve=
'o]
+       xn+1
+  Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) =
generally need a =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D terminating the variable. Free modif=
iers, of which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit p=
resence of an otherwise elidable terminator.
+  There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than thos=
e used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the=
 main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o =
XI for these purposes.
+  The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general numb=
er or lerfu string, namely =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D. By convention, a subscrip=
t following another subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript:
+  13.5)  xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo
+       xb4
+  See  for the =
standard method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object.
+  More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in .
+

+
+

+  14. Infix operators revisited
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     tu'o    PA      null operand
+     ge'a    VUhU    null operator
+     gei     VUhU    exponential notation
+
+  The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two o=
perands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been requi=
red. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even though =
it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tricks=
: the null operand =E2=80=9Ctu'o=E2=80=9D and the null operator =E2=80=9Cge=
'a=E2=80=9D. The first is suitable when there are too few operands, the sec=
ond when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to express the =
numerical negation operator =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D in infix form. We would =
use:
+  14.1)  li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny.
+       The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero minus n=
.
+       -n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n
+
+  The =E2=80=9Ctu'o=E2=80=9D fulfills the grammatical requirement fo=
r a left operand for the infix use of =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D, even though s=
emantically none is needed or wanted.
+  Finding a suitable example of =E2=80=9Cge'a=E2=80=9D requires exhi=
biting a ternary operator, and ternary operators are not common. The operat=
or =E2=80=9Cgei=E2=80=9D, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As =
a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also c=
alled =E2=80=9Cexponential=E2=80=9D) notation. The first operand of =E2=80=
=9Cgei=E2=80=9D is the exponent, and the second operand is the mantissa or =
fraction:
+  14.2)  li cinonoki'oki'o du
+            li bi gei ci
+       The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals
+            the-number eight scientific three.
+       300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 108
+  Why are the arguments to =E2=80=9Cgei=E2=80=9D in reverse order fr=
om the conventional symbolic notation? So that =E2=80=9Cgei=E2=80=9D can be=
 used in forethought to allow easy specification of a large (or small) impr=
ecise number:
+  14.3)  gei reno
+       (scientific) two-zero
+       1020
+  Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common ex=
ponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of =E2=80=
=9Cgei=E2=80=9D, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default value. Most=
 computers internally store so-called =E2=80=9Cfloating-point=E2=80=9D numb=
ers using 2 as the exponent base. (This has nothing to do with the fact tha=
t computers also represent all integers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used =
an exponent base of 16 for floating point, although each component of the n=
umber was expressed in base 2.) Here is a computer floating-point number wi=
th a value of 40:
+  14.4)  papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u=
 re ge'a re
+       (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero base 2) w=
ith-base 2
+       .10102 =C3=97 21102<=
/subscript>
+

+
+

+  15. Vectors and matrices
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     jo'i    JOhI    start vector
+     te'u    TEhU    end vector
+     pi'a    VUhU    matrix row combiner
+     sa'i    VUhU    matrix column combiner
+
+  A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical mat=
rix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of =
vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands.
+  =E2=80=9Cjo'i=E2=80=9D, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vec=
tor indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but h=
as very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than=
 full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of c=
omponents; =E2=80=9Cte'u=E2=80=9D is the elidable terminator. An example:
+  15.1)  li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi v=
oboi du
+            li jo'i voboi xaboi
+       The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals
+            the-number array (four, six).
+       (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)
+
+  Vectors can be combined into matrices using either =E2=80=9Cpi'a=
=E2=80=9D, the matrix row operator, or =E2=80=9Csa'i=E2=80=9D, the matrix c=
olumn operator. The first combines vectors representing rows of the matrix,=
 and the second combines vectors representing columns of the matrix. Both o=
f them allow any number of arguments: additional arguments are tacked on wi=
th the null operator =E2=80=9Cge'a=E2=80=9D.
+  Therefore, the =E2=80=9Cmagic square=E2=80=9D matrix
+  
+       8 1 6
+       3 5 7
+       4 9 2
+
+  can be represented either as:
+  15.2)  jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi =
ze ge'a jo'i voboi soboi re
+       the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (4 9 2=
)
+
+  or as
+  15.3)  jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi =
so ge'a jo'i xaboi zeboi re
+       the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vector (6 =
7 2)
+
+  The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to matri=
ces, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually neces=
sary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid in=
correct groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of =
inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a s=
uitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D.
+  Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using either =
=E2=80=9Cpi'a=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csa'i=E2=80=9D with an appropriate subscr=
ipt numbering the dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference betwe=
en =E2=80=9Cpi'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Csa'i=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  16. Reverse Polish notation
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     fu'a    FUhA    reverse Polish flag
+
+  So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly famil=
iar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may h=
ave seemed odd when applied to =E2=80=9C+=E2=80=9D, but when applied to =E2=
=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D they appear as the usual functional notation. Now comes a =
sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something completely d=
ifferent; even mathematicians don=E2=80=99t use it much. (The only common u=
ses of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementat=
ion of some programming languages.)
+  In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notatio=
n, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethough=
t mekso of the kind explained in =
.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are =
required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked b=
y a =E2=80=9Cfu'a=E2=80=9D at the beginning of the expression; there is no =
terminator. Here is a simple example:
+  16.1)  li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu
+       the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.
+
+  The operands are =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D; th=
e operator is =E2=80=9Csu'i=E2=80=9D.
+  Here is a more complex example:
+  16.2)  li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i d=
u li rexa
+       the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus equ=
als the-number two-six
+
+  Here the operands of the first =E2=80=9Cpi'i=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=
=9Cre=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D; the operands of the second =E2=80=
=9Cpi'i=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=9Cvo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmu=E2=80=9D (with =
=E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D inserted where needed), and the operands of the =E2=
=80=9Csu'i=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=9Creboi ci pi'i=E2=80=9D, or 6, and =E2=80=
=9Cvoboi mu pi'i=E2=80=9D, or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get lost in=
 the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is especially =
easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doesn=E2=80=
=99t get lost) to comprehend.
+  The operands of an RP operator can be any legal mekso operand, inc=
luding parenthesized mekso that can contain any valid syntax, whether more =
RP or something more conventional.
+  In Lojban, RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operand=
s. What about operators which require only one operand, or more than two op=
erands? The null operand =E2=80=9Ctu'o=E2=80=9D and the null operator =E2=
=80=9Cge'a=E2=80=9D provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator like =
=E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=80=9D always appears in a reverse Polish context as =E2=80=
=9Ctu'o va'a=E2=80=9D. The =E2=80=9Ctu'o=E2=80=9D provides the second opera=
nd, which is semantically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, th=
e three-operand version of =E2=80=9Cgei=E2=80=9D appears in reverse Polish =
as =E2=80=9Cge'a gei=E2=80=9D, where the =E2=80=9Cge'a=E2=80=9D effectively=
 merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a single operand. Here are some examp=
les:
+  16.3)  li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du
+            li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a
+       The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals
+            the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of.
+       3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2
+
+16.4)  li cinoki'oki'o du
+            li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei
+       The-number 30-comma-comma equals
+            the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.
+       30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 108
+

+
+

+  17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     .abu    BY      letter =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D
+      by     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D
+      cy     BY      letter =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D
+      fe'a   VUhU    nth root of (default square root)
+      lo'o   LOhO    terminator for LI
+
+  As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for l=
ogical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on logi=
cal and non-logical connectives are provided in . Operands are connected in afterthought with selma'o A and in foreth=
ought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Operators are connected in aftertho=
ught with selma'o JA and in forethought with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru =
components. This parallelism is no accident.
+  In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping log=
ically connected operands, and =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D is allowed for=
 grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of=
 tanru among the operators.
+  Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature=
, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.  exhibits afterthought logic=
al connection between operands:
+  17.1)  vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci
+       ( Three or four ) people go-to the market.
+
+   is equivalent=
 in meaning, but uses forethought connection:
+  17.2)  vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zar=
ci
+       ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.
+
+  Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban req=
uires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses =
when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist=
 when using =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D.
+  By the way, =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D has an elidable terminator, =E2=
=80=9Clo'o=E2=80=9D, which is needed when a =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D sumti is f=
ollowed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For=
 example:
+  17.3)  li re su'i re du
+            li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu
+       The-number two plus two equals
+            the-number four or else a non-known number.
+
+  Omitting the =E2=80=9Clo'o=E2=80=9D would cause the parser to assu=
me that another operand followed the =E2=80=9C.onai=E2=80=9D and reject =E2=
=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D as an invalid operand.
+  Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard t=
o come by. A contrived example is:
+  17.4)  li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo
+        The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four.
+        2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4.
+
+  The forethought-connection form of  is:
+  17.5)  li re ge su'i gi pi'i re
+            du li vo
+       the-number two both plus and times two
+            equals the-number four.
+       Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4.
+
+  Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:
+  17.6)  go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o s=
u'i by. bi'epi'i xy.
+            su'i cy.  du li no
+       gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u
+            fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve=
'o [ku'e] ve'o
+            fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu
+       If-and-only-if the-number =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D-times-( =E2=80=9Cx=E2=
=80=9D power two ) plus =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D-times-=E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D
+            plus =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D equals the-number zero
+       then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b ) plus or =
minus
+            the-root-of ( =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D-power-2 minus four-times-=E2=
=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D-times-=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D ) ]
+            divided-by two-times-=E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D.
+       Iff ax2  + bx + c =3D 0,
+            then x =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A(b2  =E2=88=92 4ac)
+            
+                         2a
+
+  Note the mixture of styles in : the negation of b and the square root are represented by =
forethought and most of the operator precedence by prefixed =E2=80=9Cbi'e=
=E2=80=9D, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group the numerator =
properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be removed here i=
n favor of simple =E2=80=9Cfe'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cku'e=E2=80=9D bracket=
ing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting  to parse perfectly using the cur=
rent parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with mo=
st of the =E2=80=9Cbi'e=E2=80=9D cmavo and just let the standard precedence=
 rules be understood.
+  Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between=
 operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect o=
perands with =E2=80=9Cbi'o=E2=80=9D to create intervals:
+  17.7)  li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa
+       the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one
+       [0,1)
+       the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one
+
+  Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning an=
d end points can be expressed by =E2=80=9Cmi'i=E2=80=9D:
+  17.8)  li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu
+       the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5
+
+  which expresses the same interval as . Note that the =E2=80=9Cga'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
ke'i=E2=80=9D still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied =
rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:
+  17.9)  li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu
+       the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]
+
+  Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces a=
nother interval centered on the number. As  shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands=
 has higher precedence than any mekso operator.
+  You can also combine two operands with =E2=80=9Cce'o=E2=80=9D, the=
 sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:
+  17.10) xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]
+    =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D sub (=E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D sequence =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=
=9D)
+    xb,d
+

+
+

+  18. Using Lojban resources within mekso
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     na'u    NAhU    selbri to operator
+     ni'e    NIhE    selbri to operand
+     mo'e    MOhE    sumti to operand
+     te'u    TEhU    terminator for all three
+
+  One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use of =
Lojban=E2=80=99s vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in c=
mavo for operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all t=
hree share the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cte'u=E2=80=9D (which is also us=
ed to terminate vectors marked with =E2=80=9Cjo'i=E2=80=9D)
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cna'u=E2=80=9D makes a selbri into an operator. =
In general, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the opera=
tor, and the other unfilled places specify the operands:
+  18.1)  li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] =
du li ci'i
+       The-number the-operator tangent ( =CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity.
+       tan(=CF=80/2) =3D =E2=88=9E
+  =E2=80=9Ctanjo=E2=80=9D is the gismu for =E2=80=9Cx1 is the tangen=
t of x2=E2=80=9D, and the =E2=80=9Cna'u=E2=80=9D here makes it into an oper=
ator which is then used in forethought
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cni'e=E2=80=9D makes a selbri into an operand. T=
he x1 place of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is o=
ften a =E2=80=9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction, since =E2=80=9Cni=E2=80=9D abstrac=
tions represent numbers. The =E2=80=9Cni'e=E2=80=9D makes that number avail=
able as a mekso operand. A common application is to make equations relating=
 pure dimensions:
+  18.2)  li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra=
 [te'u] pi'i
+            ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu
+       The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times
+            quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume.
+       Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo'e=E2=80=9D operates similarly to =E2=80=9Cni=
'e=E2=80=9D, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an operand. This=
 construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensioned numbers:=

+  18.3)  li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li =
mo'e vo danlu
+       The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals=
.
+       2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals.
+
+  Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called =E2=
=80=9Cfolk quantifiers=E2=80=9D, such as =E2=80=9Ca pride of lions=E2=80=9D=
:
+  18.4)  mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo
+       I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.
+       I see a pride of lions.
+
+

+
+

+  19. Other uses of mekso
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     me'o    LI      the mekso
+     nu'a    NUhA    operator to selbri
+     mai     MAI     utterance ordinal
+     mo'o    MAI     higher order utterance ordinal
+     roi     ROI     quantified tense
+
+  So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D=
), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. Ther=
e are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D has the same grammatical use as =
=E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D but slightly different semantics. =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D=
 means =E2=80=9Cthe number which is the value of the mekso ...=E2=80=9D, wh=
ereas =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D just means =E2=80=9Cthe mekso ...=E2=80=9D So =
it is true that:
+  19.1)  li re su'i re du li vo
+       The-number two plus two equals the-number four.
+       2 + 2 =3D 4
+
+  but false that:
+  19.2)  me'o re su'i re du me'o vo
+       The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four.
+       =E2=80=9C2 + 2=E2=80=9D =3D =E2=80=9C4=E2=80=9D
+
+  since the expressions =E2=80=9C2 + 2=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C4=E2=80=
=9D are not the same. The relationship between =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D is related to that between =E2=80=9Cla djan.=E2=80=9D, =
the person named John, and =E2=80=9Czo .djan.=E2=80=9D, the name =E2=80=9CJ=
ohn=E2=80=9D
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cnu'a=E2=80=9D is the inverse of =E2=80=9Cna'u=
=E2=80=9D, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a normal selbri, with =
the place structure:
+  
+       x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...
+
+  for as many places as may be required. For example:
+  19.3)  li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
+       The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.
+
+  uses =E2=80=9Cnu'a=E2=80=9D to make the operator =E2=80=9Cva'a=E2=
=80=9D into a two-place bridi
+  Used together, =E2=80=9Cnu'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cna'u=E2=80=9D m=
ake it possible to ask questions about mekso operators, even though there i=
s no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor is it grammatical to utte=
r an operator in isolation. Consider , to which  is one correct answer:
+  19.4)  li re na'u mo re du li vo
+       The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four.
+       2 ? 2 =3D 4
+
+19.5)  nu'a su'i
+       plus
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C=
na'u mo=E2=80=9D is an operator question, because =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D is t=
he selbri question cmavo and =E2=80=9Cna'u=E2=80=9D makes the selbri into a=
n operator.  makes the =
true answer =E2=80=9Csu'i=E2=80=9D into a selbri (which is a legal utteranc=
e) with the inverse cmavo =E2=80=9Cnu'a=E2=80=9D. Mechanically speaking, in=
serting  into  produces:
+  19.6)  li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo
+       The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-number=
 four.
+
+  where the =E2=80=9Cna'u nu'a=E2=80=9D cancels out, leaving a truth=
ful bridi
+  Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English =E2=80=9Cfirstl=
y=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csecondly=E2=80=9D, and so on, can be created by suffix=
ing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit str=
ings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containin=
g only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, a=
nd likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:
+  19.7)  pamai
+       firstly
+
+19.8)  remai
+       secondly
+
+19.9)  romai
+       all-ly
+       lastly
+
+19.10) ny.mai
+       nth-ly
+
+19.11) pasomo'o
+       nineteenthly (higher order)
+
+  The difference between =E2=80=9Cmai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=
=80=9D is that =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D enumerates larger subdivisions of a t=
ext. Each =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D subdivision can then be divided into piece=
s and internally numbered with =E2=80=9Cmai=E2=80=9D. If this chapter were =
translated into Lojban, each section would be numbered with =E2=80=9Cmo'o=
=E2=80=9D. (See  for more on these words.)=

+  A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with =
=E2=80=9Croi=E2=80=9D. This usage generates tenses corresponding to English=
 =E2=80=9Conce=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctwice=E2=80=9D, and so on. This topic bel=
ongs to a detailed discussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=
 .
+  Note: the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=80=9D is not used be=
tween a number and a member of MAI or ROI.
+

+
+

+  20. Explicit operator precedence
+  As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the precedence=
s of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not u=
nderstand these declarations.
+  The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment us=
ing =E2=80=9Cti'o=E2=80=9D, a member of selma'o SEI. =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D,=
 the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalinguistic comments on a br=
idi which give information about the discourse which the bridi comprises. T=
he format of a =E2=80=9Cti'o=E2=80=9D declaration has not been formally est=
ablished, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator=
 and then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-est=
ablished scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operato=
rs and existing operators.
+  In future, we hope to create an improved machine parser that can u=
nderstand declarations of the precedences of simple operators belonging to =
selma'o VUhU. Originally, all operators would have the same precedence. Dec=
larations would have the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to h=
igher precedence levels. Complex operators formed with =E2=80=9Cna'u=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cni'e=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D would remain at the =
standard low precedence; declarations with respect to them are for future i=
mplementation efforts. It is probable that such a parser would have a set o=
f =E2=80=9Ccommonly assumed precedences=E2=80=9D built into it (selectable =
by a special =E2=80=9Cti'o=E2=80=9D declaration) that would match mathemati=
cal intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.
+

+
+

+  21. Miscellany
+  A few other points:
+  =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D can be used to convert an operator as if it w=
ere a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:
+  21.1)  li ci se vu'u vo du li pa
+       The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one.
+       3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.
+
+  The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators w=
ith more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably =
unintelligible) operators as needed.
+  Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a=
 scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would a=
pply to make the bridi true:
+  21.2)  li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare
+       The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.
+
+21.3)  li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu
+       The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5.
+
+  The sense in which =E2=80=9Cplus=E2=80=9D is the opposite of =E2=
=80=9Cminus=E2=80=9D is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; neg=
ated operators are defined only loosely.
+  =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clu'e=E2=80=9D can be used on o=
perands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an =
operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=
=9D serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand wo=
uld make the bridi true:
+  21.4)  li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu
+       The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5.
+       2 + 2 =3D something other than 5.
+
+  The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making luj=
vo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or togeth=
er as names:
+  21.5)  la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu
+       Those-named =E2=80=9CSeven=E2=80=9D who attack that-named =E2=80=9C=
Thebes=E2=80=9D [past] are-men.
+       The Seven Against Thebes were men.
+
+  Of course, there is no guarantee that the name =E2=80=9Czel.=E2=80=
=9D is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misc=
onstrued is:
+  21.6)  la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu
+       Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.
+
+  Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi: =E2=80=9Cso'=
a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'o=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cso'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cda'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cro=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cpi=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9Cce'i=E2=80=9D. Furthermore, although the cmavo =E2=80=9Cf=
i'u=E2=80=9D does not have a rafsi as such, it is closely related to the gi=
smu =E2=80=9Cfrinu=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cfraction=E2=80=9D; therefore,=
 in a context of numeric rafsi, you can use any of the rafsi for =E2=80=9Cf=
rinu=E2=80=9D to indicate a fraction slash.
+  A similar convention is used for the cmavo =E2=80=9Ccu'o=E2=80=9D =
of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to =E2=80=9Ccunso=E2=80=9D (probab=
ility); use a rafsi for =E2=80=9Ccunso=E2=80=9D in order to create lujvo ba=
sed on =E2=80=9Ccu'o=E2=80=9D. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cmoi=E2=80=9D of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact: =E2=80=9Cmem=
=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cmei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmom=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cmoi=E2=
=80=9D respectively.
+  The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distincti=
on between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calc=
ulus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a m=
ethod of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with =
=E2=80=9Cni'enu'a=E2=80=9D, which transforms the operator into a matching s=
elbri and then the selbri into an operand.
+  To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo =E2=80=9Cm=
a'o=E2=80=9D, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu string such=
 as =E2=80=9Cfy.=E2=80=9D into an operator. In fact, =E2=80=9Cma'o=E2=80=9D=
 can be followed by any mekso operand, using the elidable terminator =E2=80=
=9Cte'u=E2=80=9D if necessary.
+  There is a potential semantic ambiguity in =E2=80=9Cma'o fy. [te'u=
]=E2=80=9D if =E2=80=9Cfy.=E2=80=9D is already in use as a variable: it com=
es to mean =E2=80=9Cthe function whose value is always =E2=80=98f=E2=80=99=
=E2=80=9D. However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words=
 or strings as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise =
in practice.
+

+
+

+  22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem
+  Abraham Lincoln=E2=80=99s Gettysburg Address begins with the words=
 =E2=80=9CFour score and seven years ago=E2=80=9D. This section exhibits se=
veral different ways of saying the number =E2=80=9Cfour score and seven=E2=
=80=9D. (A =E2=80=9Cscore=E2=80=9D, for those not familiar with the term, i=
s 20; it is analogous to a =E2=80=9Cdozen=E2=80=9D for 12.) The trivial way=
:
+  22.1)  li bize
+       eight seven
+       87
+
+   is mathematic=
ally correct, but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are int=
ended to be complex and formal.
+  22.2)  li vo pi'i reno su'i ze
+       four times twenty plus seven
+       4 =C3=97 20 + 7
+
+   is also mathe=
matically correct, but still misses something. =E2=80=9CScore=E2=80=9D is n=
ot a word for 20 in the same way that =E2=80=9Cten=E2=80=9D is a word for 1=
0: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as =
short for =E2=80=9CFour score years and seven years ago=E2=80=9D. Thinking =
of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:
+  22.3)  li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze
+       the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C=
voboi renomei=E2=80=9D is a sumti signifying four things each of which are =
groups of twenty; the =E2=80=9Cmo'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cte'u=E2=80=9D the=
n make this sumti into a number in order to allow it to be the operand of =
=E2=80=9Csu'i=E2=80=9D.
+  Another approach is to think of =E2=80=9Cscore=E2=80=9D as setting=
 a representation base. There are remnants of base-20 arithmetic in some la=
nguages, notably French, in which 87 is =E2=80=9Cquatre-vingt-sept=E2=80=9D=
, literally =E2=80=9Cfour-twenties-seven=E2=80=9D. (This fact makes the Get=
tysburg Address hard to translate into French!) If =E2=80=9Cscore=E2=80=9D =
is the representation base, then we have:
+  22.4)  li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno
+       four ; seven base 20
+       4720
+  Overall,  prob=
ably captures the flavor of the English best.  and  are too simple, and  is too tricky. Nevertheless, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagog=
ically, these examples illustrate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything th=
at can be said at all, can probably be said in more than one way.
+

+
+

+  23. mekso selma'o summary
+  Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.
+  
+     BOI     elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings
+     BY      lerfu for variables and functions (see )
+     FUhA    reverse-Polish flag
+     GOhA    includes =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D (mathematical equality) and oth=
er non-mekso cmavo
+     JOhI    array flag
+     KUhE    elidable terminator for forethought mekso
+     LI      mekso articles (li and me'o)
+     MAhO    make operand into operator
+     MOI     creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see )
+     MOhE    make sumti into operand
+     NAhU    make selbri into operator
+     NIhE    make selbri into operand
+     NUhA    make operator into selbri
+     PA      numbers (see )
+     PEhO    optional forethought mekso marker
+     TEhU    elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI
+     VEI     left parenthesis
+     VEhO    right parenthesis
+     VUhU    operators (see )
+     XI      subscript flag
+
+

+
+

+  24. Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures
+  The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a, b=
, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethought =
operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules a=
pply to infix and RP uses of VUhU.
+  
+    su'i    plus                                  (((a + b) + c) + ...)
+    pi'i    times                                 (((a =C3=97 b) =C3=97 c)=
 =C3=97 ...)
+    vu'u    minus                                 (((a =E2=88=92 b) =E2=88=
=92 c) =E2=88=92 ...)
+    fe'i    divided by                            (((a / b) / c) / ...)
+    ju'u    number base                           numeral string =E2=80=9C=
a=E2=80=9D interpreted in the base b
+    pa'i    ratio                                 the ratio of a to b, a:b
+    fa'i    reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse  1 / a
+    gei     scientific notation                   b =C3=97 (c [default 10]=
 to the a power)
+    ge'a    null operator                         (no operands)
+    de'o    logarithm                             log a to base b (default 10 or e as =
appropriate)
+    te'a    to the power/exponential              a t=
o the b power
+    fe'a    nth root of/inverse power             bth root of a (default square root: b =3D 2)
+    cu'a    absolute value/norm                   | a |
+    ne'o    factorial                             a!
+    pi'a    matrix row vector combiner            (all operands are row ve=
ctors)
+    sa'i    matrix column vector combiner         (all operands are column=
 vectors)
+    ri'o    integral                              integral of a with respe=
ct to b over range c
+    sa'o    derivative                            derivative of a with res=
pect to b of degree c (default 1)
+    fu'u    non-specific operator                 (variable)
+    si'i    sigma (=CE=A3) summation                   summation of a usin=
g variable b over range c
+    va'a    negation of/additive inverse          -a
+    re'a    matrix transpose/dual                 a*
+

+
+

+  25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other nu=
mbers.
+  
+    
+      Decimal digits:
+
+              no,  pa,  re,  ci,  vo,  mu,  xa,  ze,  bi,  so
+              0,   1,   2,   3,   4,   5,   6,   7,   8,   9
+       rafsi: non, pav, rel, cib, von, mum, xav, zel, biv, soz
+
+    
+    
+      Hexadecimal digits:
+
+       dau,  fei,  gai,  jau,  rei,  vai
+       A/10, B/11, C/12, D/13, E/14, F/15
+
+    
+    
+      Special numbers:
+
+       pai,    ka'o,           te'o,             ci'i
+       =CF=80,      imaginary i,    exponent=
ial e,    infinity (=E2=88=9E)
+
+    
+    
+      Number punctuation:
+
+       pi,                 ce'i,          fi'u
+       decimal point,      percentage,    fraction (not division)
+rafsi: piz,                cez,           fi'u (from frinu; see )
+
+       pi'e,               ma'u,                     ni'u
+       mixed-base point,   plus sign (not addition), minus sign (not subtr=
action)
+
+       ki'o,               ra'e
+       thousands comma,    repeating-decimal indicator
+
+       ji'i,               ka'o
+       approximation sign, complex number separator
+
+    
+    
+      Indefinite numbers:
+
+       ro,        so'a,          so'e,           so'i,    so'o,       so'u=
,     da'a
+       all,       almost all,    most,           many,    several,    few,=
      all but
+rafsi: rol,       soj,           sor or so'i,    sos,     sot,        daz
+
+       su'e,      su'o
+       at most,   at least
+rafsi: su'e,      su'o
+
+       me'i,      za'u
+       less than, more than
+
+       no'o
+       the typical number
+
+    
+    
+      Subjective numbers:
+
+       rau,       du'e,        mo'a
+       enough,    too many,    too few
+
+    
+    
+      Miscellaneous:
+
+       xo,                 tu'o
+       number question,    null operand
+
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  26. Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structure=
s
+  
+    mei     x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of
+            which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard =
x4]
+    rafsi:  mem, mei
+
+    moi     x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
+            [by standard x4]
+    rafsi:  mom, moi
+
+    si'e    x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]
+    rafsi:  none
+
+    cu'o    event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
+            [by standard x3]
+    rafsi:  cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see )
+
+    va'e    x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
+            [by standard x3]
+    rafsi:  none
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2aab6c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,697 @@
+
+  Chapter 19
+Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts
+
+
+

+  1. Introductory
+  This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo th=
at specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragraph=
s) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are found =
in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described a=
re generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents.
+  This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing ref=
erence to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other c=
hapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was as =
complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified languag=
e, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before und=
erstanding every part of it (to some degree).
+

+
+

+  2. Sentences: I
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     .i      I       sentence separator
+
+  Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spo=
ken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the=
 following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken=
 English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or somet=
imes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=
=80=9D (of selma'o I):
+  2.1)   mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli
+       I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.
+
+  The word =E2=80=9Cseparator=E2=80=9D should be noted. =E2=80=9C.i=
=E2=80=9D is not normally used after the last sentence nor before the first=
 one, although both positions are technically grammatical. =E2=80=9C.i=E2=
=80=9D signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessarily by the sam=
e speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left vague, except in =
stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the following sent=
ence states something that happened after the previous sentence.
+  Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is capi=
talized, the cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D is never capitalized. In writing, i=
t is appropriate to place extra space before =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D to make i=
t stand out better for the reader. In some styles of Lojban writing, every =
=E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leaving=
 space at the end of the previous line.
+  An =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D cmavo may or may not be used when the spea=
ker of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the precedin=
g sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or =
not.
+  An =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D cmavo can be compounded with a logical or =
non-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or bot=
h: these constructs are explained in , , and . In al=
l cases, the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D comes first in the compound. Attitudinals=
 can also be attached to an =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D if they are meant to apply=
 to the whole sentence: see .
+  There exist a pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentenc=
es closely together. If the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D (with or without connectiv=
es) is followed by =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BO), then the two sente=
nces being separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentenc=
es connected by =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D alone.
+  Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by =E2=80=9Ctu'e=
=E2=80=9D (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D (of selm=
a'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit. A common use of =E2=80=9Ctu'e ..=
. tu'u=E2=80=9D is to group the sentences which compose a poem: the title s=
entence would precede the group, separated from it by =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D.=
 Another use might be a set of directions, where each numbered direction mi=
ght be surrounded by =E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D and contain one or mor=
e sentences separated by =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D. Grouping with =E2=80=9Ctu'e=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D is analogous to grouping with =E2=80=
=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D to establish the scope of logical=
 or non-logical connectives (see ).
+

+
+

+  3. Paragraphs: NIhO
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ni'o    NIhO    new topic
+     no'i    NIhO    old topic
+
+     da'o    DAhO    cancel cmavo assignments
+
+  The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purpose=
s: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appearanc=
e of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented i=
n both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two, =E2=80=9Cni'o=
=E2=80=9D is the more common. By convention, written Lojban is broken into =
paragraphs just before any =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D=
, but a very long passage on a single topic might be paragraphed before an =
=E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to s=
tart a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this conven=
tion is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of these=
 conventions affect meaning in any way.
+  A =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D can take the place of an =E2=80=9C.i=E2=
=80=9D as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a new topic or para=
graph. Grammatically, any number of =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D cmavo can appear=
 consecutively and are equivalent to a single one; semantically, a greater =
number of =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of t=
opic. This feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics=
, and sub-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both sp=
oken and written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist be=
tween =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D in writing and in conversation.
+  In written text, a single =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D is a mere discurs=
ive indicator of a new subject, whereas =E2=80=9Cni'oni'o=E2=80=9D marks a =
change in the context. In this situation, =E2=80=9Cni'oni'o=E2=80=9D implic=
itly cancels the definitions of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pr=
o-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cda'o=E2=80=9D of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an indic=
ator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of =E2=80=9Cni'oni'o=
=E2=80=9D does not affect indicators (of selma'o UI) or tense references, b=
ut =E2=80=9Cni'oni'oni'o=E2=80=9D, indicating a drastic change of topic, wo=
uld serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See  for a discussion of indicator scope.)
+  In spoken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels =
are reduced by one, with =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D indicating a change in cont=
ext sufficient to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other h=
and, in a book, or in stories within stories such as =E2=80=9CThe Arabian N=
ights=E2=80=9D, further levels may be expressed by extending the =E2=80=9Cn=
i'o=E2=80=9D string as needed. Normally, a written text will begin with the=
 number of =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D cmavo needed to signal the largest scale =
division which the text contains. =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D strings may be sub=
scripted to label each context of discourse: see .
+  =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D is similar in effect to =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=
=9D, but indicates the resumption of a previous topic. In speech, it is ana=
logous to (but much shorter than) such English discursive phrases as =E2=80=
=9CBut getting back to the point ... =E2=80=9D. By default, the topic resum=
ed is that in effect before the last =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D. When subtopics=
 are nested within topics, then =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D would resume the pre=
vious subtopic and =E2=80=9Cno'ino'i=E2=80=9D the previous topic. Note that=
 =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments droppe=
d at the previous =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D.
+  If a =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D is subscripted, then a =E2=80=9Cno'i=
=E2=80=9D with the same subscript is assumed to be a continuation of it. A =
=E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D may also have a negative subscript, which would spec=
ify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found =
thereby.
+

+
+

+  4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     zo'u    ZOhU    topic/comment separator
+
+  The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal=
 English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:
+  4.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I went to the market
+
+  In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stat=
ed, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a top=
ic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguis=
h topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:
+  4.2)   zhe4 xiao1xi2   wo3 zhi1dao le
+       this news      I know [perfective]
+       As for this news, I knew it.
+       I=E2=80=99ve heard this news already.
+
+  The wide space in the first two versions of  separate the topic (=E2=80=9Cthis news=E2=80=
=9D) from the comment (=E2=80=9CI know already=E2=80=9D).
+  Lojban uses the cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ZOhU) to =
separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):
+  4.3)   le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno
+       The news : I [perfective] know.
+
+   is the literal=
 Lojban translation of .=
 Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward=
 bridi structure:
+  4.4)   mi ba'o djuno le nuzba
+       I [perfective] know the news.
+
+   means the same=
 as , and it is simpler.=
 However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the sel=
bri within the comment is vague:
+  4.5)   le finpe zo'u citka
+       the fish : eat
+
+  Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn=E2=80=99t sa=
y. The Chinese equivalent of  is:
+  4.6)   yu2    chi1
+       fish   eat
+
+  which is vague in exactly the same way.
+  Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before =
=E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D. This is not normally useful in topic-comment senten=
ces, but is necessary in the other use of =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D: to separa=
te a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This=
 usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see ), but an example would be:
+  4.7)   roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da
+        For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the f=
ather of X.
+        Every person has a father.
+
+  The string of sumti before =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D (called the =E2=
=80=9Cprenex=E2=80=9D: see ) may contain b=
oth a topic and bound variables:
+  4.8)   loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o
+            su'ode zo'u de patfu da
+       For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons,
+            there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.
+       As for fathers, every person has one.
+
+  To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the =
sentences in =E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D brackets and place the topic a=
nd the =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D directly in front. This is the exception to t=
he rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence:
+  4.9)   loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica=
 [tu'u]
+       The-mass-of money :  ( [if] you possess, then you want )
+       Money: if you have it, you want it.
+
+  Note: In Lojban, you do not =E2=80=9Cwant money=E2=80=9D; you =E2=
=80=9Cwant to have money=E2=80=9D or something of the sort, as the x2 place=
 of =E2=80=9Cdjica=E2=80=9D demands an event. As a result, the straightforw=
ard rendering of  withou=
t a topic is not:
+  4.10)  do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri
+       You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cloi jdini=E2=80=9D and i=
s interpreted as =E2=80=9Cthe mere existence of money=E2=80=9D, but rather:=

+  4.11)  do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri
+       You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.
+
+  namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like =
 are inherently vague, a=
nd this difference between =E2=80=9Cponse=E2=80=9D (which expects a physica=
l object in x2) and =E2=80=9Cdjica=E2=80=9D is ignored. See  for another topic/comment sentence.<=
/para>
+  The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but=
 in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especial=
ly if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentenc=
es don=E2=80=99t necessarily have a =E2=80=9Csubject=E2=80=9D in the Englis=
h sense.
+

+
+

+  5. Questions and answers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     xu      UI      truth question
+     ma      KOhA    sumti question
+     mo      GOhA    bridi question
+     xo      PA      number question
+     ji      A       sumti connective question
+     ge'i    GA      forethought connective question
+     gi'i    GIhA    bridi-tail connective question
+     gu'i    GUhA    tanru forethought connective question
+     je'i    JA      tanru connective question
+     pei     UI      attitude question
+     fi'a    FA      place structure question
+     cu'e    CUhE    tense/modal question
+     pau     UI      question premarker
+
+  Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are =
two basic types: truth questions, of the form =E2=80=9CIs it true that ... =
=E2=80=9D, and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by p=
receding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, wi=
th the cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D (of selma'o UI):
+  5.1)   xu do klama le zarci
+       [True or false?] You go to the store
+       Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?
+
+  (Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation migh=
t be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in .
+  Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojban =
word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answerer=
 is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o =
which provide different kinds of blanks.
+  Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with =E2=80=
=9Cma=E2=80=9D (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti:
+  5.2)   ma klama le zarci
+       [What sumti?] goes-to the store
+       Who is going to the store?
+
+  Of course, the =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D need not be in the x1 place:
+  5.3)   do klama ma
+       You go-to [what sumti?]
+       Where are you going?
+
+  The answer is a simple sumti:
+  5.4)   le zarci
+       The store.
+
+  A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by itsel=
f constitute a bridi =E2=80=93 it does not claim anything, but merely compl=
etes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi.
+  There can be two =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D cmavo in a single question:<=
/para>
+  5.5)   ma klama ma
+       Who goes where?
+
+  and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in the =
two =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D cmavo in order:
+  5.6)   mi le zarci
+       I, to the store.
+
+  An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical connect=
ive =E2=80=9Cfa'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o JOI), which is like the English =E2=
=80=9Cand ... respectively=E2=80=9D:
+  5.7)   ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma
+       Who and who goes where and where, respectively?
+
+  An answer might be
+  5.8)   la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju
+       John, Marsha, the store, the office.
+       John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.
+
+  (Note: A mechanical substitution of  into  produces an ungrammatical result, because =E2=80=9C* ... le zarci fa'u =
le briju=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical Lojban: the first =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=
=80=9D has to be closed with its proper terminator =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, fo=
r reasons explained in . This effect is no=
t important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied=
 in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. T=
he exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately gramm=
atical.)
+  Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with =E2=80=
=9Cmo=E2=80=9D of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi:
+  5.9)   la lojban. mo
+       Lojban [what selbri?]
+       What is Lojban?
+
+  Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Loj=
ban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of =
possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be =
a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided=
 by the questioner. To limit the range of a =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D question, =
make it part of a tanru.
+  Questions about numbers are expressed with =E2=80=9Cxo=E2=80=9D of=
 selma'o PA:
+  5.10)  do viska xo prenu
+       You saw [what number?] persons.
+       How many people did you see?
+
+  The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utt=
erance:
+  5.11)  vomu
+       Forty-five.
+
+  Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical conne=
ctives (using cmavo =E2=80=9Cji=E2=80=9D of A, =E2=80=9Cge'i=E2=80=9D of GA=
, =E2=80=9Cgi'i=E2=80=9D of GIhA, =E2=80=9Cgu'i=E2=80=9D of GUhA, or =E2=80=
=9Cje'i=E2=80=9D of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik as an an=
swer) =E2=80=94 see ; attitudes (using =E2=
=80=9Cpei=E2=80=9D of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) =E2=80=
=94 see ; place structures (using =E2=80=
=9Cfi'a=E2=80=9D of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) =E2=80=94=
 see ; tenses and modals (using =E2=80=9Ccu=
'e=E2=80=9D of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as an answer) =E2=
=80=94 see  and .
+  Questions can be marked by placing =E2=80=9Cpau=E2=80=9D (of selma=
'o UI) before the question bridi. See  for=
 details.
+  The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to quest=
ions is:
+  
+    
+      any number of sumti (with elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=
=80=9D, see )
+    
+    
+      an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see )
+    
+    
+      a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parentheses=
 (see )
+    
+    
+      a bare =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D negator (to negate some previously=
 expressed bridi), or corresponding =E2=80=9Cja'a=E2=80=9D affirmer (see )
+    
+    
+      a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti, =
see )
+    
+    
+      a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, see=
 )
+    
+    
+      linked arguments (beginning with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D or =E2=
=80=9Cbei=E2=80=9D and attached to some previously expressed selbri, often =
in a description,see )
+    
+  
+  At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also permi=
tted:
+  
+    
+      one or more names (to indicate direct address without =E2=80=
=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D, see )
+    
+    
+      indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see )
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D (to vaguely negate something or other, s=
ee )
+    
+  
+  Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these are =
made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversatio=
n, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely because =
most of them are vague.
+

+
+

+  6. Subscripts: XI
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     xi      XI      subscript
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o XI) indicates that a su=
bscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subsc=
ripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following t=
he construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They=
 are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or t=
o make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The =
remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might natur=
ally be used.
+  Lojban gismu have at most five places:
+  6.1)   mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le ka=
rce
+       I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.
+
+  Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the=
 order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for =
individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Con=
version of , using =E2=
=80=9Cxe=E2=80=9D to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:
+  6.2)   le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le da=
rgu mi
+       The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house via-=
the road for-me.
+
+  And reordering of the place structures might produce:
+  6.3)   fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu=
 le karce cu klama
+       Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car, go.
+
+   to  all mean the same thing. But consi=
der the lujvo =E2=80=9Cnunkla=E2=80=9D, formed by applying the abstraction =
operator =E2=80=9Cnu=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D:
+  6.4)   la'edi'u cu nunkla
+            mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce
+       The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going
+            by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.
+
+   shows that =E2=
=80=9Cnunkla=E2=80=9D has six places: the five places of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=
=80=9D plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing trans=
formations similar to that of  requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6=
 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (see C=
hapter 19):
+  6.5)   le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi
+            le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u
+       The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-me
+            to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-se=
ntence.
+
+  Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of F=
A with a subscript:
+  6.6)   fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u
+            fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla
+       Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-last-sente=
nce,
+            to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.
+
+   to  also all mean the same thing, and =
each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortu=
red nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or F=
A could be substituted into =E2=80=9Csexixa=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cfaxixa=E2=
=80=9D without change of meaning: =E2=80=9Cvexixa=E2=80=9D means the same t=
hing as =E2=80=9Csexixa=E2=80=9D.
+  Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o=
 KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified sumt=
i to which they have been bound using =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D. The da-series,=
 on the other hand, are existentially or universally quantified variables. =
(These concepts are explained more fully in .) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo and 3 da-series cmavo available.
+  If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-serie=
s can be subscripted:
+  6.7)   daxivo
+       X sub 4
+
+  is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, an=
d
+  6.8)   ko'ixipaso
+       something-3 sub 18
+
+  is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series. =
This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequences =
of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that =E2=80=
=9Cdaxivo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdexivo=E2=80=9D are considered to be distin=
ct pro-sumti, unlike the situation with =E2=80=9Csexixa=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cvexixa=E2=80=9D above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to the bu'=
a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodo=E2=80=9D=
, and =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D.
+  Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical wa=
y to extend the number of variables:
+  6.9)   li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixi=
ci
+       The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3
+       x1  =3D x2  + x3
+  and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since l=
erfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantical=
ly equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In , note the required terminator =E2=80=9Cboi=E2=
=80=9D after each =E2=80=9Cxy.=E2=80=9D cmavo; this terminator allows the s=
ubscript to be attached without ambiguity.)
+  Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to =
distinguish two individuals with the same name:
+  6.10)  la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la =
djan. xire
+       John1 expresses =E2=80=9CI-am-not you=E2=80=
=9D to John2.
+
+  Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or pla=
ce that is described by the same general cmavo. For example, =E2=80=9Cpuxip=
a=E2=80=9D could refer to one point in the past, and =E2=80=9Cpuxire=E2=80=
=9D a second point (earlier or later).
+  You can place a subscript on the word =E2=80=9Cja'a=E2=80=9D, the =
bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usu=
al machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely =
=E2=80=9Ctrue=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cfalse=E2=80=9D, but is expressed by a nu=
mber in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor =E2=80=9Cjei=E2=80=9D=
:
+  6.11)  li pimu jei mi ganra
+       The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.
+
+  However, by convention we can attach a subscript to =E2=80=9Cja'a=
=E2=80=9D to indicate fuzzy truth (or to =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D if we change =
the amount):
+  6.12)  mi ja'a xipimu ganra
+       I truly-sub-.5 am-broad
+
+  Finally, as mentioned in , =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D cmavo with matching su=
bscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively.=
 Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.
+  Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.
+

+
+

+  7. Utterance ordinals: MAI
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     mai     MAI     utterance ordinal, -thly
+     mo'o    MAI     higher order utterance ordinal
+
+  Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English =E2=80=9Cfirstl=
y=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csecondly=E2=80=9D, and so on, can be created by suffix=
ing =E2=80=9Cmai=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D of selma'o MAI to a num=
ber or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:
+  7.1)   mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani
+       I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.
+
+  This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the hous=
e: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for conveni=
ence of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can be=
 inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or it=
s meaning.
+  Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI: =E2=80=9Cromai=E2=
=80=9D, for example, means =E2=80=9Call-thly=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Clastly=E2=
=80=9D. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list and have forgotten whi=
ch number is wanted next, you can say =E2=80=9Cny.mai=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=
=9CNthly=E2=80=9D.
+  The difference between =E2=80=9Cmai=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=
=80=9D is that =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D enumerates larger subdivisions of a t=
ext; =E2=80=9Cmai=E2=80=9D was designed for lists of numbered items, wherea=
s =E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D was intended to subdivide structured works. If thi=
s chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with =
=E2=80=9Cmo'o=E2=80=9D: this section would then be introduced with =E2=80=
=9Czemo'o=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9CSection 7.=E2=80=9D
+

+
+

+  8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     fu'e    FUhE    open attitudinal scope
+     fu'o    FUhO    close attitudinal scope
+
+  Lojban has a complex system of =E2=80=9Cattitudinals=E2=80=9D, wor=
ds which indicate the speaker=E2=80=99s attitude to what is being said. The=
 attitudinals include indicators of emotion, intensity markers, discursives=
 (which show the structure of discourse), and evidentials (which indicate =
=E2=80=9Chow the speaker knows=E2=80=9D). Most of these words belong to sel=
ma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons=
, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of =
UI and CAI are discussed in ; only the rul=
es for applying them in discourse are presented here.
+  Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. Howev=
er, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whol=
e construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal=
:
+  8.1)   mi viska le blanu .ia zdani [ku]
+       I see the blue [belief] house.
+       I see the house, which I believe to be blue.
+
+8.2)   mi viska le blanu zdani .ia [ku]
+       I see the blue house [belief].
+       I see the blue thing, which I believe to be a house.
+
+8.3)   mi viska le .ia blanu zdani [ku]
+       I see the [belief] blue house
+       I see what I believe to be a blue house.
+
+8.4)   mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia
+       I see (the blue house) [belief]
+       I see what I believe to be a blue house.
+
+  An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached to =
the preceding =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D, expressed or understood:
+  8.5)   [.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani
+       [belief] I see the blue house.
+       I believe I see a blue house.
+
+  or to an explicit =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D placed at the end of a bri=
di.
+  Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be a=
ttached to =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=80=9D. An attitudinal=
 at the beginning of a text applies to the whole text.
+  However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the r=
ange of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the bou=
ndaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cfu'e=
=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FUhE) and =E2=80=9Cfu'o=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FUhO) pr=
ovide explicit scope markers. Placing =E2=80=9Cfu'e=E2=80=9D in front of an=
 attitudinal disconnects it from what precedes it, and instead says that it=
 applies to all following words until further notice. The notice is given b=
y =E2=80=9Cfu'o=E2=80=9D, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-forc=
e attitudinals. For example:
+  8.6)   mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
+       I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor
+       I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.
+
+  Here, only the =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D portion of the three-=
part tanru =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani ponse=E2=80=9D is marked as a belief of the=
 speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules =
for interpreting multi-part tanru: =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D groups fir=
st because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with =E2=80=9Ck=
e=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D.
+  Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudina=
ls marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active atti=
tudinals rather than superseding them.
+

+
+

+  9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     lu      LU      begin quotation
+     li'u    LIhU    end quotation
+     lo'u    LOhU    begin error quotation
+     le'u    LEhU    end error quotation
+
+  Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them a=
re sumti, and they all mean something like =E2=80=9Cthe piece of text here =
quoted=E2=80=9D:
+  9.1)   mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u]
+       I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote]
+       I said, =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m John=E2=80=9D.
+
+  But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the l=
anguage, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the case,=
 quotation deserves some elaboration.
+  The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in , uses the cmavo =E2=80=9Clu=E2=80=9D (of sel=
ma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and the cmavo =E2=80=9Cli'u=E2=80=
=9D (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between =E2=
=80=9Clu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cli'u=E2=80=9D must be a valid, parseable Loj=
ban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expressi=
on. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cli'u=E2=80=9D is technically an elidable terminator,=
 but it=E2=80=99s almost never possible to elide it except at the end of te=
xt.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LOhU) and =E2=80=9Cle=
'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not =
necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morpholog=
ically correct Lojban words (as defined in =
), so that the =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D can be picked out reliably. The words=
 need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or=
 cmene. Quotation with =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D is essential to quoting ungra=
mmatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that =
is used in English to mark such errors:
+  9.2)   lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna l=
a lojban.
+       [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-structu=
re in Lojban.
+
+   is grammatical=
 even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly, =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=
=9D quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constit=
ute grammatical utterances:
+  9.3)   lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u=
 viska le le'u
+            cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u
+       [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] viska le [un=
quote]
+            is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote].
+       In the sentence =E2=80=9Cle mlatu viska le finpe=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cviska le=E2=80=9D should be replaced by =E2=80=9Cviska lo=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Note the topic-comment formulation () and the indicator applying to the selbri only (). Neither =E2=80=9Cviska le=E2=80=9D nor =E2=
=80=9Cviska lo=E2=80=9D is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require =E2=
=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotation.
+  Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can r=
efer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when =E2=80=9Clu ... li'u=E2=
=80=9D is used, but not when =E2=80=9Clo'u ... le'u=E2=80=9D is used:
+  9.4)   la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u
+            .iku'i ri jmive
+       Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote].
+            However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.
+       Charlie says =E2=80=9CThe woman is dead=E2=80=9D, but she is alive.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cr=
i=E2=80=9D is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previous sumti, n=
amely =E2=80=9Cle ninmu=E2=80=9D. Compare:
+  9.5)   la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'=
u
+            .iku'i ri jmive
+       Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote].
+            However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.
+       Charlie says =E2=80=9Cle ninmu cu morsi=E2=80=9D, but he is alive.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cr=
i=E2=80=9D cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti =E2=80=9Cle ni=
nmu=E2=80=9D, because =E2=80=9Cle ninmu cu morsi=E2=80=9D is a mere uninter=
preted sequence of Lojban words. Instead, =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D ends up refe=
rring to the referent of the sumti =E2=80=9Cla tcarlis.=E2=80=9D, and so it=
 is Charlie who is alive.
+  The metalinguistic erasers =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D, discussed in , do not operate in text between =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D. Since the first =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D terminates a =
=E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotation, it is not directly possible to have a =E2=
=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotation within another =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotati=
on. However, it is possible for a =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D to occur within a =
=E2=80=9Clo'u ... le'u=E2=80=9D quotation by preceding it with the cmavo =
=E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, discussed in . Note that =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D is not an elidable terminator; it is =
required.
+

+
+

+  10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     zo      ZO      quote single word
+     zoi     ZOI     non-Lojban quotation
+     la'o    ZOI     non-Lojban name
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotati=
on mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoe=
ver. Among other uses, =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D allows a metalinguistic word to=
 be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must=
 be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban =
word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:
+  10.1)  zo si cu lojbo valsi
+       =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is a Lojbanic word.
+
+  Since =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D acts on a single word only, there is no=
 corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of =E2=80=9C=
zo=E2=80=9D, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely =
or never elidable.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation ma=
rk for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is =E2=80=9Czoi X. text .X=E2=80=
=9D, where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separat=
ed from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written te=
xt or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the ler=
fu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the languag=
e being quoted:
+  10.2)  zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra
+       =E2=80=9CJohn is a man=E2=80=9D is an English sentence.
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cgy=E2=80=9D stands for =E2=80=9Cglico=E2=80=9D. Oth=
er popular choices of delimiting words are =E2=80=9C.kuot.=E2=80=9D, a Lojb=
an name which sounds like the English word =E2=80=9Cquote=E2=80=9D, and the=
 word =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word su=
ggesting the topic of the quotation.
+  Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimiting =
word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimitin=
g word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-vis=
ual isomorphism:  is fi=
ne in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas  is correct when written but ungrammatical in s=
peech.
+  10.3)  ?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyratio=
ns .gy.
+       I know about the word which-is =E2=80=9Cgyrations=E2=80=9D.
+
+10.4)  ?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai
+       I know about the word which-is =E2=80=9Cgyrations=E2=80=9D.
+
+  The text =E2=80=9Cgy=E2=80=9D appears in the written word =E2=80=
=9Cgyrations=E2=80=9D, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by =E2=80=9C=
jai=E2=80=9D appears in the spoken word =E2=80=9Cgyrations=E2=80=9D. Such b=
orderline cases should be avoided as a matter of good style.
+  It should be noted particularly that =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D quotati=
on is the only way to quote rafsi, specifically CCV rafsi, because they are=
 not Lojban words, and =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D quotation is the only way to q=
uote things which are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names =
and cmavo respectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For exam=
ple:
+  10.5)  zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku
+       =E2=80=9Csku=E2=80=9D is a rafsi of =E2=80=9Ccusku=E2=80=9D.
+
+  (A minor note on interaction between =E2=80=9Clo'u ... le'u=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D: The text between =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-Lo=
jban material in the form of a =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D quotation may also app=
ear. However, if the word =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D is used either as the deli=
miting word for the =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D quotation, or within the quotatio=
n itself, the outer =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotation will be prematurely te=
rminated. Therefore, =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D should be avoided as the delimi=
ting word in any =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D quotation.)
+  Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the names =
of things:
+  10.6)  zo .bab. cmene la bab.
+       The-word =E2=80=9CBob=E2=80=9D is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C=
zo .bab.=E2=80=9D is the word, whereas =E2=80=9Cla bab.=E2=80=9D is the thi=
ng named by the word. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clu'e=E2=
=80=9D (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between references and thei=
r referents:
+  10.7)  zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab.
+       The-word =E2=80=9CBob=E2=80=9D is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-w=
ord =E2=80=9CBob=E2=80=9D.
+
+10.8)  lu'e la bab. cmene la bab.
+       A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.
+
+   through  all mean approximately the =
same thing, except for differences in emphasis.  is different:
+  10.9)  la bab. cmene la bab.
+       Bob is the name of Bob.
+
+  and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlikel=
y situation. People are not names.
+  (In  through <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example7"/>, the name =E2=80=9Cbab.=
=E2=80=9D was separated from a preceding =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D by a pause, t=
hus: =E2=80=9Czo .bab.=E2=80=9D. The reason for this extra pause is that al=
l Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word other tha=
n =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cla'i=E2=80=9D (all =
of selma'o LA) and =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o DOI). There are numero=
us other cmavo that may precede a name: of these, =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D is o=
ne of the most common.)
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and =
is mentioned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginni=
ng of a quotation. Instead, =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D serves to mark non-Lojba=
n names, especially the Linnaean binomial names (such as =E2=80=9CHomo sapi=
ens=E2=80=9D) which are the internationally standardized names for species =
of animals and plants. Internationally known names which can more easily be=
 recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such as =E2=80=9CGoethe=
=E2=80=9D, can also appear in Lojban text with =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D:
+  10.10) la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo=
 sapiens .ly.
+       Goethe is a Homo sapiens.
+
+  Using =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D for all names rather than Lojbanizing=
, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of =E2=80=9Cl=
a'o=E2=80=9D might be =E2=80=9Cla me zoi=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ba'e    BAhE    emphasize next word
+     za'e    BAhE    next word is nonce
+
+  English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for co=
ntrastive emphasis, thus
+  11.1)  I saw George.
+
+  is quite different from
+  11.2)  I saw George.
+
+  The heavy stress on =E2=80=9CGeorge=E2=80=9D =
(represented in writing by italics) indicates that I s=
aw George rather than someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way:=
 stress is used only to help separate words (because every brivla is stress=
ed on the penultimate syllable) and in names to match other languages=E2=80=
=99 stress patterns. Note that many other languages do not use stress in th=
is way either; typically word order is rearranged, producing something like=

+  11.3)  It was George whom I saw.
+
+  In Lojban, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cba'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BAhE) prec=
edes a single word which is to be emphasized:
+  11.4)  mi viska la ba'e .djordj.
+       I saw the-one-named [emphasis] =E2=80=9CGeorge=E2=80=9D.
+       I saw George.
+
+  Note the pause before the name =E2=80=9Cdjordj.=E2=80=9D, which se=
rves to separate it unambiguously from the =E2=80=9Cba'e=E2=80=9D. Alternat=
ively, the =E2=80=9Cba'e=E2=80=9D can be moved to a position before the =E2=
=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct =E2=80=9C=
la djordj.=E2=80=9D:
+  11.5)  mi viska ba'e la djordj.
+       I saw [emphasis] the-one-named =E2=80=9CGeorge=E2=80=9D.
+       I saw George.
+
+  Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word=E2=80=
=99s grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphas=
is marking:
+  11.6)  ba'e mi viska la djordj.
+       I, no one else, saw George.
+
+11.7)  mi ba'e viska la djordj.
+       I saw (not heard or smelled) George.
+
+  Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can=
 also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker=
=E2=80=99s or writer=E2=80=99s usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, o=
r the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.
+  For completeness, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cza'e=E2=80=9D should be menti=
oned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-stan=
dard, or nonce (created for the occasion):
+  11.8)  mi klama la za'e. .albeinias
+       I go-to so-called Albania
+
+  marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropriate=
 standard form might be something like =E2=80=9Cla ctiipyris.=E2=80=9D, ref=
lecting the country=E2=80=99s name in Albanian.
+  Before a lujvo or fu'ivla, =E2=80=9Cza'e=E2=80=9D indicates that t=
he word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not=
 found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!=
).
+

+
+

+  12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</titl=
e>
+  <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+     to      TO      open parenthesis
+     to'i    TO      open editorial parenthesis
+
+     toi     TOI     close parenthesis
+
+     sei     SEI     metalinguistic bridi marker
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The cmavo =E2=80=9Cto=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctoi=E2=80=9D are discu=
rsive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for inserting parenthetical remarks. =
Any text whatsoever can go within the parentheses, and it is completely inv=
isible to its context. It can, however, refer to the context by the use of =
pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been assigned in the context are sti=
ll assigned in the parenthetical remarks, but the reverse is not true.</par=
a>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example1"/>12.1)  doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko=
 sisti toi do viska le mlatu
+       O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!) you see=
 the cat.
+       Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.
+</programlisting>
+  <para><xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example1"/> implicitly re=
defines =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D within the parentheses: the listener is change=
d by =E2=80=9Cdoi frank.=E2=80=9D When the context sentence resumes, howeve=
r, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.</para>
+  <para>There is another cmavo of selma'o TO: =E2=80=9Cto'i=E2=80=9D. The =
difference between =E2=80=9Cto=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cto'i=E2=80=9D is the d=
ifference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks=
 within =E2=80=9Cto ... toi=E2=80=9D cmavo are implicitly by the same speak=
er, whereas remarks within =E2=80=9Cto'i ... toi=E2=80=9D are implicitly by=
 someone else, perhaps an editor:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d2"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example2"/>12.2)  la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do=
 du la djein. toi li'u
+       Frank expresses =E2=80=9CI love you [you =3D Jane]=E2=80=9D
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The =E2=80=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'=
o UI) meaning =E2=80=9Ceditorial insertion=E2=80=9D, and indicating that th=
e marked word or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is n=
ot part of the quotation. It is required whenever the =E2=80=9Cto'i ... toi=
=E2=80=9D remark is physically within quotation marks, at least when speaki=
ng to literal-minded listeners; the convention may be relaxed if no actual =
confusion results.</para>
+  <para>Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the pre=
vious word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents of=
 subscripts and other such so-called =E2=80=9Cfree modifiers=E2=80=9D. Sema=
ntically, however, parenthetical remarks are not necessarily attached eithe=
r to what precedes them or what follows them.</para>
+  <para>The cmavo =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedde=
d discursive bridi. Comments added with =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D are called =
=E2=80=9Cmetalinguistic=E2=80=9D, because they are comments about the disco=
urse itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This sen=
se of the term =E2=80=9Cmetalinguistic=E2=80=9D is used throughout this cha=
pter, and is not to be confused with the sense =E2=80=9Clanguage for expres=
sing other languages=E2=80=9D.</para>
+  <para>When marked with =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D, a metalinguistic utterance=
 can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discurs=
ives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:</para=
>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example3"/>12.3)  la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la dje=
in.
+       Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Using the happiness attitudinal, =E2=80=9C.ui=E2=80=9D, would impl=
y that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to =
Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:</p=
ara>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example4"/>12.4)  la frank. prami sei gleki la djein.
+       Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The grammar of the bridi following =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D has an un=
usual limitation: the sumti must either precede the selbri, or must be glue=
d into the selbri with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbei=E2=80=9D:</par=
a>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example5"/>12.5)  la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. l=
a djein.
+       Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>This restriction allows the terminator cmavo =E2=80=9Cse'u=E2=80=
=9D to almost always be elided.</para>
+  <para>Since a discursive utterance is working at a =E2=80=9Chigher=E2=80=
=9D level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive =
utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various=
 back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore=
 the utterances at =E2=80=9Chigher=E2=80=9D metalinguistic levels in determ=
ining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to =
lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English =E2=80=9Che said=E2=
=80=9D in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this purpose, quotations ar=
e considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than the surrounding con=
text (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of the one who quotes it=
), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be at a higher level tha=
n the context.</para>
+  <para>Lojban works differently from English in that the =E2=80=9Che said=
=E2=80=9D can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojban, you can say:</=
para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d6"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example6"/>12.6)  la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
+       John expresses =E2=80=9CI go to-the store=E2=80=9D.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the c=
entral claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversation,=
 this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a c=
onversation, you don=E2=80=99t want the =E2=80=9Che said=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=
=9Cshe said=E2=80=9D to be considered part of the conversation. If unmarked=
, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d7"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example7"/>12.7)  lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusk=
u be dei li'u
+       =E2=80=9CI go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence)=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9CI go to the store=E2=80=9D, said John.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>And of course other orders are possible:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d8"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapt=
er19-section12-example8"/>12.8)  lu seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei mi klama =
le zarci
+       John said, =E2=80=9CI go to the store=E2=80=9D.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d9"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-exa=
mple9"/>12.9)  lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci
+       =E2=80=9CI go=E2=80=9D, John said, =E2=80=9Cto the store=E2=80=9D.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Note the =E2=80=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D following each =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=
=9D, marking the =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D and its attached bridi as an editori=
al insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these =E2=80=
=9Csa'a=E2=80=9D cmavo would probably be dropped.</para>
+  <para>The elidable terminator for =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cse'u=
=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to separate a selb=
ri within the =E2=80=9Csei=E2=80=9D comment from an immediately following s=
elbri (or component) outside the comment.</para>
+</section>
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13">
+  <title>13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     si      SI      erase word
+     sa      SA      erase phrase
+     su      SU      erase discourse
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic=
 operator that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken:
+  13.1)  ti gerku si mlatu
+       This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.
+
+  means the same thing as =E2=80=9Cti mlatu=E2=80=9D. Multiple =E2=
=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of words=
:
+  13.2)  ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani
+       That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.
+
+  In order to erase the word =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, it is necessary t=
o use three =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D cmavo in a row:
+  13.3)  zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la bab.
+       The-word =E2=80=9CBob=E2=80=9D is-the-name-of the word =E2=80=9Csi=
=E2=80=9D, er, er, Bob.
+
+  The first use of =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D does not erase anything, but=
 completes the =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D quotation. Two more =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=
=9D cmavo are then necessary to erase the first =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D and th=
e =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D.
+  Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=
=9D:
+  13.4)  mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanto=
n.
+       I talk in-language that-named =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Csperan=
to=E2=80=9D, er, er, Esperanto.
+
+  The Lojbanized spelling =E2=80=9C.esperanto=E2=80=9D breaks up, as=
 a consequence of the Lojban morphology rules (see ) into two Lojban words, the cmavo =E2=80=9C.e=E2=80=9D and the und=
efined fu'ivla =E2=80=9Csperanto=E2=80=9D. Therefore, two =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=
=9D cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course, =E2=80=9C.e speranto=E2=80=
=9D is not grammatical after =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, but recognition of =E2=
=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is done before grammatical analysis.
+  Even more messy is the result of an incorrect =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=
=9D:
+  13.5)  mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy.  si si si si zo =
.djan
+       I express [foreign] [quote] =E2=80=9Cgy=E2=80=9D [unquote], er, er,=
 er, er, =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D.
+
+  In , the first=
 =E2=80=9Cfy=E2=80=9D is taken to be the delimiting word. The next word mus=
t be different from the delimiting word, and =E2=80=9Cgy.=E2=80=9D, the Loj=
ban name for the letter =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D, was chosen arbitrarily. Then t=
he delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D e=
rasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a word, so four words have be=
en uttered, and four more =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D cmavo are needed to erase th=
em altogether. Similarly, a stray =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotation mark mus=
t be erased with =E2=80=9Cfy. le'u si si si=E2=80=9D, by completing the quo=
tation and then erasing it all with three =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D cmavo.
+  What if less than the entire =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Czoi=
=E2=80=9D construct is erased? The result is something which has a loose =
=E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D in it, without its expected s=
equels, and which is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word =
quoted by =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, it turns out to be necessary to erase the =
=E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D as well:
+  13.6)  mi se cmene zo .djan.  si si zo .djordj.
+       I am-named-by the-word =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D, er, er, the-word =E2=
=80=9CGeorge=E2=80=9D.
+
+  The parser will reject =E2=80=9Czo .djan. si .djordj.=E2=80=9D, be=
cause in that context =E2=80=9Cdjordj.=E2=80=9D is a name (of selma'o CMENE=
) rather than a quoted word.
+  Note: The current machine parser does not implement =E2=80=9Csi=E2=
=80=9D erasure.
+  As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with =E2=80=
=9Csi=E2=80=9D can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one wor=
d. The cmavo following =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D should be the starting marker o=
f some grammatical construct. The effect of the =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D is to =
erase back to and including the last starting marker of the same kind. For =
example:
+  13.7)  mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan.
+       I see the  ...  I say the-word =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Since the word following =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=
=9D, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the preceding sentence.=
 So  is equivalent to:<=
/para>
+  13.8)  mi cusku zo .djan.
+
+  Another example, erasing a partial description rather than a parti=
al sentence:
+  13.9)  mi viska le blanu zdan. sa le xekri zdani
+       I see the blue hou ...  the black house.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9C=
le blanu zdan.=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects the speaker=
=E2=80=99s original intention to say =E2=80=9Cle blanu zdani=E2=80=9D. Howe=
ver, the =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D was cut off before the end and changed int=
o a name. The entire ungrammatical =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D construct is erased=
 and replaced by =E2=80=9Cle xekri zdani=E2=80=9D.
+  Note: The current machine parser does not implement =E2=80=9Csa=E2=
=80=9D erasure. Getting =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D right is even more difficult (=
for a computer) than getting =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D right, as the behavior of=
 =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is defined in terms of words rather than in terms of =
grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptually=
 simpler entities. On the other hand, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D is generally eas=
ier for human beings, because the rules for using it correctly are less fin=
icky.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D (of selma'o SU) is yet another meta=
linguistic operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text invol=
ves multiple speakers, then =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D will only erase the remark=
s made by the one who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Theref=
ore =E2=80=9Csusu=E2=80=9D is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in con=
versation.
+  Note: The current machine parser does not implement either =E2=80=
=9Csu=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csusu=E2=80=9D erasure.
+

+
+

+  14. Hesitation: Y
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     .y.     Y       hesitation noise
+
+  Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or fo=
r some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban: t=
o pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo =E2=80=
=9C.y.=E2=80=9D (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English hesitat=
ion noise written =E2=80=9Cuh=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cer=E2=80=9D), but diffe=
rs from it in the requirement for pauses before and after. Unlike a long pa=
use, it cannot be mistaken for having nothing more to say: it holds the flo=
or for the speaker. Since vowel length is not significant in Lojban, the =
=E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D sound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Furt=
hermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respec=
ted.
+  Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal langua=
ge, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers of =
other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, repea=
ting) a word (=E2=80=9Ceste=E2=80=9D in some dialects of Spanish, roughly m=
eaning =E2=80=9Cthat is=E2=80=9D), and Lojban=E2=80=99s audio-visual isomor=
phism requires a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. =
Of course, =E2=80=9C.y.=E2=80=9D has no grammatical significance: it can ap=
pear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.
+

+
+

+  15. No more to say: FAhO
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     fa'o    FAhO    end of text
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cfa'o=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually =
omitted marker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interactio=
n to indicate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the f=
loor during a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machin=
e parser takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is q=
uoted with =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D or with =E2=80=9Clo'u ... le'u=E2=80=9D. In=
 particular, it is not used at the end of subordinate texts quoted with =E2=
=80=9Clu ... li'u=E2=80=9D or parenthesized with =E2=80=9Cto ... toi=E2=80=
=9D.
+

+
+

+  16. List of cmavo interactions
+  The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recognized=
 by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of them =
interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in this=
 chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER CAS=
E.
+  
+    
+      =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D quotes the following word, no matter what=
 it is.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D erases the preceding word unless it is a =
=E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D erases the preceding word and other words=
, unless the preceding word is a =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D is the same as =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, but =
erases more words.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D quotes all following words up to a =E2=
=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D (but not a =E2=80=9Czo le'u=E2=80=9D).
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical except at the end of a=
 =E2=80=9Clo'u quotation.
+    
+    
+      ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no matt=
er what it is, but using =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D may create difficulties.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D combines the preceding and the following=
 word into a lujvo, but does not affect =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csi=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=
=9D, ZOI cmavo, =E2=80=9Cfa'o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is =E2=80=9Csi=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D, or unless it is p=
receded by =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in success=
ion.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D makes the preceding word into a lerfu wor=
d, except for =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D, ZOI cmavo, =E2=80=9Cfa'o=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D, BAhE cmavo, and =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D. Mul=
tiple =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D cmavo may be used in succession.
+    
+    
+      UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for =E2=80=9Cz=
o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D, ZOI, =E2=80=9Cfa'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czei=E2=
=80=9D, BAhE cmavo, and =E2=80=9Cbu=E2=80=9D. Multiple UI cmavo may be used=
 in succession. A following =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D is made part of the UI.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9C.y.=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cda'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfu'e=
=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfu'o=E2=80=9D are the same as UI, but do not absorb=
 a following =E2=80=9Cnai=E2=80=9D.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  17. List of Elidable Terminators
+  The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban. T=
he first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that st=
arts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kinds=
 of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cmav=
o of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo.
+  
+     be'o    BE              sumti attached to a tanru unit
+     boi     PA/BY           number or lerfu string
+     do'u    COI/DOI         vocative phrases
+     fe'u    FIhO            ad-hoc modal tags
+     ge'u    GOI             relative phrases
+     kei     NU              abstraction bridi
+     ke'e    KE              groups of various kinds
+     ku      LE/LA           description sumti
+     ku'e    PEhO            forethought mekso
+     ku'o    NOI             relative clauses
+     li'u    LU              quotations
+     lo'o    LI              number sumti
+     lu'u    LAhE/NAhE+BO    sumti qualifiers
+     me'u    ME              tanru units formed from sumti
+     nu'u    NUhI            forethought termsets
+     se'u    SEI/SOI         metalinguistic insertions
+     te'u    various         mekso conversion constructs
+     toi     TO              parenthetical remarks
+     tu'u    TUhE            multiple sentences or paragraphs
+     vau     (none)          simple bridi or bridi-tails
+     ve'o    VEI             mekso parentheses
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2dd465b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,628 @@
+
+  Chapter 2
+A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams
+
+
+

+  1. The concept of the bridi
+  This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence st=
ructures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive=
 variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many =
more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in lat=
er chapters, so this chapter is a =E2=80=9Cquick tour=E2=80=9D of the mater=
ial later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most =
of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.
+  Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:
+  1.1)  John is the father of Sam.
+
+1.2)  John hits Sam.
+
+1.3)  John is taller than Sam.
+
+  These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. Ho=
wever, in English, we use the noun =E2=80=9Cfather=E2=80=9D to describe a s=
tatic relationship in , t=
he verb =E2=80=9Chits=E2=80=9D to describe an active relationship in , and the adjective =E2=80=9Cta=
ller=E2=80=9D to describe an attributive relationship in . In Lojban we make no such grammatical dis=
tinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurall=
y identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship.=
 In formal logic this whole structure is called a =E2=80=9Cpredication=E2=
=80=9D; in Lojban it is called a =E2=80=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D, and the central p=
art of speech is the =E2=80=9Cselbri=E2=80=9D. Logicians refer to the thing=
s thus related as =E2=80=9Carguments=E2=80=9D, while Lojbanists call them =
=E2=80=9Csumti=E2=80=9D. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of th=
e book.
+  
+    
+      
+    
+  
+  
+    [svg version]
+    
+      
+    
+  
+  
+  
+         bridi (predicate)
+    ______________|________________
+    |                              |
+    John     is the father of    Sam
+    |___|    |______________|   |___|
+       |              |           |
+    sumti      selbri       sumti (argument)
+
+  In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being rel=
ated. In English, for example, =E2=80=9Cgive=E2=80=9D has three places: the=
 donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:
+  1.4)  John gives Sam the book.
+
+  and
+  1.5)  Sam gives John the book.
+
+  mean two different things because the relative positions of =E2=80=
=9CJohn=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CSam=E2=80=9D have been switched. Further,
+  1.6)  The book gives John Sam.
+
+  seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by =
unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by =E2=80=9Cgive=E2=80=9D =
has not changed.
+  In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of argument=
s, known collectively as its =E2=80=9Cplace structure=E2=80=9D. The simples=
t kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a =E2=80=9Cgismu=E2=
=80=9D, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explic=
itly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing th=
e relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti p=
laces.
+  This book uses the Lojban terms =E2=80=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
sumti=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cselbri=E2=80=9D, because it is best to come to=
 understand them independently of the English associations of the correspon=
ding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.
+  The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the bo=
ok) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (=
=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.
+

+
+

+  2. Pronunciation
+  Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in , but what follows will keep the reader from going too=
 far astray while digesting this chapter.
+  Lojban has six recognized vowels: =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D an=
d =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D. The first five are roughly pronounced as =E2=80=9Ca=
=E2=80=9D as in =E2=80=9Cfather=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D as in =E2=80=
=9Clet=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D as in =E2=80=9Cmachine=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Co=E2=80=9D as in =E2=80=9Cdome=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D as in=
 =E2=80=9Cflute=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is pronounced as the sound ca=
lled =E2=80=9Cschwa=E2=80=9D, that is, as the unstressed =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=
=9D as in =E2=80=9Cabout=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Caround=E2=80=9D.
+  Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their c=
ounterparts are in English: =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cv=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D. The letter =
=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, on the other hand is pronounced as the =E2=80=9Csh=E2=
=80=9D in =E2=80=9Chush=E2=80=9D, while =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D is its voiced c=
ounterpart, the sound of the =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D in =E2=80=9Cpleasure=E2=80=
=9D. =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D is always pronounced as it is in =E2=80=9Cgift=E2=
=80=9D, never as in =E2=80=9Cgiant=E2=80=9D. =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D is as in =
=E2=80=9Csell=E2=80=9D, never as in =E2=80=9Crose=E2=80=9D. The sound of =
=E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D is not found in English in normal words. It is found as=
 =E2=80=9Cch=E2=80=9D in Scottish =E2=80=9Cloch=E2=80=9D, as =E2=80=9Cj=E2=
=80=9D in Spanish =E2=80=9Cjunta=E2=80=9D, and as =E2=80=9Cch=E2=80=9D in G=
erman =E2=80=9CBach=E2=80=9D; it also appears in the English interjection =
=E2=80=9Cyecchh!=E2=80=9D. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The le=
tter =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D can be trilled, but doesn=E2=80=99t have to be.
+  The Lojban diphthongs =E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Coi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cau=E2=80=9D are pronounced much as in th=
e English words =E2=80=9Csigh=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csay=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cboy=
=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Chow=E2=80=9D. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=
 =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D pronounced like English =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D (for examp=
le, =E2=80=9Cio=E2=80=9D is pronounced =E2=80=9Cyo=E2=80=9D) or else with a=
 =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D pronounced like English =E2=80=9Cw=E2=80=9D (for examp=
le, =E2=80=9Cua=E2=80=9D is pronounced =E2=80=9Cwa=E2=80=9D).
+  Lojban also has three =E2=80=9Csemi-letters=E2=80=9D: the period, =
the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pau=
se; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The =
apostrophe sounds just like the English letter =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D. Unlike =
a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor=
 is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. =
The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllable=
s that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.
+  Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless=
 that vowel is =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D, which is never stressed; in such words =
the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, th=
en that syllable is not stressed.
+  All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no =
silent letters.
+

+
+

+  3. Words that can act as sumti
+  Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table pr=
ovides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found =
in .
+  
+    mi       I/me, we/us
+    do      you
+    ti      this, these
+    ta      that, those
+    tu      that far away, those far away
+    zo'e    unspecified value (used when a sumti is
+            unimportant or obvious)
+
+  Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), n=
or gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally=
 added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=
=9Ctu=E2=80=9D refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not=
 be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.
+  Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with t=
he word =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D:
+  
+   la meris.   the one/ones named Mary
+   la djan.    the one/ones named John
+
+  Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other l=
anguages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban =
names: see  for more information.
+

+
+

+  4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations
+  Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this =
chapter:
+  
+    vecnu   x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)
+    tavla   x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in languag=
e x4
+    sutra   x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)
+    blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green
+    melbi   x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3
+    cutci   x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)
+    bajra   x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)
+    klama   x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x=
4 (route) using
+            x5 (means of transportation)
+    pluka   x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3
+    gerku   x1 is a dog of breed x2
+    kurji   x1 takes care of x2
+    kanro   x1 is healthy by standard x2
+    stali   x1 stays/remains with x2
+    zarci   x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3=
 (storekeeper)
+
+  Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role o=
f each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that =
order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and =
x5.
+  Like the table in , this =
table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because L=
ojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker=
 or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a =
basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German an=
d Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using wor=
ds that =E2=80=9Caren=E2=80=99t in the dictionary=E2=80=9D. Lojbanists are =
encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in=
 the development of the language.  explains=
 how to make new words, and  explains how =
to give them appropriate meanings.
+

+
+

+  5. Some simple Lojban bridi
+  Let=E2=80=99s look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure o=
f the gismu =E2=80=9Ctavla=E2=80=9D is
+  5.1)   x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4
+
+  where the =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9Des with following numbers represent t=
he various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the E=
nglish sentence. For example:
+  5.2)   John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.
+
+  has =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D in the x1 place, =E2=80=9CSam=E2=80=9D =
in the x2 place, =E2=80=9Cengineering=E2=80=9D in the x3 place, and =E2=80=
=9CLojban=E2=80=9D in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:
+  5.3)   Talking is going on,
+           with speaker John
+           and listener Sam
+           and subject matter engineering
+           and language Lojban.
+
+  The Lojban bridi corresponding to  will have the form
+  5.4)   x1 [cu] ta=
vlax2x3<=
foreignphrase xml:lang=3D"jbo" role=3D"sumti">x4
+  The word =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D serves as a separator between any pr=
eceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following =
examples.
+  5.5)   mitavladozo'ezo'e
+       I talk to you about something in some language.
+
+5.6)   dotavlamitazo'e
+       You talk to me about that thing in a language.
+
+5.7)   mitavlazo'etuti
+       I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.
+
+  ( is a bit unusu=
al, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a co=
py of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)
+  When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'e=
=E2=80=9D at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called =E2=
=80=9Cellipsis=E2=80=9D. =
 and  may be expressed th=
us:
+  5.8)   mitavlado
+       I talk to you (about something in some language).
+
+5.9)    dotavlamita
+        You talk to me about that thing (in some language).
+
+  Note that  is no=
t subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D =
in it is not at the end of the bridi.
+

+
+

+  6. Variant bridi structure
+  Consider the sentence
+  6.1)   mi       [cu] vecnuti<=
/foreignphrase>tazo'e
+       seller-x1     sells  goods-sold-x2  buyer-x3 price-x4
+       I             sell   this           to that  for some price.
+       I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.
+       (The price is obvious or unimportant.)
+
+   has one sumti (=
the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti b=
efore the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:
+  6.2)   miti           [cu] ve=
cnuta
+       seller-x1 goods-sold-x2     sells buyer-x3
+       I         this              sell  to that.
+       (translates as stilted or poetic English)
+       I this thing do sell to that buyer.
+
+6.3)   mitita      [cu] vecnu
+       seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3     sells
+       I         this          to that      sell.
+       (translates as stilted or poetic English)
+       I this thing to that buyer do sell.
+
+   through  mean the same thing. Usually, p=
lacing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for empha=
sis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native =
speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)
+  If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood tha=
t the x1 sumti value is equivalent to =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D; i.e. unimport=
ant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start c=
ounting from x2.
+  6.4)   ta            [cu] melbi
+       object/idea-x1     is-beautiful (to someone by some standard)
+       That/Those         is/are beautiful.
+       That is beautiful.
+       Those are beautiful.
+
+  when the x1 is omitted, becomes:
+  6.5)   ________   [cu] melbi
+       unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard)
+       Beautiful!
+       It=E2=80=99s beautiful!
+
+  Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has be=
come first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative,=
 because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the =
relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonl=
y understood English observatives include =E2=80=9CSmoke!=E2=80=9D upon see=
ing smoke or smelling the odor, or =E2=80=9CCar!=E2=80=9D to a person cross=
ing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an =
observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.
+  The word =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D does not occur in an observative; =
=E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the s=
elbri that needs to be kept separate for =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D to be used. W=
ith no sumti preceding the selbri, =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D is not permitted. S=
hort words like =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D which serve grammatical functions are =
called =E2=80=9Ccmavo=E2=80=9D in Lojban.
+

+
+

+  7. Varying the order of sumti
+  For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placin=
g one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cse=E2=
=80=9D, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the mea=
nings of the first and second sumti places. So
+  7.1)   mitavladoti
+       I talk to you about this.
+
+  has the same meaning as
+  7.2)   dose tavla=
miti
+       You are talked to by me about this.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cte=E2=80=9D, when used in the same location, sw=
itches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.
+  7.3)   mitavladoti
+       I talk to you about this.
+
+  has the same meaning as
+  7.4)   tite tavla=
domi
+       This is talked about to you by me.
+
+  Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the=
 second sumti has remained in the second place.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cve=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cxe=E2=80=9D switch the=
 first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respe=
ctively. These changes in the order of places are known as =E2=80=9Cconvers=
ions=E2=80=9D, and the =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cte=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cve=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cxe=E2=80=9D cmavo are said to convert the selb=
ri.
+  More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at =
one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However=
, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for co=
mplex manipulation of the sumti places. See  for details.
+  The effect is similar to what in English is called the =E2=80=9Cpa=
ssive voice=E2=80=9D. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place struc=
ture that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects =
when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as=
 =E2=80=9Cle selbri [ku]=E2=80=9D (see ).
+

+
+

+  8. The basic structure of longer utterances
+  People don=E2=80=99t always say just one sentence. Lojban has a sp=
ecific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The =
entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. Th=
e sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated =
by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D. These corresp=
ond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various=
 punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in writ=
ten English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the nex=
t sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentenc=
e.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D separates paragraphs (covering di=
fferent topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical str=
ucture of the text may be indicated by multiple =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9Ds, wi=
th perhaps =E2=80=9Cni'oni'oni'o=E2=80=9D used to indicate a chapter, =E2=
=80=9Cni'oni'o=E2=80=9D to indicate a section, and a single =E2=80=9Cni'o=
=E2=80=9D to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragrap=
h.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D separates sentences. It is sometime=
s compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of th=
e sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D=
, discussed in , is one such word=
 =E2=80=94 it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth=
.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit th=
e =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D even though she/he may be continuing on the same top=
ic.
+  It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D=
 before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it =
is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the e=
nd of the first speaker=E2=80=99s sentence). A good translation for =E2=80=
=9C.i=E2=80=9D is the =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D used in run-on sentences when p=
eople are talking informally: =E2=80=9CI did this, and then I did that, and=
 ..., and ...=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  9. tanru
+  When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, an=
d the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combin=
ations of gismu are called =E2=80=9Ctanru=E2=80=9D. For example,
+  9.1)   sutra tavla
+
+  has the place structure
+  9.2)   x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in =
language x4
+       x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4
+
+  When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the seco=
nd, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning=
 modifies the fourth, and so on. For example
+  9.3)   sutra tavla cutci
+
+  has the place structure
+  9.4)   s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of=
 material s3
+
+  That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a =
shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.
+  Note especially the use of =E2=80=9Ctype-of=E2=80=9D as a mechanis=
m for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this co=
nvention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative i=
nterpretations are also possible, however:
+  9.5)   bajra cutci
+       runner shoe
+
+  most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be i=
nterpreted in some imaginative instances as =E2=80=9Cshoes that run (by the=
mselves?)=E2=80=9D. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determin=
ed by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or=
 figurative meanings. Thus
+  9.6)   sutra tavla
+       fast-talker
+
+  would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the =
English idiom, and a
+  9.7)   jikca toldi
+       social butterfly
+
+  must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the=
 family Lepidoptera.
+  The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final compone=
nt of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of =E2=80=9Ckl=
ama=E2=80=9D:
+  9.8)   mi [cu] su=
tra klamala =
meris.
+       I       quickly-go  to Mary.
+
+  With the conversion =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D as the final compon=
ent of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of =E2=
=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place =
is the one who goes:
+  9.9)   mi [cu] su=
tra se klama=
la meris.
+       I       quickly am-gone-to by Mary.
+
+  The following example shows that there is more to conversion than =
merely switching places, though:
+  9.10)  la tam. [cu] melbi tavlala meris.
+       Tom          beautifully-talks to Mary.
+       Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary.
+
+  has the place structure of =E2=80=9Ctavla=E2=80=9D, but note the t=
wo distinct interpretations.
+  Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:
+  9.11)  la meris. [cu] melbi se tavlala tam.
+       Mary           is beautifully-talked-to by Tom.
+       Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom.
+
+  and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus o=
n Mary=E2=80=99s role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set=
 of possible interpretations.
+  Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term=
 is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:
+  9.12)  la tam. [cu] tavla melbila meris.
+       Tom          is talkerly-beautiful to Mary.
+
+9.13)  la tam. [cu] se tavla melb=
ila meris.
+       Tom          is audiencely-beautiful to Mary.
+
+  and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Ma=
ry changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the =
observer of beauty.
+

+
+

+  10. Description sumti
+  Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the lis=
tener and things we can point to. Let=E2=80=99s say I want to talk about a =
talker other than =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D. What I want to talk about would nat=
urally fit into the first place of =E2=80=9Ctavla=E2=80=9D. Lojban, it turn=
s out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and conv=
erts it to a sumti called a =E2=80=9Cdescription sumti=E2=80=9D. The descri=
ption sumti =E2=80=9Cle tavla ku=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cthe talker=E2=80=
=9D, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.
+  For example,
+  10.1)  mitavla<=
/foreignphrase>dole tavla ku
+  means the same as
+  10.2)  I talk to you about the talker
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cthe talker=E2=80=9D is presumably someone other tha=
n me, though not necessarily.
+  Similarly =E2=80=9Cle sutra tavla ku=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cthe fast=
 talker=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cle sutra te tavla ku=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cth=
e fast subject of talk=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cthe subject of fast talk=E2=80=
=9D. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the conte=
xt in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation withi=
n the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended on=
e.
+  In many cases the word =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D may be omitted. In par=
ticular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, s=
o:
+  10.3)  mitavla<=
/foreignphrase>dole tavla
+       I  talk-to you about-the talker
+
+  means exactly the same thing as .
+  There is a problem when we want to say =E2=80=9CThe fast one is ta=
lking.=E2=80=9D The =E2=80=9Cobvious=E2=80=9D translation =E2=80=9Cle sutra=
 tavla=E2=80=9D turns out to mean =E2=80=9Cthe fast talker=E2=80=9D, and ha=
s no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word =E2=80=9Ccu=
=E2=80=9D, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.
+  The word =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D has no meaning, and exists only to m=
ark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a prev=
ious sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other c=
mavo like =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cte=E2=80=9D. Thus:
+  10.4)  le sutra tavla
+       The fast talker
+
+10.5)  le sutra cu tavla
+       The fast one is talking.
+
+10.6)  le sutra se tav=
la
+       The fast talked-to one
+
+10.7)  le sutra cu se tavla
+       The fast one is talked to.
+
+  Consider the following more complex example, with two description =
sumti.
+  10.8)  mi [cu] =
tavlale vecn=
u [ku]le bla=
ri'o [ku]
+       I       talk-to the seller    about the blue-green-thing.
+
+  The sumti =E2=80=9Cle vecnu=E2=80=9D contains the selbri =E2=80=9C=
vecnu=E2=80=9D, which has the =E2=80=9Cseller=E2=80=9D in the x1 place, and=
 uses it in this sentence to describe a particular =E2=80=9Cseller=E2=80=9D=
 that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the list=
ener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-gr=
een thing in mind, which is described using =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D to mark =
=E2=80=9Cblari'o=E2=80=9D, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-gre=
en.
+  It is safe to omit both occurrences of =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D in , and it is also safe to om=
it the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  11. Examples of brivla
+  The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which ma=
y by itself express a selbri relation is called a =E2=80=9Cbrivla=E2=80=9D.=
 The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and f=
u'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical us=
es. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.
+  gismu:
+  11.1)  mi   [cu] klamatizo'ezo'eta
+       Go-er     goes  destination origin route means.
+       I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route=
).
+
+  lujvo:
+  11.2)  ta  [cu] blari'o
+       That    is-blue-green.
+
+  fu'ivla:
+  11.3)  ti  [cu] djarspageti
+       This     is-spaghetti.
+
+  Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stan=
d for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=
=80=9D, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, wi=
th any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the p=
reviously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:
+  11.4)  ta  [cu] go'i
+       That     too/same-as-last selbri.
+       That (is spaghetti), too.
+
+

+
+

+  12. The sumti =E2=80=9Cdi'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla'e di'u=E2=80=
=9D
+  In English, I might say =E2=80=9CThe dog is beautiful=E2=80=9D, an=
d you might reply =E2=80=9CThis pleases me.=E2=80=9D How do you know what =
=E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to conv=
ey the possible meanings of the English:
+  12.1)  le gerku [ku] cu melbi
+       The dog is beautiful.
+
+  The following three sentences all might translate as =E2=80=9CThis=
 pleases me.=E2=80=9D
+  12.2)  ti [cu] =
plukami
+       This (the dog) pleases me.
+
+  12.3)  di'u [cu] plukami
+       This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammati=
cal or sounds nice).
+
+  12.4)  la'e di'u [cu] pluka=
mi
+       This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beauti=
ful) pleases me.
+
+   uses one sumti=
 to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write =E2=80=
=9Cla'edi'u=E2=80=9D as a single word; it is used more often than =E2=80=9C=
di'u=E2=80=9D by itself.
+

+
+

+  13. Possession
+  =E2=80=9CPossession=E2=80=9D refers to the concept of specifying a=
n object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojba=
n possession is given in . A simple means o=
f expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the poss=
essor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: =
specifically, between the =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D and the selbri of the descri=
ption:
+  13.1)  le mi gerku cu sutra
+       The of-me dog  is fast.
+       My dog is fast.
+
+  In Lojban, possession doesn=E2=80=99t necessarily mean ownership: =
one may =E2=80=9Cpossess=E2=80=9D a chair simply by sitting on it, even tho=
ugh it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually i=
n the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more =
intimate relationships: =E2=80=9Cmy arm=E2=80=9D doesn=E2=80=99t mean =E2=
=80=9Csome arm I own=E2=80=9D but rather =E2=80=9Cthe arm that is part of m=
y body=E2=80=9D. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds=
 of possession precisely and easily.
+

+
+

+  14. Vocatives and commands
+  You may call someone=E2=80=99s attention to the fact that you are =
addressing them by using =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D followed by their name. The =
sentence
+  14.1)  doi djan.
+
+  means =E2=80=9COh, John, I=E2=80=99m talking to you=E2=80=9D. It a=
lso has the effect of setting the value of =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Cd=
o=E2=80=9D now refers to =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D until it is changed in some=
 way in the conversation. Note that  is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence neverth=
eless; it is known as a =E2=80=9Cvocative phrase=E2=80=9D.
+  Other cmavo can be used instead of =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D in a voca=
tive phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo =E2=80=
=9Ccoi=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Chello=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cco'o=E2=80=9D me=
ans =E2=80=9Cgood-bye=E2=80=9D. Either word may stand alone, they may follo=
w one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative p=
hrases with =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D do not need a pause before the name.)
+  14.2)  coi. djan.
+       Hello, John.
+
+14.3)  co'o. djan.
+       Good-bye, John.
+
+  Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main=
 bridi structure. If you say
+  14.4)  dotavla<=
/foreignphrase>
+       You are-talking.
+
+  you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a com=
mand in Lojban, substitute the word =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=
=80=9D. The bridi
+  14.5)  kotavla<=
/foreignphrase>
+  instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make  true; it means =E2=80=9CTalk!=
=E2=80=9D Other examples:
+  14.6)  kosutra<=
/foreignphrase>
+       Be fast!
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D need not be in the x1 place, but rather c=
an occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands t=
hat are very unlike English commands:
+  14.7)  mitavla<=
/foreignphrase>ko
+       Be talked to by me
+       Let me talk to you.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D can fill any appropriate sumti plac=
e, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:
+  14.8)  kokurji<=
/foreignphrase>ko
+  and
+  14.9)  kokokurji
+  both mean =E2=80=9CYou take care of you=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CBe t=
aken care of by you=E2=80=9D, or to put it colloquially, =E2=80=9CTake care=
 of yourself=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  15. Questions
+  There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations app=
ear in  and in various other chapters thro=
ughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti ques=
tions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D is used to create a sumti question:=
 it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be pla=
ced at the location of the =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D to make the bridi true. It =
can be translated as =E2=80=9CWho?=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9CWhat?=E2=80=9D in m=
ost cases, but also serves for =E2=80=9CWhen?=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9CWhere?=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9CWhy?=E2=80=9D when used in sumti places that express t=
ime, location, or cause. For example:
+  15.1)  matavla<=
/foreignphrase>domi
+       Who? talks to-you about-me.
+       Who is talking to you about me?
+
+  The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:
+  15.2)  la djan.
+       John (is talking to you about me).
+
+  Like =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D can occur in any p=
osition where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:
+  15.3)  do [cu] =
tavlama
+       You     talk    to what/whom?
+
+  A =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D can also appear in multiple sumti positions=
 in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once.
+  15.4)  ma [cu]  tavlama
+       What/Who talks    to what/whom?
+
+  The two separate =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D positions ask two separate q=
uestions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti=
 place.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D is the selbri analogue of =E2=80=9C=
ma=E2=80=9D. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a tru=
e relation if inserted in place of the =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D:
+  15.5)  do [cu] =
mo
+       You     are-what/do-what?
+
+  A =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D may be used anywhere a brivla or other selb=
ri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, =
=E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D is a very non-specific question. The response to the q=
uestion in  could be:
+  15.6)  mi [cu] =
melbi
+       I am beautiful.
+
+  or:
+  15.7)  mi [cu] =
tavla
+       I talk.
+
+  Clearly, =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D requires some cooperation between th=
e speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being ans=
wered. If context doesn=E2=80=99t make the question specific enough, the sp=
eaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construc=
tion such as a tanru (see ).
+  It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other un=
specified places in responding to a =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D question. Thus, th=
e respondent in  could h=
ave also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.=

+  Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered =E2=80=9C=
Yes=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9CNo=E2=80=9D, such as
+  15.8)  Are you talking to me?
+
+  Like all yes-or-no questions in English,  may be reformulated as
+  15.9)  Is it true that you are talking to me?
+
+  In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in prec=
isely the same way. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D, when placed in front of=
 a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So
+  15.10) xu              dotavlami
+       Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me?
+
+  is the Lojban translation of .
+  The answer =E2=80=9CYes=E2=80=9D may be given by simply restating =
the bridi without the =E2=80=9Cxu=E2=80=9D question word. Lojban has a shor=
thand for doing this with the word =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D, mentioned in . Instead of a negative answer, the =
bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done=
 by substituting sumti, it may be done with =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D as well.=
 For example:
+  15.11) xu dok=
anro
+       Are you healthy?
+
+  can be answered with
+  15.12) mikanr=
o
+       I am healthy.
+
+  or
+  15.13) go'i
+       I am healthy.
+
+    (Note that =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D to the questioner is =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=
=9D to the respondent.)
+
+  or
+  15.14) le tavla cu kanro
+       The talker is healthy.
+
+  or
+  15.15) le tavla cu go'i
+       The talker is healthy.
+
+  A general negative answer may be given by =E2=80=9Cna go'i=E2=80=
=9D. =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D may be placed before any selbri (but after the =
=E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D). It is equivalent to stating =E2=80=9CIt is not true =
that ...=E2=80=9D before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is=
 true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on=
 negative statements are available in .
+

+
+

+  16. Indicators
+  Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety o=
f intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written languag=
e. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha=
!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to cultu=
re.
+  Lojban has a group of cmavo known as =E2=80=9Cattitudinal indicato=
rs=E2=80=9D which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken sta=
tements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonati=
on or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinal=
s at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in t=
he bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:
+  16.1)  .ie mi [cu] klama
+       Agreement! I go.
+       Yep! I=E2=80=99ll go.
+
+16.2)  .ei mi [cu] klama
+       Obligation! I go.
+       I should go.
+
+16.3)  mi [cu] klamale melbi .ui [ku]
+       I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beaut=
iful
+            thing I=E2=80=99m going to).
+
+  Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group =
of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow f=
ree expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Us=
ing discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called =E2=80=9Cmetal=
inguistic=E2=80=9D features from the underlying statements and logical stru=
cture. By comparison, the English words =E2=80=9Cbut=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
also=E2=80=9D, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of e=
xample, are logically equivalent to =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, which does not h=
ave a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about,=
 and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that =E2=80=9Cbut=E2=80=9D =
basically means =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D.
+  16.4)  mi [cu] =
klama .i do<=
/foreignphrase> [cu] stali<=
/foreignphrase>
+       I go.  You stay.
+
+16.5)  mi [cu] klama .i ji'a do [cu] stali
+       I go.  In addition, you stay.  (added weight)
+
+16.6)  mi [cu] klama .i ku'i do [cu] stali
+       I go.  However, you stay.  (contrast)
+
+  Another group of indicators are called =E2=80=9Cevidentials=E2=80=
=9D. Evidentials show the speaker=E2=80=99s relationship to the statement, =
specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include =E2=
=80=9Cza'a=E2=80=9D (I directly observe the relationship), =E2=80=9Cpe'i=E2=
=80=9D (I believe that the relationship holds), =E2=80=9Cru'a=E2=80=9D (I p=
ostulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use =
this kind of words.
+  16.7)  pe'i do [cu] melbi
+       I opine!  You are beautiful.
+
+16.8)  za'a do [cu] melbi
+       I directly observe!  You are beautiful.
+
+

+
+

+  17. Tenses
+  In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category call=
ed tense: past, present, or future. The sentence
+  17.1)  John went to the store
+
+  necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas
+  17.2)  John is going to the store
+
+  is necessarily happening right now.
+  The Lojban sentence
+  17.3)  la djan.  [cu] klama=
le zarci
+       John      goes/went/will-go  to-the store
+
+  serves as a translation of either  or ,=
 and of many other possible English sentences as well. It is not marked for=
 tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future. T=
his rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time of a=
n event. A close translation of  would be:
+  17.4)  la djan.=
pu klamale z=
arci
+       John       [past] goes to-the store
+
+  where the tag =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D forces the sentence to refer to=
 a time in the past. Similarly,
+  17.5)  la djan.=
ca klamale z=
arci
+       John       [present] goes to-the store
+
+  necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag =E2=80=9Cca=
=E2=80=9D. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the=
 selbri, just after the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D, and they may make a =E2=80=9C=
cu=E2=80=9D unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tag=
s serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense in=
formation is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is =
picked up from context.
+  Lojban also extends the notion of =E2=80=9Ctense=E2=80=9D to refer=
 not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag =E2=80=
=9Cvu=E2=80=9D to specify that the event it describes happens far away from=
 the speaker:
+  17.6)  dovu vec=
nuzo'e
+       You yonder sell something-unspecified.
+
+  In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed=
 to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:
+  17.7)  le pu bajra [ku] cu            tavla
+       The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks.
+
+  (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don=E2=80=99t know when he or =
she talks.)
+  Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use=
 of =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D as adjectives, as in t=
he following example, which uses the tag =E2=80=9Cvi=E2=80=9D meaning =E2=
=80=9Cnearby=E2=80=9D:
+  17.8)  le vi bajra [ku]   cu tavla
+       The nearby runner     talks.
+       This runner talks.
+
+  Do not confuse the use of =E2=80=9Cvi=E2=80=9D in  with the cmavo =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, wh=
ich also means =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D, but in the sense of =E2=80=9Cthis th=
ing=E2=80=9D.
+  Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within =
a description, as in the following example (where =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D is t=
he tag for future time):
+  17.9)  le vi tavla [ku] cu ba klama
+       The here talker     [future] goes.
+       The talker who is here will go.
+       This talker will go.
+
+

+
+

+  18. Lojban grammatical terms
+  Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chap=
ter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themse=
lves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like =
=E2=80=9Cindicator=E2=80=9D in  that are n=
ot explained here. See the Index for further help with these.
+  
+    
+      bridi:
+      
+        predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main k=
ind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationshi=
p, or that some single object has some property.
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti:
+      
+        argument; words identifying something which stands in a spec=
ified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. Se=
e .
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri:
+      
+        logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words sp=
ecifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See=
 .
+      
+    
+    
+      cmavo:
+      
+        one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structura=
l word; a word used for its grammatical function.
+      
+    
+    
+      brivla:
+      
+        one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predica=
te word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4"/>.
+      
+    
+    
+      gismu:
+      
+        a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See .
+      
+    
+    
+      lujvo:
+      
+        a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in =
a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See  and .
+      
+    
+    
+      fu'ivla:
+      
+        a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in =
a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usua=
lly refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have as=
sociated rafsi. See .
+      
+    
+    
+      rafsi:
+      
+        a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; =
can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid wor=
d by itself. See .
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru:
+      
+        a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmav=
o, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part=
 modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See=
 .
+      
+    
+    
+      selma'o:
+      
+        a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can app=
ear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but d=
iffer in meaning or other usage. See .
+      
+    
+  
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3401746
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,812 @@
+
+  Chapter 20
+A Catalogue of selma'o
+
+
+

+  
+  <!--
+      <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br />
+      mkhtml: 1.1</h6>
+      -->
+  <para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a br=
ief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter num=
ber where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are giv=
en in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the capital of =
=E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often the=
 most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given of=
 each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is =
shown.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"A"/>selma'o A (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chapte=
r14-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D), usually between sumti.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci
+    John and/or Jane goes to the store.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with =E2=80=9C=
bu=E2=80=9D.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BAI"/>selma'o BAI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter9-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not oth=
erwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a sin=
gle place of some other selbri.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi tavla bau la lojban.
+    I speak in-language Lojban.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE"/>selma'o BAhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (one =
invented for the occasion).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci
+    <emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store.
+    It is George who goes to the store.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BE"/>selma'o BE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit mak=
ing up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, and =
successive places in that order. <xref linkend=3D"BE"/> is most useful in d=
escriptions formed with <xref linkend=3D"LE"/>. See <xref linkend=3D"BEI"/>=
, <xref linkend=3D"BEhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama be ta troci
+    I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier.
+    I try to go to that place.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BEI"/>selma'o BEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter5-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Separates multiple sumti attached by <xref linkend=3D"BE"/> to a t=
anru unit.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci
+    I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier.
+    I try to go from the home to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO"/>selma'o BEhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter5-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"BE"/>. Terminates sumti t=
hat are attached to a tanru unit.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama be le zarci be'o troci
+    I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier.
+    I try to go to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE"/>selma'o BIhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priority =
than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</para=
>
+  <programlisting>
+    li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze
+    The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17.
+    3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI"/>selma'o BIhI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to form =
intervals. See <xref linkend=3D"GAhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.
+    I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.
+    I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BO"/>selma'o BO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section3"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section6"/>, <xref linkend=
=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to bin=
d logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc. <xref linke=
nd=3D"BO"/> is always high precedence and right-grouping.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
+    That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).
+    That is a small school for girls.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BOI"/>selma'o BOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"PA"/> or <xref linkend=3D=
"BY"/>. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric cmavo) or lerfu strin=
g (string of letter words) when another string immediately follows.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li re du li vu'u voboi re
+    The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BU"/>selma'o BU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter17-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word repre=
senting a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a symbo=
l or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to single-=
vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu
+    a, e, i, o, u, y.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"BY"/>selma'o BY (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter17-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus variou=
s shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termina=
ted by BOI.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami
+    A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers.
+    A talks to B about IBM computers.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CAI"/>selma'o CAI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter13-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or n=
ot at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion.<=
/para>
+  <programlisting>
+    .ei cai mi klama le zarci
+    [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market.
+    I must go to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA"/>selma'o CAhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential (a=
chieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ro datka ka'e flulimna
+    All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers.
+    All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CEI"/>selma'o CEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter7-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: =
=E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cbrodo=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D, for later use.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda
+         .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu
+    This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.
+         The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE"/>selma'o CEhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section11"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridge=
head>
+  <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associat=
e several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for=
 special constructs in tenses.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
+    I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
+    I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CO"/>selma'o CO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so th=
at the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
+    I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).
+    I try to go to the market from the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"COI"/>selma'o COI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter6-section11"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13-section14"/>)</bridgehe=
ad>
+  <para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocativ=
e: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). Vo=
catives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewell,=
 and radio communication. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"DOhU"/>. See <xref=
 linkend=3D"DOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    coi .djan.
+    Greetings, John.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CU"/>selma'o CU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter9-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it. N=
ever strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable ter=
minators.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le gerku cu klama le zarci
+    The dog goes to-the store.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE"/>selma'o CUhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section24"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the rest =
of the bridi is true. See <xref linkend=3D"PU"/>, <xref linkend=3D"CAhA"/>,=
 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE"/>, and <xref linkend=3D"BAI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    do cu'e klama le zarci
+    You [When/Where?] go to-the store?
+    When are you going to the store?
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO"/>selma'o DAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter7-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o <=
xref linkend=3D"KOhA"/>) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o <xref linkend=3D"GOhA"=
/>).</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"DOI"/>selma'o DOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter13-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without <=
xref linkend=3D"COI"/>. No pause is required between =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D =
and a following name. See <xref linkend=3D"DOhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    doi frank. mi tavla do
+    O Frank, I speak-to you.
+    Frank, I=E2=80=99m talking to you.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU"/>selma'o DOhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter13-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"COI"/> or <xref linkend=
=3D"DOI"/>. Signals the end of a vocative.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    coi do'u
+    Greetings [terminator]
+    Greetings, O unspecified one!
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FA"/>selma'o FA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter9-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place s=
tructure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce
+    x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car.
+    I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FAhA"/>selma'o FAhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked wit=
h <xref linkend=3D"MOhI"/>) or along which (when prefixed by <xref linkend=
=3D"VEhA"/> or <xref linkend=3D"VIhA"/>) the action of the bridi takes plac=
e.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku
+    The man [left] bites the dog.
+    To my left, the man bites the dog.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FAhO"/>selma'o FAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section15"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there is=
 no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE"/>selma'o FEhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using <xref linken=
d=3D"TAhE"/>, <xref linkend=3D"ROI"/>, or <xref linkend=3D"ZAhO"/>) refers =
to space rather than time.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
+    You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain.
+    Sow the grain in a line and evenly!
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU"/>selma'o FEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter9-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"FIhO"/>. Indicates the en=
d of an ad hoc modal tag: the tagged sumti immediately follows.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle
+    I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing
+    I see you with the left eye.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FIhO"/>selma'o FIhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter9-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal ta=
g, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o <xref l=
inkend=3D"BAI"/>. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"FEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle
+    I see you with eye the left-thing
+    I see you with my left eye.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FOI"/>selma'o FOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter17-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins wit=
h <xref linkend=3D"TEI"/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
+    ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D )
+    the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA"/>selma'o FUhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section16"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be inte=
rpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators foll=
ow their operands.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo
+    the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four
+    2 + 2 =3D 4
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE"/>selma'o FUhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o <xref linkend=
=3D"UI"/> affect not the preceding word, as usual, but rather all following=
 words until a <xref linkend=3D"FUhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
+    I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor
+    I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO"/>selma'o FUhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Cancels all indicators of selma'o <xref linkend=3D"UI"/> which are=
 in effect.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
+    I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor.
+    I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GA"/>selma'o GA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-ta=
ils, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth ...=
 and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2=80=
=9D, and so on. See <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+    Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO"/>selma'o GAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies whether an interval specified by <xref linkend=3D"BIhI"/=
> includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in pairs before and after the <x=
ref linkend=3D"BIhI"/> cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left- and t=
he right-hand endpoints.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.
+    I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt=
.
+    I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU"/>selma'o GEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter8-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"GOI"/>. Marks the end of =
a relative phrase. See <xref linkend=3D"KUhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu
+    John (referred to as it-1) is-blue.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GI"/>selma'o GI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru un=
its, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought connect=
ive involving <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>, <xref linkend=3D"GUhA"/>, or <xref li=
nkend=3D"JOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
+    (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA"/>selma'o GIhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies a logical connective (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-tail=
 is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any pre=
ceding sumti.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.
+    I go-to the market and like John.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GOI"/>selma'o GOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter8-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a s=
ubordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by <x=
ref linkend=3D"GEhU"/> See <xref linkend=3D"NOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu
+    John (referred to as it-1) is blue.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GOhA"/>selma'o GOhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter7-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of brivla=
. There are several groups of these.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    A: mi klama le zarci
+    B: mi go'i
+
+    A: I=E2=80=99m going to the market.
+    B: Me, too.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA"/>selma'o GUhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. Ta=
kes the place of <xref linkend=3D"GA"/> when forming logically-connected ta=
nru. See <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu
+    Alice is both rich and blue.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"I"/>selma'o I (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chapte=
r19-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Separates two sentences from each other.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani
+    I go-to the market. I go-to the office.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"JA"/>selma'o JA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two tanru units, mathematical=
 operands, tenses, or abstractions.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ti blanu je zdani
+    This is-blue and a-house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"JAI"/>selma'o JAI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter9-section12"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator a=
ttachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place of =
the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place of=
 the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of t=
he abstracted-over bridi.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari
+    I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color.
+    I act so as to modify the wall color.
+    I change the color of the wall.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"JOI"/>selma'o JOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter14-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, -s=
et, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things. =
When immediately followed by <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>, provides forethought n=
on-logical connection analogous to <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
+    John massed-with Alice carry the piano.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI"/>selma'o JOhI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section15"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list termina=
ted by <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensiona=
l array).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du
+         li jo'i voboi xaboi
+    The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals
+         the-number array (four, six).
+    (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KE"/>selma'o KE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Groups everything between itself and a following <xref linkend=3D"=
KEhE"/> for purposes of logical connection, tanru construction, or other pu=
rposes. <xref linkend=3D"KE"/> and <xref linkend=3D"KEhE"/> are not used fo=
r mathematical (see <xref linkend=3D"VEI"/> and <xref linkend=3D"VEhO"/>) o=
r discursive (see <xref linkend=3D"TO"/> and <xref linkend=3D"TOI"/>) purpo=
ses.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
+    That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
+    That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KEI"/>selma'o KEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter11-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"NU"/>. Marks the end of a=
n abstraction bridi.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica
+    John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.
+    John wants to be a soldier.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE"/>selma'o KEhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter5-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"KE"/>. Marks the end of a=
 grouping.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
+    That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
+    That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KI"/>selma'o KI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter10-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it =E2=80=9Csticky=E2=80=
=9D, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appeara=
nce of <xref linkend=3D"KI"/>. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.</p=
ara>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KOhA"/>selma'o KOhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter7-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute fo=
r sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti
+    The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big.  It-1 is-not smaller-than=
 this-thing.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KU"/>selma'o KU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter6-section2"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"LE"/> and some uses of <x=
ref linkend=3D"LA"/>. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also used a=
fter a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the compoun=
d <xref linkend=3D"NA"/>+<xref linkend=3D"KU"/> to indicate natural languag=
e-style negation.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le prenu ku le zdani ku klama
+    The person, to-the house, goes.
+    The person goes to the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE"/>selma'o KUhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"PEhO"/>: indicates the en=
d of a forethought mathematical expression (one in which the operator prece=
des the operands).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa
+    The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-numbe=
r six.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO"/>selma'o KUhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter8-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"NOI"/>. Indicates the end=
 of a relative clause.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda
+    The house which is-blue is-big.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LA"/>selma'o LA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter6-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which i=
dentify people or things by name. Similar to <xref linkend=3D"LE"/>. May be=
 terminated with <xref linkend=3D"KU"/> if followed by a description selbri=
.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la kikeros. du la tulis.
+    Cicero is Tully.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LAU"/>selma'o LAU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter17-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a singl=
e marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, etc=
.)</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    tau sy. .ibu
+    [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D
+    Si (chemical symbol for silicon)
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE"/>selma'o LAhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter6-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into another=
 sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from se=
lma'o <xref linkend=3D"NAhE"/> plus <xref linkend=3D"BO"/>. Terminated by <=
xref linkend=3D"LUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska la'e zoi kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot
+    I see that-represented-by the-text =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80=
=9D.
+    I see the book =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80=9D.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LE"/>selma'o LE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter6-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or specify=
 things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by <xref linke=
nd=3D"KU"/>. See <xref linkend=3D"LA"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le gerku cu klama le zdani
+    The dog goes-to the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LEhU"/>selma'o LEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the end of a quotation begun with <xref linkend=3D"LOhU"=
/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani
+    [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct.
+    =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LI"/>selma'o LI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressions=
 into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by <=
xref linkend=3D"LOhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo
+    The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4.
+    2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU"/>selma'o LIhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"LU"/>. Indicates the end =
of a text quotation.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
+    I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote].
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO"/>selma'o LOhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section17"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"LI"/>. Indicates the end =
of a mathematical expression used in a <xref linkend=3D"LI"/> description.<=
/para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu
+    The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater.
+    4 > 3
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU"/>selma'o LOhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammati=
cal as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they f=
orm a text or not. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"LEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u
+    You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote].
+    You said, =E2=80=9Cmi du do du ko'a=E2=80=9D.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LU"/>selma'o LU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammati=
cal only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Termi=
nated by <xref linkend=3D"LIhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
+    I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote].
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU"/>selma'o LUhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter6-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/> and <xref linkend=
=3D"NAhE"/>+<xref linkend=3D"BO"/>. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.=
</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u
+    I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref]
+    I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie].
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MAI"/>selma'o MAI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter18-section19"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section1"/>)</bridgehe=
ad>
+  <para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a fr=
ee modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    pamai mi pu klama le zarci
+    1-thly, I [past] go to-the market.
+    First, I went to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO"/>selma'o MAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand. T=
erminated by <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ma'o fy. boi xy.
+    [operator] f x
+    <emphasis>f(x)</emphasis></programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ME"/>selma'o ME (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section10"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the thi=
ngs referenced by the sumti. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"MEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta me la ford. karce
+    That is-a-Ford-type car
+    That=E2=80=99s a Ford car.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MEhU"/>selma'o MEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter5-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>The elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"ME"/>. Indicates the =
end of a sumti converted to a tanru unit.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta me mi me'u zdani
+    That=E2=80=99s a me type of house.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MOI"/>selma'o MOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter5-section11"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehe=
ad>
+  <para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various num=
erically-based selbri.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei
+    John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome.
+    John and Frank are two brothers.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE"/>selma'o MOhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimensi=
oned units. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu
+    The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.
+    2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI"/>selma'o MOhI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specifie=
d by a following <xref linkend=3D"FAhA"/> cmavo.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
+    The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
+    The child walks toward my right on the ice.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NA"/>selma'o NA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter14-section3"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or =
true).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi na klama le zarci
+    It is not true that I go to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NAI"/>selma'o NAI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter14-section3"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehea=
d>
+  <para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain selma=
'o as specified by the grammar.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE"/>selma'o NAhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter15-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other th=
an the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with foll=
owing <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see <xref link=
end=3D"LAhE"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta na'e blanu zdani
+    That is-a-non- blue house.
+    That is a house which is other than blue.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU"/>selma'o NAhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by <xref=
 linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i
+    The-number the-operator tangent ( <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>=
 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity.
+    tan(<phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE"/>selma'o NIhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a =E2=80=9Cn=
i=E2=80=9D abstraction. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i
+         ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu
+    The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times
+         quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume.
+    Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO"/>selma'o NIhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it c=
ontains old or new subject matter.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NOI"/>selma'o NOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter8-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the prec=
eding sumti. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"KUhO"/>. See <xref linkend=3D"G=
OI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu
+    The house which is blue is small.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NU"/>selma'o NU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter11-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction se=
lbri. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"KEI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]
+    John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA"/>selma'o NUhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See <xref linkend=
=3D"VUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
+    The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI"/>selma'o NUhI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section11"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridge=
head>
+  <para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultaneo=
us claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated by=
 <xref linkend=3D"NUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
+    I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr=
om-the school.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU"/>selma'o NUhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"NUhI"/>. Marks the end of=
 a termset.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
+    I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr=
om-the school.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"PA"/>selma'o PA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter18-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminated=
 by <xref linkend=3D"BOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi speni re ninmu
+    I am-married-to two women.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE"/>selma'o PEhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two termse=
ts. Termsets (see <xref linkend=3D"CEhE"/>) are used to associate several t=
erms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special co=
nstructs in tenses.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
+    I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
+    I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO"/>selma'o PEhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which pr=
ecede their operands. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"KUhE"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re
+    The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"PU"/>selma'o PU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter10-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</para=
>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi pu klama le zarci
+    I [past] go-to the market.
+    I went to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO"/>selma'o RAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter7-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicitly=
 attached to a pro-bridi (see <xref linkend=3D"GOhA"/>) to fit the current =
context rather than the original context.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    A: mi ba lumci le mi karce
+    B: mi go'i
+
+    A: I [future] wash my car.
+    B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A=E2=80=99s car).
+
+    A: mi ba lumci le mi karce
+    B: mi go'i ra'o
+
+    A: I [future] wash my car.
+    B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=E2=80=99s car).
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ROI"/>selma'o ROI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter10-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once, =
twice, many times).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi reroi klama le zarci
+    I twice go-to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SA"/>selma'o SA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Erases the previous phrase or sentence.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi klama sa do klama le zarci
+    I go, er, you go-to the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SE"/>selma'o SE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter5-section1"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging t=
he x1 place with a specified numbered place.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le zarci cu se klama mi
+    The market is-gone-to by me.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.</pa=
ra>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SEI"/>selma'o SEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter19-section12"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment on =
the main bridi. Terminated by <xref linkend=3D"SEhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein.
+    Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU"/>selma'o SEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section12"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"SEI"/> and <xref linkend=
=3D"SOI"/>. Ends metalinguistic insertions.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein.
+    Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SI"/>selma'o SI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Erases the previous single word.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi si do klama le zarci
+    I, er, you go to-the market.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SOI"/>selma'o SOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter7-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2=
=80=9D in English).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi prami do soi mi
+    I love you [reciprocally] me.
+    I love you and vice versa.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"SU"/>selma'o SU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE"/>selma'o TAhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of time=
 or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le verba ta'e klama le ckule
+    The child habitually goes to-the school.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TEI"/>selma'o TEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter17-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gramma=
tically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elidab=
le selma'o <xref linkend=3D"FOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
+    ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D )
+    the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU"/>selma'o TEhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section15"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"JOhI"/>, <xref linkend=3D=
"MAhO"/>, <xref linkend=3D"MOhE"/>, <xref linkend=3D"NAhU"/>, or <xref link=
end=3D"NIhE"/>. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion construct.</para=
>
+  <programlisting>
+    li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du
+         li jo'i voboi xaboi
+    The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals
+         the-number array( four, six).
+    (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TO"/>selma'o TO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section12"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Termin=
ated by <xref linkend=3D"TOI"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu
+    O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see =
the cat.
+    Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TOI"/>selma'o TOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter19-section12"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"TO"/>. The right discursi=
ve parenthesis.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu
+    O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see =
the cat.
+    Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TUhE"/>selma'o TUhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Termi=
nated by <xref linkend=3D"TUhU"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu=
'u]
+    Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old.
+    As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [i=
s best].
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"TUhU"/>selma'o TUhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"TUhE"/>. Marks the end of=
 a multiple sentence group.</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"UI"/>selma'o UI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter13-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Particles which indicate the speaker=E2=80=99s emotional state or =
source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    .ui la djan. klama
+    [Happiness!] John is-coming.
+    Hurrah! John is coming!
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VA"/>selma'o VA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter10-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</par=
a>
+  <programlisting>
+    le nanmu va batci le gerku
+    The man [medium distance] bites the dog.
+    Over there the man is biting the dog.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VAU"/>selma'o VAU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter14-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of =
a <xref linkend=3D"GIhA"/> logical connection.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau]
+    I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VEI"/>selma'o VEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. Ter=
minated by <xref linkend=3D"VEhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
+         li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
+    The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p=
lus one) equals
+         the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1.
+    (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA"/>selma'o VEhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, medium,=
 or short).</para>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO"/>selma'o VEhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter19-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Elidable terminator for <xref linkend=3D"VEI"/>: right mathematica=
l parenthesis.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
+         li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
+    The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p=
lus one) equals
+         the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1.
+    (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA"/>selma'o VIhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume, o=
r space-time interval).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli
+    The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.
+    In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO"/>selma'o VUhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter8-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connecte=
d) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa
+    Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room.
+    Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU"/>selma'o VUhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Mathematical operators (e.g. +, =E2=88=92). See <xref linkend=3D"M=
AhO"/>.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    li mu vu'u re du li ci
+    The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3.
+    5 =E2=88=92 2 =3D 3
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"XI"/>selma'o XI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter18-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a su=
bscript for whatever precedes it.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    xy. xi re
+    x sub 2
+    x<subscript>2</subscript></programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"Y"/>selma'o Y (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chapte=
r19-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues t=
he conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be interp=
reted as having nothing more to say.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    doi .y. .y. .djan
+    O, uh, uh, John!
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO"/>selma'o ZAhO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginnin=
g, ending, continuing).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi pu'o damba
+    I [inchoative] fight.
+    I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI"/>selma'o ZEI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter4-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands bet=
ween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ta xy. zei kantu kacma
+    That is-an-(X - ray) camera.
+    That is an X-ray camera.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA"/>selma'o ZEhA (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter10-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium, =
or short).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi puze'a citka
+    I [past] [short interval] eat.
+    I ate for a little while.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZI"/>selma'o ZI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter10-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short time =
ago or in the future).</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi puzi citka
+    I [past] [short distance] eat.
+    I ate a little while ago.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZIhE"/>selma'o ZIhE (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter8-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the same=
 sumti. Although generally translated with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, it is not=
 considered a logical connective.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a
+    I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love =
it.
+    I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love.
+    I own a white dog, which I love.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZO"/>selma'o ZO (<xref linkend=3D"cll_chap=
ter19-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.</p=
ara>
+  <programlisting>
+    zo si cu lojbo valsi
+    The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI"/>selma'o ZOI (<xref linkend=3D"cll_ch=
apter19-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+  <para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (whi=
ch can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The del=
imiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the te=
xt by pauses.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra
+    The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence.
+</programlisting>
+  <bridgehead><anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU"/>selma'o ZOhU (<xref linkend=3D"cll_=
chapter16-section2"/>, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter19-section4"/>)</bridgeh=
ead>
+  <para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to w=
hich it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment sen=
tences.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de
+    For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves=
 Y
+    There is a man who loves all fish.
+</programlisting>
+</section>
+
+
+</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c83211d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/21.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,6972 @@
+<chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter21">
+  <title>Chapter 21
+Formal Grammars
+
+
+

+  1. YACC Grammar of Lojban
+  The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojban=
. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to descr=
ibe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This pa=
rser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is in=
 Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a more=
 human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offici=
al.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for eac=
h selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.
+  /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine Gra=
mmardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,The=
 Logical Language Group, Inc.
+  
+grammar.300 */
+  /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process. T=
he YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, concat=
enated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the grammar=
. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which is =
LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process su=
ccessfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using some =
language-coded processing.
+  Step 1 - Lexing
+  From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojban=
 unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech wil=
l have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failures =
of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text =
file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules.
+  The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-Lo=
jban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojban=
 text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allows=
 the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize such=
 portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interference=
 with the parsing algorithm.
+  Step 2 - Filtering
+  From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing t=
asks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict:
+  a. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZOI) is ident=
ified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a=
 pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening del=
imiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recur=
s after a pause, as grammatically a single token (labe=
lled =E2=80=99=E2=80=99 in this grammar). T=
here is no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find=
 the closing delimiter.
+  b. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D (selma'o ZO) is identif=
ied, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99=E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by its normal gramma=
tical function.
+  c. If the Lojban word =E2=80=9Clo'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o LOhU) is ide=
ntified, search for the closing delimiter =E2=80=9Cle'u=E2=80=9D (selma'o L=
EhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two ste=
ps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token =
=E2=80=99=E2=80=99.
+  d. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o catego=
ry, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In al=
l steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each w=
ord.
+  e. If the word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D (selma'o SI) is identified, er=
ase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been conde=
nsed into a single token by one of the above rules).
+  f. If the word =E2=80=9Csa=E2=80=9D (selma'o SA) is identified, er=
ase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follows=
 attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive f=
urther definition later.)
+  g. If the word =E2=80=99su=E2=80=99 (selma'o SU) is identified, er=
ase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding tok=
en word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, if=
 speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginnin=
g of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a =
speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two =
adjacent uses of =E2=80=9Csu=E2=80=9D are required to erase the entire conv=
ersation.
+  Step 3 - Termination
+  If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and ign=
ore everything that follows it.
+  Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens
+  In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption means=
 that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following ste=
ps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after parsi=
ng is completed).
+  a. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where there =
may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIVLA=
.
+  b. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If the=
y occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors).
+  c. Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabel t=
he previous token as selma'o BY.
+  d. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI or=
 CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token.
+  e. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and CAI =
into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted fol=
lowing any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word=E2=80=99=
s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpreta=
tion of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text ar=
e explicitly handled by the grammar.
+  Step 5 - Insertion of Lexer Lexemes
+  Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical f=
unction is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YACC=
 grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings o=
f tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either
+  a. are replaced by a single specified =E2=80=99lexer token=E2=80=
=99 for step 6, or
+  b. the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to ide=
ntify it uniquely.
+  The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generatio=
n of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The strin=
gs of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals l=
abelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with the=
 lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the la=
nguage is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been performed=
. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented out,=
 and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer tokens =
without the strings of defining tokens. Two sets of le=
xer tokens are defined in the token set so as to be compatible with either =
option.
+  In this step, the strings must be labelled with the appropriate le=
xer tokens. Order of inserting lexer tokens IS signifi=
cant, since some shorter strings that would be marked with a lexer token ma=
y be found inside longer strings. If the tokens are inserted before or in p=
lace of the shorter strings, the longer strings cannot be identified.
+  If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works cor=
rectly (it is not the only possible order): A, C, D, B, U, E, H, I, J, K, M=
, N, G, O, V, W, F, P, R, T, S, Y, L, Q. This ensures that the longest rule=
s will be processed first; a PA+MAI will not be seen as a PA with a danglin=
g MAI at the end, for example.
+  Step 6 - YACC Parsing
+  YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance wit=
h the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099 u=
nder option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, and =
comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of l=
exer tokens numbered from 900 up.
+  */
+  
+%token A_501            /* eks; basic afterthought logical con=
nectives */
+%token BAI_502          /* modal operators */
+%token BAhE_503         /* next word intensifier */
+%token BE_504           /* sumti link to attach sumti to a sel=
bri */
+%token BEI_505          /* multiple sumti separator between BE=
, BEI */
+%token BEhO_506         /* terminates BE/BEI specified descrip=
tors */
+%token BIhI_507         /* interval component of JOI */
+%token BO_508           /* joins two units with shortest scope=
 */
+%token BRIVLA_509       /* any brivla */
+%token BU_511           /* turns any word into a BY lerfu word=
 */
+%token BY_513           /* individual lerfu words */
+%token CAhA_514         /* specifies actuality/potentiality of=
 tense */
+%token CAI_515          /* afterthought intensity marker */
+%token CEI_516          /* pro-bridi assignment operator */
+%token CEhE_517         /* afterthought term list connective *=
/
+%token CMENE_518        /* names; require consonant end, then =
pause no
+                                   LA or DOI selma'o embedded, pause befor=
e if
+                                   vowel initial and preceded by a vowel *=
/
+%token CO_519           /* tanru inversion  */
+%token COI_520          /* vocative marker permitted inside na=
mes; must
+                                   always be followed by pause or DOI */
+%token CU_521           /* separator between head sumti and se=
lbri */
+%token CUhE_522         /* tense/modal question */
+%token DAhO_524         /* cancel anaphora/cataphora assignmen=
ts */
+%token DOI_525          /* vocative marker */
+%token DOhU_526         /* terminator for DOI-marked vocatives=
 */
+%token FA_527           /* modifier head generic case tag */
+%token FAhA_528         /* superdirections in space */
+%token FAhO_529         /* normally elided =E2=80=99done pause=
=E2=80=99 to indicate end
+                                   of utterance string */
+%token FEhE_530         /* space interval mod flag */
+%token FEhU_531         /* ends bridi to modal conversion */
+%token FIhO_532         /* marks bridi to modal conversion */
+%token FOI_533          /* end compound lerfu */
+%token FUhE_535         /* open long scope for indicator */
+%token FUhO_536         /* close long scope for indicator */
+%token GA_537           /* geks; forethought logical connectiv=
es */
+%token GEhU_538         /* marker ending GOI relative clauses =
*/
+%token GI_539           /* forethought medial marker */
+%token GIhA_541         /* logical connectives for bridi-tails=
 */
+%token GOI_542          /* attaches a sumti modifier to a sumt=
i */
+%token GOhA_543         /* pro-bridi */
+%token GUhA_544         /* GEK for tanru units, corresponds to=
 JEKs */
+%token I_545            /* sentence link */
+%token JA_546           /* jeks; logical connectives within ta=
nru */
+%token JAI_547          /* modal conversion flag */
+%token JOI_548          /* non-logical connectives */
+%token KEhE_550         /* right terminator for KE groups */
+%token KE_551           /* left long scope marker */
+%token KEI_552          /* right terminator, NU abstractions *=
/
+%token KI_554           /* multiple utterance scope for tenses=
 */
+%token KOhA_555         /* sumti anaphora */
+%token KU_556           /* right terminator for descriptions, =
etc. */
+%token KUhO_557         /* right terminator, NOI relative clau=
ses */
+%token LA_558           /* name descriptors */
+%token LAU_559          /* lerfu prefixes */
+%token LAhE_561         /* sumti qualifiers */
+%token LE_562           /* sumti descriptors */
+%token LEhU_565         /* possibly ungrammatical text right q=
uote */
+%token LI_566           /* convert number to sumti */
+%token LIhU_567         /* grammatical text right quote */
+%token LOhO_568         /* elidable terminator for LI */
+%token LOhU_569         /* possibly ungrammatical text left qu=
ote */
+%token LU_571           /* grammatical text left quote */
+%token LUhU_573         /* LAhE close delimiter */
+%token ME_574           /* converts a sumti into a tanru_unit =
*/
+%token MEhU_575         /* terminator for ME */
+%token MOhI_577         /* motion tense marker */
+%token NA_578           /* bridi negation  */
+%token NAI_581          /* attached to words to negate them */
+%token NAhE_583         /* scalar negation  */
+%token NIhO_584         /* new paragraph; change of subject */
+%token NOI_585          /* attaches a subordinate clause to a =
sumti */
+%token NU_586           /* abstraction  */
+%token NUhI_587         /* marks the start of a termset */
+%token NUhU_588         /* marks the middle and end of a terms=
et */
+%token PEhE_591         /* afterthought termset connective pre=
fix */
+%token PU_592           /* directions in time */
+%token RAhO_593         /* flag for modified interpretation of=
 GOhI */
+%token ROI_594          /* converts number to extensional tens=
e */
+%token SA_595           /* metalinguistic eraser to the beginn=
ing of
+                                   the current utterance */
+%token SE_596           /* conversions */
+%token SEI_597          /* metalinguistic bridi insert marker =
*/
+%token SEhU_598         /* metalinguistic bridi end marker */
+%token SI_601           /* metalinguistic single word eraser *=
/
+%token SOI_602          /* reciprocal sumti marker */
+%token SU_603           /* metalinguistic eraser of the entire=
 text */
+%token TAhE_604         /* tense interval properties */
+%token TEI_605          /* start compound lerfu */
+%token TO_606           /* left discursive parenthesis */
+%token TOI_607          /* right discursive parenthesis */
+%token TUhE_610         /* multiple utterance scope mark */
+%token TUhU_611         /* multiple utterance end scope mark *=
/
+%token UI_612           /* attitudinals, observationals, discu=
rsives */
+%token VA_613           /* distance in space-time */
+%token VAU_614          /* end simple bridi or bridi-tail */
+%token VEhA_615         /* space-time interval size */
+%token VIhA_616         /* space-time dimensionality marker */
+%token VUhO_617         /* glue between logically connected su=
mti
+                                    and relative clauses */
+%token XI_618           /* subscripting operator */
+%token Y_619            /* hesitation */
+%token ZAhO_621         /* event properties - inchoative, etc.=
 */
+%token ZEhA_622         /* time interval size tense */
+%token ZEI_623          /* lujvo glue */
+%token ZI_624           /* time distance tense */
+%token ZIhE_625         /* conjoins relative clauses */
+%token ZO_626           /* single word metalinguistic quote ma=
rker */
+%token ZOI_627          /* delimited quote marker */
+%token ZOhU_628         /* prenex terminator (not elidable) */
+
+%token BIhE_650         /* prefix for high-priority MEX operat=
or */
+%token BOI_651          /* number or lerfu-string terminator *=
/
+%token FUhA_655         /* reverse Polish flag */
+%token GAhO_656         /* open/closed interval markers for BI=
hI */
+%token JOhI_657         /* flags an array operand */
+%token KUhE_658         /* MEX forethought delimiter */
+%token MAI_661          /* change numbers to utterance ordinal=
s */
+%token MAhO_662         /* change MEX expressions to MEX opera=
tors */
+%token MOI_663          /* change number to selbri */
+%token MOhE_664         /* change sumti to operand, inverse of=
 LI */
+%token NAhU_665         /* change a selbri into an operator */
+%token NIhE_666         /* change selbri to operand; inverse o=
f MOI */
+%token NUhA_667         /* change operator to selbri; inverse =
of MOhE */
+%token PA_672           /* numbers and numeric punctuation */
+%token PEhO_673         /* forethought (Polish) flag */
+%token TEhU_675         /* closing gap for MEX constructs */
+%token VEI_677          /* left MEX bracket */
+%token VEhO_678         /* right MEX bracket */
+%token VUhU_679         /* MEX operator */
+
+%token any_words_697    /* a string of lexable Lojban words */
+%token any_word_698     /* any single lexable Lojban words */
+%token anything_699     /* a possibly unlexable phoneme string=
 */
+
+
+/* The following tokens are the actual lexer tokens.  The _900 series
+tokens are duplicates that allow limited testing of lexer rules in the
+context of the total grammar.  They are used in the actual parser, where
+the 900 series rules are found in the lexer.  */
+
+%token lexer_A_701      /* flags a MAI utterance ordinal */
+%token lexer_B_702      /* flags an EK unless EK_BO, EK_KE */
+%token lexer_C_703      /* flags an EK_BO */
+%token lexer_D_704      /* flags an EK_KE */
+%token lexer_E_705      /* flags a JEK */
+%token lexer_F_706      /* flags a JOIK */
+%token lexer_G_707      /* flags a GEK */
+%token lexer_H_708      /* flags a GUhEK */
+%token lexer_I_709      /* flags a NAhE_BO */
+%token lexer_J_710      /* flags a NA_KU */
+%token lexer_K_711      /* flags an I_BO (option. JOIK/JEK lex=
er tags)*/
+%token lexer_L_712      /* flags a PA, unless MAI (then lexer =
A) */
+%token lexer_M_713      /* flags a GIhEK_BO */
+%token lexer_N_714      /* flags a GIhEK_KE */
+%token lexer_O_715      /* flags a modal operator BAI or compo=
und */
+%token lexer_P_716      /* flags a GIK */
+%token lexer_Q_717      /* flags a lerfu_string unless MAI (th=
en lexer_A)*/
+%token lexer_R_718      /* flags a GIhEK, not BO or KE */
+%token lexer_S_719      /* flags simple I */
+%token lexer_T_720      /* flags I_JEK */
+%token lexer_U_721      /* flags a JEK_BO */
+%token lexer_V_722      /* flags a JOIK_BO */
+%token lexer_W_723      /* flags a JOIK_KE */
+/* %token lexer_X_724   /* null */
+%token lexer_Y_725      /* flags a PA_MOI */
+
+
+/* %token lexer_A_905    /* :  lexer_A_701  utt_ordinal_root_906 */
+/* %token lexer_B_910    /* :  lexer_B_702  EK_root_911 */
+/* %token lexer_C_915    /* :  lexer_C_703  EK_root_911  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_D_916    /* :  lexer_D_704  EK_root_911  KE_551 */
+/* %token lexer_E_925    /* :  lexer_E_705  JEK_root_926 */
+/* %token lexer_F_930    /* :  lexer_F_706  JOIK_root_931 */
+/* %token lexer_G_935    /* :  lexer_G_707  GA_537 */
+/* %token lexer_H_940    /* :  lexer_H_708  GUhA_544 */
+/* %token lexer_I_945    /* :  lexer_I_709  NAhE_583  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_J_950    /* :  lexer_J_710  NA_578  KU_556 */
+/* %token lexer_K_955    /* :  lexer_K_711  I_432  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_L_960    /* :  lexer_L_712  number_root_961 */
+/* %token lexer_M_965    /* :  lexer_M_713  GIhEK_root_991  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_N_966    /* :  lexer_N_714  GIhEK_root_991  KE_551 */
+/* %token lexer_O_970    /* :  lexer_O_715  simple_tense_modal_972 */
+/* %token lexer_P_980    /* :  lexer_P_716  GIK_root_981 */
+/* %token lexer_Q_985    /* :  lexer_Q_717  lerfu_string_root_986 */
+/* %token lexer_R_990    /* :  lexer_R_718  GIhEK_root_991 */
+/* %token lexer_S_995    /* :  lexer_S_719  I_545 */
+/* %token lexer_T_1000   /* :  lexer_T_720  I_545  simple_JOIK_JEK_957 */
+/* %token lexer_U_1005   /* :  lexer_U_721  JEK_root_926  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_V_1010   /* :  lexer_V_722  JOIK_root_931  BO_508 */
+/* %token lexer_W_1015   /* :  lexer_W_723  JOIK_root_931  KE_551 */
+/* %token lexer_X_1020   /* null */
+/* %token lexer_Y_1025   /* :  lexer_Y_725  number_root_961  MOI_663 */
+
+
+%start 
+
+%%
+
+text_0                  :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+text_A_1                :  
+                        /* incomplete JOIK_JEK  without preceding I */
+                        /* compare note on =
 */
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+text_B_2                :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+text_C_3                :  
+   /* Only indicators which follow certain selma'o:
+    cmene, , , and the lexer_K and lexer_S I_roots and compounds,
+    and at the start of text(_0), will survive the lexer; all other valid =
ones
+    will be absorbed.  The only strings for which indicators generate a
+    potential ambiguity are those which contain NAI.  An indicator cannot =
be
+    inserted in between a token and its negating NAI, else you can=E2=80=
=99t tell
+    whether it is the indicator or the original token being negated. */
+                        |  /* empty */
+  /* An empty text is legal; formerly this was handled by the explicit
+   appearance of , but this is now absorbe=
d by the preparser. */
+                        ;
+
+
+paragraphs_4            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+paragraph_10            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        /* this last fixes an erroneous start to a sentenc=
e,
+                           and permits incomplete JOIK_JEK after I, as wel=
l
+                           in answer to questions on those connectives  */
+                        ;
+
+statement_11            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+statement_A_12          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+statement_B_13          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+statement_C_14          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+fragment_20             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |          /* answer to ma */
+                        /*  requires both =
 and 
+                           but needs no extra rule to accomplish this */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+prenex_30               :  
+                        ;
+
+free_modifier_32        :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+free_modifier_A_33      :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+discursive_bridi_34     :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+vocative_35             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+parenthetical_36        :  
+                        ;
+
+
+sentence_40             :    /* ba=
re observative or mo answer */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+subsentence_41          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+bridi_tail_50           :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+bridi_tail_A_51         :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+bridi_tail_B_52         :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+bridi_tail_C_53         :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+gek_sentence_54         :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+tail_terms_71           :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+terms_80                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+terms_A_81              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+terms_B_82              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+term_83                 :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+modifier_84             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+term_set_85             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+sumti_90                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_A_91              :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_B_92              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_C_93              :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_D_94              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_E_95              :  
+                        |  
+                           /* indefinite sumti */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_F_96              :  
+                           /* outer-quantified sumti */
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_G_97              :  
+                        |  
+                           /*sumti grouping, set/mass/individual conversio=
n; also sumti scalar negation */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+
+description_110         :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_tail_111          :  
+                           /* inner-quantified sumti relative clause */
+                        |  
+                           /* pseudo-possessive
+                              (an abbreviated inner restriction);
+                              note that sumti cannot be quantified */
+                        |  
+                           /* pseudo-possessive with outer restriction */
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+sumti_tail_A_112        :  
+                        |  
+                           /* explicit inner quantifier */
+                        |  
+                           /* quantifier both internal to a description,
+                              and external to a sumti thereby made specifi=
c */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+relative_clauses_121    :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+relative_clause_122     :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+selbri_130              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_A_131            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_B_132            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_C_133            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_D_134            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_E_135            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+selbri_F_136            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+GUhEK_selbri_137        :  
+                        ;
+
+
+tanru_unit_150          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+tanru_unit_A_151        :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+tanru_unit_B_152        :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+linkargs_160            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+links_161               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+/*  Main entry point for MEX; everything but a number must be in parens.  =
 */
+
+quantifier_300          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+
+/*  Entry point for MEX used after LI; no parens needed, but LI now has an
+    elidable terminator. (This allows us to express the difference between
+    =E2=80=9Cthe expression a + b=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthe expression (a =
+ b)=E2=80=9D )   */
+
+/*  This rule supports left-grouping infix expressions and reverse Polish
+    expressions. To handle infix monadic, use a null operand; to handle
+    infix with more than two operands (whatever that means) use an extra
+    operator or an array operand.   */
+
+MEX_310                 :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+/*  Support for right-grouping (short scope) infix expressions with BIhE. =
 */
+
+MEX_A_311               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+/*  Support for forethought (Polish) expressions. These begin with a
+    forethought flag, then the operator and then the argument(s).  */
+
+MEX_B_312               :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MEX_C_313               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+/*  Reverse Polish expressions always have exactly two operands.
+    To handle one operand, use a null operand;
+    to handle more than two operands, use a null operator.  */
+
+rp_expression_330       :  
+                        ;
+
+
+rp_operand_332          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+/*  Operators may be joined by logical connectives. */
+
+operator_370            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+operator_A_371          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+operator_B_372          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MEX_operator_374        :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+   /* changes argument order */
+                        |  
+   /* scalar negation */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+operand_381             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+operand_A_382           :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+operand_B_383           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+operand_C_385           :  
+                        |  
+   /* lerfu string as operand - classic math variable */
+                        |  
+   /* quantifies a bridi - inverse of -MOI */
+                        |  
+   /* quantifies a sumti - inverse of LI */
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+/* _400 series constructs are mostly specific strings, some of which may
+   also be used by the lexer; the lexer should not use any reference to
+   terminals numbered less than _400, as they have grammars composed on
+   non-deterministic strings of selma'o.  Some above _400 also are this
+   way, so care should be taken; this is especially true for those that
+   reference .  */
+
+
+anaphora_400            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+cmene_404               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+cmene_A_405             :    /=
* pause */
+                        |    /* pause*/
+/* multiple CMENE are identified morphologically (by the lexer) -- separat=
ed by
+   consonant & pause */
+                        ;
+
+
+bridi_valsi_407         :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+bridi_valsi_A_408       :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+para_mark_410           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+indicators_411          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+indicators_A_412        :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+indicator_413           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+DOI_415                 :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+COI_416                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+COI_A_417               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+JOIK_EK_421             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JOIK_JEK_422            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+XI_424                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NU_425                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NU_A_426                :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MOhE_427                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NIhE_428                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NAhU_429                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MAhO_430                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JOhI_431                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+quote_arg_432           :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+quote_arg_A_433         :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+/* The quoted material in the following three terminals must be identified=
 by
+   the lexer, but no additional lexer processing is needed. */
+
+ZOI_quote_434           :  
+                                  /*pause*/    /*pause*/  
+                        ;
+
+/* =E2=80=99pause=E2=80=99 is morphemic, represented by =E2=80=99.=E2=80=
=99 The lexer assembles  */
+
+ZO_quote_435            :  
+                        ;
+
+/* =E2=80=99word=E2=80=99 may not be a compound; but it can be any valid L=
ojban selma'o value,
+   including ZO, ZOI, SI, SA, SU. The preparser will not lex the word per =
its
+   normal selma'o. */
+
+LOhU_quote_436          :  
+                        ;
+
+/* =E2=80=99words=E2=80=99 may be any Lojban words, with no claim of gramm=
aticality; the
+   preparser will not lex the individual words per their normal selma'o;
+   used to quote ungrammatical Lojban, equivalent to the * or ? writing
+   convention for such text.  */
+
+/* The preparser needs one bit of sophistication for this rule.  A
+   quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings - this is
+   only a problem for a LOhU quote itself, since the LEhU clossing this
+   quote would otherwise close the outer quotes, which is incorrect.  For
+   this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since thi=
s
+   is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser).  Use ZO to
+   mark any nested quotation LOhU.  The preparser then will absorb it by
+   the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU.  This is obviously not the
+   standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a
+   sumti.  But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway=
,
+   it doesn=E2=80=99t matter.  */
+
+/* It may be seen that any of the ZO/ZOI/LOhU trio of quotation markers
+   may contain the powerful metalinguistic erasers.  Since these quotation=
s
+   are not parsed internally, these operators are ignored within the quote=
.
+   To erase a ZO, then, two SI=E2=80=99s are needed after giving a quoted =
word of
+   any type.  ZOI takes four SI=E2=80=99s, with the ENTIRE BODY OF THE QUO=
TE
+   treated as a single =E2=80=99word=E2=80=99 since it is one selma'o.  Th=
us one for the
+   quote body, two for the single word delimiters, and one for the ZOI.  I=
n
+   LOhU, the entire body is treated as a single word, so three SI=E2=80=99=
s can
+   erase it.  */
+
+/* All rule terminator names with =E2=80=99gap=E2=80=99 in them are potent=
ially
+   elidable, where such elision does not cause an ambiguity.  This is
+   implemented through use of the YACC =E2=80=99error=E2=80=99 token, whic=
h effectively
+   recovers from an elision.  */
+
+FIhO_437                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+PEhO_438                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+BIhE_439                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+SEI_440                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+FUhA_441                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+BEI_442                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+CO_443                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+CEI_444                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NA_445                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+BE_446                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+TUhE_447                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+LIhU_gap_448            :  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+gap_450                 :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+front_gap_451           :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MEX_gap_452             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+KEI_gap_453             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+TUhU_gap_454            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+VAU_gap_456             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+/* redundant to attach a free modifier on the following */
+
+DOhU_gap_457            :  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+FEhU_gap_458            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+SEhU_gap_459            :  
+                        |  error
+/* a free modifier on a discursive should be somewhere within the discursi=
ve.
+   See  */
+                        ;
+
+NUhU_gap_460            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+BOI_gap_461             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+sub_gap_462             :  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+LUhU_gap_463            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+GEhU_gap_464            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+MEhU_gap_465            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+KEhE_gap_466            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+BEhO_gap_467            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+TOI_gap_468             :  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+KUhO_gap_469            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+left_bracket_470        :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+right_bracket_gap_471   :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+LOhO_gap_472            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+TEhU_gap_473            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+right_br_no_free_474    :  
+                        |  error
+                        ;
+
+
+
+NUhA_475                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+MOI_476                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+ME_477                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JAI_478                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+BO_479                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+SE_480                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+FA_481                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NAhE_482                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+qualifier_483           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NOI_484                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+GOI_485                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+subscript_486           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+ZIhE_487                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+LE_488                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+LI_489                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+mod_head_490            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+tag_491                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+ZOhU_492                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+KE_493                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+PEhE_494                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+CEhE_495                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NUhI_496                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+VUhO_497                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+SOI_498                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+LA_499                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+utterance_ordinal_801   :  
+                        ;
+
+EK_802                  :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+EK_BO_803               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+EK_KE_804               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JEK_805                 :  
+                        ;
+
+JOIK_806                :  
+                        ;
+
+GEK_807                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+GUhEK_808               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NAhE_BO_809             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+NA_KU_810               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+I_BO_811                :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+number_812              :  
+                        ;
+
+GIhEK_BO_813            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+GIhEK_KE_814            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+tense_modal_815         :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+GIK_816                 :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lerfu_string_817        :  
+                        ;
+
+GIhEK_818               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+I_819                   :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+I_JEK_820               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JEK_BO_821              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JOIK_BO_822             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+JOIK_KE_823             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+PA_MOI_824              :  
+                        ;
+
+
+/* The following rules are used only in lexer processing.  They have been
+   tested for ambiguity at various levels in the YACC grammar, but are in
+   the recursive descent lexer in the current parser.  The lexer inserts
+   the lexer tokens before the processed strings, but leaves the original
+   tokens.  */
+
+lexer_A_905             :  
+                        ;
+
+utt_ordinal_root_906    :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_B_910             :  
+                        ;
+
+EK_root_911             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_C_915             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_D_916             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_E_925             :  
+                        ;
+
+JEK_root_926            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_F_930             :  
+                        ;
+
+JOIK_root_931           :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+interval_932            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+
+
+lexer_G_935             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_H_940             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_I_945             :  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_J_950             :  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_K_955             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+I_root_956              :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+simple_JOIK_JEK_957     :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+                        /* no freemod in this version; cf.  */
+                        /* this reference to a version of JOIK and JEK
+                           which already have the lexer tokens attached
+                           prevents shift/reduce errors.  The problem is
+                           resolved in a hard-coded parser implementation
+                           which builds lexer_K, before lexer_S, before
+                           lexer_E and lexer_F. */
+
+
+
+lexer_L_960             :  
+                        ;
+
+
+number_root_961         :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_M_965             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_N_966             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_O_970             :  
+                        ;
+/* the following rule is a lexer version of non-terminal_815 for compoundi=
ng
+   PU/modals; it disallows the lexer picking out FIhO clauses, which would
+   require it to have knowledge of the main parser grammar */
+
+simple_tag_971          :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+simple_tense_modal_972  :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+simple_tense_modal_A_973:  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+modal_974               :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+modal_A_975             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+tense_A_977             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+tense_B_978             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+/* specifies actuality/potentiality of the bridi */
+
+/* puca'a =3D actually was */
+/* baca'a =3D actually will be */
+/* bapu'i =3D can and will have */
+/* banu'o =3D can, but won=E2=80=99t have yet */
+/* canu'ojebapu'i =3D can, hasn=E2=80=99t yet, but will */
+
+tense_C_979             :  
+   /* time-only */
+   /* space defaults to time-space reference space */
+
+                        |  
+   /* can include time if specified with VIhA; otherwise time defaults to =
the
+      time-space reference time */
+
+                        |  
+   /* time and space - If  is marked with
+   VIhA for space-time the tense may be self-contradictory */
+   /* interval prop before space_time is for time distribution */
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_P_980             :  
+                        ;
+
+GIK_root_981            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_Q_985             :  
+                        ;
+
+lerfu_string_root_986   :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lerfu_word_987          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_R_990             :  
+                        ;
+
+
+GIhEK_root_991          :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_S_995             :  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_T_1000            :  =

+                        ;
+
+
+lexer_U_1005            :  =

+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_V_1010            :  =

+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_W_1015            :  =

+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+lexer_Y_1025            :  =

+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+
+time_1030               :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+time_A_1031             :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+time_B_1032             :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+time_offset_1033        :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+time_interval_1034      :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+time_direction_1035     :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+time_int_props_1036     :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+space_1040              :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+space_motion_1041       :  =

+                        ;
+
+space_A_1042            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+space_B_1043            :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+space_C_1044            :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+space_offset_1045       :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+space_intval_1046       :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+
+space_intval_A_1047     :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+space_direction_1048    :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+space_int_props_1049    :  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+space_int_props_A_1050  : <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-1051"/>
+                        ;
+
+/* This terminal gives an interval size in space-time (VEhA), and possibly=
 a
+   dimensionality of the interval.  The dimensionality may also be used
+   with the interval size left unspecified.  When this terminal is used fo=
r the
+   spacetime origin, then barring any overriding VIhA, a VIhA here defines
+   the dimensionality of the space-time being discussed.                 *=
/
+
+
+
+
+interval_property_1051  :  =

+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+/* extensional/intensional interval parameters */
+/* These may be appended to any defined interval, or may stand in place of
+   either time or space tenses.  If no other tense is present, this termin=
al
+   stands for the time-space interval parameter with an unspecified interv=
al.*/
+
+   /* roroi =3D always and everywhere */
+   /* roroiku'avi =3D always here (ku'a =3D intersection) */
+   /* puroroi =3D always in the past
+   /* paroi =3D once upon a time (somewhere) */
+   /* paroiku'avi =3D once upon a time here */
+
+
+/* The following are =E2=80=9CLexer-only rules=E2=80=9D, covered by steps =
1-4 described
+   at the beginning.  The grammar of these constructs is nonexistent,
+   except possibly in cases where they interact with each other.  Even
+   there, however, the effects are semantic rather than grammatical.  Wher=
e
+   it is believed possible that conflicts could exist, the grammar of thes=
e
+   constructs has been put in the above grammar, even though the
+   lexer/Preparser will actually prevent these from being passed thru to
+   the parse routine.  (Otherwise we have to put unacceptably fancy code i=
n
+   the PreParser to determine just when these can be passed thru, and when
+   they can=E2=80=99t.)  Constructs in this category include quotes and in=
dicators
+   as defined above.  (The above grammar handles utterance scope
+   (free_modifier) and clause scope (gap) applications of the latter,
+   however, and indicators should be allowed to be absorbed into almost an=
y
+   word without changing its grammar.
+
+   , , and=
  are metalinguistic erasers.
+
+token_1100              :  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        |  
+                        ;
+
+null_1101               :  =

+                        |  possibly_unlexable_word  (PAUSE)  
+                        |  
+                        |  possibly unlexable string  (PAUSE)  
+                           erases back to the last individual token
+                           I or NIhO or start of text, ignoring the
+                           insides of ZOI, ZO, and LOhU/LEhU quotes.
+                           Start of text is defined for SU below.
+                        |  
+                        |  possibly unparsable text  (PAUSE)  
+                           erases back to start of text which is the
+                           beginning of a speaker=E2=80=99s statement,
+                           a parenthesis (TO/TOI), a LU/LIhU quote,
+                           or a TUhE/TUhU utterance string.
+                        ;
+
+
+*/
+%%
+
+  2. YACC Grammar Cross-Reference
+  
+    
+      A_501
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      anaphora_400
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      anything_699
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      any_word_698
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      any_words_697
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BAhE_503
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BAI_502
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BE_446
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BE_504
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEhO_506
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEhO_gap_467
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEI_442
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEI_505
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BIhE_439
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BIhE_650
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BIhI_507
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BO_479
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BO_508
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      BOI_651
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      BOI_gap_461
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_tail_50
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_tail_A_51
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_tail_B_52
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_tail_C_53
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_valsi_407
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi_valsi_A_408
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BRIVLA_509
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BU_511
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BY_513
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CAhA_514
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CAI_515
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      CEhE_495
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CEhE_517
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CEI_444
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CEI_516
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      cmene_404
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      CMENE_518
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      cmene_A_405
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      CO_443
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CO_519
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      COI_416
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      COI_520
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      COI_A_417
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CU_521
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CUhE_522
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DAhO_524
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      description_110
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      discursive_bridi_34
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOhU_526
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOhU_gap_457
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOI_415
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOI_525
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      EK_802
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      EK_BO_803
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      EK_KE_804
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      EK_root_911
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      error
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      FA_481
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FA_527
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FAhA_528
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FEhE_530
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FEhU_531
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FEhU_gap_458
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FIhO_437
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FIhO_532
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FOI_533
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      fragment_20
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      free_modifier_32
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , =
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      free_modifier_A_33
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      front_gap_451
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhA_441
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhA_655
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhE_535
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhO_536
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GA_537
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GAhO_656
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      gap_450
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GEhU_538
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GEhU_gap_464
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GEK_807
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      gek_sentence_54
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GI_539
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhA_541
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhEK_818
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhEK_BO_813
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhEK_KE_814
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhEK_root_991
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GIK_816
+      
+        , , , , =
, 
+      
+    
+    
+      GIK_root_981
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GOhA_543
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GOI_485
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GOI_542
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GUhA_544
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GUhEK_808
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      GUhEK_selbri_137
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      I_545
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      I_819
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      I_BO_811
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      I_JEK_820
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      indicator_413
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      indicators_411
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      indicators_A_412
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      interval_932
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      interval_property_1051
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      I_root_956
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JA_546
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JAI_478
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JAI_547
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JEK_805
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JEK_BO_821
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JEK_root_926
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOhI_431
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JOhI_657
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JOI_548
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_806
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_BO_822
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_EK_421
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_JEK_422
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_KE_823
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      JOIK_root_931
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      KE_493
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      KE_551
+      
+        , , , =

+      
+    
+    
+      KEhE_550
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KEhE_gap_466
+      
+        , , , , <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-372"/>, , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      KEI_552
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KEI_gap_453
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KI_554
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      KOhA_555
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KU_556
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      KUhE_658
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KUhO_557
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KUhO_gap_469
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LA_499
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      LA_558
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LAhE_561
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LAU_559
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LE_488
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LE_562
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      left_bracket_470
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      LEhU_565
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu_string_817
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu_string_root_986
+      
+        , , , =
, 
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu_word_987
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_A_701
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_A_905
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_B_702
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_B_910
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_C_703
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_C_915
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_D_704
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_D_916
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_E_705
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_E_925
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_F_706
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_F_930
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_G_707
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_G_935
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_H_708
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_H_940
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_I_709
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_I_945
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_J_710
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_J_950
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_K_711
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_K_955
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_L_712
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_L_960
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_M_713
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_M_965
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_N_714
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_N_966
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_O_715
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_O_970
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_P_716
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_P_980
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_Q_717
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_Q_985
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_R_718
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_R_990
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_S_719
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_S_995
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_T_1000
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_T_720
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_U_1005
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_U_721
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_V_1010
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_V_722
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_W_1015
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_W_723
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_Y_1025
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      lexer_Y_725
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LI_489
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LI_566
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LIhU_567
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LIhU_gap_448
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      linkargs_160
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      links_161
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhO_568
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhO_gap_472
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhU_569
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhU_quote_436
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LU_571
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LUhU_573
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LUhU_gap_463
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      MAhO_430
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MAhO_662
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MAI_661
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ME_477
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ME_574
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MEhU_575
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MEhU_gap_465
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_310
+      
+        , , , ,=
 
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_A_311
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_B_312
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_C_313
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_gap_452
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MEX_operator_374
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      modal_974
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      modal_A_975
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      mod_head_490
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      modifier_84
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOhE_427
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOhE_664
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOhI_577
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOI_476
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOI_663
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      NA_445
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      NA_578
+      
+        , , , ,=
 
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhE_482
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhE_583
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhE_BO_809
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhU_429
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhU_665
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NAI_581
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , , , , , , , , , , =
, 
+      
+    
+    
+      NA_KU_810
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NIhE_428
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NIhE_666
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NIhO_584
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NOI_484
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NOI_585
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NU_425
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      NU_586
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NU_A_426
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhA_475
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhA_667
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhI_496
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhI_587
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhU_588
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhU_gap_460
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      number_812
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      number_root_961
+      
+        , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand_381
+      
+        , , , <=
/para>
+      
+    
+    
+      operand_A_382
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand_B_383
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand_C_385
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operator_370
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operator_A_371
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      operator_B_372
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PA_672
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      PA_MOI_824
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraph_10
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraphs_4
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      para_mark_410
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      parenthetical_36
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhE_494
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhE_591
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhO_438
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhO_673
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      prenex_30
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      PU_592
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      qualifier_483
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      quantifier_300
+      
+        , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      quote_arg_432
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      quote_arg_A_433
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      RAhO_593
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      relative_clause_122
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      relative_clauses_121
+      
+        , , , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      right_bracket_gap_471
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      right_br_no_free_474
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ROI_594
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      rp_expression_330
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      rp_operand_332
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SA_595
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SE_480
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      SE_596
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      SEhU_598
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SEhU_gap_459
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SEI_440
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SEI_597
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_130
+      
+        , , , , <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-385"/>, , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_A_131
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_B_132
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_C_133
+      
+        , , , <=
/para>
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_D_134
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_E_135
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri_F_136
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sentence_40
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      SI_601
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      simple_JOIK_JEK_957
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      simple_tag_971
+      
+        , , , ,=
 , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      simple_tense_modal_972
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      simple_tense_modal_A_973
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SOI_498
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SOI_602
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_1040
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_A_1042
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_B_1043
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_C_1044
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      space_direction_1048
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      space_int_props_1049
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      space_int_props_A_1050
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_intval_1046
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_intval_A_1047
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_motion_1041
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space_offset_1045
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement_11
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement_A_12
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement_B_13
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement_C_14
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SU_603
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sub_gap_462
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      subscript_486
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      subsentence_41
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_90
+      
+        , , , , , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_A_91
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_B_92
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_C_93
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_D_94
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_E_95
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_F_96
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_G_97
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_tail_111
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti_tail_A_112
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tag_491
+      
+        , , , , <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_yacc-491"/>, 
+      
+    
+    
+      TAhE_604
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tail_terms_71
+      
+        , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru_unit_150
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru_unit_A_151
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru_unit_B_152
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      TEhU_675
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TEhU_gap_473
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      TEI_605
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tense_A_977
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tense_B_978
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tense_C_979
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tense_modal_815
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      term_83
+      
+        , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms_80
+      
+        , , , , , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms_A_81
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms_B_82
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      term_set_85
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      text_0
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      text_A_1
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      text_B_2
+      
+        , , 
+      
+    
+    
+      text_C_3
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      time_1030
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      time_A_1031
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      time_B_1032
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      time_direction_1035
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      time_interval_1034
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      time_int_props_1036
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      time_offset_1033
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TO_606
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TOI_607
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TOI_gap_468
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhE_447
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhE_610
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhU_611
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhU_gap_454
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      UI_612
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      utterance_20
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      utterance_ordinal_801
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      utt_ordinal_root_906
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VA_613
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      VAU_614
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VAU_gap_456
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      VEhA_615
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VEhO_678
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      VEI_677
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VIhA_616
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      vocative_35
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VUhO_497
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VUhO_617
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VUhU_679
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      XI_424
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      XI_618
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      Y_619
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      ZAhO_621
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZEhA_622
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZI_624
+      
+        , 
+      
+    
+    
+      ZIhE_487
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZIhE_625
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZO_626
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOhU_492
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOhU_628
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOI_627
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOI_quote_434
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZO_quote_435
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban
+  Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline
+  This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by=
 its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at:=
 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)<=
/para>
+  Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:
+  namenumber =3D bnf-expression
+  
+which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80=9D is defin=
ed by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-references this gr=
ammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same as =
those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, C, .=
.. in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In addition, =
rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar but =E2=80=9Cs=
tag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance.
+  
+    
+      Names in lower case are grammatical constructs.
+    
+    
+      Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are termin=
als.
+    
+    
+      Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator s=
ymbol.
+    
+    
+      | represents alternation (choice).
+    
+    
+      [] represents an optional element.
+    
+    
+      & represents and/or (=E2=80=9CA & B=E2=80=9D is the sa=
me as =E2=80=9CA | B | A B=E2=80=9D).
+    
+    
+      ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the lef=
t. Left-grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-refer=
ential recursion with no =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D
+    
+    
+      () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. Oth=
erwise, =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D binds closer than &, which binds closer t=
han |.
+    
+    
+      # is shorthand for =E2=80=9C[free ...]=E2=80=9D, a construct w=
hich appears in many places.
+    
+    
+      // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (with=
out change of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results.
+    
+  
+  
+    
+      text0=
 =3D
+      
+        [NAI ...] [CMENE ... # | (indicators & free ...)] [joik-=
jek] text-1 
+      
+    
+    
+      text-12 =3D
+      
+        [(I [jek | joik] [[stag] BO] #) ... | NIhO ... #] [paragraph=
s] 
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraphs4 =3D
+      
+        paragraph [NIhO ... # paragraphs] 
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraph10 =3D
+      
+        (statement | fragment) [I # [statement | fragment]] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement11 =3D
+      
+        statement-1
+| prenex statement 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-112 =3D
+      
+        statement-2 [I joik-jek [statement-2]] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-213 =3D
+      
+        statement-3 [I [jek | joik] [stag] BO # [statement-2]] 
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-314 =3D
+      
+        sentence
+| [tag] TUhE # text-1 /TUhU#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      fragment20 =3D
+      
+        ek #
+| gihek #
+| quantifier
+| NA #
+| terms /VAU#/
+| prenex
+| relative-clauses
+| links
+| linkargs 
+      
+    
+    
+      prenex30 =3D
+      
+        terms ZOhU # 
+      
+    
+    
+      sentence40 =3D
+      
+        [terms [CU #]] bridi-tail 
+      
+    
+    
+      subsentence41 =3D
+      
+        sentence
+| prenex subsentence 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail50 =3D
+      
+        bridi-tail-1 [gihek [stag] KE # bridi-tail /KEhE#/ tail-term=
s] 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-151 =3D
+      
+        bridi-tail-2 [gihek # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-252 =3D
+      
+        bridi-tail-3 [gihek [stag] BO # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] 
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-353 =3D
+      
+        selbri tail-terms
+| gek-sentence 
+      
+    
+    
+      gek-sentence54 =3D
+      
+        gek subsentence gik subsentence tail-terms
+| [tag] KE # gek-sentence /KEhE#/
+| NA # gek-sentence 
+      
+    
+    
+      tail-terms71 =3D
+      
+        [terms] /VAU#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms80 =3D
+      
+        terms-1 ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms-181 =3D
+      
+        terms-2 [PEhE # joik-jek terms-2] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      terms-282 =3D
+      
+        term [CEhE # term] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      term83 =3D
+      
+        sumti | (tag | FA #) (sumti
+| /KU#/)
+| termset
+| NA KU # 
+      
+    
+    
+      termset85 =3D
+      
+        NUhI # gek terms /NUhU#/ gik terms /NUhU#/
+| NUhI # terms /NUhU#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti90 =3D
+      
+        sumti-1 [VUhO # relative-clauses] 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-191 =3D
+      
+        sumti-2 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # sumti /KEhE#/] 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-292 =3D
+      
+        sumti-3 [joik-ek sumti-3] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-393 =3D
+      
+        sumti-4 [(ek
+| joik) [stag] BO # sumti-3] 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-494 =3D
+      
+        sumti-5
+| gek sumti gik sumti-4 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-595 =3D
+      
+        [quantifier] sumti-6 [relative-clauses]
+| quantifier selbri /KU#/ [relative-clauses] 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-697 =3D
+      
+        (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) [relative-clauses] sumti /LUhU#/
+| KOhA #
+| lerfu-string /BOI#/
+| LA # [relative-clauses] CMENE ... #
+| (LA | LE) # sumti-tail /KU#/
+| LI # mex /LOhO#/
+| ZO any-word #
+| LU text /LIhU#/
+| LOhU any-word ... LEhU #
+| ZOI any-word anything any-word # 
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-tail111 =3D
+      
+        [sumti-6 [relative-clauses]] sumti-tail-1
+| relative-clauses sumti-tail-1 =

+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-tail-1112 =3D
+      
+        [quantifier] selbri [relative-clauses]
+| quantifier sumti 
+      
+    
+    
+      relative-clauses121 =3D
+      
+        relative-clause [ZIhE # relative-clause] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      relative-clause122 =3D
+      
+        GOI # term /GEhU#/
+| NOI # subsentence /KUhO#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri130 =3D
+      
+        [tag] selbri-1 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-1131 =3D
+      
+        selbri-2
+| NA # selbri 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-2132 =3D
+      
+        selbri-3 [CO # selbri-2] 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-3133 =3D
+      
+        selbri-4 ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-4134 =3D
+      
+        selbri-5 [joik-jek selbri-5 | joik [stag] KE # selbri-3 /KEh=
E#/] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-5135 =3D
+      
+        selbri-6 [(jek | joik) [stag] BO # selbri-5] 
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-6136 =3D
+      
+        tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6]
+| [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik selbri-6 
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit150 =3D
+      
+        tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit-1151 =3D
+      
+        tanru-unit-2 [linkargs] 
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit-2152 =3D
+      
+        BRIVLA #
+| GOhA [RAhO] #
+| KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/
+| ME # sumti /MEhU#/ [MOI #] | (number
+| lerfu-string) MOI #
+| NUhA # mex-operator
+| SE # tanru-unit-2
+| JAI # [tag] tanru-unit-2
+| any-word (ZEI any-word) ...
+| NAhE # tanru-unit-2
+| NU [NAI] # [joik-jek NU [NAI] #] ... subsentence /KEI#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      linkargs160 =3D
+      
+        BE # term [links] /BEhO#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      links161 =3D
+      
+        BEI # term [links] 
+      
+    
+    
+      quantifier300 =3D
+      
+        number /BOI#/
+| VEI # mex /VEhO#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      mex310 =3D
+      
+        mex-1 [operator mex-1] ...
+| FUhA # rp-expression 
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-1311 =3D
+      
+        mex-2 [BIhE # operator mex-1] 
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-2312 =3D
+      
+        operand
+| [PEhO #] operator mex-2 ... /KUhE#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      rp-expression330 =3D
+      
+        rp-operand rp-operand operator 
+      
+    
+    
+      rp-operand332 =3D
+      
+        operand
+| rp-expression 
+      
+    
+    
+      operator370 =3D
+      
+        operator-1 [joik-jek operator-1 | joik [stag] KE # operator =
/KEhE#/] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      operator-1371 =3D
+      
+        operator-2
+| guhek operator-1 gik operator-2
+| operator-2 (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1 =

+      
+    
+    
+      operator-2372 =3D
+      
+        mex-operator
+| KE # operator /KEhE#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-operator374 =3D
+      
+        SE # mex-operator
+| NAhE # mex-operator
+| MAhO # mex /TEhU#/
+| NAhU # selbri /TEhU#/
+| VUhU # 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand381 =3D
+      
+        operand-1 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # operand /KEhE#/] 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-1382 =3D
+      
+        operand-2 [joik-ek operand-2] ... <=
anchor xreflabel=3D"BNF rule #383" xml:id=3D"cll_bnf-383"/>
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-2383 =3D
+      
+        operand-3 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # operand-2] 
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-3385 =3D
+      
+        quantifier
+| lerfu-string /BOI#/
+| NIhE # selbri /TEhU#/
+| MOhE # sumti /TEhU#/
+| JOhI # mex-2 ... /TEhU#/
+| gek operand gik operand-3
+| (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) operand /LUhU#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      number812 =3D
+      
+        PA [PA | lerfu-word] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu-string817 =3D
+      
+        lerfu-word [PA | lerfu-word] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu-word987 =3D
+      
+        BY
+| any-word BU
+| LAU lerfu-word
+| TEI lerfu-string FOI 
+      
+    
+    
+      ek802 =3D
+      
+        [NA] [SE] A [NAI] =

+      
+    
+    
+      gihek818 =3D
+      
+        [NA] [SE] GIhA [NAI] 
+      
+    
+    
+      jek805 =3D
+      
+        [NA] [SE] JA [NAI] 
+      
+    
+    
+      joik806 =3D
+      
+        [SE] JOI [NAI]
+| interval
+| GAhO interval GAhO 
+      
+    
+    
+      interval932 =3D
+      
+        [SE] BIhI [NAI] =

+      
+    
+    
+      joik-ek421 =3D
+      
+        joik #
+| ek # 
+      
+    
+    
+      joik-jek422 =3D
+      
+        joik #
+| jek # 
+      
+    
+    
+      gek807 =3D
+      
+        [SE] GA [NAI] #
+| joik GI #
+| stag gik 
+      
+    
+    
+      guhek808 =3D
+      
+        [SE] GUhA [NAI] # =

+      
+    
+    
+      gik816 =3D
+      
+        GI [NAI] # 
+      
+    
+    
+      tag491 =3D
+      
+        tense-modal [joik-jek tense-modal] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      stag971 =3D
+      
+        simple-tense-modal [(jek | joik) simple-tense-modal] ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      tense-modal815 =3D
+      
+        simple-tense-modal #
+| FIhO # selbri /FEhU#/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      simple-tense-modal972 =3D
+      
+        [NAhE] [SE] BAI [NAI] [KI]
+| [NAhE] (time [space]
+| space [time]) & CAhA [KI]
+| KI
+| CUhE 
+      
+    
+    
+      time1030 =3D
+      
+        ZI & time-offset ... & ZEhA [PU [NAI]] & interva=
l-property ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      time-offset1033 =3D
+      
+        PU [NAI] [ZI] =

+      
+    
+    
+      space1040 =3D
+      
+        VA & space-offset ... & space-interval & (MOhI s=
pace-offset) 
+      
+    
+    
+      space-offset1045 =3D
+      
+        FAhA [NAI] [VA] 
+      
+    
+    
+      space-interval1046 =3D
+      
+        ((VEhA & VIhA) [FAhA [NAI]]) & space-int-props 
+      
+    
+    
+      space-int-props1049 =3D
+      
+        (FEhE interval-property) ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      interval-property1051 =3D
+      
+        number ROI [NAI]
+| TAhE [NAI]
+| ZAhO [NAI] 
+      
+    
+    
+      free32 =3D
+      
+        SEI # [terms [CU #]] selbri /SEhU/
+| SOI # sumti [sumti] /SEhU/
+| vocative [relative-clauses] selbri [relative-clauses] /DOhU/
+| vocative [relative-clauses] CMENE ... # [relative-clauses] /DOhU/
+| vocative [sumti] /DOhU/
+| (number | lerfu-string) MAI
+| TO text /TOI/
+| XI # (number | lerfu-string) /BOI/
+| XI # VEI # mex /VEhO/ 
+      
+    
+    
+      vocative415 =3D
+      
+        (COI [NAI]) ... & DOI 
+      
+    
+    
+      indicators411 =3D
+      
+        [FUhE] indicator ... 
+      
+    
+    
+      indicator413 =3D
+      
+        (UI | CAI) [NAI]
+| Y
+| DAhO
+| FUhO
+      
+    
+  
+  The following rules are non-formal:
+  
+    
+       word=
1100 =3D
+      
+        [BAhE] any-word [indicators]
+      
+    
+    
+      any-word =3D
+      
+        =E2=80=9Cany single word (no compound cmavo)=E2=80=9D
+      
+    
+    
+      anything =3D
+      
+        =E2=80=9Cany text at all, whether Lojban or not=E2=80=9D 
+      
+    
+    
+      null1101 =3D
+      
+        any-word SI
+| utterance SA
+| text SU
+      
+    
+  
+  FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable inp=
ut.
+

+
+

+  3. EBNF Cross-Reference
+  
+    
+      A
+      
+        
+          
+          802
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BAI
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BAhE
+      
+        
+          
+          1100
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BE
+      
+        
+          
+          160
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEI
+      
+        
+          
+          161
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BEhO
+      
+        
+          
+          160
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BIhE
+      
+        
+          
+          311
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BIhI
+      
+        
+          
+          932
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BO
+      
+        52, 383, 385, 371, 135, 136, 13, 93, 97<=
/subscript>, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      BOI
+      
+        32, 385, 300, 97
+      
+    
+    
+      BRIVLA
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BU
+      
+        
+          
+          987
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      BY
+      
+        
+          
+          987
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CAI
+      
+        
+          
+          413
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CAhA
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CEI
+      
+        
+          
+          150
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CEhE
+      
+        
+          
+          82
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CMENE
+      
+        32, 97, 0
+      
+    
+    
+      CO
+      
+        
+          
+          132
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      COI
+      
+        
+          
+          415
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      CU
+      
+        32, 40
+      
+    
+    
+      CUhE
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DAhO
+      
+        
+          
+          413
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOI
+      
+        
+          
+          415
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      DOhU
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FA
+      
+        
+          
+          83
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FAhA
+      
+        1046,=
 1045
+      
+    
+    
+      FEhE
+      
+        
+          
+          1049
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FEhU
+      
+        
+          
+          815
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FIhO
+      
+        
+          
+          815
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FOI
+      
+        
+          
+          987
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhA
+      
+        
+          
+          310
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhE
+      
+        
+          
+          411
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      FUhO
+      
+        
+          
+          413
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GA
+      
+        
+          
+          807
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GAhO
+      
+        
+          
+          806
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GEhU
+      
+        
+          
+          122
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GI
+      
+        807, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-816"/>816
+      
+    
+    
+      GIhA
+      
+        
+          
+          818
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GOI
+      
+        
+          
+          122
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GOhA
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      GUhA
+      
+        
+          
+          808
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      I
+      
+        10, 12, 13, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      JA
+      
+        
+          
+          805
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JAI
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JOI
+      
+        
+          
+          806
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      JOhI
+      
+        
+          
+          385
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KE
+      
+        50, 54, 381, 372, 370, 134, 91, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      KEI
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KEhE
+      
+        50, 54, 381, 372, 370, 134, 91, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      KI
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KOhA
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KU
+      
+        95, 97, 83
+      
+    
+    
+      KUhE
+      
+        
+          
+          312
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      KUhO
+      
+        
+          
+          122
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LA
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LAU
+      
+        
+          
+          987
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LAhE
+      
+        385, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-97"/>97
+      
+    
+    
+      LE
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LEhU
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LI
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LIhU
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhO
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LOhU
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LU
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      LUhU
+      
+        385, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-97"/>97
+      
+    
+    
+      MAI
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MAhO
+      
+        
+          
+          374
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ME
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MEhU
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOI
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOhE
+      
+        
+          
+          385
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      MOhI
+      
+        
+          
+          1040
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NA
+      
+        802, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-20"/>20, 54, 818, 805, 131, 83
+      
+    
+    
+      NAI
+      
+        802, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-807"/>807, 818, 816, 808, 413, 1051, 932, 805, 806, 972, 1046, 1045, 152, 0=
, 1033, 1030, 415
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhE
+      
+        374, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-385"/>385, 136, 972, 97, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      NAhU
+      
+        
+          
+          374
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NIhE
+      
+        
+          
+          385
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NIhO
+      
+        4, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      NOI
+      
+        
+          
+          122
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NU
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhA
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhI
+      
+        
+          
+          85
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      NUhU
+      
+        
+          
+          85
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PA
+      
+        817, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-812"/>812
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhE
+      
+        
+          
+          81
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PEhO
+      
+        
+          
+          312
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      PU
+      
+        1033,=
 1030
+      
+    
+    
+      RAhO
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ROI
+      
+        
+          
+          1051
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SA
+      
+        
+          
+          1101
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SE
+      
+        802, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-807"/>807, 818, 808, 932, 805, 806, 374, 972, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      SEI
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SEhU
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SI
+      
+        
+          
+          1101
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SOI
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      SU
+      
+        
+          
+          1101
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TAhE
+      
+        
+          
+          1051
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TEI
+      
+        
+          
+          987
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TEhU
+      
+        374, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-385"/>385
+      
+    
+    
+      TO
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TOI
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhE
+      
+        
+          
+          14
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      TUhU
+      
+        
+          
+          14
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      UI
+      
+        
+          
+          413
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VA
+      
+        1045,=
 1040
+      
+    
+    
+      VAU
+      
+        20, 71
+      
+    
+    
+      VEI
+      
+        32, 300
+      
+    
+    
+      VEhA
+      
+        
+          
+          1046
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VEhO
+      
+        32, 300
+      
+    
+    
+      VIhA
+      
+        
+          
+          1046
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VUhO
+      
+        
+          
+          90
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      VUhU
+      
+        
+          
+          374
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      XI
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      Y
+      
+        
+          
+          413
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZAhO
+      
+        
+          
+          1051
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZEI
+      
+        
+          
+          152
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZEhA
+      
+        
+          
+          1030
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZI
+      
+        1033,=
 1030
+      
+    
+    
+      ZIhE
+      
+        
+          
+          121
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZO
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOI
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ZOhU
+      
+        
+          
+          30
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      any-word
+      
+        987, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-1101"/>1101, 97, =
152, 1100=

+      
+    
+    
+      anything
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail
+      
+        50, 40
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-1
+      
+        
+          
+          50
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-2
+      
+        51, 52
+      
+    
+    
+      bridi-tail-3
+      
+        
+          
+          52
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      ek
+      
+        20, 421, 383, 381, 91, 93
+      
+    
+    
+      fragment
+      
+        
+          
+          10
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      free
+      
+        
+          
+          0
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      gek
+      
+        54, 385, 94, 85
+      
+    
+    
+      gek-sentence
+      
+        53, 54
+      
+    
+    
+      gihek
+      
+        51, 52, 50, 20
+      
+    
+    
+      gik
+      
+        54, 807, 385, 371, 136, 94, 85
+      
+    
+    
+      guhek
+      
+        371, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-136"/>136
+      
+    
+    
+      indicator
+      
+        
+          
+          411
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      indicators
+      
+        0, 1100
+      
+    
+    
+      interval
+      
+        
+          
+          806
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      interval-property
+      
+        1049,=
 1030
+      
+    
+    
+      jek
+      
+        422, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-371"/>371, 135, 971, 13, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      joik
+      
+        807, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-421"/>421, 422, 383, 381, 371, 370, 134, 135, 971, 13, 91, <=
subscript>93, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      joik-ek
+      
+        382, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-92"/>92
+      
+    
+    
+      joik-jek
+      
+        370, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-134"/>134, 12, 491, 152, 81, 0
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu-string
+      
+        32, 987, 385, 97, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      lerfu-word
+      
+        817, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-987"/>987, 812
+      
+    
+    
+      linkargs
+      
+        20, 151
+      
+    
+    
+      links
+      
+        20, 160, 161
+      
+    
+    
+      mex
+      
+        32, 374, 300, 97
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-1
+      
+        311, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-310"/>310
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-2
+      
+        311, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-312"/>312, 385
+      
+    
+    
+      mex-operator
+      
+        374, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-372"/>372, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      number
+      
+        32, 1051, 300, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      operand
+      
+        312, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-385"/>385, 381, 332
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-1
+      
+        
+          
+          381
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-2
+      
+        382, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-383"/>383
+      
+    
+    
+      operand-3
+      
+        383, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-385"/>385
+      
+    
+    
+      operator
+      
+        311, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-312"/>312, 310, 372, 370, 330
+      
+    
+    
+      operator-1
+      
+        371, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-370"/>370
+      
+    
+    
+      operator-2
+      
+        
+          
+          371
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraph
+      
+        
+          
+          4
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      paragraphs
+      
+        4, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      prenex
+      
+        20, 11, 41
+      
+    
+    
+      quantifier
+      
+        20, 385, 95, 112
+      
+    
+    
+      relative-clause
+      
+        
+          
+          121
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      relative-clauses
+      
+        20, 32, 95, 97, 112=
, 111, 90
+      
+    
+    
+      rp-expression
+      
+        310, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-332"/>332
+      
+    
+    
+      rp-operand
+      
+        
+          
+          330
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri
+      
+        53, 32, 374, 385, 131, 136, 95, 112, 81=
5
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-1
+      
+        
+          
+          130
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-2
+      
+        131, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-132"/>132
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-3
+      
+        132, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-134"/>134, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-4
+      
+        
+          
+          133
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-5
+      
+        134, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-135"/>135
+      
+    
+    
+      selbri-6
+      
+        135, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-136"/>136
+      
+    
+    
+      sentence
+      
+        14, 41
+      
+    
+    
+      simple-tense-modal
+      
+        971, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-815"/>815
+      
+    
+    
+      space
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space-int-props
+      
+        
+          
+          1046
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space-interval
+      
+        
+          
+          1040
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      space-offset
+      
+        
+          
+          1040
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      stag
+      
+        52, 50, 807, 383, 381, 371, 370, 134, =
135, 13, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-91"/>91, 93, 2
+      
+    
+    
+      statement
+      
+        10, 11
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-1
+      
+        
+          
+          11
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-2
+      
+        12, 13
+      
+    
+    
+      statement-3
+      
+        
+          
+          13
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      subsentence
+      
+        54, 122, 41, 152
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti
+      
+        32, 385, 91, 94, 97=
, 112, 152, 83
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-1
+      
+        
+          
+          90
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-2
+      
+        
+          
+          91
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-3
+      
+        92, 93
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-4
+      
+        93, 94
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-5
+      
+        
+          
+          94
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-6
+      
+        95, 111
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-tail
+      
+        
+          
+          97
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      sumti-tail-1
+      
+        
+          
+          111
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tag
+      
+        54, 130, 14, 152, 83
+      
+    
+    
+      tail-terms
+      
+        51, 52, 53, 50, 54
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit
+      
+        
+          
+          136
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit-1
+      
+        
+          
+          150
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      tanru-unit-2
+      
+        151, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-152"/>152
+      
+    
+    
+      tense-modal
+      
+        
+          
+          491
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      term
+      
+        160, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_bnf-161"/>161, 122, 82
+      
+    
+    
+      terms
+      
+        20, 32, 30, 40, 71, =
85
+      
+    
+    
+      terms-1
+      
+        
+          
+          80
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      terms-2
+      
+        
+          
+          81
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      termset
+      
+        
+          
+          83
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      text
+      
+        32, 1101, 97
+      
+    
+    
+      text-1
+      
+        14, 0
+      
+    
+    
+      time
+      
+        
+          
+          972
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      time-offset
+      
+        
+          
+          1030
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      utterance
+      
+        
+          
+          1101
+        
+      
+    
+    
+      vocative
+      
+        
+          
+          32
+        
+      
+    
+  
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3ee7fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,926 @@
+
+  Chapter 3
+The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban
+
+
+

+  1. Orthography
+  Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance ca=
n be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can b=
e spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequenc=
e, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or p=
honeme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound=
 or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunci=
ations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and=
 pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, e=
verything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when writt=
en) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. Th=
ese two properties together are known technically as =E2=80=9Caudio-visual =
isomorphism=E2=80=9D.
+  Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of=
 the following letters and symbols:
+  
+      ' , . a b c d e f g i j k l m n o p r s t u v x y z
+
+  omitting the letters =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cq=E2=80=9D, and=
 =E2=80=9Cw=E2=80=9D.
+  The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded charac=
ter set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the =
same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilit=
ated.
+  Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, wh=
ich can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the Eng=
lish name =E2=80=9CJosephine=E2=80=9D, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanize=
d as =E2=80=9CDJOsefin.=E2=80=9D, pronounced ['d=CA=92=
os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See =
 for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it=
 is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case =E2=80=9CO=E2=
=80=9D, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.
+  Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress wo=
uld cause the =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized name=
s are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages wi=
th as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of th=
e regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this cha=
pter.
+

+
+

+  2. Basic Phonetics
+  Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic=
 Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By con=
vention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example,=
 the word =E2=80=9Ccat=E2=80=9D is pronounced (in General American pronunci=
ation) [k=C3=A6t].  contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in=
 this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especia=
lly useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describin=
g speech sounds.
+  The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban l=
etters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately be=
en made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of=
 different native languages and dialects. In all cases except =E2=80=9Cr=E2=
=80=9D the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; f=
or =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) =
are equally acceptable.
+  
+    
+      
+      
+      
+      
+      
+        
+          Letter
+          IPA
+          X-SAMPA
+          Description
+        
+      
+      
+        
+          =E2=80=99
+          
+            [h]
+          
+          [h]
+          an unvoiced glottal spirant
+        
+        
+          ,
+          =E2=80=94
+          =E2=80=94
+          the syllable separator
+        
+        
+          .
+          [=CA=94]
+          [?]
+          a glottal stop or a pause
+        
+        
+          a
+          [a], [=C9=91]
+          [a], [A]
+          an open vowel
+        
+        
+          b
+          
+            [b]
+          
+          [b]
+          a voiced bilabial stop
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            [=CA=83], [=CA=82]
+          
+          [S], [s`]
+          an unvoiced coronal sibilant
+        
+        
+          d
+          
+            [d]
+          
+          [d]
+          a voiced dental/alveolar stop
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            [=C9=9B], [e]
+          
+          [E], [e]
+          a front mid vowel
+        
+        
+          f
+          
+            [f], [=C9=B8]
+          
+          [f], [p\]
+          an unvoiced labial fricative
+        
+        
+          g
+          
+            [=C9=A1]
+          
+          [g]
+          a voiced velar stop
+        
+        
+          i
+          
+            [i]
+          
+          [i]
+          a front close vowel
+        
+        
+          j
+          
+            [=CA=92], [=CA=90]
+          
+          [Z], [z`]
+          a voiced coronal sibilant
+        
+        
+          k
+          
+            [k]
+          
+          [k]
+          an unvoiced velar stop
+        
+        
+          l
+          
+            [l], [l=CC=A9]
+          
+          [l], [l=3D]
+          a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic)
+        
+        
+          m
+          
+            [m], [m=CC=A9]
+          
+          [m], [m=3D]
+          a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic)
+        
+        
+          n
+          
+            [n], [n=CC=A9], [=C5=8B=CC=8D], [=C5=8B=
=CC=A9]
+          
+          [n], [n=3D], [N], [N=3D]
+          a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic)
+        
+        
+          o
+          
+            [o], [=C9=94]
+          
+          [o], [O]
+          a back mid vowel
+        
+        
+          p
+          [p]
+          [p]
+          an unvoiced bilabial stop
+        
+        
+          r
+          [r], [=C9=B9], [=C9=BE], [=CA=80], [r=CC=A9], [=C9=B9=CC=
=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9]
+          [r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=3D], [r\=3D], [4=3D], [R\=3D]
+          a rhotic sound
+        
+        
+          s
+          [s]
+          [s]
+          an unvoiced alveolar sibilant
+        
+        
+          t
+          [t]
+          [t]
+          an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop
+        
+        
+          u
+          [u]
+          [u]
+          a back close vowel
+        
+        
+          v
+          [v], [=CE=B2]
+          [v], [B]
+          a voiced labial fricative
+        
+        
+          x
+          [x]
+          [x]
+          an unvoiced velar fricative
+        
+        
+          y
+          [=C9=99]
+          [@]
+          a central mid vowel
+        
+        
+          z
+          [z]
+          [z]
+          a voiced alveolar sibilant
+        
+      
+    
+  
+  The Lojban sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not =
mistaken for each other. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key fa=
ctors in correct pronunciation, but other subtle differences will develop b=
etween consonants in a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are t=
he only mandatory rules on the range of sounds.
+  Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with eithe=
r rounded or unrounded lips; typically =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cu=
=E2=80=9D are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is no=
t a requirement; some people round =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D as well. Lojban cons=
onants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as foun=
d in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciat=
ion, though a following =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D may cause it.
+  The sounds represented by the letters =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cg=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cx=E2=
=80=9D require special attention for speakers of English, either because th=
ey are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cg=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D), or because they are strikingly differe=
nt in Lojban (=E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D=
). The English =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D represents three different sounds, [k] in =E2=80=9Ccat=E2=80=9D and [s] in =E2=80=9Ccent=E2=80=9D, as well as the [=CA=83] of =E2=80=9Cocean=E2=80=9D. Similarly, English =E2=
=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D can represent [=C9=A1] as in=
 =E2=80=9Cgo=E2=80=9D, [d=CA=92] as in =E2=80=
=9Cgentle=E2=80=9D, and [=CA=92] as in the se=
cond "g" in =E2=80=9Cgarage=E2=80=9D (in some pronunciations). English =E2=
=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D can be either [s] as in =E2=
=80=9Ccats=E2=80=9D, [z] as in =E2=80=9Ccards=
=E2=80=9D, [=CA=83] as in =E2=80=9Ctension=E2=
=80=9D, or [=CA=92] as in =E2=80=9Cmeasure=E2=
=80=9D. The sound of Lojban =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D doesn=E2=80=99t appear in m=
ost English dialects at all.
+  There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but a=
re not Lojban consonants: the =E2=80=9Cch=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cchurch=E2=80=
=9D and the =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cjudge=E2=80=9D. In Lojban, thes=
e are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervenin=
g vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consona=
nts: =E2=80=9Ctc=E2=80=9D (IPA [t=CA=83]) and=
 =E2=80=9Cdj=E2=80=9D (IPA [d=CA=92]). In gen=
eral, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the=
 language: Russian views =E2=80=9Cts=E2=80=9D as a single sound, whereas En=
glish, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.
+

+
+

+  3. The Special Lojban Characters
+  The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are=
 all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a dif=
ferent pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:
+  The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy En=
glish =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D, (IPA [h]). The let=
ter =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D is not used to represent this sound for two reasons=
: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also b=
ecause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweig=
ht representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but=
 is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban mor=
phology (word-formation), which is explained in . In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the per=
iod, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.
+  The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth trans=
ition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fac=
t, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel =
glide.
+  As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those al=
ready used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The convenience of the liste=
ner should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for [h].
+  The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length;=
 a glottal stop (IPA [=CA=94]) is considered =
a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between an=
y two words, and in certain cases =E2=80=94 explained in detail in  =E2=80=94 must occur. In particular, a word beginn=
ing with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a cons=
onant is always followed by a pause.
+  Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a=
 mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because the=
se rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise c=
orrect text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.
+  A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When thi=
s occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together t=
o indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It i=
s not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.
+  The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, gene=
rally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to sep=
arate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in=
 contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some ty=
pe of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syll=
ables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a c=
omma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letter=
s separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word i=
nto two words.
+  Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of=
 syllabic =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, or=
 =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two L=
ojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.<=
/para>
+  Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunc=
iation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about O=
ld MacDonald=E2=80=99s Farm, the vowel string which is written as =E2=80=9C=
ee-i-ee-i-o=E2=80=9D in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:
+  3.1)   .i.ai.i.ai.o
+       [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o]
+       Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!
+
+  However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compare=
d to the English. Furthermore, although  is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it ma=
kes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written=
 word.)
+  If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the Eng=
lish string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:
+  3.2)   .i,ai,i,ai,on.
+       [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94]
+  The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of =
pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, bu=
t closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.
+  However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous int=
erpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthong=
s, producing something like
+  3.3)   .i,iai,ii,iai,ion.
+
+  which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent wit=
h Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native=
 counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-L=
ojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the abi=
lity of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will no=
t affect the recognition of word boundaries.
+  Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. There=
fore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not =
attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, i=
n any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reas=
onable Lojbanic counterparts.)
+  If apostrophes were used instead of commas in , it would appear as:
+  3.4)   .i'ai'i'ai'on.
+       [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94]
+  which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of=
 the original English.
+

+
+

+  4. Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants
+  There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a=
 vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide=
, either a labial (IPA [w]) or palatal (IPA <=
phrase role=3D"IPA">[j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide)=
 or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a s=
ingle syllable.
+  For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sou=
nd that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively br=
ief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible=
. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vo=
wel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. E=
ach separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds =
do not affect the determination of syllables.
+  The six Lojban vowels are =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=
=9Cy=E2=80=9D. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban w=
ords. The vowel =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D has a limited distribution: it appears =
only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabe=
t, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler =
word (like English =E2=80=9Cuh=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cer=E2=80=9D).
+  The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronu=
nciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the =
variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters: =E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D =
may be pronounced [=C9=91j], for example.)
+  
+   Letters IPA Description
+
+    ai     [aj]   an open vowel with palatal=
 off-glide
+    ei     [=C9=9Bj]   a front mid vowel wit=
h palatal off-glide
+    oi     [oj]   a back mid vowel with pala=
tal off-glide
+    au     [aw]   an open vowel with labial =
off-glide
+
+    ia     [ja]   an open vowel with palatal=
 on-glide
+    ie     [j=C9=9B]   a front mid vowel wit=
h palatal on-glide
+    ii     [ji]   a front close vowel with p=
alatal on-glide
+    io     [jo]   a back mid vowel with pala=
tal on-glide
+    iu     [ju]   a back close vowel with pa=
latal on-glide
+
+    ua     [wa]   an open vowel with labial =
on-glide
+    ue     [w=C9=9B]   a front mid vowel wit=
h labial on-glide
+    ui     [wi]   a front close vowel with l=
abial on-glide
+    uo     [wo]   a back mid vowel with labi=
al on-glide
+    uu     [wu]   a back close vowel with la=
bial on-glide
+
+    iy     [j=C9=99]   a central mid vowel w=
ith palatal on-glide
+    uy     [w=C9=99]   a central mid vowel w=
ith labial on-glide
+
+  (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist=
: see  for examples.)
+  The first four diphthongs above (=E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cei=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Coi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cau=E2=80=9D, the ones with of=
f-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following =
ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowi=
ngs; and the last two (=E2=80=9Ciy=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cuy=E2=80=9D) are u=
sed only in Lojbanized names.
+  The syllabic consonants of Lojban, [l=CC=A9]<=
/phrase>, [m=CC=A9], [n=
=CC=A9], and [r=CC=A9], are variants=
 of the non-syllabic [l], [m], [n], and [r] respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution,=
 appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any =E2=80=
=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cr=E2=
=80=9D may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next=
 to a =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, or =E2=
=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:<=
/para>
+  4.1)   brlgan.
+       [br=CC=A9l gan]
+       or [brl=CC=A9 gan]
+  is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunc=
iation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.
+  Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels f=
rom the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are g=
enerally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic=
 consonant. An example is =E2=80=9Crl.=E2=80=9D, which is an approximation =
of the English name =E2=80=9CEarl=E2=80=9D, and has two syllabic consonants=
.
+  Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed=
 or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see ).
+

+
+

+  5. Vowel Pairs
+  Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a =
separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by =
an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with th=
e [h] sound between (and not by a glottal sto=
p or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).
+  All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with th=
e apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthon=
gs when the apostrophe is not included.
+  The Lojban vowel pairs are:
+  
+        a'a   a'e   a'i   a'o   a'u   a'y
+        e'a   e'e   e'i   e'o   e'u   e'y
+        i'a   i'e   i'i   i'o   i'u   i'y
+        o'a   o'e   o'i   o'o   o'u   o'y
+        u'a   u'e   u'i   u'o   u'u   u'y
+        y'a   y'e   y'i   y'o   y'u   y'y
+
+  Vowel pairs involving =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D appear only in Lojbanize=
d names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only =E2=80=9C.y=
'y.=E2=80=9D is so used =E2=80=94 it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe l=
etter (see ).
+  When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pro=
nunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized =
name:
+  5.1)   meiin.
+       mei,in.
+
+   contains the di=
phthong =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D followed by the vowel =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D. In =
order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, lead=
ing to:
+  5.2)   me,iin.
+
+  which contains the vowel =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D followed by the dipht=
hong =E2=80=9Cii=E2=80=9D. In rough English representation,  is =E2=80=9CMay Een=E2=80=9D, whereas=
  is =E2=80=9CMeh Yeen=E2=
=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  6. Consonant Clusters
+  A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes=
 or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or f=
ollowing does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant require=
d in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for=
 the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant=
.
+  An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voi=
cing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the correspondi=
ng voiced ones:
+  
+   UNVOICED    VOICED
+      p          b
+      t          d
+      k          g
+      f          v
+      c          j
+      s          z
+      x          -
+
+  The consonant =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D has no voiced counterpart in Loj=
ban. The remaining consonants, =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, are typically pronounced with=
 voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.
+  Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as do=
ubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated b=
y word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sound=
s. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like [s] in English =E2=80=9Chiss=E2=80=9D, or repeated like [k] in English =E2=80=9Cbackcourt=E2=80=9D. Consonant =
clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a gro=
up, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doub=
led consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or =
three members, except in Lojbanized names.
+  Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the =
beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languag=
es, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word=
. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to =
its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing =
a =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D between vowels into a =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=9D or even an =
alveolar tap (IPA [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable i=
n Lojban.
+  Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consona=
nts in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including sylla=
bic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.
+  Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following res=
trictions:
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this =
would violate the rule against double consonants.
+      
+    
+  
+  
+    
+      2)
+      
+        It is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other=
 unvoiced. The consonants =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cn=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D are exempt from this restriction. As=
 a result, =E2=80=9Cbf=E2=80=9D is forbidden, and so is =E2=80=9Csd=E2=80=
=9D, but both =E2=80=9Cfl=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cvl=E2=80=9D, and both =E2=
=80=9Cls=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clz=E2=80=9D, are permitted.
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set=
 =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cz=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        The specific pairs =E2=80=9Ccx=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ckx=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cxc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cxk=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cmz=E2=80=9D a=
re forbidden.
+      
+    
+  
+  These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If=
 a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a =E2=80=9Cy=E2=
=80=9D can be inserted to break up the pair:
+  6.1)   djeimyz.
+       [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94]
+       James
+
+  The regular English pronunciation of =E2=80=9CJames=E2=80=9D, whic=
h is [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as =
=E2=80=9Cdjeimz.=E2=80=9D, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.
+

+
+

+  7. Initial Consonant Pairs
+  The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a w=
ord (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly lar=
ge group of permissible consonant pairs described in . Even so, it is more than English allows, although hope=
fully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.
+  There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as fol=
lows:
+  
+      bl br
+      cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
+      dj dr dz
+      fl fr
+      gl gr
+      jb jd jg jm jv
+      kl kr
+      ml mr
+      pl pr
+      sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st
+      tc tr ts
+      vl vr
+      xl xr
+      zb zd zg zm zv
+
+  Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoice=
d equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in learni=
ng:
+  
+    pl pr                       fl fr
+    bl br                       vl vr
+
+    cp cf      ct ck cm cn      cl cr
+    jb jv      jd jg jm
+    sp sf      st sk sm sn      sl sr
+    zb zv      zd zg zm
+
+    tc tr      ts               kl kr
+    dj dr      dz               gl gr
+
+    ml mr                       xl xr
+
+  Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the un=
voiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronounce=
d simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true: =E2=80=9C=
cn=E2=80=9D is a permissible initial pair, but =E2=80=9Cjn=E2=80=9D is not.=
)
+  Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are sub=
ject to the following rules:
+  
+    
+      The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consona=
nt pair;
+    
+    
+      The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial =
consonant pair;
+    
+    
+      The triples =E2=80=9Cndj=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cndz=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cntc=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cnts=E2=80=9D are forbidden.
+    
+  
+  Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant p=
air, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have con=
sonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triple=
s are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with m=
ore than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluste=
r is valid.
+

+
+

+  8. Buffering Of Consonant Clusters
+  Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even tho=
se languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban=
 set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound betwe=
en consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound=
 may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener f=
rom the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA [=C9=
=AA], [=C9=A8], [=CA=8A], or even [=CA=8F], but the=
re probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consona=
nt buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples show=
ing such buffering (we will use [=C9=AA] in t=
his chapter) are:
+  8.1)   vrusi
+       [=CB=88vru si]
+       or [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si]
+  8.2)   .AMsterdam.
+       [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94]
+       or [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=
=AA da m=C9=AA=CA=94]
+  When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant int=
o its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, an=
d are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really sy=
llables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.
+  Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:<=
/para>
+  8.3)   klama
+       [=CB=88kla ma][k=
=C9=AA =CB=88la ma]8.4)   xapcke
+       [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B][=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B][=CB=
=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B]
+  In , we see that=
 buffering vowels can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possibl=
e places: the second pronunciation buffers the =E2=80=9Cpc=E2=80=9D consona=
nt pair but not the =E2=80=9Cck=E2=80=9D. The third pronunciation buffers b=
oth.
+  8.5)   ponyni'u
+       [po n=C9=99 'ni hu]
+   cannot contain =
any buffering vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel =E2=80=9Cy=E2=
=80=9D, which is pronounced [=C9=99], with th=
e buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never writt=
en. Consider the contrast between
+  8.6)   bongynanba
+       [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba]
+  an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning =E2=80=9Cbone bread=E2=80=
=9D (note the use of [=C5=8B] as a representa=
tive of =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D before =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D) and
+  8.7)   bongnanba
+       [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba]
+  a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can =
only take a limited form). If  were pronounced with buffering, as
+  8.8)   [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88n=
an ba]
+  it would be very similar to . Only a clear distinction between =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D and any =
buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.
+  Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to=
 aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mis=
take a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vo=
wel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and =
as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use bu=
ffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid c=
onfusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have troub=
le correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this =
guideline,  would be pron=
ounced
+  8.9)   [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =
=CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90]
+  with lengthened vowels.
+

+
+

+  9. Syllabication And Stress
+  A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs,=
 and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as =E2=80=9Cvowels=E2=80=9D fo=
r the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the=
 consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which t=
o the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic fact=
s of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are al=
ways very complex.
+  A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A conson=
ant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair c=
onstitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned t=
o the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and =
second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllab=
le breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.
+  It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. Fo=
r example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names wit=
h consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to ind=
icate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.
+  Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:
+  9.1)   pujenaicajeba
+       pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba
+
+  This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified befo=
re each medial consonant.
+  9.2)   ninmu
+       nin,mu
+
+  This word is split at a consonant pair.
+  9.3)   fitpri
+       fit,pri
+
+  This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two co=
nsonants of the triple.
+  9.4)   sairgoi
+       sair,goi
+       sai,r,goi
+
+  This word contains the consonant pair =E2=80=9Crg=E2=80=9D; the =
=E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D may be pronounced syllabically or not.
+  9.5)   klezba
+       klez,ba
+       kle,zba
+
+  This word contains the permissible initial pair =E2=80=9Czb=E2=80=
=9D, and so may be syllabicated either between =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D or before =E2=80=9Czb=E2=80=9D.
+  Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a w=
ord or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong=
 or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel soun=
d itself, the terms =E2=80=9Cstressed syllable=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cstress=
ed vowel=E2=80=9D are largely interchangeable concepts.
+  Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penulti=
mate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is =
=E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D or which contain a syllabic consonant (=E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D) are =
never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is =E2=80=9Cda'amoi =
terbasna=E2=80=9D.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer =
vowel, such as [=C9=AA], are not counted.
+  There are actually three levels of stress =E2=80=94 primary, secon=
dary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stre=
ss at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing =E2=80=9Cy=E2=
=80=9D, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.
+  Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban c=
ontent words (called =E2=80=9Cbrivla=E2=80=9D). Lojbanized names may be str=
essed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stre=
ssed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. =
Lojban structural words (called =E2=80=9Ccmavo=E2=80=9D) may be stressed on=
 any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a =
syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, t=
he two words may run together.
+  Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used=
 for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary =
stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically wil=
l follow a speaker=E2=80=99s native language habits or preferences. Seconda=
ry stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary s=
tress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the spe=
aker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word =
resolution could result.
+  The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:
+  9.6)   dikyjvo
+       DI,ky,jvo
+
+  (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be: ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note that the syllabl=
e =E2=80=9Cky=E2=80=9D is not counted in determining stress. The vowel =E2=
=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.
+  9.7)   .armstrong.
+       .ARM,strong.
+
+  This is a Lojbanized version of the name =E2=80=9CArmstrong=E2=80=
=9D. The final =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D must be explicitly pronounced. With full=
 buffering, the name would be pronounced:
+  9.8)   [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=
=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g=C9=AA=CA=94]
+  However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible pla=
ce just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acce=
ptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on th=
e first syllable.
+  The English pronunciation of =E2=80=9CArmstrong=E2=80=9D, as spell=
ed in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters =E2=80=9Cng=
=E2=80=9D in English represent a velar nasal (IPA [=C5=
=8B]) which is a single consonant. In Lojban, =E2=80=9Cng=E2=80=9D=
 represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may n=
ot use [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban =E2=80=9C=
ng=E2=80=9D, although [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable=
. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer=
, as one of the following:
+  9.9)   [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=
=C9=AA=CA=94]
+       or [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94]<=
/phrase>
+       or even [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94]<=
/phrase>
+  The normal English pronunciation of the name =E2=80=9CArmstrong=E2=
=80=9D could be Lojbanized as:
+  9.10)  .ARMstron.
+
+  since Lojban =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D is allowed to be pronounced as th=
e velar nasal [=C5=8B].
+  Here is another example showing the use of =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D:
+  9.11)  bisydja
+       BI,sy,dja
+       BI,syd,ja
+
+  This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes=
 =E2=80=9Cbis=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdja=E2=80=9D. When they are joined, an =
impermissible consonant pair results: =E2=80=9Csd=E2=80=9D. In accordance w=
ith the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in , a =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is inserted to separate the impermissible con=
sonant pair; the =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is not counted as a syllable for purpo=
ses of stress determination.
+  9.12)  da'udja
+       da'UD,ja
+       da'U,dja
+
+  These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener =E2=
=80=94 the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no impor=
t in recognizing the word.
+  9.13)  e'u bridi
+       e'u BRI,di
+       E'u BRI,di
+       e'U.BRI,di
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Ce=
'u=E2=80=9D is a cmavo and =E2=80=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D is a brivla. Either of t=
he first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either sylla=
ble of =E2=80=9Ce'u=E2=80=9D, or primary stress on the first syllable. The =
third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of =
the cmavo, requires that =E2=80=94 since the following word is a brivla =E2=
=80=94 the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following t=
wo cases:
+  9.14)  le re nobli prenu
+       le re NObli PREnu
+
+9.15)  le re no bliprenu
+       le re no bliPREnu
+
+  If the cmavo =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D in  were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly =
like the given pronunciation of , which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot re=
present both.
+

+
+

+  10. IPA For English Speakers
+  There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to de=
fine the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. A=
ll the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alph=
abetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, som=
e attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. Th=
ese two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of oth=
er dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television se=
ts.
+  
+    
+      [=CB=88]
+      
+        An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follo=
ws [=CB=88] receives primary stress.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=94]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9C.=E2=80=9D. This sound=
 is not usually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat =
that sometimes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syl=
lable) which starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some k=
inds of American English, it is used between vowels instead of =E2=80=9Ct=
=E2=80=9D: =E2=80=9Cbottle=E2=80=9D [bo=CA=94l=CC=A9]<=
/phrase>. The English interjection =E2=80=9Cuh-oh!=E2=80=9D almost always h=
as it between the syllables.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CB=90]
+      
+        A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoken =
for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in order=
 to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels.
+      
+    
+    
+      [a]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D. T=
his sound doesn=E2=80=99t occur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the =E2=80=
=9Car=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cpark=E2=80=9D, as spoken in RP or New England Am=
erican. It is pronounced further forward in the mouth than [=C9=91].
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=91]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D. The =E2=80=
=9Ca=E2=80=9D of GA =E2=80=9Cfather=E2=80=9D. The sound [a] is preferred because GA speakers often relax an unstressed <=
phrase role=3D"IPA">[=C9=91] into a schwa [=
=C9=99], as in the usual pronunciations of =E2=80=9Cabout=E2=80=9D=
 and =E2=80=9Csofa=E2=80=9D. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban, E=
nglish speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use [a] instead: the Lojban word for =E2=80=9Csofa=E2=80=9D =
is =E2=80=9Csfofa=E2=80=9D, pronounced [sfofa] or [sfof=C9=91] but never [sfof=C9=99] which would be the non-word =E2=80=9Csfofy=E2=80=
=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C3=A6]
+      
+        Not a Lojban sound. The =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D of English =E2=
=80=9Ccat=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [b]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cboy=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csober=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cjo=
b=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CE=B2]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Cv=E2=80=9D. Not an Eng=
lish sound; the Spanish =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cv=E2=80=9D between =
vowels. This sound should not be used for Lojban =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [d]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cdog=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csoda=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cmad=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=9B]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D. T=
he =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D of English =E2=80=9Cmet=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [e]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D. This sound=
 is not found in English, but is the Spanish =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, or the te=
nse =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D of Italian. The vowel of English =E2=80=9Csay=E2=80=
=9D is similar except for the off-glide: you can learn to make this sound b=
y holding your tongue steady while saying the first part of the English vow=
el.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=99]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D. A=
s in the =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D of English =E2=80=9Csofa=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9C=
about=E2=80=9D. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, as it is in Englis=
h. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in the middle of the =
mouth.
+      
+    
+    
+      [f]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D. A=
s in =E2=80=9Cfee=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cloafer=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cchef=E2=
=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=B8]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D. Not an Eng=
lish sound; the Japanese =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D sound.
+      
+    
+    
+      [g]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cgo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceagle=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdog=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [h]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound. =
As in English =E2=80=9Caha=E2=80=9D or the second "h" in =E2=80=9Coh, hello=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [i]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D. E=
ssentially like the English vowel of =E2=80=9Cpizza=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cma=
chine=E2=80=9D, although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an =
off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=AA]
+      
+        A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D of E=
nglish =E2=80=9Cbit=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=A8]
+      
+        A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D of =
=E2=80=9Cjust=E2=80=9D in some varieties of GA, those which make the word s=
ound more or less like =E2=80=9Cjist=E2=80=9D. Also Russian =E2=80=9Cy=E2=
=80=9D as in =E2=80=9Cbyt'=E2=80=9D (to be); like a schwa [=C9=99], but higher in the mouth.
+      
+    
+    
+      [j]
+      
+        Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with =E2=80=9C=
i=E2=80=9D. Like the =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D in English =E2=80=9Cyard=E2=80=9D =
or =E2=80=9Csay=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [k]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Ckill=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctoken=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cf=
lak=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [l]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Clow=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnylon=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cex=
cel=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [l=CC=A9]
+      
+        The syllabic version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, as in En=
glish =E2=80=9Cbottle=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmiddle=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [m]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Chumor=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cham=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [m=CC=A9]
+      
+        The syllabic version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D. As in En=
glish =E2=80=9Ccatch =E2=80=99em=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbottom=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [n]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Chonor=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cson=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [n=CC=A9]
+      
+        The syllabic version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D. As in En=
glish =E2=80=9Cbutton=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C5=8B]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, especially=
 in Lojbanized names and before =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D.=
 As in English =E2=80=9Csing=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csinger=E2=80=9D (but not =
=E2=80=9Cfinger=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cdanger=E2=80=9D).
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C5=8B=CC=8D]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D, e=
specially in Lojbanized names.
+      
+    
+    
+      [o]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D. A=
s in the French =E2=80=9Chaute (cuisine)=E2=80=9D or Spanish =E2=80=9Ccomo=
=E2=80=9D. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest =
GA equivalent is the =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cdough=E2=80=9D or =E2=
=80=9Cjoke=E2=80=9D, but it is essential that the off-glide (a [w]-like sound) at the end of the vowel is not pronounced=
 when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words is =
[=C9=99w] in IPA terms, and has no [o] in it at all; unless you can speak with a Scots, Irish, or American acce=
nt, you may have trouble with this sound.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=94]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, especially=
 before =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D. This sound is a shortened form of the =E2=80=
=9Caw=E2=80=9D in GA =E2=80=9Cdawn=E2=80=9D (for those people who don=E2=80=
=99t pronounce =E2=80=9Cdawn=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CDon=E2=80=9D alike; if y=
ou do, you may have trouble with this sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the =
=E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Chot=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [p]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cpay=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csuper=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cup=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [r]
+      
+        One version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D. Not an English so=
und. The Spanish =E2=80=9Crr=E2=80=9D and the Scots =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, a =
tongue-tip trill.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=B9]
+      
+        One version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D. As in GA =E2=80=
=9Cright=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbaron=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Ccar=E2=80=9D. Not f=
ound in RP.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=C9=BE]
+      
+        One version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D. In GA, appears as=
 a variant of =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=9D in the words =E2=
=80=9Cmetal=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmedal=E2=80=9D respectively. A tongue-tip=
 flap.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=80]
+      
+        One version of Lojban =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D. Not an English so=
und. The French or German =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D in =E2=80=9Creine=E2=80=9D or=
 =E2=80=9Crot=E2=80=9D respectively. A uvular trill.
+      
+    
+    
+      [r=CC=A9], =
[=C9=B9=CC=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9]
+      
+        are syllabic versions of the above. [=
=C9=B9=CC=A9] appears in the GA (but not RP) pronunciation of =E2=
=80=9Cbird=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [s]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cso=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbasin=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cyes=
=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=83]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D. T=
he =E2=80=9Csh=E2=80=9D of English =E2=80=9Cship=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cashen=
=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdish=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=82]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D. Not an Eng=
lish sound. The Hindi retroflex =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D with dot below, or Klin=
gon =E2=80=9CS=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [t]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Ct=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Ctea=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clater=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cno=
t=E2=80=9D. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pronouncing the =E2=80=
=9Ct=E2=80=9D between vowels as [d] or [=C9=BE].
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CE=B8]
+      
+        Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Lojba=
n =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D. The =E2=80=9Cth=E2=80=9D of English =E2=80=9Cthin=E2=
=80=9D (but not =E2=80=9Cthen=E2=80=9D).
+      
+    
+    
+      [v]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cv=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Cvoice=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csavor=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9C=
live=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [w]
+      
+        Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with =E2=80=9C=
u=E2=80=9D. Like the =E2=80=9Cw=E2=80=9D in English =E2=80=9Cwet=E2=80=9D <=
phrase role=3D"IPA">[w=C9=9Bt] or =E2=80=9Ccow=E2=80=9D [k=C9=91w].
+      
+    
+    
+      [x]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D. N=
ot normally an English sound, but used in some pronunciations of =E2=80=9Cl=
och=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9CBach=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9Cgh=E2=80=9D in Scots =E2=
=80=9Cmight=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnight=E2=80=9D. The German =E2=80=9CAch-L=
aut=E2=80=9D. To pronounce [x], force air thr=
ough your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots =
of scrape.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=8F]
+      
+        A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the =
=E2=80=9C=C3=BC=E2=80=9D of German =E2=80=9Ch=C3=BCbsch=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [z]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D. A=
s in English =E2=80=9Czoo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Chazard=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cf=
izz=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=92]
+      
+        The preferred pronunciation of Lojban =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D. T=
he =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D of English =E2=80=9Cvision=E2=80=9D, or the consona=
nt at the end of GA =E2=80=9Cgarage=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      [=CA=90]
+      
+        An allowed variant of Lojban =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D. Not an Eng=
lish sound. The voiced version of [=CA=82].
+      
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  11. English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs
+  Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are s=
imilar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official =
pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.
+  
+   Lojban      English
+
+    ai          =E2=80=9Cpie=E2=80=9D
+    ei          =E2=80=9Cpay=E2=80=9D
+    oi          =E2=80=9Cboy=E2=80=9D
+    au          =E2=80=9Ccow=E2=80=9D
+
+    ia          =E2=80=9Cyard=E2=80=9D
+    ie          =E2=80=9Cyes=E2=80=9D
+    ii          =E2=80=9Cye=E2=80=9D
+    io          =E2=80=9Cyodel=E2=80=9D (in GA only)
+    iu          =E2=80=9Cunicorn=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cfew=E2=80=9D
+
+    ua          =E2=80=9Csuave=E2=80=9D
+    ue          =E2=80=9Cwet=E2=80=9D
+    ui          =E2=80=9Cwe=E2=80=9D
+    uo          =E2=80=9Cwoe=E2=80=9D (in GA only)
+    uu          =E2=80=9Cwoo=E2=80=9D
+
+    iy          =E2=80=9Cmillion=E2=80=9D (the =E2=80=9Cio=E2=80=9D part, =
that is)
+    uy          =E2=80=9Cwas=E2=80=9D (when unstressed)
+
+

+
+

+  12. Oddball Orthographies
+  The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written=
 or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in=
 the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people =
with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanatio=
n or further apology.
+  There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is desig=
ned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography u=
sed in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, exc=
ept that =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D is replaced by =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D. The indivi=
dual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphtho=
ngs are changed as follows:
+  
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Coi=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cau=E2=80=9D become =E2=80=9Cai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Coi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cao=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cia=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=9Ciu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cua=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=9Cuu=E2=80=9D remain unchanged.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Ca'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co'i=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ca'o=E2=80=9D become =E2=80=9Ca,i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce,i=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co,i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ca,o=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Ci'a=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=9Ci'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cu'a=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=9Cu'u=E2=80=9D are changed to =E2=80=9Cia=E2=
=80=9D through =E2=80=9Ciu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cua=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=
=9Cuu=E2=80=9D in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become =E2=
=80=9Ci,a=E2=80=9D through =E2=80=9Ci,u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cu,a=E2=80=9D =
through =E2=80=9Cu,u=E2=80=9D in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.
+    
+    
+      All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.
+    
+  
+  The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogethe=
r, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In =
addition, names and the cmavo =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D are capitalized, and irr=
egular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound)=
 following the stressed syllable.
+  Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography=
:
+  
+    
+      It is not standard, and has not been used.
+    
+    
+      It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phono=
logy; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different=
 written form.
+    
+    
+      It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the =
Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Co=
oke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.
+    
+  
+  There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was desi=
gned when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It =
uses the =E2=80=9C=D0=B0=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=B1=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=
=B2=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=B3=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=B4=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
=D0=B5=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=B6=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=B7=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9C=D0=B8=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=BA=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=BB=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9C=D0=BC=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=BD=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D0=BE=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9C=D0=BF=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=80=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=81=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=82=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=83=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=84=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=D1=85=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C=D1=88=E2=80=9D in the obvio=
us ways. The Latin letter =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is mapped onto the hard sign =
=E2=80=9C=D1=8A=E2=80=9D, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and perio=
d are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman rep=
resentation.
+  Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictio=
nal orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixe=
s to The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojba=
n. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, wi=
ll be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, th=
e tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conventional ways; the =
calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the quesset=C3=A9ma repre=
sents velar consonants.
+  
+    t   tinco       p   parma
+    -   calma       k   quesse
+    d   ando        b   umbar
+    -   anga        g   ungwe
+    -   thule       f   formen
+    c   harma       x   hwesta
+    -   anto        v   ampa
+    j   anca        -   unque
+    n   numen       m   malta
+    -   noldo       -   nwalme
+    r   ore         u   vala
+    i   anna        -   vilya
+
+  The letters =E2=80=9Cvala=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Canna=E2=80=9D are =
used for =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D only when those letter=
s are used to represent glides. Of the additional letters, =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D are =
written with =E2=80=9Cr=C3=B3men=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clambe=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Csilme=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C=C3=A1re=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cesse=E2=80=9D re=
spectively; the inverted forms are used as free variants.
+  Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are read =
as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehtar =
are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for =E2=80=9Cy=E2=
=80=9D. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by =E2=80=9Challa=E2=80=9D. Th=
ere is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period.
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5505e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1156 @@
+
+  Chapter 4
+The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology
+
+
+

+  1. Introductory
+  Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of word=
s. Lojban=E2=80=99s morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many la=
nguages, because Lojban words don=E2=80=99t change form depending on how th=
ey are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to la=
nguages like Russian, but it does have changes like =E2=80=9Cboys=E2=80=9D =
as the plural of =E2=80=9Cboy=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cwalked=E2=80=9D as the =
past-tense form of =E2=80=9Cwalk=E2=80=9D. To make plurals or past tenses i=
n Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of=
 boys, or the time when the walking was going on.
+  However, Lojban does have what is called =E2=80=9Cderivational mor=
phology=E2=80=9D: the capability of building new words from old words. In a=
ddition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses,=
 and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban h=
as very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the=
 words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and w=
riters.
+  A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its compo=
nent words according to specific rules. These so-called =E2=80=9Cmorphology=
 rules=E2=80=9D are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algori=
thm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so =
is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to ta=
lk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        V represents any single Lojban vowel except =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=
=9D; that is, it represents =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        
+VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:
+
+      ai ei oi au
+or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separatin=
g the vowels, one of the following:
+
+      a'a    a'e    a'i    a'o    a'u
+      e'a    e'e    e'i    e'o    e'u
+      i'a    i'e    i'i    i'o    i'u
+      o'a    o'e    o'i    o'o    o'u
+      u'a    u'e    u'i    u'o    u'u
+
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the ap=
ostrophe, one of =E2=80=9Cb=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cd=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cf=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Ck=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cp=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Ct=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cv=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cz=E2=
=80=9D. Syllabic =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D always count as consonants for the purposes of=
 this chapter.
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        
+CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of th=
e 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:
+
+      bl br
+      cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
+      dj dr dz
+      fl fr
+      gl gr
+      jb jd jg jm jv
+      kl kr
+      ml mr
+      pl pr
+      sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st
+      tc tr ts
+      vl vr
+      xl xr
+      zb zd zg zm zv
+
+      
+    
+    
+      5)
+      
+        C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one =
of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial c=
onsonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless =
it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding =E2=
=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cm=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cn=E2=
=80=9D) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden=
 pairs.
+      
+    
+    
+      6)
+      
+        C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants=
 must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must=
 constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.
+      
+    
+  
+  Lojban has three basic word classes =E2=80=94 parts of speech =E2=
=80=94 in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These thre=
e classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has un=
iquely identifying properties =E2=80=94 an arrangement of letters that allo=
ws the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word =
in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to =
a specific word-class.
+  They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure word=
s, corresponding to English words like =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cthe=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cto=E2=80=9D; brivla are the c=
ontent words, corresponding to English words like =E2=80=9Ccome=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cred=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdoctor=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfreely=E2=80=
=9D; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English =E2=80=9CJames=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9CAfghanistan=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9CPope John Paul II=E2=80=9D=
.
+

+
+

+  2. cmavo
+  The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the =
cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together.=
 They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect =
the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the e=
quivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and pun=
ctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as =
=E2=80=9Cselma'o=E2=80=9D, each having a specifically defined grammatical u=
sage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout  to  and summarized in .
+  Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure=
. Here are some examples of the various forms:
+  
+    V-form      .a      .e     .i      .o     .u
+    CV-form     ba      ce     di      fo     gu
+    VV-form     .au     .ei    .ia     .o'u   .u'e
+    CVV-form    ki'a    pei    mi'o    coi    cu'u
+
+  In addition, there is the cmavo =E2=80=9C.y.=E2=80=9D (remember th=
at =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is not a V), which must have pauses before and after=
 it.
+  A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vow=
els, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words c=
onsisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed =
by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for exper=
imental use: a few examples are =E2=80=9Cku'a'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Csau'e=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbai'ai=E2=80=9D. All CVV cmavo beginning with the lett=
er =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D are also reserved for experimental use. In general, =
though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatic=
al use.
+  =E2=80=9CExperimental use=E2=80=9D means that the language designe=
rs will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words =
and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionari=
es for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatc=
h for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the n=
eed for which was not foreseen.
+  The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pai=
rs listed in , but also the follow=
ing ten additional diphthongs:
+  
+            .ia    .ie    .ii    .io    .iu
+            .ua    .ue    .ui    .uo    .uu
+
+  In addition, cmavo can have the form =E2=80=9CCy=E2=80=9D, a conso=
nant followed by the letter =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D. These cmavo represent lett=
ers of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in .
+  Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a =
single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in=
 grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is=
 composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual s=
pace, and to ease the reader=E2=80=99s burden in identifying when the compo=
nent cmavo are acting together.
+  Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, ca=
n be readily identified by two characteristics:
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        They end in a vowel.
+      
+    
+  
+  For example:
+  2.1)   .iseci'i
+       .i se ci'i
+
+2.2)   punaijecanai
+       pu nai je ca nai
+
+2.3)   ki'e.u'e
+       ki'e .u'e
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9C.u'e=E2=80=9D begins with a vowel, and like all=
 words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by =E2=80=9C.=
=E2=80=9D) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo=
 is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,
+  2.4)   ki'e'u'e
+
+  is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four =
vowels.
+  2.5)   cy.ibu.abu
+       cy. .ibu .abu
+
+  Again the pauses are required (see ); the pause after =E2=80=9Ccy.=E2=80=9D merges with the pause be=
fore =E2=80=9C.ibu=E2=80=9D.
+  There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds=
. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo,=
 for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is<=
/para>
+  2.6)   .e'o ko ko kurji
+       .E'o ko ko KURji
+
+  This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, si=
nce brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetic=
ally pleasing.
+  If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first sylla=
ble of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop b=
etween the two stressed syllables. Thus
+  2.7)   le re nanmu
+
+  can be optionally pronounced
+  2.8)   le RE. NANmu
+
+  since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two=
 words; the stress on =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D, though, demands that a pause se=
parate =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D from the following syllable =E2=80=9Cnan=E2=80=
=9D to ensure that the stress on =E2=80=9Cnan=E2=80=9D is properly heard as=
 a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation
+  2.9)   LE re NANmu
+
+  is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purpose=
s of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, compar=
able in rhythmical effect to the English phrase =E2=80=9CTHE two men=E2=80=
=9D. In , the secondary s=
tress on =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D would be similar to that in the English phras=
e =E2=80=9Cthe TWO men=E2=80=9D.
+  Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:
+  2.10)  le re NANmu
+
+  This would probably be the most common usage.
+

+
+

+  3. brivla
+  Predicate words, called =E2=80=9Cbrivla=E2=80=9D, are at the core =
of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. The=
y serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,=
 all in a single part of speech.
+  Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtype=
s are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word =E2=80=94 all words o=
f a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular =
type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype th=
en gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and =
the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.
+  The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent=
 new brivla for new concepts =E2=80=9Con the fly=E2=80=9D; yet it offers pe=
ople that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out yo=
ur meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expa=
nded indefinitely.
+  All brivla have the following properties:
+  
+    
+      always end in a vowel;
+    
+    
+      always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, whe=
re =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this p=
urpose. (See .)
+    
+    
+      always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syll=
able; this implies that they have two or more syllables.
+    
+  
+  The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo a=
nd their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, which =
always end in a consonant. Thus =E2=80=9Cda'amei=E2=80=9D must be a compoun=
d cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair; =E2=80=9Clojban.=E2=80=9D must b=
e a name because it lacks a final vowel.
+  Thus, =E2=80=9Cbisycla=E2=80=9D has the consonant pair =E2=80=9Csc=
=E2=80=9D in the first five non-=E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D letters even though the=
 =E2=80=9Csc=E2=80=9D actually appears in the form of =E2=80=9Csyc=E2=80=9D=
. Similarly, the word =E2=80=9Cro'inre'o=E2=80=9D contains =E2=80=9Cnr=E2=
=80=9D in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted fo=
r this purpose.
+  The three subtypes of brivla are:
+  
+    
+      gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla =
are built;
+    
+    
+      lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and
+    
+    
+      fu'ivla (literally =E2=80=9Ccopy-word=E2=80=9D), the specializ=
ed words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are there=
fore borrowed from other languages.
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  4. gismu
+  The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing con=
cepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons=
: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent =
concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added becau=
se they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because t=
hey represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like =E2=80=9Ccmavo=E2=80=9D and=
 =E2=80=9Cgismu=E2=80=9D themselves).
+  The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of =
semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical rea=
sons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only w=
eeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic s=
pace: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concern=
s.
+  There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to l=
earn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as =E2=80=9Crafsi=
=E2=80=9D) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to comm=
unicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a=
 small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications =
in other languages.
+  All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the convention=
s defined in , all gismu are of th=
e forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section3"/>; furthermore, they:
+  
+    
+      always have five letters;
+    
+    
+      always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;
+    
+    
+      always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissi=
ble initial pair (CC) if it=E2=80=99s at the beginning of the gismu, but ot=
herwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);
+    
+    
+      are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penul=
timate).
+    
+  
+  The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla.=
 In addition, no gismu contains =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D.
+  With the exception of five special brivla variables, =E2=80=9Cbrod=
a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrod=
o=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D, no two gismu differ only in the fi=
nal vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduc=
e the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For exa=
mple, because =E2=80=9Cgismu=E2=80=9D is in the set of gismu, =E2=80=9Ckism=
u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cxismu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgicmu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgizm=
u=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cgisnu=E2=80=9D cannot be.
+  Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn=
 from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russi=
an, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given c=
oncept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written=
 in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizabi=
lity of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the =
inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers =
of that language. See  for a full=
 explanation of the algorithm.
+  Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (=
not definitions):
+  3.1)   creka
+       shirt
+
+3.2)   lijda
+       religion
+
+3.3)   blanu
+       blue
+
+3.4)   mamta
+       mother
+
+3.5)   cukta
+       book
+
+3.6)   patfu
+       father
+
+3.7)   nanmu
+       man
+
+3.8)   ninmu
+       woman
+
+  A small number of gismu were formed differently; see  for a list.
+

+
+

+  5. lujvo
+  When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, m=
ore specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a =
Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanr=
u are an elaboration of the concept of =E2=80=9Cmetaphor=E2=80=9D used in E=
nglish. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The fir=
st of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictiv=
e =E2=80=94 the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified =
brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying briv=
la may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For examp=
le,
+  5.1)   skami pilno
+
+  is the tanru which expresses the concept of =E2=80=9Ccomputer user=
=E2=80=9D.
+  The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. S=
uch tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combi=
ne them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombi=
ned in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more compl=
ex or more specific ideas, and so on.
+  The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous: =E2=
=80=9Cskami pilno=E2=80=9D could refer to a computer that is a user, or to =
a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier componen=
t can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmav=
o within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning=
.
+  Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a scienc=
e. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is u=
nambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules definin=
g the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising=
 a new tanru is dealt with in detail in .
+  To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together=
. Thus the binary metaphor =E2=80=9Cbig boat=E2=80=9D becomes the tanru
+  5.2)   barda bloti
+
+  representing roughly the same concept as the English word =E2=80=
=9Cship=E2=80=9D.
+  The binary metaphor =E2=80=9Cfather mother=E2=80=9D can refer to a=
 paternal grandmother (=E2=80=9Ca father-ly type of mother=E2=80=9D), while=
 =E2=80=9Cmother father=E2=80=9D can refer to a maternal grandfather (=E2=
=80=9Ca mother-ly type of father=E2=80=9D). In Lojban, these become the tan=
ru
+  5.3)   patfu mamta
+
+  and
+  5.4)   mamta patfu
+
+  respectively.
+  The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the la=
st case. To interpret , t=
he listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father=
 being referred to. In an appropriate context, =E2=80=9Cmamta patfu=E2=80=
=9D could mean not =E2=80=9Cgrandfather=E2=80=9D but simply =E2=80=9Cfather=
 with some motherly attributes=E2=80=9D, depending on the culture. If absol=
ute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exac=
t interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not =
needed.
+  When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequentl=
y expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the =
tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For , we would probably choose =E2=80=9Cuser of computers=E2=80=
=9D, and form the new word
+  5.5)   sampli
+
+  Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component =
words, is called a =E2=80=9Clujvo=E2=80=9D. Another example, corresponding =
to the tanru of , would b=
e:
+  5.6)   bralo'i
+       big-boat
+       ship
+
+  The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units represent=
ing the component gismu. These units are called =E2=80=9Crafsi=E2=80=9D in =
Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached togeth=
er in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called=
 =E2=80=9Chyphen=E2=80=9D letters to ensure that the pieces stick together =
as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu,=
 or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately=
 recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spok=
en Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique s=
ource tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.
+  The lujvo that can be built from the tanru =E2=80=9Cmamta patfu=E2=
=80=9D in  is
+  5.7)   mampa'u
+
+  which refers specifically to the concept =E2=80=9Cmaternal grandfa=
ther=E2=80=9D. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in =
=E2=80=9Cmampa'u=E2=80=9D by the rafsi =E2=80=9Cmam-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
-pa'u=E2=80=9D, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated togethe=
r to form =E2=80=9Cmampa'u=E2=80=9D.
+  Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally =
entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be as=
signed based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See  for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, =
lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference i=
n meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build=
 a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in pl=
ace of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though =
the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word =E2=80=9Cbriv=
la=E2=80=9D, built from the tanru =E2=80=9Cbridi valsi=E2=80=9D, is the sam=
e lujvo as =E2=80=9Cbrivalsi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbridyvla=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cbridyvalsi=E2=80=9D, each of which uses a different combination of ra=
fsi.
+  When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid bri=
vla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five lett=
ers (excluding =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D), and the lujvo =
must end in a vowel.
+  A =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D (which is ignored in determining stress or c=
onsonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to gl=
ue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible o=
r the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these=
 conditions, detailed in .
+  An =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D (in some cases, an =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D) is =
inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such=
 a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo
+  5.8)   soirsai
+       sonci sanmi
+       soldier meal
+       field rations
+
+  the rafsi =E2=80=9Csoi-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-sai=E2=80=9D are jo=
ined, with the additional =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D making up the =E2=80=9Crs=E2=
=80=9D consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the =E2=80=
=9Cr=E2=80=9D, the word would break up into =E2=80=9Csoi sai=E2=80=9D, two =
cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they w=
ill either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different =
meaning from what was intended.
+  Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is cle=
arly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.<=
/para>
+  Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak=
 or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which =
you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules f=
or building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be unders=
tood without explanation.
+

+
+

+  6. rafsi
+  Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, =
but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of th=
e rafsi forms in building lujvo =E2=80=94 whichever the reader or listener =
will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing =E2=80=94 subjec=
t to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is inten=
ded to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the st=
andard dictionary form (see ).
+  Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu i=
tself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its f=
inal vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms a=
re represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called =E2=80=9Cthe 5-letter rafsi=E2=80=
=9D), and CVC/C or CCVC (called =E2=80=9Cthe 4-letter rafsi=E2=80=9D) respe=
ctively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other ra=
fsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from =
4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as =E2=80=9Clong rafsi=E2=
=80=9D, they are called =E2=80=9Cunreduced lujvo=E2=80=9D.
+  Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:
+  6.1)   mamtypatfu
+       from =E2=80=9Cmamta patfu=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cmother father=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmaternal grandfather=E2=
=80=9D
+
+6.2)   lerfyliste
+       from =E2=80=9Clerfu liste=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cletter list=E2=80=9D or a =E2=80=9Clist of letters=E2=80=
=9D
+       (letters of the alphabet)
+
+6.3)   nancyprali
+       from =E2=80=9Cnanca prali=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cyear profit=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cannual profit=E2=80=9D
+
+6.4)   prunyplipe
+       from =E2=80=9Cpruni plipe=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Celastic (springy) leap=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cspring=E2=80=
=9D (the verb)
+
+6.5)   vancysanmi
+       from =E2=80=9Cvanci sanmi=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cevening meal=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Csupper=E2=80=9D
+
+  In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three ad=
ditional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the f=
orms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to=
 a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in makin=
g lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.
+  For example, =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cmore than=E2=80=9D)=
 has the two short rafsi =E2=80=9Czma=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmau=E2=80=9D (i=
n addition to its unreduced rafsi =E2=80=9Czmad=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Czmadu=
=E2=80=9D), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on =E2=
=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D, corresponding in general to English comparative adjec=
tives ending in =E2=80=9C-er=E2=80=9D such as =E2=80=9Cwhiter=E2=80=9D (Loj=
ban =E2=80=9Clabmau=E2=80=9D). On the other hand, =E2=80=9Cbakri=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Cchalk=E2=80=9D) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.
+  There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form raf=
si per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form an=
d a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short =
rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fair=
ly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form =
rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the =
end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assign=
ment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.
+  The intention was to use the available =E2=80=9Crafsi space=E2=80=
=9D =E2=80=94 the set of all possible short rafsi forms =E2=80=94 in the mo=
st efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short=
 as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the ra=
fsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason=
, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letter=
s of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short=
 rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short=
 rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used,=
 as explained above).
+  Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gi=
smu of the form CVC/CV, like =E2=80=9Csakli=E2=80=9D. The digits in the sec=
ond column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.
+  
+    CVC     123     -sak-
+    CVC     124     -sal-
+    CVV     12=E2=80=995    -sa'i-
+    CVV     125     -sai-
+    CCV     345     -kli-
+    CCV     132     -ska-
+
+  (The only actual short rafsi for =E2=80=9Csakli=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=
=9C-sal-=E2=80=9D.)
+  For gismu of the form CCVCV, like =E2=80=9Cblaci=E2=80=9D, the onl=
y short rafsi forms that can exist are:
+  
+    CVC     134     -bac-
+    CVC     234     -lac
+    CVV     13=E2=80=995    -ba'i-
+    CVV     135     -bai-
+    CVV     23=E2=80=995    -la'i-
+    CVV     235     -lai-
+    CCV     123     -bla-
+
+  (In fact, =E2=80=9Cblaci=E2=80=9D has none of these short rafsi; t=
hey are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassi=
gn any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the r=
afsi were chosen in the first place.)
+  There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrop=
he cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs =E2=80=
=9Cai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Coi=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cau=
=E2=80=9D; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form=
 a permissible initial consonant pair (see ). Thus =E2=80=9Cmamta=E2=80=9D, which has the same form as =E2=80=
=9Csalci=E2=80=9D, can only have =E2=80=9Cmam=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmat=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9Cma'a=E2=80=9D as possible rafsi: in fact, only =E2=80=9Cm=
am=E2=80=9D is assigned to it.
+  Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For examp=
le, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have=
 a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo tha=
t have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see ).
+  The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is =E2=80=9Cful=
ly reduced lujvo=E2=80=9D. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:
+  6.6)   cumfri
+       from =E2=80=9Ccumki lifri=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cpossible experience=E2=80=9D
+
+6.7)   klezba
+       from =E2=80=9Cklesi zbasu=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Ccategory make=E2=80=9D
+
+6.8)   kixta'a
+       from =E2=80=9Ckrixa tavla=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Ccry-out talk=E2=80=9D
+
+6.9)   sniju'o
+       from =E2=80=9Csinxa djuno=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Csign know=E2=80=9D
+
+  In addition, some of the unreduced forms in the previous example m=
ay be fully reduced to:
+  6.10)  mampa'u
+       from =E2=80=9Cmamta patfu=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cmother father=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmaternal grandfather=E2=
=80=9D
+
+6.11)  lerste
+       from =E2=80=9Clerfu liste=E2=80=9D
+       =E2=80=9Cletter list=E2=80=9D or a =E2=80=9Clist of letters=E2=80=
=9D
+
+  As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in=
 a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a=
 lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters =
=E2=80=94 this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of =
course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more raf=
si, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gi=
smu.
+  When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a=
 hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term =E2=80=9Chyphen=E2=80=9D always refers =
to a letter, either the vowel =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D or one of the consonants =
=E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D. (The letter =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=
=9D can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)
+  The =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when=
 joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible conso=
nant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more wo=
rds (either cmavo or gismu).
+  Thus, the tanru =E2=80=9Cpante tavla=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cprotest ta=
lk=E2=80=9D) cannot produce the lujvo =E2=80=9Cpatta'a=E2=80=9D, because =
=E2=80=9Ctt=E2=80=9D is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be=
 =E2=80=9Cpatyta'a=E2=80=9D. Similarly, the tanru =E2=80=9Cmudri siclu=E2=
=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cwooden whistle=E2=80=9D) cannot form the lujvo =E2=80=9Cmu=
dsiclu=E2=80=9D; instead, =E2=80=9Cmudysiclu=E2=80=9D must be used. (Rememb=
er that =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is not counted in determining whether the first=
 five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)
+  The =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter r=
afsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi=
. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in  to .)
+  The lujvo forms =E2=80=9Czunlyjamfu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czunlyjma=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czuljamfu=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Czuljma=E2=80=9D are all le=
gitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru =E2=80=9Czunle jamfu=E2=
=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cleft foot=E2=80=9D). Of these, =E2=80=9Czuljma=E2=80=9D is=
 the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the fo=
rm listed in a Lojban dictionary.
+  The =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen and its close relative, the =E2=80=
=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen=
 is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwis=
e there would be no consonant cluster.
+  An =E2=80=9Cr-=E2=80=9Dhyphen or =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen is als=
o required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or =
CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a g=
ismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initia=
l position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be om=
itted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hy=
phen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the r=
emainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.
+  An =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen is only used in place of an =E2=80=
=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=
=9D. For example, the tanru =E2=80=9Crokci renro=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Crock th=
row=E2=80=9D) cannot be expressed as =E2=80=9Cro'ire'o=E2=80=9D (which brea=
ks up into two cmavo), nor can it be =E2=80=9Cro'irre'o=E2=80=9D (which has=
 an impermissible double consonant); the =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen is requ=
ired, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is =E2=80=9Cro'inre'o=E2=
=80=9D. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as =E2=
=80=9Crokre'o=E2=80=9D.
+  There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases=
 which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make=
 a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the =
special cmavo =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D. Thus,
+  6.12)  bridi zei valsi
+
+  is the exact equivalent of =E2=80=9Cbrivla=E2=80=9D (but not neces=
sarily the same as the underlying tanru =E2=80=9Cbridi valsi=E2=80=9D, whic=
h could have other meanings.) Using =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D is the only way t=
o get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:
+  6.13)  xy. zei kantu
+       X ray
+
+6.14)  kulnr,farsi zei lolgai
+       Farsi floor-cover
+       Persian rug
+
+6.15)  na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma
+       non-A, non-B liver-disease
+       non-A, non-B hepatitis
+
+6.16)  .cerman. zei jamkarce
+       Sherman war-car
+       Sherman tank
+
+   is particularl=
y noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the =E2=
=80=9Czei=E2=80=9Ds from it doesn=E2=80=99t end with a brivla, and in fact =
is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two compon=
ents, but by adding a =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D between =E2=80=9Cby.=E2=80=9D a=
nd =E2=80=9Clivgyterbilma=E2=80=9D to produce
+  6.17)  na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbil=
ma
+       non-A-non-B-hepatitis
+
+  the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of =
 may be preferable, beca=
use its place structure can be built from that of =E2=80=9Cbilma=E2=80=9D, =
whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed=
 ad hoc.
+  Note that rafsi may not be used in =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D phrases, =
because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) =
but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, bec=
ause cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are re=
ally just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if t=
hey were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.
+

+
+

+  7. fu'ivla
+  The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concr=
ete or specific terms (e.g. =E2=80=9Cbrie=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ccobra=E2=80=
=9D), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g. =E2=80=9Cquar=
k=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cintegral=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Ciambic pentameter=E2=80=
=9D). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were inve=
nted by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring =
to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expr=
essed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually =E2=80=9Ccopied=E2=80=
=9D) into Lojban from the original language.
+  There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more=
 and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a=
 foreign name quoted with the cmavo =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=80=9D (explained in fu=
ll in ):
+  7.1)   me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.
+
+  is a predicate with the place structure =E2=80=9Cx1 is a quantity =
of spaghetti=E2=80=9D.
+  Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, a=
s explained in :
+  7.2)   me la spagetis.
+
+  One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a =
word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you d=
o not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talk=
ing to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)
+  Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrow=
ed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then =
usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to=
 ensure that the resulting word doesn=E2=80=99t fall apart.
+  The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherw=
ise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages woul=
d require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to t=
he fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have mor=
e than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of =
fu'ivla.
+  Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are=
 used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be =
made as short as possible. (See  =
for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)
+  The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gism=
u and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word=
 from a single non-Lojban language. The word is =E2=80=9Cborrowed=E2=80=9D =
(actually =E2=80=9Ccopied=E2=80=9D, hence the Lojban tanru =E2=80=9Cfukpi v=
alsi=E2=80=9D) from the other language and Lojbanized =E2=80=94 the phoneme=
s are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are ma=
de as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All=
 fu'ivla:
+  
+    
+      must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of =
the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be =
a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pa=
ir of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant=
 pair: =E2=80=9Cspraile=E2=80=9D is acceptable, but not =E2=80=9Cktraile=E2=
=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ctrkaile=E2=80=9D;
+    
+    
+      must end in one or more vowels;
+    
+    
+      must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu=
, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of =
it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called =E2=80=9Cslinku'i test=
=E2=80=9D, not discussed further in this book);
+    
+    
+      cannot contain =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D, although they may contain =
syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;
+    
+    
+      like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.
+    
+  
+  Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the=
 beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pai=
rs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permis=
sible initial pairs except at the beginning.
+  This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of poss=
ibilities within =E2=80=9Cfu'ivla space=E2=80=9D. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be ma=
de easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them =
always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'i=
vla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, a=
nd should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable abou=
t all the considerations that apply.
+  Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban wo=
rd into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:
+  
+    
+      Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.
+    
+    
+      Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban=
 =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.
+    
+    
+      If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that t=
he word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding =
a suggestively chosen final vowel.
+    
+    
+      If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning s=
o that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowe=
l or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.
+    
+    
+      Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that cate=
gorizes the fu'ivla into a =E2=80=9Ctopic area=E2=80=9D. It is only safe to=
 use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphe=
nate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphe=
n; if that would produce a double =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, use an =E2=80=9Cn=E2=
=80=9D-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D and the res=
t of the fu'ivla begins with =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D (or vice versa), or if the=
 rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj"=
, or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluste=
r), use an =E2=80=9Cl=E2=80=9D-hyphen. (This is the only use of =E2=80=9Cl=
=E2=80=9D-hyphen in Lojban.)
+      Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can b=
e used instead of the long rafsi.
+    
+    
+      Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimat=
e (next-to-the-last) syllable.
+    
+  
+  In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples=
, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be =
pronounced as a separate syllable.
+  Here are a few examples:
+  7.3)   spaghetti (from English or Italian)
+       spageti (Lojbanize)
+       cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)
+       dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Ccidj-=E2=80=9D is the 4-letter rafsi for =E2=80=9Cc=
idja=E2=80=9D, the Lojban gismu for =E2=80=9Cfood=E2=80=9D, thus categorizi=
ng =E2=80=9Ccidjrspageti=E2=80=9D as a kind of food. The form with the shor=
t rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any =
event, it means the same thing.
+  7.4)   Acer (the scientific name of maple trees)
+       acer (Lojbanize)
+       xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel)
+       tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi)
+       ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Ctric-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cric-=E2=80=9D are rafsi=
 for =E2=80=9Ctricu=E2=80=9D, the gismu for =E2=80=9Ctree=E2=80=9D. Note th=
at by the same principles, =E2=80=9Cmaple sugar=E2=80=9D could get the fu'i=
vla =E2=80=9Csaktrxaceru=E2=80=9D, or could be represented by the tanru =E2=
=80=9Ctricrxaceru sakta=E2=80=9D. Technically, =E2=80=9Cricrxaceru=E2=80=9D=
 and =E2=80=9Ctricrxaceru=E2=80=9D are distinct fu'ivla, but they would sur=
ely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.
+  7.5)   brie (from French)
+       bri (Lojbanize)
+       cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Ccirl-=E2=80=9D represents =E2=80=9Ccirla=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Ccheese=E2=80=9D).
+  7.6)   cobra
+       kobra (Lojbanize)
+       sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Csinc-=E2=80=9D represents =E2=80=9Csince=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Csnake=E2=80=9D).
+  7.7)   quark
+       kuark (Lojbanize)
+       kuarka (add final vowel)
+       sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Csask-=E2=80=9D represents =E2=80=9Csaske=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Cscience=E2=80=9D). Note the extra vowel =E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D added =
to the end of the word, and the diphthong =E2=80=9Cua=E2=80=9D, which never=
 appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.
+  7.8)   =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean)
+       djamo (Lojbanize)
+       lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)
+       ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cler-=E2=80=9D represents =E2=80=9Clerfu=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Cletter=E2=80=9D). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndja=
mo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".
+  The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible me=
anings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens, =E2=80=
=9Cspageti=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ckuarka=E2=80=9D are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla,=
 but =E2=80=9Cxaceru=E2=80=9D looks like a compound cmavo, and =E2=80=9Ckob=
ra=E2=80=9D like a gismu.
+  For another example, =E2=80=9Cintegral=E2=80=9D has a specific mea=
ning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla =E2=80=9Cintegrale=E2=80=9D=
, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense=
 to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking backgrou=
nd; its source =E2=80=94 the English word =E2=80=9Cintegral=E2=80=9D =E2=80=
=94 has various other specialized meanings in other fields.
+  Left uncontrolled, =E2=80=9Cintegrale=E2=80=9D almost certainly wo=
uld eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts=
 that English associates with =E2=80=9Cintegral=E2=80=9D, with only the con=
text to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.
+  The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as =E2=80=
=9Ccmacrntegrale=E2=80=9D, if the =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cintegrale=
=E2=80=9D is removed, or something like =E2=80=9Ccmacrnintegrale=E2=80=9D, =
if a new consonant is added to the beginning; =E2=80=9Ccmac-=E2=80=9D is th=
e rafsi for =E2=80=9Ccmaci=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cmathematics=E2=80=9D). The ar=
chitectural sense of =E2=80=9Cintegral=E2=80=9D might be conveyed with =E2=
=80=9Cdjinrnintegrale=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ctarmrnintegrale=E2=80=9D, where =
=E2=80=9Cdinju=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctarmi=E2=80=9D mean =E2=80=9Cbuilding=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cform=E2=80=9D respectively.
+  Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, sh=
own with more than one rafsi prefix:
+  7.9)   bang,r,blgaria
+       Bulgarian (in language)
+
+7.10)   kuln,r,blgaria
+       Bulgarian (in culture)
+
+7.11)  gugd,r,blgaria
+       Bulgaria (the country)
+
+7.12)  bang,r,kore,a
+       Korean (the language)
+
+7.13)  kuln,r,kore,a
+       Korean (the culture)
+
+  Note the commas in  and , used because =
=E2=80=9Cea=E2=80=9D is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some for=
m of the native name =E2=80=9CChosen=E2=80=9D should have been used instead=
 of the internationally known =E2=80=9CKorea=E2=80=9D; this is a recurring =
problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name =
unless using it will severely impede understanding: =E2=80=9CNavajo=E2=80=
=9D is far more widely known than =E2=80=9CDine=E2=80=99e=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  8. cmene
+  Lojbanized names, called =E2=80=9Ccmene=E2=80=9D, are very much li=
ke their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things=
 (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They m=
ay convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.
+  Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban att=
empts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modificat=
ion. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyza=
ble, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are=
 Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban e=
quivalents:
+  8.1)   djim.
+       Jim
+
+8.2)   djein.
+       Jane
+
+8.3)   .arnold.
+       Arnold
+
+8.4)   pit.
+       Pete
+
+8.5)   katrinas.
+       Katrina
+
+8.6)   kat,r,in.
+       Catherine
+
+  (Note that syllabic =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D is skipped in determining =
the stressed syllable, so  is stressed on the =E2=80=9Cka=E2=80=9D.)
+  8.7)   katis.
+       Cathy
+
+8.8)   keit.
+       Kate
+
+  Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and=
 are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual s=
tress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each e=
nding with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a singl=
e word with no pause. For example,
+  8.9)   djan.  djonz.
+
+  and
+  8.10)  djandjonz.
+
+  are both valid Lojbanizations of =E2=80=9CJohn Jones=E2=80=9D.
+  The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doin=
g the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine ho=
w they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name =
=E2=80=9CMary=E2=80=9D can thus be Lojbanized as =E2=80=9Cmeris.=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cmaris.=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmeiris.=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmerix.=E2=80=
=9D, or even =E2=80=9Cmarys.=E2=80=9D. The last alternative is not pronounc=
ed much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who va=
lues spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an =E2=80=
=9Cs=E2=80=9D; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.
+  Names are not permitted to have the sequences =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D embedded in them, unless =
the sequence is immediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictio=
ns are due to the fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream wi=
ll be preceded by one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words=
 embedded, the cmene might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a s=
horter cmene. However, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because th=
at would imply that the word before the =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, or whatever, =
ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.
+  For example, the invalid name =E2=80=9Claplas.=E2=80=9D would look=
 like the Lojban words =E2=80=9Cla plas.=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cilanas.=E2=
=80=9D would be misunderstood as =E2=80=9C.i la nas.=E2=80=9D. However, =E2=
=80=9CNEderlants.=E2=80=9D cannot be misheard as =E2=80=9CNEder lants.=E2=
=80=9D, because =E2=80=9CNEder=E2=80=9D with no following pause is not a po=
ssible Lojban word.
+  There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can=
 be used in Lojbanizing names, such as =E2=80=9Cly=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clei=
=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cdo'i=E2=80=9D, that do not=
 cause these problems.
+  Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following chara=
cteristics:
+  
+    
+      They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules ab=
out how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that eac=
h consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluste=
r) is a permissible pair.
+    
+    
+      They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vow=
el. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthon=
gs =E2=80=9Ciy=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cuy=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final =
consonant, written as =E2=80=9C.=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not =
the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor=
 words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only =
use of capital letters.
+    
+  
+  Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from name=
s in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gi=
smu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:
+  8.11)  pav.
+       the One
+       from the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D, with rafsi =E2=80=9Cpav=E2=80=
=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cone=E2=80=9D
+
+8.12)  sol.
+       the Sun
+       from the gismu =E2=80=9Csolri=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Csolar=E2=
=80=9D, or actually =E2=80=9Cpertaining to the Sun=E2=80=9D
+
+8.13)  ralj.
+       Chief (as a title)
+       from the gismu =E2=80=9Cralju=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cprincipal=
=E2=80=9D.
+
+8.14)  nol.
+       Lord/Lady
+       from the gismu =E2=80=9Cnobli=E2=80=9D, with rafsi =E2=80=9Cnol=E2=
=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cnoble=E2=80=9D.
+
+  To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the =
following rules:
+  
+    
+      Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.
+    
+    
+      Add a final =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D (or som=
e other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.
+    
+    
+      Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.
+    
+    
+      If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimat=
e (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Loj=
ban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. =
Do not capitalize names otherwise.
+    
+    
+      If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a=
 vowel between the consonants: =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D is recommended.
+    
+    
+      No cmene may have the syllables =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Clai=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D in them, unless immediately prece=
ded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be convert=
ed to something else. Possible substitutions include =E2=80=9Cly=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cly'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cdo'i=E2=80=9D=
, respectively.
+    
+  
+  There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific nam=
es (technically known as =E2=80=9CLinnaean binomials=E2=80=9D after their i=
nventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or pla=
nt. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but c=
an be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo =E2=80=9Cla'o=E2=
=80=9D, explained in . Using this cmavo ma=
kes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, how=
ever, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, tho=
ugh incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban=
 names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or=
 other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term =E2=80=9C=
back vowel=E2=80=9D in the following list refers to any of the letters =E2=
=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D; the term =E2=
=80=9Cfront vowel=E2=80=9D correspondingly refers to any of the letters =E2=
=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D.
+  
+    
+      Change double consonants other than =E2=80=9Ccc=E2=80=9D to si=
ngle consonants.
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Ccc=E2=80=9D before a front vowel to =E2=80=9Ck=
c=E2=80=9D, but otherwise to =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D before a back vowel and final =E2=
=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Ck=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Cng=E2=80=9D before a consonant (other than =E2=
=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D) and final =E2=80=9Cng=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cz=E2=80=9D initially, b=
ut otherwise to =E2=80=9Cks=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Cpn=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D initially.<=
/para>
+    
+    
+      Change final =E2=80=9Cie=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cii=E2=80=9D to =
=E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D.
+    
+    
+      Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:
+
+      aa     a
+      ae     e
+      ch     k
+      ee     i
+      eigh   ei
+      ew     u
+      igh    ai
+      oo     u
+      ou     u
+      ow     au
+      ph     f
+      q      k
+      sc     sk
+      w      u
+      y      i
+However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done i=
f the two vowels are in two different syllables.
+
+    
+    
+      Change =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D between two vowels to =E2=80=9C'=E2=
=80=9D, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the =E2=80=
=9Ch=E2=80=9D seems essential, change it to =E2=80=9Cx=E2=80=9D instead.
+    
+    
+      Place =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D between any remaining vowel pairs th=
at do not form Lojban diphthongs.
+    
+  
+  Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:
+  
+    English =E2=80=9CMary=E2=80=9D             meris.
+                 or            meiris.
+    English =E2=80=9CSmith=E2=80=9D            smit.
+    English =E2=80=9CJones=E2=80=9D            djonz.
+    English =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D             djan. or jan. (American)
+                 or            djon. or jon. (British)
+    English =E2=80=9CAlice=E2=80=9D            .alis.
+    English =E2=80=9CElise=E2=80=9D            .eLIS.
+    English =E2=80=9CJohnson=E2=80=9D          djansn.
+    English =E2=80=9CWilliam=E2=80=9D          .uiliam.
+                 or            .uil,iam.
+    English =E2=80=9CBrown=E2=80=9D            braun.
+    English =E2=80=9CCharles=E2=80=9D          tcarlz.
+    French =E2=80=9CCharles=E2=80=9D           carl.
+    French =E2=80=9CDe Gaulle=E2=80=9D         dyGOL.
+    German =E2=80=9CHeinrich=E2=80=9D          xainrix.
+    Spanish =E2=80=9CJoaquin=E2=80=9D          xuaKIN.
+    Russian =E2=80=9CSvetlana=E2=80=9D         sfietlanys.
+    Russian =E2=80=9CKhrushchev=E2=80=9D       xrucTCOF.
+    Hindi =E2=80=9CKrishna=E2=80=9D            kricnas.
+    Polish =E2=80=9CLech Walesa=E2=80=9D       lex. va,uensas.
+    Spanish =E2=80=9CDon Quixote=E2=80=9D      don. kicotes.
+      or modern Spanish:       don. kixotes.
+      or Mexican dialect:      don. ki'otes.
+    Chinese =E2=80=9CMao Zedong=E2=80=9D       maudzydyn.
+    Japanese =E2=80=9CFujiko=E2=80=9D          fudjikos.
+                or             fujikos.
+
+

+
+

+  9. Rules for inserting pauses
+  Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses b=
etween Lojban words:
+  
+    
+      Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always ille=
gal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into =
two words.
+    
+    
+      Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. =
Necessarily, all such words are cmene.
+    
+    
+      Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause.=
 Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin =
with consonants.
+    
+    
+      Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immediatel=
y preceding word is one of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cla'i=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D (which is why thos=
e strings are forbidden in cmene). However, the situation triggering this r=
ule rarely occurs.
+    
+    
+      If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla =
follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with th=
e primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either=
 a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, o=
f course).
+    
+    
+      A cmavo of the form =E2=80=9CCy=E2=80=9D must be followed by a=
 pause unless another =E2=80=9CCy=E2=80=9D-form cmavo follows.
+    
+    
+      When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be precede=
d and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in .)
+    
+  
+

+
+

+  10. Considerations for making lujvo
+  Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it ca=
n be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is g=
iven in .
+  In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with =
a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached =
together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized =
as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.
+  There are three other complications; only one is serious.
+  The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be=
 used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or =
looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinati=
ons of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exa=
ctly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in  is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo =E2=
=80=94 the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)
+  The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru =
is ambiguous =E2=80=94 it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at lea=
st one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Li=
ke a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semant=
ic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the mo=
st useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic =
drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems=
 the most useful one may change.
+  You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of=
 a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is in=
vented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and =
is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure),=
 linguistic drift results. This isn=E2=80=99t necessarily bad. Every natura=
l language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different =
from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and the=
refore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo =E2=80=9Cza'e=E2=80=9D (exp=
lained in ) before a newly coined lujvo to=
 indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.
+  The essential nature of human communication is that if the listene=
r understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for cho=
osing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.
+  The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojb=
anists with its implications. It is based on Zipf=E2=80=99s Law, which says=
 that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The sho=
rtest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. =
Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In Engli=
sh, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent c=
omplex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shorten=
ed them to convey more information more rapidly.
+  Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstra=
ction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, =
the psychological basis of Zipf=E2=80=99s Law may compel the lujvo-maker to=
 drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, an=
d then use that tanru to make the lujvo.
+  This doesn=E2=80=99t lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A giv=
en lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that=
 more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one mea=
ning for the tanru was already competing for the =E2=80=9Cright=E2=80=9D to=
 define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding w=
hich one meaning is to be chosen over the others.
+  If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is like=
ly to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more o=
f the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter f=
orm meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter =
lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a m=
ore frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shor=
ter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex=
 term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.
+  And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unk=
nown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sen=
se or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the gr=
ouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate gro=
upings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (=
The grouping of tanru is explained in ; abs=
traction is explained in .) Plausibility i=
s the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.
+

+
+

+  11. The lujvo-making algorithm
+  The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo=
 given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi.=
 The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown fo=
r computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assista=
nce of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original =E2=80=9Ctosma=
bru test=E2=80=9D.
+  Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu an=
d cmavo in the tanru except the last.
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi f=
or the final gismu in the tanru.
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphen=
s.
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        
+Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a pla=
ce that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommen=
ded, for reasons discussed below.
+
+4a)If there are m=
ore than two words in the tanru, put an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen (or an =
=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If the=
re are exactly two words, then put an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen (or an =E2=
=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-fo=
rm, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example, =E2=80=9Csaicli=E2=80=
=9D requires no hyphen). Use an =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen unless the lette=
r after the hyphen is =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D, in which case use an =E2=80=9Cn=
=E2=80=9D-hyphen. Never use an =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphen unless it is requ=
ired.4b)Put a =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphen between the consonants of any imp=
ermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.4c)Put a =
=E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.=

+      
+    
+    
+      5)
+      
+        Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi =E2=
=80=94 with the pattern =E2=80=9CCVC ... CVC + X=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 for =E2=
=80=9Ctosmabru failure=E2=80=9D. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that h=
appens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is s=
omething which has caused a =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphen to be installed betw=
een the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.
+      
+    
+  
+  Note that the =E2=80=9Ctosmabru test=E2=80=9D implies that the alg=
orithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hy=
phens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is r=
equired, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been det=
ermined.
+

+
+

+  12. The lujvo scoring algorithm
+  This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It=
 is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that peo=
ple find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest=
-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In prev=
ious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apo=
strophes; call it =E2=80=9CL=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        Count the number of apostrophes; call it =E2=80=9CA=E2=80=9D=
.
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        Count the number of =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-, =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=
=9D-, and =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D-hyphens; call it =E2=80=9CH=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        
+For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over=
 all rafsi; call it =E2=80=9CR=E2=80=9D:
+
+      CVC/CV (final)               (-sarji)    1
+      CVC/C                        (-sarj-)    2
+      CCVCV (final)                (-zbasu)    3
+      CCVC                         (-zbas-)    4
+      CVC                          (-nun-)     5
+      CVV with an apostrophe       (-ta'u-)    6
+      CCV                          (-zba-)     7
+      CVV with no apostrophe       (-sai-)     8
+     =20
+
+      
+    
+    
+      5)
+      
+        Count the number of vowels, not including =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=
=9D; call it =E2=80=9CV=E2=80=9D.
+      
+    
+  
+  The score is then:
+  
+      (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V
+
+  In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note=
 that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short wo=
rds are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with =
fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective)=
, and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is=
 applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possibl=
e that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is=
 ten times better than the alternative.
+  Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest =
scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):
+  12.1)  zbasai
+       zba + sai
+       (1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3
+       =3D 5847
+
+12.2)  nunynau
+       nun + y + nau
+       (1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3
+       =3D 6967
+
+12.3)  sairzbata'u
+       sai + r + zba + ta'u
+       (1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5
+       =3D 10385
+
+12.4)  zbazbasysarji
+       zba + zbas + y + sarji
+       (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4
+       =3D 12976
+
+

+
+

+  13. lujvo-making examples
+  This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First,=
 we will start with the tanru =E2=80=9Cgerku zdani=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cdog h=
ouse=E2=80=9D) and construct a lujvo meaning =E2=80=9Cdoghouse=E2=80=9D, th=
at is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of =
the algorithm in , using every po=
ssible rafsi.
+  The rafsi for =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D are:
+  
+          -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku
+
+  The rafsi for =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D are:
+  
+          -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani.
+
+  Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use =E2=80=9C-ger-=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9C-ge'u-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-gerk-=E2=80=9D as possible rafsi fo=
r =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D; Step 2 directs us to use =E2=80=9C-zda-=E2=80=9D=
 and =E2=80=9C-zdani=E2=80=9D as possible rafsi for =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D=
. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:
+  
+          ger-zda
+          ger-zdani
+          ge'u-zda
+          ge'u-zdani
+          gerk-zda
+          gerk-zdani
+
+  We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first tw=
o forms need no hyphenation: =E2=80=9Cge=E2=80=9D cannot fall off the front=
, because the following word would begin with =E2=80=9Crz=E2=80=9D, which i=
s not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are =E2=80=
=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgerzdani=E2=80=9D.
+  The third form, =E2=80=9Cge'u-zda=E2=80=9D, needs no hyphen, becau=
se even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a=
 consonant cluster in the first five letters. So =E2=80=9Cge'uzda=E2=80=9D =
is this form of the lujvo.
+  The fourth form, =E2=80=9Cge'u-zdani=E2=80=9D, however, requires a=
n =E2=80=9Cr=E2=80=9D-hyphen; otherwise, the =E2=80=9Cge'u-=E2=80=9D part w=
ould fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is =E2=80=9Cge'urzdani=
=E2=80=9D.
+  The last two forms require =E2=80=9Cy=E2=80=9D-hyphens, as all 4-l=
etter rafsi do, and so are =E2=80=9Cgerkyzda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgerkyzda=
ni=E2=80=9D respectively.
+  The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo,=
 so we might expect that =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D would win. Its L score is=
 6, its A score is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score =
is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367,=
 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probabl=
y appear in the dictionary in the form =E2=80=9Cgerzda=E2=80=9D.
+  For the next example, we will use the tanru =E2=80=9Cbloti klesi=
=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cboat class=E2=80=9D) presumably referring to the catego=
ry (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit=
 the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are alm=
ost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi ava=
ilable.
+  The rafsi for =E2=80=9Cbloti=E2=80=9D are =E2=80=9C-lot-=E2=80=9D,=
 =E2=80=9C-blo-=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C-lo'i-=E2=80=9D; for =E2=80=9Cklesi=
=E2=80=9D they are =E2=80=9C-kle-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-lei-=E2=80=9D. Bot=
h these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form r=
afsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-pa=
rt tanru:
+  
+          lotkle      blokle      lo'ikle
+          lotlei      blolei      lo'irlei
+
+  Only =E2=80=9Clo'irlei=E2=80=9D requires hyphenation (to avoid con=
fusion with the cmavo sequence =E2=80=9Clo'i lei=E2=80=9D). All six forms a=
re valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long raf=
si; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:
+  
+          lotkle  5878      blokle  5858      lo'ikle  6367
+          lotlei  5867      blolei  5847      lo'irlei 7456
+
+  So the form =E2=80=9Cblolei=E2=80=9D is preferred, but only by a t=
iny margin over =E2=80=9Cblokle=E2=80=9D; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only sl=
ightly worse; =E2=80=9Clo'ikle=E2=80=9D suffers because of its apostrophe, =
and =E2=80=9Clo'irlei=E2=80=9D because of having both apostrophe and hyphen=
.
+  Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name f=
rom the tanru =E2=80=9Clogji bangu girzu=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Clogical-lang=
uage group=E2=80=9D in English. (=E2=80=9CThe Logical Language Group=E2=80=
=9D is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the =
promotion of Lojban.)
+  The available rafsi are =E2=80=9C-loj-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-logj=
-=E2=80=9D; =E2=80=9C-ban-=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C-bau-=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9C=
-bang-=E2=80=9D; and =E2=80=9C-gri-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-girzu=E2=80=9D, =
and (for name purposes only) =E2=80=9C-gir-=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C-girz-=E2=
=80=9D. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:
+  
+          loj-ban-gri      loj-bau-gri      loj-bang-gri
+          logj-ban-gri     logj-bau-gri     logj-bang-gri
+          loj-ban-girzu    loj-bau-girzu    loj-bang-girzu
+          logj-ban-girzu   logj-bau-girzu   logj-bang-girzu
+
+  and the 12 name possibilities are:
+  
+          loj-ban-gir.     loj-bau-gir.     loj-bang-gir.
+          logj-ban-gir.    logj-bau-gir.    logj-bang-gir.
+          loj-ban-girz.    loj-bau-girz.    loj-bang-girz.
+          logj-ban-girz.   logj-bau-girz.   logj-bang-girz.
+
+  After hyphenation, we have:
+  
+          lojbangri        lojbaugri        lojbangygri
+          logjybangri      logjybaugri      logjybangygri
+          lojbangirzu      lojbaugirzu      lojbangygirzu
+          logjybangirzu    logjybaugirzu    logjybangygirzu
+
+          lojbangir.       lojbaugir.       lojbangygir.
+          logjybangir.     logjybaugir.     logjybangygir.
+          lojbangirz.      lojbaugirz.      lojbangygirz.
+          logjybangirz.    logjybaugirz.    logjybangygirz.
+
+  The only fully reduced lujvo forms are =E2=80=9Clojbangri=E2=80=9D=
 and =E2=80=9Clojbaugri=E2=80=9D, of which the latter has a slightly lower =
score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organiz=
ation, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, a=
nd to use the clearer long-form rafsi for =E2=80=9Cgirzu=E2=80=9D, producin=
g =E2=80=9Clojbangirz.=E2=80=9D
+  Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on th=
e tanru =E2=80=9Cnakni ke cinse ctuca=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmale (sexual tea=
cher)=E2=80=9D. The =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D cmavo ensures the interpretation =
=E2=80=9Cteacher of sexuality who is male=E2=80=9D, rather than =E2=80=9Cte=
acher of male sexuality=E2=80=9D. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo,=
 both before and after hyphenation:
+  
+          nak-kem-cin-ctu          nakykemcinctu
+          nak-kem-cin-ctuca        nakykemcinctuca
+          nak-kem-cins-ctu         nakykemcinsyctu
+          nak-kem-cins-ctuca       nakykemcinsyctuca
+          nakn-kem-cin-ctu         naknykemcinctu
+          nakn-kem-cin-ctuca       naknykemcinctuca
+          nakn-kem-cins-ctu        naknykemcinsyctu
+          nakn-kem-cins-ctuca      naknykemcinsyctuca
+
+  Of these forms, =E2=80=9Cnakykemcinctu=E2=80=9D is the shortest an=
d is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be=
 better to just make a lujvo for =E2=80=9Ccinse ctuca=E2=80=9D (which would=
 be =E2=80=9Ccinctu=E2=80=9D) since the sex of the teacher is rarely import=
ant. If there was a reason to specify =E2=80=9Cmale=E2=80=9D, then the simp=
ler tanru =E2=80=9Cnakni cinctu=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cmale sexual-teacher=E2=
=80=9D) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-=
part lujvo, since the =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D required for grouping need not b=
e expressed.
+

+
+

+  14. The gismu creation algorithm
+  The gismu were created through the following process:
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        At least one word was found in each of the six source langua=
ges (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to th=
e proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liber=
ally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricati=
ve were simplified to just the fricative (=E2=80=9Ctc=E2=80=9D became =E2=
=80=9Cc=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdj=E2=80=9D became =E2=80=9Cj=E2=80=9D) and non-=
Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endi=
ngs were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages =
for the sake of consistency.
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        
+All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language form=
s. The matches were scored as follows:
+
+2a)If three or mo=
re letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word=
, and appeared in the same order, the score was equal to the number of lett=
ers that were the same. Intervening letters, if any, did not matter.=
2b)If =
exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-lang=
uage word, and either the two letters were consecutive in both words, or we=
re separated by a single letter in both words, the score was 2. Letters in =
reversed order got no score.=
2c)Otherwise, the score was 0.
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        The scores were divided by the length of the source-language=
 word in its Lojbanized form, and then multiplied by a weighting value spec=
ific to each language, reflecting the proportional number of first-language=
 and second-language speakers of the language. (Second-language speakers we=
re reckoned at half their actual numbers.) The weights were chosen to sum t=
o 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was the total score for the proposed=
 gismu form.
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were rem=
oved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a confl=
ict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu =
except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu =
would have identical 4-letter rafsi.
+      
+    
+    
+      5)
+      
+        The gismu form with the highest score usually became the act=
ual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafs=
i. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders =
(for example, the gismu =E2=80=9Cgismu=E2=80=9D should have been =E2=80=9Cg=
icmu=E2=80=9D, but it=E2=80=99s too late to fix it now).
+      
+    
+  
+  Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficien=
tly distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an=
 extreme example, =E2=80=9Cbradi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbredi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cbridi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D (but fortunately not =E2=80=
=9Cbrudi=E2=80=9D) are all existing gismu.
+

+
+

+  15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
+  The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm.=
 They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions =
to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffici=
ent justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes=
 and the assignable predicates beginning with =E2=80=9Cbrod-=E2=80=9D, they=
 all end in the letter =E2=80=9Co=E2=80=9D, which is otherwise a rare lette=
r in Lojban gismu.
+  The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently uniqu=
e to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gism=
u, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually si=
milar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike=
 lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex l=
ujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo r=
easonably short.
+  
+    broda       1st assignable predicate
+    brode       2nd assignable predicate
+    brodi       3rd assignable predicate
+    brodo       4th assignable predicate
+    brodu       5th assignable predicate
+    cmavo       structure word (from =E2=80=9Ccmalu valsi=E2=80=9D)
+    lojbo       Lojbanic (from =E2=80=9Clogji bangu=E2=80=9D)
+    lujvo       compound word (from =E2=80=9Cpluja valsi=E2=80=9D)
+    mekso       Mathematical EXpression
+
+  It is important to understand that even though =E2=80=9Ccmavo=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clojbo=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clujvo=E2=80=9D were made up f=
rom parts of other gismu, they are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly t=
he same way as all other gismu, both in grammar and in word formation.
+  The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn from =
the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for co=
ncepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recognized=
 internationally.
+  Small metric prefixes (values less than 1):
+  
+    decti       .1/deci
+    centi       .01/centi
+    milti       .001/milli
+    mikri       1E-6/micro
+    nanvi       1E-9/nano
+    picti       1E-12/pico
+    femti       1E-15/femto
+    xatsi       1E-18/atto
+    zepti       1E-21/zepto
+    gocti       1E-24/yocto
+
+  Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1):
+  
+    dekto       10/deka
+    xecto       100/hecto
+    kilto       1000/kilo
+    megdo       1E6/mega
+    gigdo       1E9/giga
+    terto       1E12/tera
+    petso       1E15/peta
+    xexso       1E18/exa
+    zetro       1E21/zetta
+    gotro       1E24/yotta
+
+  Other scientific or mathematical terms:
+  
+    delno       candela
+    kelvo       kelvin
+    molro       mole
+    radno       radian
+    sinso       sine
+    stero       steradian
+    tanjo       tangent
+    xampo       ampere
+
+  The gismu =E2=80=9Csinso=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctanjo=E2=80=9D were=
 only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been bor=
rowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. =
The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system;=
 some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually bec=
ause they are different in Chinese).
+  Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, bu=
t by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the mu=
lti-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words tha=
t have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or language=
s may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its =
home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, whi=
ch uses weighted averages, doesn=E2=80=99t accurately represent the frequen=
cy of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required=
 to be based on the six major languages.
+  The six Lojban source languages:
+  
+    jungo       Chinese (from =E2=80=9CZhong1gu=
o2=E2=80=9D)
+    glico       English
+    xindo       Hindi
+    spano       Spanish
+    rusko       Russian
+    xrabo       Arabic
+
+  Seven other widely spoken languages that were on the list of candi=
dates for gismu-making, but weren=E2=80=99t used:
+  
+    bengo       Bengali
+    porto       Portuguese
+    baxso       Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia
+    ponjo       Japanese (from =E2=80=9CNippon=E2=80=9D)
+    dotco       German (from =E2=80=9CDeutsch=E2=80=9D)
+    fraso       French (from =E2=80=9CFran=C3=A7ais=E2=80=9D)
+    xurdo       Urdu
+
+  (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing =
systems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed vo=
cabulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights=
 were assigned for gismu-making purposes.)
+  Countries with a large number of speakers of any of the above lang=
uages (where the meaning of =E2=80=9Clarge=E2=80=9D is dependent on the spe=
cific language):
+  
+         English:
+
+    merko       American
+    brito       British
+    skoto       Scottish
+    sralo       Australian
+    kadno       Canadian
+
+         Spanish:
+
+    gento       Argentinian
+    mexno       Mexican
+
+         Russian:
+
+    softo       Soviet/USSR
+    vukro       Ukrainian
+
+         Arabic:
+
+    filso       Palestinian
+    jerxo       Algerian
+    jordo       Jordanian
+    libjo       Libyan
+    lubno       Lebanese
+    misro       Egyptian (from =E2=80=9CMizraim=E2=80=9D)
+    morko       Moroccan
+    rakso       Iraqi
+    sadjo       Saudi
+    sirxo       Syrian
+
+         Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia:
+
+    bindo       Indonesian
+    meljo       Malaysian
+
+         Portuguese:
+
+    brazo       Brazilian
+
+         Urdu:
+
+    kisto       Pakistani
+   =20
+
+  The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:
+  
+    bemro       North American (from =E2=80=9Cberti merko=E2=80=9D)
+    dzipo       Antarctican (from =E2=80=9Ccadzu cipni=E2=80=9D)
+    ketco       South American (from =E2=80=9CQuechua=E2=80=9D)
+    friko       African
+    polno       Polynesian/Oceanic
+    ropno       European
+    xazdo       Asiatic
+
+  A few smaller but historically important cultures:
+  
+    latmo       Latin/Roman
+    srito       Sanskrit
+    xebro       Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish
+    xelso       Greek (from =E2=80=9CHellas=E2=80=9D)
+
+  Major world religions:
+  
+    budjo       Buddhist
+    dadjo       Taoist
+    muslo       Islamic/Moslem
+    xriso       Christian
+
+  A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:
+  
+    jegvo       Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)
+    semto       Semitic
+    slovo       Slavic
+    xispo       Hispanic (New World Spanish)
+
+

+
+

+  16. rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal
+  The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in , is unavoidably controversial. Much time has =
been spent debating whether this or that culture =E2=80=9Cdeserves a gismu=
=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmust languish in fu'ivla space=E2=80=9D. To help defu=
se this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was alread=
y substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it=
 is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not =
been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-ma=
king) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of =
small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for makin=
g lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counte=
rexamples; finally the general =E2=80=9Czei=E2=80=9D mechanism was devised =
instead.)
+  The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no =
change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCV=
VCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section15"/>. For example,
+  16.1)  tci'ile
+       Chilean
+
+  is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Sta=
ge 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if th=
ey differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but do=
es not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.
+  The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to all=
ow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vow=
el and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain f=
ive letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all ot=
her rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru
+  16.2)  tci'ile ke canre tutra
+       Chilean type-of (sand territory)
+       Chilean desert
+
+  could be represented by the lujvo
+  16.3)  tci'ilykemcantutra
+
+  which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo und=
er this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned =
to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.<=
/para>
+  The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called =E2=
=80=9Crafsi fu'ivla=E2=80=9D, since they are distinguished from other Type =
4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and=
 introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard fo=
r all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs,=
 and other things.
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a0b500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1331 @@
+
+  Chapter 5
+=E2=80=9CPretty Little Girls=E2=80=99 School=E2=80=9D: The Structure Of Lo=
jban selbri
+
+
+

+  1. Lojban content words: brivla
+  At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bri=
di is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a re=
lationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is refer=
red to. The difference between:
+  1.1)   do mamta mi
+       You are-a-mother-of me.
+       You are my mother.
+
+  and
+  1.2)   do patfu mi
+       You are-a-father-of me.
+       You are my father.
+
+  lies in the different selbri.
+  The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a bri=
vla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built i=
nto the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of =
the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified for=
m) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo t=
hat can act like brivla; these are mentioned in , and discussed in full in .<=
/para>
+  For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. F=
or example,
+  1.3)   ta bloti
+       That is-a-boat.
+       That is a boat.
+
+1.4)   ta brablo
+       That is-a-large-boat.
+       That is a ship.
+
+1.5)   ta blotrskunri
+       That is-a-(boat)-schooner.
+       That is a schooner.
+
+  illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla re=
spectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose=
 meaning can be learned independent of its origins.
+  The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example bri=
vla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that =
wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.=

+

+
+

+  2. Simple tanru
+  Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla place=
d together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, i=
t is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest =
analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as =E2=80=
=9Clemon tree=E2=80=9D. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phra=
se =E2=80=9Clemon tree=E2=80=9D exactly what it refers to, even if you know=
 the meanings of =E2=80=9Clemon=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctree=E2=80=9D by them=
selves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to =E2=80=
=9Ca tree which bears lemons as fruits=E2=80=9D. A person who didn=E2=80=99=
t know English very well might think of it as analogous to =E2=80=9Cbrown t=
ree=E2=80=9D and wonder, =E2=80=9CWhat kind of tree is lemon-colored?=E2=80=
=9D
+  In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English ad=
jective-noun combinations like =E2=80=9Cbig boy=E2=80=9D and adverb-verb co=
mbinations like =E2=80=9Cquickly run=E2=80=9D. This is a consequence of Loj=
ban not having any such categories as =E2=80=9Cnoun=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cverb=
=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cadjective=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cadverb=E2=80=9D. Englis=
h words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivl=
a in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:
+  2.1)   tu pelnimre tricu
+       That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).
+       That is a lemon tree.
+
+2.2)   la djan. barda nanla
+       John is-a-big boy.
+       John is a big boy.
+
+2.3)   mi sutra bajra
+       I quick run.
+       I quickly run/I run quickly.
+
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cpelnimre=E2=80=9D is a lujvo for =E2=80=9Clemon=
=E2=80=9D; it is derived from the gismu =E2=80=9Cpelxu=E2=80=9D, yellow, an=
d =E2=80=9Cnimre=E2=80=9D, citrus. Note also that =E2=80=9Csutra=E2=80=9D c=
an mean =E2=80=9Cfast/quick=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cquickly=E2=80=9D depending=
 on its use:
+  2.4)   mi sutra
+       I am-fast/quick.
+
+  shows =E2=80=9Csutra=E2=80=9D used to translate an adjective, wher=
eas in  it is translating=
 an adverb. (Another correct translation of , however, would be =E2=80=9CI am a quick runner=E2=80=
=9D.)
+  There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, =
derived from the place structure of the word =E2=80=9Ctanru=E2=80=9D. The f=
irst component is called the =E2=80=9Cseltau=E2=80=9D, and the second compo=
nent is called the =E2=80=9Ctertau=E2=80=9D.
+  The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the =
tertau carries the primary meaning. A =E2=80=9Cpelnimre tricu=E2=80=9D is p=
rimarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some w=
ay. For this reason, an alternative translation of  would be:
+  2.5)   That is a lemon type of tree.
+
+  This =E2=80=9Ctype of=E2=80=9D relationship between the components=
 of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.
+  We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau=
:
+  2.6)   That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way =
appropriate to trees)
+
+  would be another possible translation of . In the same way, a more explicit translation of =
 might be:
+  2.7)   John is a boy who is big in the way that boys =
are big.
+
+  This =E2=80=9Cway that boys are big=E2=80=9D would be quite differ=
ent from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-=
elephant.
+  All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:
+  2.8)   ta klama jubme
+       That is-a-goer type-of-table.
+
+  include:
+  
+    That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).
+    That is a table owned by one who goes.
+    That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor=E2=80=99s table?=
).
+    That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).
+
+  In each case the object referred to is a =E2=80=9Cgoer type of tab=
le=E2=80=9D, but the ambiguous =E2=80=9Ctype of=E2=80=9D relationship can m=
ean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all spe=
akers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenien=
t because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squ=
eeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.
+  No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exist=
s; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously =
do exist:
+  2.9)   do barda prenu
+       You are-a-large person.
+
+2.10)  do cmalu prenu
+       You are-a-small person.
+
+  are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between =E2=
=80=9Cbarda=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cprenu=E2=80=9D is the same as that betwee=
n =E2=80=9Ccmalu=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cprenu=E2=80=9D.  and  conta=
in a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.
+

+
+

+  3. Three-part tanru grouping with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     bo      BO                  closest scope grouping
+
+  Consider the English sentence:
+  3.1)   That=E2=80=99s a little girls=E2=80=99 school.
+
+  What does it mean? Two possible readings are:
+  3.2)   That=E2=80=99s a little school for girls.
+
+3.3)   That=E2=80=99s a school for little girls.
+
+  This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity =
described in . We understand that =
=E2=80=9Cgirls=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Ca school where girls=
 are the students=E2=80=9D, and not =E2=80=9Ca school where girls are the t=
eachers=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Ca school which is a girl=E2=80=9D (!). Likewis=
e, we understand that =E2=80=9Clittle girl=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cgirl who=
 is small=E2=80=9D. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is =E2=80=9Cgirls=E2=
=80=99 school=E2=80=9D to be taken as a unit, with =E2=80=9Clittle=E2=80=9D=
 specifying the type of girls=E2=80=99 school? Or is =E2=80=9Clittle girl=
=E2=80=9D to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English =
speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speech rhythm showing the =
grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves =
it unrepresented.
+  Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit wo=
rds are used to do the work. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D (which belongs =
to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely =
associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of  would be:
+  3.4)   ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       That is-a-small girl =E2=80=93 school.
+
+   might be transl=
ated:
+  3.5)   ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
+       That is-a-small =E2=80=93 girl school.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is represented in the literal translation=
 by a hyphen because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the =
same purpose: =E2=80=9Ca big dog-catcher=E2=80=9D would be quite different =
from a =E2=80=9Cbig-dog catcher=E2=80=9D (presumably someone who catches on=
ly big dogs).
+  Analysis of  and=
  reveals a tanru nested =
within a tanru. In , the =
main tanru has a seltau of =E2=80=9Ccmalu=E2=80=9D and a tertau of =E2=80=
=9Cnixli bo ckule=E2=80=9D; the tertau is itself a tanru with =E2=80=9Cnixl=
i=E2=80=9D as the seltau and =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D as the tertau. In , on the other hand, the selt=
au is =E2=80=9Ccmalu bo nixli=E2=80=9D (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau=
 is =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D. This structure of tanru nested within tanru fo=
rms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explain=
ed below.
+  What about ? Wha=
t does it mean?
+  3.6)   ta cmalu nixli ckule
+       That is-a-small girl school.
+
+  The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the r=
ules of English do with .=
 The choice made by the language designers is to say that  means the same as . This is true no matter what three brivla are u=
sed: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This rule is called the =
=E2=80=9Cleft-grouping rule=E2=80=9D. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous =
structures is quite common =E2=80=94 though not universal =E2=80=94 in othe=
r contexts in Lojban.
+  Another way to express the English meaning of  and , using parentheses to mark grouping, is:
+  3.7)   ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).
+
+3.8)   ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
+       That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.
+
+  Because =E2=80=9Ctype-of=E2=80=9D is implicit in the Lojban tanru =
form, it has no Lojban equivalent.
+  Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert =E2=80=9C=
bo=E2=80=9D into a simple tanru:
+  3.9)   ta klama bo jubme
+       That is-a goer=E2=80=93table.
+
+  is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as , and is ambiguous in exactly =
the same ways. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D serves only to resolve groupi=
ng ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all=
 tanru.
+

+
+

+  4. Complex tanru grouping
+  If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both eleme=
nts?
+  4.1)   do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu
+       You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).
+       You are a very large dog-catcher.
+
+  In , the selbri =
is a tanru with seltau =E2=80=9Cmutce bo barda=E2=80=9D and tertau =E2=80=
=9Cgerku bo kavbu=E2=80=9D. It is worth emphasizing once again that this ta=
nru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense=
 in which the =E2=80=9Cdog type-of capturer=E2=80=9D is said to be =E2=80=
=9Cvery type-of large=E2=80=9D is not precisely specified. Presumably it is=
 his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other pr=
operties.
+  We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ram=
ifications of the phrase =E2=80=9Cpretty little girls=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=
=9D, an expansion of the tanru used in  to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Pr=
oject almost since the beginning =E2=80=94 it first appeared in Quine=E2=80=
=99s book Word and Object (1960) =E2=80=94 it is actua=
lly a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English =E2=80=9Cpretty=
=E2=80=9D; it can mean =E2=80=9Cbeautiful=E2=80=9D, the sense intended here=
, or it can mean =E2=80=9Cvery=E2=80=9D. Lojban =E2=80=9Cmelbi=E2=80=9D is =
not subject to this ambiguity: it means only =E2=80=9Cbeautiful=E2=80=9D.)<=
/para>
+  Here are four ways to group this phrase:
+  4.2)   ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule
+       That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school.
+       That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.
+
+4.3)   ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).
+       That is a girls=E2=80=99 school which is beautifully small.
+
+4.4)   ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule
+       That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school.
+       That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.
+
+4.5)   ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
+       That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)).
+       That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.
+
+   uses a construc=
tion which has not been seen before: =E2=80=9Ccmalu bo nixli bo ckule=E2=80=
=9D, with two consecutive uses of =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D between brivla. The =
rule for multiple =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D constructions is the opposite of the=
 rule when no =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is present at all: the last two are grou=
ped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the =E2=80=9Cright-grouping =
rule=E2=80=9D, and it is associated with every use of =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D =
in the language. Therefore,
+  4.6)   ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
+       That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).
+
+  means the same as , not . This rule may s=
eem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=
=80=9D is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the comp=
lex tanru presented so far: all of  through  could=
 have =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D inserted between =E2=80=9Cmelbi=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Ccmalu=E2=80=9D with no change in meaning.
+

+
+

+  5. Complex tanru with =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=
=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ke      KE                  start grouping
+     ke'e    KEhE                end grouping
+
+  There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of =E2=80=9Cpretty little girl=
s=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=9D that cannot be expressed with the resources expl=
ained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmav=
o, =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D (belonging to selma'o KE=
 and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these t=
wo cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is =
adjacent to it. Thus,  ca=
n be rewritten in any of the following ways:
+  5.1)   ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
+       That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
+
+5.2)   ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
+       That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.
+
+5.3)   ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e
+       That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).
+
+  Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number o=
f =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num=
ber of =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are=
 a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, t=
he following is equivalent to  and may be easier to understand:
+  5.4)   ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule
+       That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of school=
.
+
+  Likewise, a =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D versio=
n of  would be:
+  5.5)   ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).
+
+  The final =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D is given in square brackets here =
to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide =E2=80=9C=
ke'e=E2=80=9D at the end of the selbri, making  as terse as .
+  Now how about that fifth grouping? It is
+  5.6)   ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school )=
.
+       That is a beautiful school for small girls.
+
+   is distinctly d=
ifferent in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within =
the =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D parentheses, the left-grouping rule is ap=
plied to =E2=80=9Ccmalu nixli ckule=E2=80=9D.
+  It is perfectly all right to mix =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D in a single selbri. For instance, , which in pure =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=
=9D form is
+  5.7)   ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
+       That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) )=
.
+
+  can equivalently be expressed as:
+  5.8)   ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
+       That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) )=
.
+
+  and in many other different forms as well.
+

+
+

+  6. Logical connection within tanru
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     je      JA                  tanru logical =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D
+     ja      JA                  tanru logical =E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D
+     joi     JOI                 mixed mass =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D
+     gu'e    GUhA                tanru forethought logical =E2=80=9Cand=E2=
=80=9D
+     gi      GI                  forethought connection separator
+
+  Consider the English phrase =E2=80=9Cbig red dog=E2=80=9D. How sha=
ll this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:
+  6.1)   barda xunre gerku
+       (big type-of red) type-of dog
+
+  will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever w=
ay redness might be described as =E2=80=9Cbig=E2=80=9D. Nor is
+  6.2)   barda xunre bo gerku
+       big type-of (red type-of dog)
+
+  much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the E=
nglish phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merel=
y as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are ind=
ependent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective=
 ordering prevent us from saying =E2=80=9Cred big dog=E2=80=9D.
+  The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D, which is one of the many equivalents of English =E2=80=
=9Cand=E2=80=9D. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can =
say:
+  6.3)   barda je xunre gerku
+       (big and red) type-of dog
+
+  Of course,
+  6.4)   xunre je barda gerku
+       (red and big) type-of dog
+
+  is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these example=
s indicate, joining two brivla with =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D makes them a unit =
for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D or=
 =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D associates brivla more closely than =E2=80=
=9Cje=E2=80=9D does:
+  6.5)   barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku
+       barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku
+       (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog
+       big yellowish-red dog
+
+  With no grouping indicators, we get:
+  6.6)   barda je pelxu xunre gerku
+       ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog
+       biggish- and yellowish-red dog
+
+  which again raises the question of : what does =E2=80=9Cbiggish-red=E2=80=9D mean?
+  Unlike =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It=
 may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:
+  6.7)   ta blanu je zdani
+       that is-blue and is-a-house
+
+  definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, =
and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple =E2=80=9Cbla=
nu zdani=E2=80=9D. Furthermore, =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D refers to som=
ething which is blue in the way that houses are blue; =E2=80=9Cblanu je zda=
ni=E2=80=9D has no such implication =E2=80=94 the blueness of a =E2=80=9Cbl=
anu je zdani=E2=80=9D is independent of its houseness.
+  With the addition of =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D, many more versions of =
=E2=80=9Cpretty little girls=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=9D are made possible: se=
e  for a complete list.
+  A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like  needs special elucidation. There are at leas=
t two possible interpretations of:
+  6.8)   ta melbi je nixli ckule
+       That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.
+
+  It can be understood as:
+  6.9)   That is a girls=E2=80=99 school and a beautifu=
l school.
+
+  or as:
+  6.10)  That is a school for things which are both g=
irls and beautiful.
+
+  The interpretation specified by  treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:
+  6.11)  ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke=
'e]
+       That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of school )
+
+  whereas the interpretation specified by  does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity fo=
r which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the scho=
ol is said to be of type =E2=80=9Cbeautiful and girl=E2=80=9D may entail th=
at it is separately a beautiful school and a girls=E2=80=99 school; but the=
 alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful a=
nd girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:
+  6.12)  That is a school for beautiful things and al=
so for girls.
+
+  so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of ta=
nru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.
+  In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the fo=
rmal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives t=
hat exist outside tanru; see  for further =
details.
+  The logical connective =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D is only one of the fou=
rteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of =
some of the others:
+  6.13)  le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga
+       the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).
+
+6.14)  blanu naja lenku skapi
+       (blue only-if cold) skin
+       skin which is blue only if it is cold
+
+6.15)  xamgu jo cortu nuntavla
+       (good if-and-only-if short) speech
+       speech which is good if (and only if) it is short
+
+6.16)  vajni ju pluka nuntavla
+       (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking
+       speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cj=
a=E2=80=9D is grammatically equivalent to =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D but means =
=E2=80=9Cor=E2=80=9D (more precisely, =E2=80=9Cand/or=E2=80=9D). Likewise, =
=E2=80=9Cnaja=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Conly if=E2=80=9D in , =E2=80=9Cjo=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cif =
and only if=E2=80=9D in =
, and =E2=80=9Cju=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cwhether or not=E2=80=9D in .
+  Now consider the following example:
+  6.17)  ricfu je blanu jabo crino
+       rich and (blue or green)
+
+  which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both =E2=
=80=9Cja=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D between tanru components. The tw=
o cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of =E2=80=9Cja=E2=
=80=9D but which groups more closely; =E2=80=9Cjabo=E2=80=9D is to =E2=80=
=9Cja=E2=80=9D as plain =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is to no cmavo at all. However=
, both =E2=80=9Cja=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cjabo=E2=80=9D group less closely t=
han =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D does:
+  6.18)  ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu
+       rich and (blue or green =E2=80=93 blue)
+       rich and (blue or greenish-blue)
+
+  An alternative form of  is:
+  6.19)  ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]
+       rich and (blue or green)
+
+  In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety o=
f non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. Th=
e only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is =E2=80=9Cjoi=
=E2=80=9D, which is the kind of =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D that denotes a mixtur=
e:
+  6.20)  ti blanu joi xunre bolci
+       This is-a-(blue and red) ball.
+
+  The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but prob=
ably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two color=
s.  is distinct from:
+  6.21)  ti blanu xunre bolci
+       This is a bluish-red ball
+
+  which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending t=
oward red, since =E2=80=9Cxunre=E2=80=9D is the more important of the two c=
omponents. On the other hand,
+  6.22)  ti blanu je xunre bolci
+       This is a (blue and red) ball
+
+  is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is =
independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible in=
terpretation may exist.
+  Finally, just as English =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D has the variant for=
m =E2=80=9Cboth ... and=E2=80=9D, so =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D between tanru com=
ponents has the variant form =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=80=9D, where =E2=80=9C=
gu'e=E2=80=9D is placed before the components and =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D betw=
een them:
+  6.23)  gu'e barda gi xunre gerku
+       (both big and red) type-of dog
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to . For each logical connective related to =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D, =
there is a corresponding connective related to =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=80=
=9D in a systematic way.
+  The portion of a =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=80=9D construction before=
 the =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri r=
esources including =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D logical connections. After the =E2=
=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than =
the =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=80=9D, which has in effect the same scope as =
=E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D:
+  6.24)  gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu
+       (both (big and red) and dog) or cat
+       something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat
+
+  leaves =E2=80=9Cmlatu=E2=80=9D outside the =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=
=80=9D construction. The scope of the =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D arm extends only=
 to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=
=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  7. Linked sumti: =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=93bei=E2=80=93be'o=E2=80=9D</t=
itle>
+  <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+     be      BE                  linked sumti marker
+     bei     BEI                 linked sumti separator
+     be'o    BEhO                linked sumti terminator
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed ov=
er so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in=
 detail; they are discussed in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9"/>. One gramma=
tical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentence=
s such as <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example1"/>, the place str=
ucture of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu =E2=
=80=9Cmamta=E2=80=9D. What about more complex selbri?</para>
+  <para>For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure=
 of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place st=
ructure of =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D is that of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D=
: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.</para=
>
+  <para>What about the places of =E2=80=9Cblanu=E2=80=9D? Is there any way=
 to get them into the act? In fact, =E2=80=9Cblanu=E2=80=9D has only one pl=
ace, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=
=80=9D. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as bl=
ue-for-a-house. But if we replace =E2=80=9Cblanu=E2=80=9D with =E2=80=9Cxam=
gu=E2=80=9D, we get:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example1"/>7.1)   ti xamgu zdani
+       This is-a-good house.
+       This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Since =E2=80=9Cxamgu=E2=80=9D has three places (x1, the good thing=
; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness), <x=
ref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example1"/> necessarily omits informat=
ion about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, howeve=
r!</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example2"/>7.2)   ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani
+       This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.
+       This is a house that is good for you by my standards.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Here, the gismu =E2=80=9Cxamgu=E2=80=9D has been followed by the c=
mavo =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more s=
umti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure=
, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2.=
 If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo =E2=80=9C=
bei=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the e=
lidable terminator =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D (of selma'o BEhO).</para>
+  <para>Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion pl=
ays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a ful=
ly fleshed-out version of <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example4"/=
>, with all places filled in:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example3"/>7.3)   ti cmalu be le ka canlu
+                       bei lo'e ckule be'o
+             nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo
+                       ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci
+                                le mela nu,IORK. prenu
+                                le jecta
+
+       This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume
+                       by-standard the-typical school)
+             (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-thi=
ng)
+                       school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems
+                                for-audience New-York persons
+                                with-operator the state.
+
+       This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, p=
ertaining
+       to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teachi=
ng poetry
+       to the New York community and operated by the state.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Here the three places of =E2=80=9Ccmalu=E2=80=9D, the three of =E2=
=80=9Cnixli=E2=80=9D, and the four of =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D are fully spe=
cified. Since the places of =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D are the places of the b=
ridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow =E2=80=
=9Cckule=E2=80=9D. It would have been legal to do so, however:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example4"/>7.4)   mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]
+       I go (to-the market from-the house).
+</programlisting>
+  <para>means the same as</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d5"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example5"/>7.5)   mi klama le zarci le zdani
+       I go to-the market from-the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictate=
s the place structure: the place structure of</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example6"/>7.6)   melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       a (pretty and little) (girl school)
+       a school for girls which is both beautiful and small
+</programlisting>
+  <para>is simply that of =E2=80=9Cckule=E2=80=9D. (The sole exception to =
this rule is discussed in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section8"/>.)</para=
>
+  <para>It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure orde=
ring tags =E2=80=9Cfe=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfo=E2=80=9D,=
 and =E2=80=9Cfu=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FA, discussed further in <xref linken=
d=3D"cll_chapter9"/>), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, an=
d x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=
=80=9D is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems co=
nvenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:</=
para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example7"/>7.7)   ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani
+       This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>which is equivalent in meaning to <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-se=
ction7-example2"/>. Note that the order of =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cb=
ei=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D does not change; only the inserted =
=E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D tells us that =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D is the x3 place (an=
d correspondingly, the inserted =E2=80=9Cfe=E2=80=9D tells us that =E2=80=
=9Cdo=E2=80=9D is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done =
to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.</para>
+  <para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while=
 omitting a previous place:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example8"/>7.8)   ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani
+       This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.
+       This is a good house by my standards.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted in=
to strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
5-section7-example9"/>7.9)   ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani
+       That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.
+       That is a blue, as I see it, house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The meaning of <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example9"/> =
is slightly different from:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapte=
r5-section7-example10"/>7.10)  ta blanu zdani ga'a mi
+       That is-a-blue house to-observer me.
+       That is a blue house, as I see it.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>See discussions in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9"/> of modals and =
in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10"/> of tenses for more explanations.</para=
>
+  <para>The terminator =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D is almost always elidable: h=
owever, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause foll=
owing it will attach to the last linked sumti unless =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D=
 is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapte=
r5-section7-example11"/>7.11)  le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani
+       The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-exampl=
e12"/>7.12)  le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani
+       The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house
+</programlisting>
+  <para>(Relative clauses are explained in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8"/=
>.)</para>
+  <para>In other cases, however, =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D cannot be elided i=
f =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D has also been elided:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapte=
r5-section7-example13"/>7.13)  le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani
+       the good (for the teacher) house
+</programlisting>
+  <para>requires either =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D, an=
d since there is only one occurrence of =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D, the =E2=80=9C=
be'o=E2=80=9D must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence o=
f =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D the =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D terminates (in fact the sec=
ond one is correct).</para>
+</section>
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8">
+  <title>8. Inversion of tanru: =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     co      CO                  tanru inversion marker
+
+  The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes =
what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of =E2=80=9C=
blue houses=E2=80=9D, not of =E2=80=9Chouses blue=E2=80=9D. In other langua=
ges, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports th=
is reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle =E2=80=9C=
co=E2=80=9D.  and  mean exactly the same thing:
+  8.1)   ta blanu zdani
+       That is-a-blue type-of-house.
+       That is a blue house.
+
+8.2)   ta zdani co blanu
+       That is-a-house of-type blue.
+       That is a blue house.
+
+  This change is called =E2=80=9Ctanru inversion=E2=80=9D. In tanru =
inversion, the element before =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D=
 in ) is the tertau, and =
the element following =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cblanu=E2=80=9D) in ) is the seltau.
+  The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanr=
u is not affected by inversion: the place structure of =E2=80=9Czdani co bl=
anu=E2=80=9D is still that of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D. However, the existen=
ce of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which fo=
llow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the sel=
bri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In , we saw how to fill interior places =
with =E2=80=9Cbe ... bei ... be'o=E2=80=9D, and in fact  and  have the same meaning:
+  8.3)   mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci
+       I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.
+       I try to go to the market from the house.
+
+8.4)   mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
+       I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).
+       I try to go to the market from the house.
+
+   is a less deepl=
y nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably ea=
sier to understand.
+  Note that in Lojban =E2=80=9Ctrying to go=E2=80=9D is expressed us=
ing =E2=80=9Ctroci=E2=80=9D as the tertau. The reason is that =E2=80=9Ctryi=
ng to go=E2=80=9D is a =E2=80=9Cgoing type of trying=E2=80=9D, not a =E2=80=
=9Ctrying type of going=E2=80=9D. The trying is more fundamental than the g=
oing =E2=80=94 if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.
+  Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the p=
laces of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. I=
n , =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D =
fills the x1 place of =E2=80=9Ctroci co klama=E2=80=9D, which is the x1 pla=
ce of =E2=80=9Ctroci=E2=80=9D. The other places of the selbri remain unfill=
ed. The trailing sumti =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cle zdani=E2=
=80=9D do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.
+  As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GO=
hI, explained in ) for referring to individ=
ual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of , because they are not really =E2=
=80=9Csumti of the bridi=E2=80=9D at all.
+  When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it o=
nly at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion=
 of , for instance, is:
+  8.5)   ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu
+       That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.
+       That=E2=80=99s a girls=E2=80=99 school which is small.
+
+  Note that the =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D of  is optional in , because =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D groups more loosely than any ot=
her cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even =E2=80=9Cke ... ke=
'e=E2=80=9D parentheses can encompass a =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D:
+  8.6)   ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi
+       That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pretty.
+       That=E2=80=99s a small school for girls which is beautiful.
+
+  In , the =E2=80=
=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D is automatically inserted before the =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D =
rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there=
 is a simple and mechanical rule for removing =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D from any=
 selbri: change =E2=80=9CA co B=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cke B ke'e A=E2=80=9D. =
(At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into =
=E2=80=9Cbe ... bei ... be'o=E2=80=9D form and attached following B.) There=
fore,
+  8.7)   ckule co melbi nixli
+       school of-type pretty girl
+       school for beautiful girls
+
+  means the same as:
+  8.8)   ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule
+       (pretty girl) school
+
+  Multiple =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D cmavo can appear within a selbri, in=
dicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for =E2=
=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, =
but all =E2=80=9Cco=E2=80=9D cmavo must be removed simultaneously:
+  8.9)   ckule co nixli co cmalu
+       school of-type (girl of-type little)
+
+  becomes formally
+  8.10)  ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
+       ( (little) girl ) school
+
+  which by the left-grouping rule is simply
+  8.11)  cmalu nixli ckule
+       little girl school
+       school for little girls
+
+  As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of
+  8.12)  mi klama co sutra
+       I am-a-goer of-type quick
+       I go quickly
+
+  cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any su=
mti in that position fill the places of =E2=80=9Csutra=E2=80=9D, the seltau=
. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can =
be filled with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D:
+  8.13)  mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra
+       I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.
+       I go to the store quickly.
+
+

+
+

+  9. Other kinds of simple selbri
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     go'i    GOhA                repeats the previous bridi
+     du      GOhA                equality
+     nu'a    NUhA                math operator to selbri
+     moi     MOI                 changes number to ordinal selbri
+     mei     MOI                 changes number to cardinal selbri
+     nu      NU                  event abstraction
+     kei     KEI                 terminator for NU
+
+  So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivl=
a as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojba=
n which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either dir=
ectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple s=
elbri are discussed at length in , , and ; but for c=
ompleteness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an =
example of their use in selbri.
+  The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi,=
 providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fi=
xed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably =E2=80=9Cgo'=
i=E2=80=9D, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of=
 it. If I say:
+  9.1)   la djan. klama le zarci
+       John goes-to the market.
+
+  you may retort:
+  9.2)   la djan. go'i troci
+       John [repeat last] are-a-tryer
+       John tries to.
+
+   is short for:
+  9.3)   la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci
+       John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.
+
+  because the whole bridi of  has been packaged up into the single word =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=
=9D and inserted into .
+  The exceptional member of GOhA is =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D, which repr=
esents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:
+  
+             x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...
+
+  for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA =
is available in .
+  Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into s=
elbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as =E2=80=9Csu'i=
=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cplus=E2=80=9D, can be transformed into selbri b=
y prefixing them with =E2=80=9Cnu'a=E2=80=9D (of selma'o NUhA). The resulti=
ng place structure is:
+  
+             x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, =
x3, etc.
+
+  for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 =
place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exampl=
e:
+  9.4)   li vo nu'a su'i li re li re
+       The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.
+
+  A possible tanru example might be:
+  9.5)   mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi
+       I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.
+       I understand addition problems.
+
+  More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression=
 with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Det=
ails are available in . Here are a few tan=
ru:
+  9.6)   la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku
+       Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.
+       Preem Palver is the first speaker.
+
+9.7)   la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei
+       Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.
+       Anyi and Asun are two brothers.
+
+  Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla =
is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selm=
a'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Ck=
ei=E2=80=9D of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely sub=
tle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented =
in . A few examples:
+  9.8)   ti nu zdile kei kumfa
+       This is-an-event-of amusement room.
+       This is an amusement room.
+
+   is quite distin=
ct in meaning from:
+  9.9)   ti zdile kumfa
+       This is-an-amuser room.
+
+  which suggests the meaning =E2=80=9Ca room that amuses someone=E2=
=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  10. selbri based on sumti: =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     me      ME                  changes sumti to simple selbri
+     me'u    MEhU                terminator for =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D
+
+  A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with =E2=
=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable termin=
ator =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the=
 place structure
+  
+             x1 is one of the referents of =E2=80=9C[the sumti]=E2=80=9D
+
+  which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of t=
he sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti
+  10.1)  le ci nolraitru
+       the three noblest-governors
+       the three kings
+
+  If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian traditi=
on, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:
+  10.2)  la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru
+       Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of =E2=80=9Cthe three kings=E2=80=
=9D.
+       Balthazar is one of the three kings.
+
+  and likewise
+  10.3)  la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru
+       Caspar is one of the three kings.
+
+  and
+  10.4)  la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru
+       Melchior is one of the three kings.
+
+  If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of =E2=80=
=9Cme=E2=80=9D is much like that of =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D:
+  10.5)  do du la djan.
+       You are-identical-with the-one-called =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D.
+       You are John.
+
+  means the same as
+  10.6)  do me la djan.
+       You are-the-referent-of =E2=80=9Cthe-one-called =E2=80=98John=E2=80=
=99=E2=80=9D.
+       You are John.
+
+  It is common to use =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D selbri, especially those =
based on name sumti using =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, as seltau. For example:
+  10.7)  ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce
+       That (is-a-referent of =E2=80=9Cthe-mass-called =E2=80=98Chrysler=
=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D) car.
+       That is a Chrysler car.
+
+  The elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D can usually be omit=
ted. It is absolutely required only if the =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D selbri is b=
eing used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in ), and if the indefinite description is followed =
by a relative clause (explained in ) or a s=
umti logical connective (explained in ). W=
ithout a =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D, the relative clause or logical connective =
would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D ex=
pression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:
+  10.8)  re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu =
blabi
+       Two of the group =E2=80=9Cthe three kings and John=E2=80=9D are whi=
te.
+
+10.9)  re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi
+       Two of the three kings, and John, are white.
+
+  In  the =E2=80=
=9Cme=E2=80=9D selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite =
description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say =
which two. In , though, =
the =E2=80=9Cme=E2=80=9D selbri covers only the three kings: two of them ar=
e said to be white, and so is John.
+  Finally, here is another example requiring =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D:=

+  10.10) ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta
+       That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.
+       That is the kind of book you were talking about.
+
+  There are other sentences where either =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D or s=
ome other elidable terminator must be expressed:
+  10.11) le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci
+       the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating
+       the Three Kings celebration
+
+  requires either =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D to =
be explicit, and (as with =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D in ) the =E2=80=9Cme'u=E2=80=9D leaves no doubt which cmavo =
it is paired with.
+

+
+

+  11. Conversion of simple selbri
+  Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places =
appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti wit=
h the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in , and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written.=
 Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, =
selbri with renumbered places.
+  In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'=
o SE before the selbri:
+  11.1)  mi prami do
+       I love you.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to:
+  11.2)  do se prami mi
+       You [swap x1 and x2] love me.
+       You are loved by me.
+
+  Conversion is fully explained in .=
 For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is =
that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert=
 a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider :
+  11.3)  la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci
+       Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.
+       Alice walkingly goes to the market.
+       Alice walks to the market.
+
+  To convert this sentence so that =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D is in =
the x1 place, one correct way is:
+  11.4)  le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .ali=
s.
+       The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice.
+       The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D brackets cause the entire tanru =
to be converted by the =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D, which would otherwise convert =
only =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=9D, leading to:
+  11.5)  le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis.
+       The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice.
+       The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.
+
+  whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place=
 structure of =E2=80=9Ccadzu klama=E2=80=9D is that of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=
=9D alone, is to convert only the latter:
+  11.6)  le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.
+       The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.
+
+  But the tanru in  may or may not have the same meaning as that in ; in particular, because =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=9D=
 is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, t=
he market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd i=
nterpretation might make considerable sense:
+  11.7)  la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis
+       John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice
+
+  suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.
+  There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo =E2=80=
=9Cjai=E2=80=9D of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense cons=
truction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion=
 using SE. More details can be found in .
+

+
+

+  12. Scalar negation of selbri
+  Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this=
 chapter; see . In brief, there are two ma=
in types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called =
=E2=80=9Cscalar negation=E2=80=9D, which is used to state that a true relat=
ion between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Sc=
alar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:
+  12.1)  la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le z=
arci
+       Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.
+       Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.
+       Alice doesn=E2=80=99t walk to the market.
+
+  meaning that Alice=E2=80=99s relationship to the market is somethi=
ng other than that of walking there. But if the =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D were o=
mitted, the result would be:
+  12.2)  la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci
+       Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.
+       Alice doesn=E2=80=99t walk to the market.
+
+  meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=
=9D is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking.  negates both =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D, suggesting that Alice=E2=80=99s relation t=
o the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walki=
ng without going, or going without walking, or neither.
+  Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in  may be used in place of brivla in any of the=
se examples:
+  12.3)  la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku
+       Jones is non-1st speaker
+       Jones is not the first speaker.
+
+  Since only =E2=80=9Cpamoi=E2=80=9D is negated, an appropriate infe=
rence is that he is some other kind of speaker.
+  Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interac=
tion of scalar negation with =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D grouping, =E2=80=9Cke=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D grouping, logical connection, and sumti l=
inked with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbei=E2=80=9D:
+  12.4)  mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klam=
a le zarci
+       I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.
+       I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cn=
a'e=E2=80=9D negates only =E2=80=9Csutra=E2=80=9D. Contrast :
+  12.5)  mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o]=
 ke'e klama le zarci
+       I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.
+       I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.
+
+  Now consider  a=
nd , which are equivalen=
t in meaning, but use =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D grouping and =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=
=9D grouping respectively:
+  12.6)  mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno =
klama le zarci
+       I (quickly =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the=
 market.
+       I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.
+
+12.7)  mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le=
 zarci
+       I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the marke=
t.
+       I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.
+
+  However, if we place a =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D at the beginning of =
the selbri in both  and =
, we get different resul=
ts:
+  12.8)  mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je m=
asno klama le zarci
+       I ( (non- quickly) =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and slowly) g=
o-to the market.
+       I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, =
and also slowly.
+
+12.9)  mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kla=
ma le zarci
+       I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the ma=
rket.
+       I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, =
and also slowly.
+
+  The difference arises because the =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D in  negates the whole constructio=
n from =E2=80=9Cke=E2=80=9D to =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D, whereas in  it negates =E2=80=9Csutra=E2=80=
=9D alone.
+  Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the e=
xplicit =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D is left out in , it is transformed into:
+  12.10) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o=
 je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci
+       I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the =
market.
+       I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking
+             using my arms and slowly going to the market.
+
+  And if both =E2=80=9Cke'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbe'o=E2=80=9D are =
omitted, the results are even sillier:
+  12.11) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je m=
asno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci
+       I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.
+       I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm=
-type
+              and slow, relative-to the market.
+
+  In , everythin=
g after =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D is a linked sumti, so the place structure is t=
hat of =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=9D, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. =
It is less than clear what an =E2=80=9Carm-type goer=E2=80=9D might be. Fur=
thermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the =E2=
=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 =
place of =E2=80=9Ccadzu=E2=80=9D. As a result, the whole example, though gr=
ammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a=
 fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)
+  Finally, it is also possible to place =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D befor=
e a =E2=80=9Cgu'e ... gi=E2=80=9D logically connected tanru construction. T=
he meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.
+

+
+

+  13. Tenses and bridi negation
+  A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, =
place, or mode of action. For example, in
+  13.1)  mi pu klama le zarci
+       I [past] go to-the market.
+       I went to the market.
+
+  the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpu=E2=80=9D specifies that the action of the sp=
eaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in =
full detail in . Tense is semantically a p=
roperty of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches =
them at the front of the selbri, as in . There are alternative ways of expressing tense information=
 as well. Modals, which are explained in , =
behave in the same way as tenses.
+  Similarly, a bridi may have the particle =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D (of =
selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A =
negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is=
 true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of . For example:
+  13.2)  la djonz. na pamoi cusku
+       Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker
+       It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.
+       Jones isn=E2=80=99t the first speaker.
+
+  Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;  doesn=E2=80=99t say. There are =
other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained ful=
ly in .
+  Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitt=
ed. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in me=
aning:
+  13.3)  mi na pu klama le zarci
+       mi pu na klama le zarci
+       It is false that I went to the market.
+       I didn=E2=80=99t go to the market.
+
+  It is also possible to have more than one =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D, in=
 which case pairs of =E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D cmavo cancel out:
+  13.4)  mi na na klama le zarci
+       It is false that it is false that I go to the market.
+       I go to the market.
+
+  It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple =
=E2=80=9Cna=E2=80=9D cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the l=
imitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound te=
nse, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in .
+  13.5)  mi na pu na ca klama le zarci
+       I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market
+       It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the=
 present I
+               went to the market.
+       I didn=E2=80=99t not go to the market.
+       I went to the market.
+
+  Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning =
of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.
+

+
+

+  14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru
+  This section and  contai=
n some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationsh=
ip between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples a=
re paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. =
In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation o=
f the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss,=
 an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this =
tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.
+  Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages=
 (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or no=
t, so English is not explicitly noted):
+  
+      Aba =3D Abazin                 Kaz =3D Kazakh
+      Chi =3D Chinese                Kor =3D Korean
+      Ewe =3D Ewe                    Mon =3D Mongolian
+      Fin =3D Finnish                Qab =3D Qabardian
+      Geo =3D Georgian               Que =3D Quechua
+      Gua =3D Guarani                Rus =3D Russian
+      Hop =3D Hopi                   Skt =3D Sanskrit
+      Hun =3D Hungarian              Swe =3D Swedish
+      Imb =3D Imbabura Quechua       Tur =3D Turkish
+      Kar =3D Karaitic               Udm =3D Udmurt
+
+  Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of tha=
t group.
+  The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that i=
s, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of th=
e tanru. For example, =E2=80=9Cjunla dadysli=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cclock pe=
ndulum=E2=80=9D, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas =E2=80=9C=
dadysli junla=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cpendulum clock=E2=80=9D, is the kind of=
 clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. =
Symmetrical tanru are discussed in .
+  The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents th=
e object of that action:
+  
+      pinsi nunkilbra              pencil sharpener (Hun)
+      zgike nunctu                 music instruction (Hun)
+      mirli nunkalte               deer hunting (Hun)
+      finpe nunkalte               fish hunting (Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba =3D fishi=
ng)
+      smacu terkavbu               mousetrap (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba)
+      zdani turni                  house ruler (Kar =3D host)
+      zerle'a nunte'a              thief fear (Skt =3D fear of thieves)
+      cevni zekri                  god crime (Skt =3D offense against the =
gods)
+
+          nunkilbra =3D sharpness-apparatus
+          nunctu =3D event-of-teaching
+          nunkalte =3D event-of-hunting
+          terkavbu =3D trap
+          zerle'a =3D crime-taker
+          nunte'a =3D event-of-fearing
+
+  The tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elemen=
ts contained in that set:
+  
+      zdani lijgri                 house row
+      selci lamgri                 cell block
+      karda mulgri                 card pack (Swe)
+      rokci derxi                  stone heap (Swe)
+      tadni girzu                  student group (Hun)
+      remna girzu                  human-being group (Qab =3D group of peo=
ple)
+      cpumi'i lijgri               tractor column (Qab)
+      cevni jenmi                  god army (Skt)
+      cevni prenu                  god folk (Skt)
+
+          lijgri =3D line-group
+          lamgri =3D adjacent-group
+          mulgri =3D complete-group
+          cpumi'i =3D pull-machine
+
+  Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a =
set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tert=
au is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning app=
ropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between =E2=80=
=9Czdani linji=E2=80=9D in the previous group, and =E2=80=9Clinji zdani=E2=
=80=9D in this one, which shows why this kind of tanru is called =E2=80=9Ca=
symmetrical=E2=80=9D.
+  
+      carvi dirgo                  raindrop (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba)
+      linji zdani                  row house
+
+  The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detai=
l of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying tha=
t it is a detail of that whole and not some other.
+  
+      junla dadysli                clock pendulum (Hun)
+      purdi vorme                  garden door (Qab)
+      purdi bitmu                  garden wall (Que)
+      moklu skapi                  mouth skin (Imb =3D lips)
+      nazbi kevna                  nose hole (Imb =3D nostril)
+      karce xislu                  automobile wheel (Chi)
+      jipci pimlu                  chicken feather (Chi)
+      vinji rebla                  airplane tail (Chi)
+
+          dadysli =3D hang-oscillator
+
+  Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important det=
ail of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru a=
s a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail.
+  
+      pixra cukta                  picture book
+      kerfa silka                  hair silk (Kar =3D velvet)
+      plise tapla                  apple cake (Tur)
+      dadysli junla                pendulum clock (Hun)
+
+          dadysli =3D hang-oscillator
+
+  The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the =
seltau specifies a sub-class of that class (a species):
+  
+      ckunu tricu                  pine tree (Hun,Tur,Hop)
+
+  The tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may s=
pecify the possessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In Eng=
lish, these compounds have an explicit possessive element in them: =E2=80=
=9Clion=E2=80=99s mane=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cchild=E2=80=99s foot=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cnoble=E2=80=99s cow=E2=80=9D.
+  
+      cinfo kerfa                  lion mane (Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab)
+      verba jamfu                  child foot (Swe)
+      nixli tuple                  girl leg (Swe)
+      cinfo jamfu                  lion foot (Que)
+      danlu skapi                  animal skin (Ewe)
+      ralju zdani                  chief house (Ewe)
+      jmive munje                  living world (Skt)
+      nobli bakni                  noble cow (Skt)
+      nolraitru ralju              king chief (Skt =3D emperor)
+
+          nolraitru =3D nobly-superlative-ruler
+
+  The tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhab=
itant:
+  
+      lanzu tumla                  family land
+
+  The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies t=
he effect of that cause:
+  
+      kalselvi'i gapci             tear gas (Hun)
+      terbi'a jurme                disease germ (Tur)
+      fenki litki                  crazy liquid (Hop =3D whisky)
+      pinca litki                  urine liquid (Hop =3D beer)
+
+          kalselvi'i =3D eye-excreted-thing
+          terbi'a =3D disease
+
+  Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifi=
es its cause.
+  
+      djacu barna                  water mark (Chi)
+
+  The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the p=
urpose of that instrument:
+  
+      taxfu dadgreku               garment rack (Chi)
+      tergu'i ti'otci              lamp shade (Chi)
+      xirma zdani                  horse house (Chi =3D stall)
+      nuzba tanbo                  news board (Chi =3D bulletin board)
+
+      dadgreku =3D hang-frame
+      tergu'i =3D source of illumination
+      ti'otci =3D shadow-tool
+
+  More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau s=
pecifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:
+  
+      cpina rokci                  pepper stone (Que =3D stone for grindin=
g pepper)
+      jamfu djacu                  foot water (Skt =3D water for washing t=
he feet)
+      grana mudri                  post wood (Skt =3D wood for making a po=
st)
+      moklu djacu                  mouth water (Hun =3D water for washing =
the mouth)
+      lanme gerku                  sheep dog (dog for working sheep)
+
+  The tertau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau sp=
ecifies the source of the product:
+  
+      moklu djacu                  mouth water (Aba,Qab =3D saliva)
+      ractu mapku                  rabbit hat (Rus)
+      jipci sovda                  chicken egg (Chi)
+      sikcurnu silka               silkworm silk (Chi)
+      mlatu kalci                  cat feces (Chi)
+      bifce lakse                  bee wax (Chi =3D beeswax)
+      cribe rectu                  bear meat (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba)
+      solxrula grasu               sunflower oil (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba)
+      bifce jisra                  bee juice (Hop =3D honey)
+      tatru litki                  breast liquid (Hop =3D milk)
+      kanla djacu                  eye water (Kor =3D tear)
+
+          sikcurnu =3D silk-worm
+          solxrula =3D solar-flower
+
+  Conversely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the =
seltau specifies the product:
+  
+      silna jinto                  salt well (Chi)
+      kolme terkakpa               coal mine (Chi)
+      ctile jinto                  oil well (Chi)
+
+          terkakpa =3D source of digging
+
+  The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the mater=
ial from which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, bec=
ause the referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of =
material, which is then overridden in the tanru.
+  
+      rokci cinfo                  stone lion
+      snime nanmu                  snow man (Hun)
+      kliti cipni                  clay bird
+      blaci kanla                  glass eye (Hun)
+      blaci kanla                  glass eye (Que =3D spectacles)
+      solji sicni                  gold coin (Tur)
+      solji junla                  gold watch (Tur,Kor,Hun)
+      solji djine                  gold ring (Udm,Aba,Que)
+      rokci zdani                  stone house (Imb)
+      mudri zdani                  wood house (Ewe =3D wooden house)
+      rokci bitmu                  stone wall (Ewe)
+      solji carce                  gold chariot (Skt)
+      mudri xarci                  wood weapon (Skt =3D wooden weapon)
+      cmaro'i dargu                pebble road (Chi)
+      sudysrasu cutci              straw shoe (Chi)
+
+          cmaro'i =3D small-rock
+          sudysrasu =3D dry-grass
+
+  Note: the two senses of =E2=80=9Cblaci kanla=E2=80=9D can be discr=
iminated as:
+  
+      blaci kanla bo tarmi         glass (eye shape) =3D glass eye
+      blaci kanla bo sidju         glass (eye helper) =3D spectacles
+
+  The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity a=
nd the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers to =
a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compoun=
ds of this form, as a rule.
+  
+      tumla spisa                  land piece (Tur =3D piece of land)
+      tcati kabri                  tea cup (Kor,Aba =3D cup of tea)
+      nanba spisa                  bread piece (Kor =3D piece of bread)
+      bukpu spisa                  cloth piece (Udm,Aba =3D piece of cloth=
)
+      djacu calkyguzme             water calabash (Ewe =3D calabash of wat=
er)
+
+          calkyguzme =3D shell-fruit, calabash
+
+  The tertau specifies an object with certain implicit properties, a=
nd the seltau overrides one of those implicit properties:
+  
+      kensa bloti                  spaceship
+      bakni verba                  cattle child (Ewe =3D calf)
+
+  The seltau specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part whic=
h normally is associated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a=
 part of the seltau which stands in the same relationship to the whole selt=
au as the tertau stands to its typical whole.
+  
+      kosta degji                  coat finger (Hun =3D coat sleeve)
+      denci genja                  tooth root (Imb)
+      tricu stedu                  tree head (Imb =3D treetop)
+
+  The tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the se=
ltau specifies the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes=
 its referents from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the =
product.
+  
+      silka curnu                  silkworm (Tur,Hun,Aba)
+
+  The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies another o=
bject which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole refers to t=
hose referents of the tertau which possess the property.
+  
+    sonci manti                    soldier ant
+    ninmu bakni                    woman cattle (Imb =3D cow)
+    mamta degji                    mother finger (Imb =3D thumb)
+    cifnu degji                    baby finger (Imb =3D pinky)
+    pacraistu zdani                hell house (Skt)
+    fagri dapma                    fire curse (Skt =3D curse destructive a=
s fire)
+
+        pacraistu =3D evil-superlative-site
+
+  As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance): t=
he seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.
+  
+      grutrceraso jbama            cherry bomb
+      solji kerfa                  gold hair (Hun =3D golden hair)
+      kanla djacu                  eye water (Kar =3D spring)
+      bakni rokci                  bull stone (Mon =3D boulder)
+
+          grutrceraso =3D fu'ivla for =E2=80=9Ccherry=E2=80=9D based on Li=
nnean name
+
+  The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteris=
tically located in or at that place.
+  
+      ckana boxfo                  bed sheet (Chi)
+      mrostu mojysu'a              tomb monument (Chi =3D tombstone)
+      jubme tergusni               table lamp (Chi)
+      foldi smacu                  field mouse (Chi)
+      briju ci'ajbu                office desk (Chi)
+      rirxe xirma                  river horse (Chi =3D hippopotamus)
+      xamsi gerku                  sea dog (Chi =3D seal)
+      cagyce'u zdani               village house (Skt)
+
+          mrostu =3D dead-site
+          mojysu'a =3D remember-structure
+          ci'ajbu =3D write-table
+          cagyce'u =3D farm-community
+
+  Specifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or ma=
de available to the public.
+  
+      cidja barja                  food bar (Chi =3D restaurant)
+      cukta barja                  book bar (Chi =3D library)
+
+  The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau.
+  
+      kanla velmikce               eye medicine (Chi)
+      jgalu grasu                  nail oil (Chi =3D nail polish)
+      denci pesxu                  tooth paste (Chi)
+
+          velmikce =3D treatment used by doctor
+
+  The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by =
the seltau.
+  
+      me la pinpan. bolci Ping-Pong ball (Chi)
+
+  The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesirable f=
eatures of the referent of the seltau.
+  
+      carvi mapku                  rain cap (Chi)
+      carvi taxfu                  rain garment (Chi =3D raincoat)
+      vindu firgai                 poison mask (Chi =3D gas mask)
+
+          firgai =3D face-cover
+
+  The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold t=
he referent of the seltau.
+  
+      cukta vasru                  book vessel (Chi =3D satchel)
+      vanju kabri                  wine cup (Chi)
+      spatrkoka lanka              coca basket (Que)
+      rismi dakli                  rice bag (Ewe,Chi)
+      tcati kabri                  tea cup (Chi)
+      ladru botpi                  milk bottle (Chi)
+      rismi patxu                  rice pot (Chi)
+      festi lante                  trash can (Chi)
+      bifce zdani                  bee house (Kor =3D beehive)
+      cladakyxa'i zdani            sword house (Kor =3D sheath)
+      manti zdani                  ant nest (Gua =3D anthill)
+
+          spatrkoka =3D fu'ivla for =E2=80=9Ccoca=E2=80=9D
+          cladakyxa'i =3D (long-knife)-weapon
+
+  The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specifie=
d by the tertau.
+  
+      vensa djedi                  spring day (Chi)
+      crisa citsi                  summer season (Chi)
+      cerni bumru                  morning fog (Chi)
+      critu lunra                  autumn moon (Chi)
+      dunra nicte                  winter night (Chi)
+      nicte ckule                  night school (Chi)
+
+  The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the te=
rtau.
+  
+      dikca tergusni               electric lamp (Chi)
+      ratni nejni                  atom energy (Chi)
+      brife molki                  windmill (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba)
+
+          tergusni =3D illumination-source
+
+  Finally, some tanru which don=E2=80=99t fall into any of the above=
 categories.
+  
+      ladru denci                  milk tooth (Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab)
+      kanla denci                  eye tooth
+
+  It is clear that =E2=80=9Ctooth=E2=80=9D is being specified, and t=
hat =E2=80=9Cmilk=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ceye=E2=80=9D act as modifiers. Howe=
ver, the relationship between =E2=80=9Cladru=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdenci=E2=
=80=9D is something like =E2=80=9Ctooth which one has when one is drinking =
milk from one=E2=80=99s mother=E2=80=9D, a relationship certainly present n=
owhere except in this particular concept. As for =E2=80=9Ckanla denci=E2=80=
=9D, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly =
possible to formulate it at all.
+

+
+

+  15. Some types of symmetrical tanru
+  This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not impo=
rtant. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical c=
onnective between the components.
+  The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by bot=
h tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrica=
l tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective =E2=80=9Cje=
=E2=80=9D is appropriate:
+  
+      cipnrstrigi pacru'i          owl demon (Skt)
+      nolraitru prije              royal sage (Skt)
+      remna nakni                  human-being male (Qab =3D man)
+      remna fetsi                  human-being female (Qab =3D woman)
+      sonci tolvri                 soldier coward (Que)
+      panzi nanmu                  offspring man (Ewe =3D son)
+      panzi ninmu                  offspring woman (Ewe =3D daughter)
+      solji sicni                  gold coin (Tur)
+      solji junla                  gold watch (Tur,Kor,Hun)
+      solji djine                  gold ring (Udm,Aba,Que)
+      rokci zdani                  stone house (Imb)
+      mudri zdani                  wooden house (Ewe)
+      rokci bitmu                  stone wall (Ewe)
+      solji carce                  gold chariot (Skt)
+      mudri xarci                  wooden weapon (Skt)
+      zdani tcadu                  home town (Chi)
+
+          cipnrstrigi =3D fu'ivla for =E2=80=9Cowl=E2=80=9D based on Linne=
an name
+          pacru'i =3D evil-spirit
+          tolvri =3D opposite-of-brave
+
+  The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of=
 the tanru components. The connective =E2=80=9Cja=E2=80=9D is appropriate:<=
/para>
+  
+      nunji'a nunterji'a           victory defeat (Skt =3D victory or defe=
at)
+      donri nicte                  day night (Skt =3D day and night)
+      lunra tarci                  moon stars (Skt =3D moon and stars)
+      patfu mamta                  father mother (Imb,Kaz,Chi =3D parents)
+      tuple birka                  leg arm (Kaz =3D extremity)
+      nuncti nunpinxe              eating drinking (Udm =3D cuisine)
+      bersa tixnu                  son daughter (Chi =3D children)
+
+          nunji'a =3D event-of-winning
+          nunterji'a =3D event-of-losing
+          nuncti =3D event-of-eating
+          nunpinxe =3D event-of-drinking
+
+  Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified b=
y either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things =
which the components typify:
+  
+      curnu jalra                  worm beetle (Mon =3D insect)
+      jalra curnu                  beetle worm (Mon =3D insect)
+      kabri palta                  cup plate (Kaz =3D crockery)
+      jipci gunse                  hen goose (Qab =3D housefowl)
+      xrula tricu                  flower tree (Chi =3D vegetation)
+
+  The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the refer=
ent of the tanru as a whole:
+  
+      tumla vacri                  land air (Fin =3D world)
+      moklu stedu                  mouth head (Aba =3D face)
+      sudysrasu cunmi              hay millet (Qab =3D agriculture)
+      gugde ciste                  state system (Mon =3D politics)
+      prenu so'imei                people multitude (Mon =3D masses)
+      djacu dertu                  water earth (Chi =3D climate)
+
+          sudysrasu =3D dry-grass
+          so'imei =3D manysome
+
+

+
+

+  16. =E2=80=9CPretty little girls=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=9D: forty =
ways to say it
+  The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of=
 =E2=80=9Cmelbi cmalu nixli ckule=E2=80=9D using =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D or =
=E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D for grouping and =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D or =E2=
=80=9Cjebo=E2=80=9D for logical connection. Most of these are definitely no=
t plausible interpretations of the English phrase =E2=80=9Cpretty little gi=
rls=E2=80=99 school=E2=80=9D, especially those which describe something whi=
ch is both a girl and a school.
+  Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Examples=
 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. The seven examples follo=
wing each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the prese=
nce or absence of =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D at each possible site. Some of the e=
xamples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only i=
n grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.
+  The logical connective =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D is associative: that i=
s, =E2=80=9CA and (B and C)=E2=80=9D is the same as =E2=80=9C(A and B) and =
C=E2=80=9D. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others=
. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have the same mea=
ning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is si=
mply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselve=
s. However, if =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D were replaced by =E2=80=9Cnaja=E2=80=9D=
 or =E2=80=9Cjo=E2=80=9D or most of the other logical connectives, the mean=
ings would become distinct.
+  It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru,=
 the English translations are by no means definitive =E2=80=94 they represe=
nt only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.
+  16.1)  melbi cmalu nixli ckule
+       ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school
+       school for girls who are beautifully small
+
+16.2)  melbi je cmalu nixli ckule
+       ((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school
+       school for girls who are beautiful and small
+
+16.3)  melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule
+       ((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school
+       school for girls and for beautifully small things
+
+16.4)  ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule
+       ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school
+       thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl
+
+16.5)  melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule
+       ((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school
+       school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls
+       Note: same as 16.21
+
+16.6)  melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule
+       ((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school
+       thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl
+       Note: same as 16.14
+
+16.7)  ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule
+       ((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school
+       thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small
+
+16.8)  melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule
+       ((pretty and little) and girl) and school
+       thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school
+
+16.9)  melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school)
+       girls=E2=80=99 school which is beautifully small
+
+16.10) melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule
+       (pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school)
+       girls=E2=80=99 school which is beautiful and small
+
+16.11) melbi cmalu nixli je ckule
+       (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school)
+       something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small
+
+16.12) melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule
+       (pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school)
+       something which is beautifully small and a girls=E2=80=99 school
+
+16.13) melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule
+       (pretty and little) type-of (girl and school)
+       a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school
+
+16.14) melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
+       (pretty type-of little) and (girl and school)
+       thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl
+       Note: same as 16.6
+
+16.15) melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule
+       (pretty and little) and (girl type-of school)
+       thing which is beautiful and small and a girl=E2=80=99s school
+       Note: same as 16.30
+
+16.16) melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
+       (pretty and little) and (girl and school)
+       thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school
+
+16.17) melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule
+       (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school
+       school for beautiful girls who are small
+
+16.18) melbi cmalu je nixli ckule
+       (pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school
+       school for beautiful things which are small and are girls
+
+16.19) melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule
+       (pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school
+       school for things which are beautiful and are small girls
+
+16.20) ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule
+       melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule
+       (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school
+       thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful
+
+16.21) melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule
+       (pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school
+       school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls
+       Note: same as 16.5
+
+16.22) melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule
+       (pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school
+       thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school
+       Note: same as 16.38
+
+16.23) ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule
+       (pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school
+       thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school
+
+16.24) melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule
+       (pretty and (little and girl)) and school
+       thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school
+
+16.25) melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
+       melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school))
+       small school for girls which is beautiful
+
+16.26) melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school))
+       small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful
+
+16.27) melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule
+       pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school))
+       thing which is beautifully small and a girls=E2=80=99 school that i=
s beautiful
+
+16.28) melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
+       melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
+       melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
+       pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school))
+       thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls=E2=80=99 school
+
+16.29) melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
+       melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of (little and (girl and school))
+       thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful=
 school
+       Note: same as 16.37
+
+16.30) melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule
+       melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and (little and (girl type-of school))
+       thing which is beautiful, small and a girls=E2=80=99 school
+       Note: same as 16.15
+
+16.31) melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and (little type-of (girl and school))
+       beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school
+
+16.32) melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule
+       pretty and (little and (girl and school))
+       thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school
+
+16.33) melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school)
+       beautiful school for small girls
+
+16.34) melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school
+       beautiful school for things which are small and are girls
+
+16.35) melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school)
+       beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school
+
+16.36) melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school)
+       thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls
+
+16.37) melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule
+       pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school)
+       thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful=
 school
+       Note: same as 16.29
+
+16.38) melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school)
+       thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school
+       Note: same as 16.22
+
+16.39) melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school)
+       thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls=E2=80=99=
 school
+
+16.40) melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e]
+       pretty and ((little and girl) and school)
+       thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c655007
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,779 @@
+
+  Chapter 6
+To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti
+
+
+

+  1. The five kinds of simple sumti
+  If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is =
by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of si=
mple Lojban sentences like:
+  1.1)   mi klama le zarci
+       I go-to the market
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cmi=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D are the sumti. It is easy to see t=
hat these two sumti are not of the same kind: =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D is a pro=
-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas=
 =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D is a description which refers to something desc=
ribed as being a market.
+  There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:
+  
+    
+      1)
+      
+        descriptions like =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D, which usually =
begin with a descriptor (called a =E2=80=9Cgadri=E2=80=9D in Lojban) such a=
s =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D;
+      
+    
+    
+      2)
+      
+        pro-sumti, such as =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D;
+      
+    
+    
+      3)
+      
+        names, such as =E2=80=9Cla lojban.=E2=80=9D, which usually b=
egin with =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D;
+      
+    
+    
+      4)
+      
+        quotations, which begin with =E2=80=9Clu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
le'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czo=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Czoi=E2=80=9D;
+      
+    
+    
+      5)
+      
+        pure numbers, which usually begin with =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D.=

+      
+    
+  
+  Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:
+  1.2)   e'osai ko sarji la lojban.
+       Please support Lojban!
+
+   exhibits =E2=80=
=9Cko=E2=80=9D, a pro-sumti; and =E2=80=9Cla lojban.=E2=80=9D, a name.
+  1.3)   mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu
+       I express =E2=80=9CPlease!=E2=80=9D to-the reader.
+
+   exhibits =E2=80=
=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, a pro-sumti; =E2=80=9Clu e'osai li'u=E2=80=9D, a quotation;=
 and =E2=80=9Cle tcidu=E2=80=9D, a description.
+  1.4)   ti mitre li ci
+       This measures-in-meters the-number three.
+       This is three meters long.
+
+   exhibits =E2=80=
=9Cti=E2=80=9D, a pro-sumti; and =E2=80=9Cli ci=E2=80=9D, a number.
+  Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most =
complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which =
are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotation=
s are described in more detail in , , and  respectiv=
ely, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See  through  for these summaries.
+

+
+

+  2. The three basic description types
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     le      LE                  the, the one(s) described as
+     lo      LE                  some, some of those which really are
+     la      LA                  the one(s) named
+     ku      KU                  elidable terminator for LE, LA
+
+  The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it ca=
n be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in pa=
rticular, are discussed in . However, most =
descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE=
 or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is =
not important until .) Furthermor=
e, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:=

+  2.1)   le zarci
+       one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-mar=
ket
+       the market
+
+  The long gloss for =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D is of course far too long =
to use most of the time, and in fact =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D is quite close in=
 meaning to English =E2=80=9Cthe=E2=80=9D. It has particular implications, =
however, which =E2=80=9Cthe=E2=80=9D does not have.
+  The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which =
might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thu=
s =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D conveys something which might be found in the =
x1 place of =E2=80=9Czarci=E2=80=9D, namely a market.
+  The specific purpose of =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D is twofold. First, it=
 indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (wheth=
er or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicate=
s that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as=
 markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.
+  2.2)   le zarci cu barda
+       One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as =E2=80=9Cmarkets=E2=
=80=9D is/are-big.
+       The market is big.
+       The markets are big.
+
+  Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to marke=
ts is to just one (=E2=80=9Cthe market=E2=80=9D) or to more than one (=E2=
=80=9Cthe markets=E2=80=9D). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both=
 colloquial translations of  are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does=
 not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in suc=
h a case: that mechanism is explained in .)
+  Now consider the following strange-looking example:
+  2.3)   le nanmu cu ninmu
+       One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as =E2=80=9Cmen=E2=80=
=9D are women.
+       The man is a woman.
+       The men are women.
+
+   is not self-con=
tradictory in Lojban, because =E2=80=9Cle nanmu=E2=80=9D merely means somet=
hing or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man=
, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone=
 we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman=
 on closer observation.  =
is what I would say to point out my observation to you.
+  In all descriptions with =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, the listener is pre=
sumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at pre=
sent (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I=
 might be pointing at the supposed man or men:  would then be perfectly intelligible, since =E2=80=
=9Cle nanmu=E2=80=9D merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed ma=
n, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same directio=
n.
+  The second descriptor dealt with in this section is =E2=80=9Clo=E2=
=80=9D. Unlike =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D is nonspecific:
+  2.4)   lo zarci
+       one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets
+       a market
+       some markets
+
+  Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect o=
f using =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D in  is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specifi=
c about which. Unlike =E2=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo zarci=E2=80=
=9D must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can =
appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is =E2=80=9Czarci=
=E2=80=9D). Thus
+  2.5)   lo nanmu cu ninmu
+       Some man is a woman.
+       Some men are women.
+
+  must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the re=
al world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or wom=
en would not make  true, =
because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any =
others. In general, =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D refers to whatever individuals mee=
t its description.
+  The last descriptor of this section is =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, which=
 indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its n=
ormal meaning and is being used as a name. Like =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D descri=
ptions, =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D descriptions are implicitly restricted to thos=
e I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D with its=
 use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in .) For example:
+  2.6)   la cribe pu finti le lisri
+       The-one-named =E2=80=9Cbear=E2=80=9D [past] creates the story.
+       Bear wrote the story.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cla=
 cribe=E2=80=9D refers to someone whose naming predicate is =E2=80=9Ccribe=
=E2=80=9D, i.e. =E2=80=9CBear=E2=80=9D. In English, most names don=E2=80=99=
t mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name =E2=80=9CFrank=
=E2=80=9D coincides with the English word =E2=80=9Cfrank=E2=80=9D, meaning =
=E2=80=9Chonest=E2=80=9D, and so one way of translating =E2=80=9CFrank ate =
some cheese=E2=80=9D into Lojban would be:
+  2.7)   la stace pu citka lo cirla
+       The-one-called =E2=80=9CHonest/Frank=E2=80=9D [past] eats some chee=
se.
+
+  English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be mor=
e attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meanin=
g (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel =
differently. (In point of fact, =E2=80=9CFrank=E2=80=9D originally meant =
=E2=80=9Cthe free one=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cthe honest one=E2=80=9D=
.)
+  It is important to note the differences between  and the following:
+  2.8)   le cribe pu finti le lisri
+       One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [past] creat=
es the story.
+       The bear(s) wrote the story.
+
+  2.9)   lo cribe pu finti le lisri
+       One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the=
 story.
+       A bear wrote the story.
+       Some bears wrote the story.
+
+   is about a spec=
ific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whim=
sically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);  is about one or more of the real=
ly existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of the=
m must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear =
(or =E2=80=9Cbear=E2=80=9D) is meant.
+  (The notion of a =E2=80=9Creally existing, objectively defined bea=
r=E2=80=9D raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a =E2=80=9Creal bea=
r=E2=80=9D? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is =E2=80=9Cyes=
=E2=80=9D. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru =
and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary an=
d sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that ca=
n be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borde=
rline cases, =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D may communicate better than =E2=80=9Clo=
=E2=80=9D.)
+  So while  could =
easily be true (there is a real writer named =E2=80=9CGreg Bear=E2=80=9D), =
and  could be true if the=
 speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,  is certainly false.
+  Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous=
 to  and  respectively:
+  2.10)  le remna pu finti le lisri
+       The human being(s) wrote the story.
+
+2.11)  lo remna pu finti le lisri
+       A human being wrote the story.
+       Some human beings wrote the story.
+
+   says who the a=
uthor of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker=
 has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then  identifies the author as someone who=
 can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the to=
pic is a person, then =E2=80=9Cle remna=E2=80=9D is in effect a shorthand r=
eference to that person.  merely says that the author is human.
+  The elidable terminator for all descriptions is =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=
=9D. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main =
exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in =
, and in the case of a description immediat=
ely preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit =E2=80=9Cc=
u=E2=80=9D before the selbri makes the =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D unnecessary. Th=
ere are also a few other uses of =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D: in the compound nega=
tor =E2=80=9Cnaku=E2=80=9D (discussed in )=
 and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have a=
ssociated sumti (discussed in  and ).
+

+
+

+  3. Individuals and masses
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     lei     LE                  the mass I describe as
+     loi     LE                  part of the mass of those which really ar=
e
+     lai     LA                  the mass of those named
+
+  All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of th=
ree types of objects, known as =E2=80=9Cindividuals=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmass=
es=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Csets=E2=80=9D. The term =E2=80=9Cindividual=E2=80=
=9D is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-c=
onfusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in  and  =
refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following =
example:
+  3.1)   le prenu cu bevri le pipno
+       One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.
+       The person(s) carry the piano.
+
+  (Of course the second =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D should really get the s=
ame translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion=
 on the first =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, the one preceding =E2=80=9Cprenu=E2=80=
=9D. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)
+  Suppose the context of  is such that you can determine that I am talking about three person=
s. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried=
 the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at =
a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for  to be true, I must be willing =
to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the pi=
ano, and that person 3 carried the piano.
+  But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are=
 heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most =
likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and=
 person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else s=
upervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correc=
t way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:
+  3.2)   lei prenu cu bevri le pipno
+       The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the pi=
ano.
+
+  Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as=
 a so-called =E2=80=9Cmass entity=E2=80=9D, or just =E2=80=9Cmass=E2=80=9D.=
 A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may ha=
ve other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradic=
tions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fai=
r skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the =
person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor =E2=
=80=9Clei=E2=80=9D signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicabl=
e: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities m=
ay exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the componen=
t properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a m=
ass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the p=
arts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.
+  The descriptors =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D ar=
e analogous to =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D respectively, =
but refer to masses either by property (=E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D) or by name (=
=E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D). A classic example of =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D use is:<=
/para>
+  3.3)   loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
+       Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the Afric=
an-land.
+       The lion dwells in Africa.
+       Lions dwell in Africa.
+
+  The difference between =E2=80=9Clei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=
=80=9D is that =E2=80=9Clei cinfo=E2=80=9D refers to a mass of specific ind=
ividuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas =E2=80=9Cloi cinfo=E2=80=9D=
 refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually ar=
e lions. The restriction to =E2=80=9Csome part of the mass=E2=80=9D allows =
statements like  to be tr=
ue even though some lions do not dwell in Africa =E2=80=94 they live in var=
ious zoos around the world. On the other hand,  doesn=E2=80=99t actually say that most lions live in=
 Africa: equally true is
+  3.4)   loi glipre
+               cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
+       Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons
+               dwell in-the African-land.
+       The English dwell in Africa.
+
+  since there is at least one English person living there.  explains another method of saying what is =
usually meant by =E2=80=9CThe lion lives in Africa=E2=80=9D which does impl=
y that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.
+  Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by Eng=
lish plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when th=
e singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by=
 singulars with no article:
+  3.5)   loi matne cu ranti
+       Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-so=
ft.
+       Butter is soft.
+
+  Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butte=
r), so the =E2=80=9Cpart-of=E2=80=9D implication of =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D b=
ecomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the Engli=
sh words like =E2=80=9Cbutter=E2=80=9D, which are seen as already describin=
g masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure o=
f =E2=80=9Cmatne=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cx1 is a quantity of butter from sourc=
e x2=E2=80=9D, so the single English word =E2=80=9Cbutter=E2=80=9D is trans=
lated as something like =E2=80=9Ca part of the mass formed from all the qua=
ntities of butter that exist=E2=80=9D. (Note that the operation of forming =
a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass ar=
e necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than co=
nceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker=E2=80=99s intention to form a =
mass, and can in principle contain anything.)
+  The mass name descriptor =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D is used in circumst=
ances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name whi=
ch is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single =
name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of ,
+  3.6)   lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta
+       The-mass-of-those-named =E2=80=9Cbear=E2=80=9D [past] creates the n=
earby book.
+       The Bears wrote this book.
+
+  in a context where =E2=80=9Cla cribe=E2=80=9D would be understood =
as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some na=
mes) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written i=
t as collaborators. Using =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D instead of =E2=80=9Clai=E2=
=80=9D in  would give the=
 implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had writte=
n it.
+

+
+

+  4. Masses and sets
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     le'i    LE                  the set described as
+     lo'i    LE                  the set of those which really are
+     la'i    LA                  the set of those named
+
+  Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are ea=
sier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a se=
t is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the p=
roperties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the indivi=
duals that compose it.
+  Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the se=
t), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set i=
nclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which =E2=80=94 the sup=
erset =E2=80=93 contains all the elements of the other =E2=80=94 the subset=
). The set descriptors =E2=80=9Cle'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo'i=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Cla'i=E2=80=9D correspond exactly to the mass descriptors =E2=80=9C=
lei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D except that =
normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some =
examples contrasting =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Clo'i=E2=80=9D:
+  4.1)   lo ratcu cu bunre
+       One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.
+       Some rats are brown.
+
+4.2)   loi ratcu cu cmalu
+       Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.
+       Rats are small.
+
+4.3)   lo'i ratcu cu barda
+       The-set-of rats is-large.
+       There are a lot of rats.
+
+  The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the m=
ass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large=
 =E2=80=94 it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc=
e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of =
rats brown =E2=80=94 brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets posse=
ss.
+  Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the =
set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set s=
umti to fill them. For example, the place structure of =E2=80=9Cfadni=E2=80=
=9D is:
+  
+      x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members=
 of set x3
+
+  Why is it necessary for the x3 place of =E2=80=9Cfadni=E2=80=9D to=
 be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of ano=
ther individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure=
 that the bridi containing =E2=80=9Cfadni=E2=80=9D is about an entire group=
, its x3 place must be filled with a set:
+  4.4)   mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli
+       I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.
+       I am a typical Lojban user.
+
+  Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in ex=
actly which way I am typical =E2=80=94 whether in language knowledge, or ag=
e, or interests, or something else. If =E2=80=9Clo'i=E2=80=9D were changed =
to =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D in , the meaning would be something like =E2=80=9CI am typical of some Lojba=
n user=E2=80=9D, which is nonsense.
+

+
+

+  5. Descriptors for typical objects
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     lo'e    LE                  the typical
+     le'e    LE                  the stereotypical
+
+  As promised in , Lojban h=
as a method for discriminating between =E2=80=9Cthe lion=E2=80=9D who lives=
 in Africa and =E2=80=9Cthe Englishman=E2=80=9D who, generally speaking, do=
esn=E2=80=99t live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=
 =E2=80=9Clo'e=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cthe typical=E2=80=9D, as in
+  5.1)   lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
+       The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.
+       The lion dwells in Africa.
+
+  What is this =E2=80=9Ctypical lion=E2=80=9D? Surely it is not any =
particular lion, because no lion has all of the =E2=80=9Ctypical=E2=80=9D c=
haracteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions ha=
ve can=E2=80=99t be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are eith=
er male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion=
 is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a =
color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likew=
ise we can say that
+  5.2)   lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e
+               le gligugde
+       The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and
+               the English-country.
+       The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.
+
+  The relationship between =E2=80=9Clo'e cinfo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Clo'i cinfo=E2=80=9D may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imagin=
ary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a si=
milar relationship between =E2=80=9Cle'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cle'i=E2=80=
=9D:
+  5.3)   le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse
+       The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of ow=
ner.
+       Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.
+
+  Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, =
but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one=
 (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word =E2=80=9Cstereotypical=
=E2=80=9D is often derogatory in English, but =E2=80=9Cle'e=E2=80=9D need n=
ot be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical =
in the speaker=E2=80=99s imagination rather than in some objectively agreed=
-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the featur=
es of =E2=80=9Cthe typical lion=E2=80=9D are (some would include having a s=
hort intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions=E2=80=99 intesti=
nes), so the distinction between =E2=80=9Clo'e cinfo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
le'e cinfo=E2=80=9D may be very fine.
+  Furthermore,
+  5.4)   le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.
+       The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.
+
+  is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stere=
otype) to someone living in India or Russia.
+  Note that there is no naming equivalent of =E2=80=9Clo'e=E2=80=9D =
and =E2=80=9Cle'e=E2=80=9D, because there is no need, as a rule, for a =E2=
=80=9Ctypical George=E2=80=9D or a =E2=80=9Ctypical Smith=E2=80=9D. People =
or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common=
 attributes worth mentioning.
+

+
+

+  6. Quantified sumti
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ro      PA                  all of/each of
+     su'o    PA                  at least (one of)
+
+  Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumt=
i, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are express=
ed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some=
 detail in . For the purposes of this chap=
ter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either t=
he simple Lojban numbers =E2=80=9Cpa=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cci=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cvo=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cmu=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=
=80=9Cone=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ctwo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cthree=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cfour=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfive=E2=80=9D respectively, or else one of four =
special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed =
above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has =
either one or two of them implicitly present in it =E2=80=94 which one or t=
wo depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of im=
plicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers, =E2=
=80=9Cpiro=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cpisu'o=E2=80=9D, are explained in .)
+  Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quant=
ifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things =
referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examp=
les contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:
+  6.1)   do cadzu le bisli
+       You walk-on the ice.
+
+6.2)   re do cadzu le bisli
+       Two-of you walk-on the ice.
+
+  The difference between  and  is the prese=
nce of the explicit quantifier =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D in the latter example. =
Although =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D by itself means =E2=80=9Ctwo=E2=80=9D, when u=
sed as a quantifier it means =E2=80=9Ctwo-of=E2=80=9D. Out of the group of =
listeners (the number of which isn=E2=80=99t stated), two (we are not told =
which ones) are asserted to be =E2=80=9Cwalkers on the ice=E2=80=9D. Implic=
itly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot=
 say =E2=80=9CI own three shoes=E2=80=9D if in fact you own four shoes. Num=
bers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correc=
t.
+  (This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number =
which is vague. The sentence
+  6.3)   mi ponse su'o ci cutci
+       I possess at-least three shoes.
+
+  is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger numb=
er. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical =
expressions in .)
+  Now consider  ag=
ain. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer t=
urns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So  and :
+  6.4)   ro do cadzu le bisli
+       All-of you walk-on the ice.
+
+  turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, =
because if one of my listeners doesn=E2=80=99t turn out to be walking on th=
e ice, I can safely claim that I didn=E2=80=99t intend that person to be a =
listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D obey the same ru=
le. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called =E2=80=9Cimplicit quant=
ifier=E2=80=9D of =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (all). This just means that if no qu=
antifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit qu=
antifier had been used.
+  Not all sumti have =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D as the implicit quantifier=
, however. Consider the quotation in:
+  6.5)   mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
+       I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].
+       I say, =E2=80=9CYou walk on the ice.=E2=80=9D
+
+  What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation =E2=80=9Clu do ca=
dzu le bisli li'u=E2=80=9D? Surely not =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D. If =E2=80=9Cro=
=E2=80=9D were supplied explicitly, thus:
+  6.6)   mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
+       I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].
+
+  the meaning would be something like =E2=80=9CI say every occurrenc=
e of the sentence =E2=80=99You walk on the ice=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D. Of course=
 I don=E2=80=99t say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One mig=
ht suppose that  means th=
at I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the n=
umber unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, tha=
t I say it at least once.
+  The Lojban cmavo meaning =E2=80=9Cat least=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Csu=
'o=E2=80=9D, and if no ordinary number follows, =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D mean=
s =E2=80=9Cat least once=E2=80=9D. (See  for the use of =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D with an ordinary numb=
er). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of  is
+  6.7)   mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
+       I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].
+       I say one or more instances of =E2=80=9CYou walk on the ice=E2=80=
=9D.
+       I say =E2=80=9CYou walk on the ice=E2=80=9D.
+
+  If an explicit ordinary number such as =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D were t=
o appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so
+  6.8)   mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
+       I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].
+
+  means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less=
.
+

+
+

+  7. Quantified descriptions
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     piro    PA                  the whole of
+     pisu'o  PA                  a part of
+
+  Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifie=
r appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing be=
fore a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those re=
ferred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bri=
di. Suppose that context tells us that =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D refers to=
 three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:=

+  7.1)   re le gerku cu blabi
+       Two-of the dogs are-white.
+       Two of the dogs are white.
+
+  When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called a=
n =E2=80=9Couter quantifier=E2=80=9D, since it appears outside the descript=
ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d=
escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an =E2=80=9Cinner quant=
ifier=E2=80=9D, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener h=
ow many objects the description selbri characterizes.
+  For example, the context of  supposedly told us that =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D referred to=
 some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use=
 of an explicit inner quantifier:
+  7.2)   re le ci gerku cu blabi
+       Two-of the three dogs are-white.
+       Two of the three dogs are white.
+
+  (As explained in the discussion of , simple numbers like those in  must be exact: it therefore follows that the thir=
d dog cannot be white.)
+  You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the ou=
ter quantifier implicit:
+  7.3)   le ci gerku cu blabi
+       The three dogs are-white.
+       The three dogs are white.
+
+  There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the=
 implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to=
 provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to=
 prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit valu=
es:
+  
+    
+      le:
+      
+        ro le su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      lo:
+      
+        su'o lo ro
+      
+    
+    
+      la:
+      
+        ro la su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      lei:
+      
+        pisu'o lei su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      loi:
+      
+        pisu'o loi ro
+      
+    
+    
+      lai:
+      
+        pisu'o lai su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      le'i:
+      
+        piro le'i su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      lo'i:
+      
+        piro lo'i ro
+      
+    
+    
+      la'i:
+      
+        piro la'i su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      le'e:
+      
+        ro le'e su'o
+      
+    
+    
+      lo'e:
+      
+        su'o lo'e ro
+      
+    
+  
+  When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbi=
trary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the=
 la-series (that is, the descriptors =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cla'i=E2=80=9D) and the le-series (that is, the descrip=
tors =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cle'i=E2=80=9D, a=
nd =E2=80=9Cle'e=E2=80=9D) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, =
so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this di=
scussion: =E2=80=9Cle-series cmavo=E2=80=9D will refer to both the le-serie=
s proper and to the la-series.
+  The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cm=
avo (namely, =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo'i=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clo'e=E2=80=9D) all have an implicit inner quantifier o=
f =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in=
ner quantifier of =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D.
+  Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the thin=
gs which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricte=
d by the speaker=E2=80=99s intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however=
, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or inde=
finite, of objects the speaker has in mind =E2=80=94 but never less than on=
e.
+  Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of grea=
ter subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffic=
es for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of =
the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Ma=
sses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk ab=
out two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with=
 the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for eit=
her a set description or a mass description is =E2=80=9Cpiro=E2=80=9D, the =
whole of it.
+  (Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules com=
posing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of w=
ater molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about =E2=80=9Cr=
e lei djacu=E2=80=9D, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)
+  Why =E2=80=9Cpi-=E2=80=9D? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal =
point. Just as =E2=80=9Cpimu=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9C.5=E2=80=9D, and when =
used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thi=
ng, =E2=80=9Cpiro=E2=80=9D means a portion consisting of the all-ness =E2=
=80=93 the entirety =E2=80=94 of a thing. Similarly, =E2=80=9Cpisu'o=E2=80=
=9D specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. so=
me of it.
+  Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. T=
hus =E2=80=9Cpimu le'i nanmu=E2=80=9D is a subset of the set of men I have =
in mind; we don=E2=80=99t know precisely which elements make up this subset=
, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to s=
ay =E2=80=9Chalf of the men=E2=80=9D; saying =E2=80=9Cpimu le nanmu=E2=80=
=9D would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the res=
ult of =E2=80=9Cpimu le'i nanmu=E2=80=9D is still a set; if you need to ref=
er to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see =E2=80=9Clu'a=E2=
=80=9D in ).
+  The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (includin=
g =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, and the=
 typical descriptors =E2=80=9Cle'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clo'e=E2=80=9D) is =
special. When we refer to specific individuals with =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, w=
e mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D is=
 appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for =E2=
=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D. Reference to non-specific individuals with =E2=80=9Clo=
=E2=80=9D, however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be c=
orrectly described, and so =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D is the appropriate implic=
it quantifier, just as for quotations.
+  From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structu=
re between the following example using =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D:
+  7.4)   [ro] le ci gerku cu blabi
+       [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.
+       The three dogs are white.
+
+  and the corresponding form with =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D:
+  7.5)   ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi
+       Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.
+       Three dogs are white.
+
+  looks very peculiar. Why is the number =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D found =
as an inner quantifier in  and as an outer quantifier in ? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that =
the =E2=80=9Cci=E2=80=9D in  is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in =
the group that the speaker has in mind. In , however, the dogs referred to by =E2=80=9C... lo gerku=
=E2=80=9D are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts =
the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers =
are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of =E2=80=
=9Cle=E2=80=9D, the implicit outer quantifier =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D says tha=
t each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of =E2=80=
=9Clo=E2=80=9D, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, =
chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.
+  Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions=
 is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist =
which really fit the description. So examples like
+  7.6)   [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi
+       [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white
+
+  are semantically anomalous;  claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there a=
re just three dogs in the universe!
+  Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=
=9D descriptors for consistency=E2=80=99s sake, and may occasionally be use=
ful.
+  Note that the inner quantifier of =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, even when =
exact, need not be truthful: =E2=80=9Cle ci nanmu=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cw=
hat I describe as three men=E2=80=9D, not =E2=80=9Cthree of what I describe=
 as men=E2=80=9D. This follows from the rule that what is described by a =
=E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D description represents the speaker=E2=80=99s viewpoint=
 rather than the objective way things are.
+

+
+

+  8. Indefinite descriptions
+  By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor=
 =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, but never any other descriptor, from a description l=
ike that of ; namely, one=
 which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. T=
he following example:
+  8.1)   ci gerku [ku] cu blabi
+       Three dogs are white.
+
+  is equivalent in meaning to . Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable termi=
nator =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D may still be used. The name =E2=80=9Cindefinite =
description=E2=80=9D for this syntactic form is historically based: of cour=
se, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an expli=
cit =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the =
language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural langua=
ges.
+  Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no wa=
y to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus =E2=80=
=9C*gerku cu blabi=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inn=
er quantifier (thus =E2=80=9C*reboi ci gerku cu blabi=E2=80=9D is also ungr=
ammatical =E2=80=94 =E2=80=9Cre ci gerku cu blabi=E2=80=9D is fine, but mea=
ns =E2=80=9C23 dogs are white=E2=80=9D).
+  Note:  also cont=
ains an indefinite description, namely =E2=80=9Csu'o ci cutci=E2=80=9D; ano=
ther version of that example using an explicit =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D would b=
e:
+  8.2)   mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci
+       I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes
+       I own three (or more) shoes.
+
+

+
+

+  9. sumti-based descriptions
+  As stated in , most descr=
iptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the se=
lbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however compl=
ex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri ar=
e explained in .) In the intervening sectio=
ns, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is ti=
me to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based =
description.
+  A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would norma=
lly be, and the inner quantifier is required =E2=80=94 it cannot be implici=
t. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.
+  A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out=
. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:
+  9.1)   re do cu nanmu
+       Two-of you are-men.
+
+9.2)   le re do cu nanmu
+       The two-of you are men.
+
+   simply specifie=
s that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men. , which has the sumti-based descriptio=
n =E2=80=9Cle re do=E2=80=9D, says that of the two listeners, all (the impl=
icit outer quantifier =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D) are men. So in effect the inner=
 quantifier =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D gives the number of individuals which the =
inner sumti =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D refers to.
+  Here is another group of examples:
+  9.3)   re le ci cribe cu bunre
+       Two-of the three bears are-brown.
+
+9.4)   le re le ci cribe cu bunre
+       The two-of the three bears are-brown.
+
+9.5)   pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre
+       One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown.
+
+  In each case, =E2=80=9Cle ci cribe=E2=80=9D restricts the bears (o=
r alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker h=
as in mind.  says that tw=
o of them (which two is not stated) are brown.  says that a specific pair of them are brown.  says that of a specific pair ch=
osen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.
+

+
+

+  10. sumti qualifiers
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     la'e    LAhE                something referred to by
+     lu'e    LAhE                a reference to
+     tu'a    LAhE                an abstraction involving
+     lu'a    LAhE                an individual/member/component of
+     lu'i    LAhE                a set formed from
+     lu'o    LAhE                a mass formed from
+     vu'i    LAhE                a sequence formed from
+
+     na'ebo  NAhE+BO             something other than
+     to'ebo  NAhE+BO             the opposite of
+     no'ebo  NAhE+BO             the neutral form of
+     je'abo  NAhE+BO             that which indeed is
+
+     lu'u    LUhU                elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO
+
+  Well, that=E2=80=99s quite a list of cmavo. What are they all abou=
t?
+  The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the =E2=80=9Csumti q=
ualifiers=E2=80=9D. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or=
 else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE imme=
diately followed by =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you =
can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti.=
 (You may need to add the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Clu'u=E2=80=9D to sho=
w where the qualified sumti ends.)
+  Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co=
mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say =E2=80=9CI see =E2=80=99The Red=
 Pony=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D, where =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=E2=80=9D is the title =
of a book. How about:
+  10.1)  mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u
+       I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].
+
+  But  doesn=E2=
=80=99t work: it says that you see a piece of text =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=E2=
=80=9D. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the boo=
k, where the words =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=E2=80=9D are presumably written. (=
More precisely, where the words =E2=80=9Cle xunre cmaxirma=E2=80=9D are wri=
tten =E2=80=93 but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.=
)
+  What you really want to say is:
+  10.2)  mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma=
 li'u
+       I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [unquote=
].
+
+  The x2 place of =E2=80=9Cselsinxa=E2=80=9D (the x1 place of =E2=80=
=9Csinxa=E2=80=9D) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of =E2=80=9Cselsin=
xa=E2=80=9D (the x2 place of =E2=80=9Csinxa=E2=80=9D) is the thing represen=
ted by the sign.  allows=
 us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it =
is a symbol of (namely the book itself).
+  This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it=E2=80=
=99s useful to be able to say:
+  10.3)  mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'=
u]
+       I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].
+
+  So when =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D is prefixed to a sumti referring to=
 a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (I=
n computer jargon, =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D dereferences a pointer.)
+  By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (), which too closely resemb=
les its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (), without having to change it overmuch; =
in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qu=
alifiers are of this general kind.
+  The sumti qualifier =E2=80=9Clu'e=E2=80=9D provides the converse o=
peration: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce =
a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,
+  10.4)  mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta
+       I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.
+       I said the title of this book.
+
+  The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:
+  10.5)  mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta
+       I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.
+
+  which is equivalent to , but longer.
+  The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo =E2=80=
=9Ctu'a=E2=80=9D is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more ful=
ly in . The triplet =E2=80=9Clu'a=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Clu'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clu'o=E2=80=9D convert between indivi=
duals, sets, and masses; =E2=80=9Cvu'i=E2=80=9D belongs to this group as we=
ll, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite or=
der. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and Joh=
n, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:
+  10.6)  mi troci tu'a le vorme
+       I try some-abstraction-about the door.
+       I try (to open) the door.
+
+   might mean tha=
t I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately v=
ague.
+  Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cri=
=E2=80=9D, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means =E2=80=9Cthe thing l=
ast mentioned=E2=80=9D; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previ=
ous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in =
.
+  10.7)  lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu
+       The-set-of rats is-large.  But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is=
-small.
+       The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.
+
+10.8)  lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda
+       Some rats are-small.  But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.
+       Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.
+
+10.9)  mi ce do girzu
+           .i lu'o ri gunma
+           .i vu'i ri porsi
+       I in-a-set-with you are-a-set.
+           The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass.
+           The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence
+       The set of you and me is a set.
+           The mass of you and me is a mass.
+           The sequence of you and me is a sequence.
+
+  (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduc=
ed for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)
+  Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and=
 =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D are all concerned with negation, which is discussed i=
n detail in . Here are a few examples of n=
egation sumti qualifiers:
+  10.10) mi viska na'ebo le gerku
+       I see something-other-than the dog.
+
+  This compound, =E2=80=9Cna'ebo=E2=80=9D, is the most common of the=
 four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the =
context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:
+  10.11) mi nelci loi glare cidja
+              .ije do nelci to'ebo ri
+              .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra
+       I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food.
+              And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned.
+              And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.
+       I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm fo=
od.
+
+  (In , the sumt=
i =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than=
 that referred to by =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D. We cannot use =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=
=9D here, because it would signify =E2=80=9Cla djein.=E2=80=9D, that being =
the most recent sumti available to =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D. See more detailed =
explanations in .)
+

+
+

+  11. The syntax of vocative phrases
+  Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter =
because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a voc=
ative phrase is one of the so-called =E2=80=9Cfree modifiers=E2=80=9D of Lo=
jban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs expl=
ained in . They can be placed after many, =
but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t=
erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and=
 ends of sentences, and in many other places.
+  The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addre=
ssed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A=
 vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which ar=
e explained in more detail in . Sometimes =
that is all there is to the phrase:
+  11.1)  coi
+       [greetings]
+       Hello.
+
+11.2)  je'e
+       [acknowledgement]
+       Uh-huh.
+       Roger!
+
+  In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the con=
text. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, p=
ossibly followed by =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D, or else just =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=
=9D by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of w=
hich are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name=
:
+  11.3)  coi. djan.
+       Hello, John.
+
+  A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member o=
f COI and a name. You can use =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D instead of a pause:
+  11.4)  coi doi djan.
+       Hello, John.
+
+  means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using =
=E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D by itself is like just saying someone=E2=80=99s name =
to attract his or her attention:
+  11.5)  doi djan.
+       John!
+
+  In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descript=
or, which is understood to be =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D:
+  11.6)  coi xunre pastu nixli
+       Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.
+       Hello, girl with the red dress!
+
+  The listener need not really be a =E2=80=9Cxunre pastu nixli=E2=80=
=9D, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Ac=
tually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden i=
n this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers =E2=80=9Csu'o le ro=E2=
=80=9D are in effect.)
+  Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.
+  11.7)  co'o la bab. .e la noras.
+       Goodbye, Bob and Nora.
+
+   is thus the sa=
me as:
+  11.8)  coi le xunre pastu nixli
+       Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl!
+
+  and  is the sam=
e as:
+  11.9)  doi la djan.
+       The-one-named John!
+
+  Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is =E2=80=9C=
do'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simpl=
e vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be re=
quired when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, o=
r when there are a sequence of so-called =E2=80=9Cfree modifiers=E2=80=9D (=
vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals =E2=80=94 see  =E2=80=94 metalinguistic comments =E2=80=94 see  =E2=80=94 or reciprocals =E2=80=94 see ) which must be properly separated.
+  The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not =
affected by its position in the sentence: thus  and  mean the same thing:
+  11.10) doi djan. ko klama mi
+       John, come to me!
+
+11.11) ko klama mi doi djan.
+       Come to me, John!
+
+  As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has=
 not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in , make for more possibilities.
+

+
+

+  12. Lojban names
+  Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter witho=
ut too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.
+  First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually call=
ed =E2=80=9Cnames=E2=80=9D when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates=
 of  are just ordinary predicates =
which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a cl=
ass of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recogn=
ized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some exa=
mples:
+  12.1)  djan.      meris.      djein.       .alis.
+       John.      Mary.       Jane.        Alice.
+
+  (Note that =E2=80=9C.alis.=E2=80=9D begins as well as ends with a =
pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by =
a pause. See  for more information.)
+  Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a v=
ocative phrase (see ) they indica=
te who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o=
 LA, namely =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cla'i=
=E2=80=9D, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by th=
e name.
+  12.2)  la djonz. klama le zarci
+       Jones goes to-the store.
+       The Joneses go to-the store.
+
+12.3)  lai djonz. klama le zarci
+       The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store.
+       The Joneses go to the store.
+
+  In , the signif=
icance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the=
 name =E2=80=9Cdjonz.=E2=80=9D are going to the store. In , the Joneses are massified, and only som=
e part of them needs to be going. Of course, by =E2=80=9Cdjonz.=E2=80=9D I =
can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name =E2=80=9Cdjonz.=
=E2=80=9D at all.
+  The sumti in  a=
nd  operate exactly like=
 the similar uses of =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D in  and  respectively. The only difference is that these =
descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only differ=
ence between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all=
 the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, w=
hereas the latter cannot.
+  There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban.=
 In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequence=
s) =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D un=
less a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every =
name not preceded by =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9C=
la'i=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D must be preceded by a pause instead=
:
+  12.4)  coi .djan.
+       Hello, John.
+
+12.5)  zo .djan. cmene mi
+       The-word =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D is-the-name-of me.
+       My name is John.
+
+  In  and , =E2=80=9C.djan.=E2=80=9D appe=
ars with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word =
is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be =
separable from the general word-stream.
+  Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that =E2=80=
=9Czo=E2=80=9D is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multi=
ple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminat=
ing pause:
+  12.6)  doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi l=
a niuport. niuz.
+       John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.
+
+  A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal i=
n Lojban words generally: the =E2=80=9Cimpermissible consonant clusters=E2=
=80=9D of Lojban morphology (explained in )=
. Thus =E2=80=9Cdjeimz.=E2=80=9D is not a valid version of =E2=80=9CJames=
=E2=80=9D (because =E2=80=9Cmz=E2=80=9D is invalid): =E2=80=9Cdjeimyz=E2=80=
=9D will suffice. Similarly, =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D may be replaced by =E2=80=
=9Cly=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Clai=E2=80=9D by =E2=80=9Cly'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cd=
oi=E2=80=9D by =E2=80=9Cdo'i=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cdai=E2=80=9D. Here are a =
few examples:
+  
+     English name              invalid Lojban name   valid Lojban names
+
+       Doyle                     *doi,l                do'il or dai,l
+       Lyra                      *lairas               ly'iras
+       Lottie                    *latis                LYtis. or lotis.
+
+     (American pronunciation)
+
+  Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily.=
 Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with =
a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi =E2=80=9Cloj-=E2=80=9D for =E2=
=80=9Clogji=E2=80=9D (logical) and =E2=80=9Cban-=E2=80=9D for =E2=80=9Cbang=
u=E2=80=9D (language) unite to form the name of this language:
+  12.7)  lojban.
+       Lojban
+
+  When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, o=
r when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, th=
e vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but n=
ot required) to use the consonants =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=
=9D when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other langua=
ges may wish to use other consonant endings.
+  The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form =E2=80=9Cla=E2=
=80=9D followed by a name is =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, just as for =E2=80=9Cl=
a=E2=80=9D followed by a selbri.
+

+
+

+  13. Pro-sumti summary
+  The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into=
 several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-co=
unting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More=
 details are given in ; this section mostly=
 duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quan=
tifier of each pro-sumti.
+  The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless othe=
rwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is =E2=80=9Cro=
=E2=80=9D (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the =
=E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D signifies =E2=80=9Call of those referred to by the oth=
er sumti=E2=80=9D: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the =
quantification of the other sumti.
+  Personal pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cma'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cdo'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D) refer to the speaker or the list=
ener or both, with or without third parties:
+  13.1)  mi prami do
+       I love you.
+
+  The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either rep=
resenting individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be =E2=80=
=9Cpisu'o=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D: in particular, =E2=80=
=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cma'a=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cdo'o=E2=80=9D specifically represent mass combinations of the individ=
uals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that m=
ake them up.
+  Definable pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cko'e=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cko'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cko'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cko'u=E2=80=9D=
, =E2=80=9Cfo'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfo'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfo'i=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cfo'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfo'u=E2=80=9D) refer to whatever the speak=
er has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with =
=E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'o GOI), which means =E2=80=9Cdefined-as=E2=
=80=9D.
+  13.2)  le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le =
smacu
+       The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.
+
+  Quantificational pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdi=E2=80=9D) are used as variables in bridi involving pred=
icate logic:
+  13.3)  ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe
+       All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-=
fish.
+       All persons love a fish (each his/her own).
+
+  (This is not the same as =E2=80=9CAll persons love a certain fish=
=E2=80=9D; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The =
implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular=
 to them, and are discussed in detail in .=
 Roughly speaking, the quantifier is =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D (at least one) =
when the pro-sumti is first used, and =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (all) thereafter=
.
+  Reflexive pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cvo'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cvo'e=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cvo'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cvo'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cvo'u=E2=80=9D=
) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bri=
di, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:
+  13.4)  le cribe cu batci vo'a
+       The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.
+       The bear bites itself.
+
+  Back-counting pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted=
 backwards from the pro-sumti:
+  13.5)  mi klama la frankfurt. ri
+       I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti
+       I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).
+
+  Indefinite pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D) refer to something which is unspecified:
+  13.6)  mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e
+       I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspeci=
fied.
+
+  The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefin=
ite. It might be =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (all) or =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D (at l=
east one) or conceivably even =E2=80=9Cno=E2=80=9D (none), though =E2=80=9C=
no=E2=80=9D would require a very odd context indeed.
+  Demonstrative pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or wh=
en pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:
+  13.7)  ko muvgau
+              ti ta tu
+       You [imperative] move
+              this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place=
.
+       Move this from there to over there!
+
+  Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cdi'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde'u=E2=
=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cda'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdi'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde'e=E2=80=
=9D, =E2=80=9Cda'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdei=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdo'i=E2=80=9D)=
 refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the=
 same as the current utterance.
+  13.8)  li re su'i re du li vo
+             .i la'e di'u jetnu
+       The-number two plus two equals the-number four.
+             The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.
+
+  The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is =E2=80=9Cs=
u'o=E2=80=9D (at least one), because they are considered analogous to =E2=
=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D descriptions: they refer to things which really are previ=
ous, current, or following utterances.
+  The relative pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D) is used within rel=
ative clauses (see  for a discussion of rel=
ative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached t=
o.
+  13.9)  mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a
+              loi slasi
+       I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the=
 cats)
+              from-a-mass-of plastic.
+       I see the cat(s) made of plastic.
+
+  The question pro-sumti (=E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D) is used to ask quest=
ions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the quest=
ion into a truth:
+  13.10) do klama ma
+       You go to-what-sumti?
+       Where are you going?
+
+  The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is =E2=80=9Csu'=
o=E2=80=9D (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supp=
ly a single answer, not all correct answers.
+  In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related s=
elma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.
+

+
+

+  14. Quotation summary
+  There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words=
 quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information i=
s provided in .
+  Text quotations are preceded by =E2=80=9Clu=E2=80=9D and followed =
by =E2=80=9Cli'u=E2=80=9D, and are an essential part of the surrounding tex=
t: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.
+  14.1)  mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u
+       I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].
+       I say =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m John=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The w=
ords need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that=
 the end of the quotation can be discerned.
+  14.2)  mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u
+       I say the-words [quote] =E2=80=9Cli mi=E2=80=9D [unquote].
+       I say =E2=80=9Cli mi=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Note that the translation of  does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not pr=
esumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).
+  Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo =
are not allowed.
+  14.3)  mi cusku zo .ai
+       I say the-word =E2=80=9C.ai=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-s=
peech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word w=
hich does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to se=
t it off from the surrounding Lojban text.
+  14.4)  mi cusku zoi kuot. I=E2=80=99m John .kuot
+       I say =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m John=E2=80=9D.
+
+  The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is =E2=80=9Csu'=
o=E2=80=9D (at least one), because quotations are analogous to =E2=80=9Clo=
=E2=80=9D descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or se=
quences of words.
+

+
+

+  15. Number summary
+  The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo =E2=80=9Cli=
=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathema=
tical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most =
complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much m=
ore information on numbers is given in . H=
ere are a few examples of increasing complexity:
+  15.1)  li vo
+       the-number four
+       4
+
+15.2)  li re su'i re
+       the-number two plus two
+       2 + 2
+
+15.3)  li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy.
+       the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c
+       ax2  + bx + c
+
+  An alternative to =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=9D, =
also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with =E2=80=9Cme'o=E2=80=
=9D refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus  and  above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas=

+  15.4)  me'o vo
+       the-expression four
+       =E2=80=9C4=E2=80=9D
+
+  and
+  15.5)  me'o re su'i re
+       the-expression two plus two
+       =E2=80=9C2+2=E2=80=9D
+
+  refer to different pieces of text.
+  The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions i=
s =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D, because these sumti are analogous to =E2=80=9Clo=
=E2=80=9D descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or =
pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with =E2=80=9Cli=E2=80=9D), this is=
 a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4=
; but there are many texts =E2=80=9C4=E2=80=9D, as many as there are docume=
nts in which that numeral appears.
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..483aac4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,777 @@
+
+  Chapter 7
+Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi
+
+
+

+  1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
+  Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mech=
anisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to e=
xpress a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we=
 have to say. In English, we have words called =E2=80=9Cpronouns=E2=80=9D w=
hich allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An Engli=
sh with no pronouns might look something like this:
+  1.1)   Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other lan=
guages,
+       require mechanisms of abbreviation.  If every time
+       speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which
+       speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to
+       express a complete description of what speakers
+       of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say
+       what speakers of Lojban have to say.
+
+  Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talkin=
g. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent=
 of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:
+  1.2)   John picked up a stick and shook it.
+
+  and
+  1.3)   John picked up a stick and shook a stick.
+
+   does not imply =
that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas  requires that they are.
+  In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of p=
ronouns are called by the hybrid term =E2=80=9Cpro-sumti=E2=80=9D. A purely=
 Lojban term would be =E2=80=9Csumti cmavo=E2=80=9D: all of the pro-sumti a=
re cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a g=
roup of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bri=
di. These may be called =E2=80=9Cpro-bridi=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cbridi cmavo=
=E2=80=9D. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOh=
A and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in se=
lma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-ser=
ies, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if=
 there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrast=
ed. Many pro-sumti series don=E2=80=99t have pro-bridi analogues, however.<=
/para>
+  A few technical terms: The term =E2=80=9Creferent=E2=80=9D means t=
he thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the sp=
eaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word =E2=80=9CI=E2=
=80=9D is James. On the other hand, the term =E2=80=9Cantecedent=E2=80=9D r=
efers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly re=
peats. In
+  1.4)   John loves himself
+
+  the antecedent of =E2=80=9Chimself=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=
=9D; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the =
person, would be the referent of =E2=80=9Chimself=E2=80=9D. Not all pro-sum=
ti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.
+

+
+

+  2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     mi      KOhA  mi-series     I, me
+     do      KOhA  mi-series     you
+     mi'o    KOhA  mi-series     you and I
+     mi'a    KOhA  mi-series     I and others, we but not you
+     ma'a    KOhA  mi-series     you and I and others
+     do'o    KOhA  mi-series     you and others
+     ko      KOhA  mi-series     you-imperative
+
+  The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and=
 others in various combinations. =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D refers to the speaker=
 and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=
 =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D refers to the listener or listeners. Neither =E2=80=
=9Cmi=E2=80=9D nor =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D is specific about the number of per=
sons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the membe=
rs of the jury as =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, since in speaking officially he rep=
resents all of them.
+  The referents of =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D are=
 usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative word=
s of selma'o COI, explained in . The vocat=
ive =E2=80=9Cmi'e=E2=80=9D assigns =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, whereas all of the=
 other vocatives assign =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D.
+  2.1)   mi'e djan. doi frank.  mi cusku lu mi bajra li=
'u do
+       I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you
+       I am John, Frank; I tell you =E2=80=9CI run=E2=80=9D.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=
=9Cma'a=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cdo'o=E2=80=9D express various combinations o=
f the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:
+  
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D includes only the speaker and the liste=
ner but no one else;
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D includes the speaker and others but exc=
ludes the listener;
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cdo'o=E2=80=9D includes the listener and others but ex=
cludes the speaker;
+    
+    
+      =E2=80=9Cma'a=E2=80=9D includes all three: speaker, listener, =
others.
+    
+  
+  All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example, =E2=80=9Cmi'=
o=E2=80=9D is the same as =E2=80=9Cmi joi do=E2=80=9D, the mass of me and y=
ou considered jointly.
+  In English, =E2=80=9Cwe=E2=80=9D can mean =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D or =
=E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D or even =E2=80=9Cma'a=E2=
=80=9D, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distin=
guish =E2=80=9Cmi'o=E2=80=9D from =E2=80=9Cmi'a=E2=80=9D:
+  2.2)   We=E2=80=99re going to the store.
+
+  Does this include the listener or not? There=E2=80=99s no way to b=
e sure.
+  Finally, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D is logically equivalent to=
 =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D; its referent is the listener. However, its use alter=
s an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make th=
e assertion true:
+  2.3)   do klama le zarci
+       You go to-the store.
+
+  becomes:
+  2.4)   ko klama le zarci
+       You [imperative] go to-the store.
+       Make =E2=80=9Cyou go to the store=E2=80=9D true!
+       Go to the store!
+
+  In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, th=
e word =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D must be used. However, =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D doe=
s not have to appear in the x1 place:
+  2.5)   mi viska ko
+       I see you [imperative]
+       Make =E2=80=9CI see you=E2=80=9D true!
+       Be seen by me!
+
+  In , it is neces=
sary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of =
=E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D in the x2 place. Indeed, =E2=80=9Cko=E2=80=9D does not=
 even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:
+  2.6)   mi viska le prenu poi prami ko
+       I see the person that loves you [imperative]
+       Make =E2=80=9CI see the person that loves you=E2=80=9D true!
+       Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!
+       Show me the person who loves you!
+
+  As mentioned in , some pr=
o-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no eq=
uivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn=E2=80=99t a r=
elationship.
+

+
+

+  3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ti      KOhA  ti-series     this here, a nearby object
+     ta      KOhA  ti-series     that there, a medium-distant object
+     tu      KOhA  ti-series     that yonder, a far-distant object
+
+  It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by so=
me related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D serve this function among others: =E2=80=
=9Cthis=E2=80=9D refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, a=
nd =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-=
sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cma=
vo =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D pro=
vide only the pointing function of =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthat=
=E2=80=9D; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.<=
/para>
+  There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two be=
cause it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more th=
an two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does=
 this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun =E2=80=9Cthat=
=E2=80=9D referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and =
the now-archaic pronoun =E2=80=9Cyon=E2=80=9D to something far away.
+  In conversation, there is a special rule about =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=
=9D and =E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D that is often helpful in interpreting them. Wh=
en used contrastingly, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D refers to something that is nea=
r the listener, whereas =E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D refers to something far from b=
oth speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between =E2=80=9Cti=
=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cd=
o=E2=80=9D, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, =
when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning =
of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing=
 to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as =E2=80=9Cne=
ar=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cfar away=E2=80=9D is relative to the current situa=
tion.
+  It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun =E2=80=
=9Cthis=E2=80=9D and the English adjective =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D as in =E2=
=80=9Cthis boat=E2=80=9D. The latter is not represented in Lojban by =E2=80=
=9Cti=E2=80=9D:
+  3.1)   le ti bloti
+       the this boat
+
+  does not mean =E2=80=9Cthis boat=E2=80=9D but rather =E2=80=9Cthis=
 one=E2=80=99s boat=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cthe boat associated with this thing=
=E2=80=9D, as explained in . A correct Lojb=
an translation of  is
+  3.2)   le vi bloti
+       the here boat
+       the nearby boat
+
+  using a spatial tense before the selbri =E2=80=9Cbloti=E2=80=9D to=
 express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full i=
n .) Another correct translation would be:=

+  3.3)   ti noi bloti
+       this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat
+
+  There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-serie=
s: you can=E2=80=99t point to a relationship.
+

+
+

+  4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     di'u    KOhA  di'u-series   the previous utterance
+     de'u    KOhA  di'u-series   an earlier utterance
+     da'u    KOhA  di'u-series   a much earlier utterance
+     di'e    KOhA  di'u-series   the next utterance
+     de'e    KOhA  di'u-series   a later utterance
+     da'e    KOhA  di'u-series   a much later utterance
+     dei     KOhA  di'u-series   this very utterance
+     do'i    KOhA  di'u-series   some utterance
+
+  The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that h=
ave been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use =E2=
=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D for this (indeed, the immedi=
ately preceding =E2=80=9Cthis=E2=80=9D is an example of such a usage):
+  4.1)   You don=E2=80=99t like cats.
+       That is untrue.
+
+  Here =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D does not refer to something that can b=
e pointed to, but to the preceding sentence =E2=80=9CYou don=E2=80=99t like=
 cats=E2=80=9D. In Lojban, therefore,  is rendered:
+  4.2)   do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra
+       You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-false=
-sentence.
+
+  Using =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D instead of =E2=80=9Cdi'u=E2=80=9D would=
 cause the listener to look around to see what the speaker of the second se=
ntence was physically pointing to.
+  As with =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Ct=
u=E2=80=9D, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance,=
 a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past o=
r in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=
=9D/=E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cu=E2=80=9D vowel convention of the demonst=
ratives in  without causing collis=
ions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=
=9D/=E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Ca=E2=80=9D convention in the first vowel o=
f the cmavo.
+  Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been s=
aid), so =E2=80=9Cdi'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cde'e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cda'e=
=E2=80=9D are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequentl=
y handy:
+  4.3)   la saimn. cusku di'e
+       Simon expresses the-following-utterance.
+       Simon says:
+
+   would typically=
 be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is=
 of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself wo=
uld appear after , and so=
 =E2=80=9Cdi'e=E2=80=9D is appropriate.
+  The remaining two cmavo, =E2=80=9Cdei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdo'i=
=E2=80=9D, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is utt=
ering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at som=
e time:
+  4.4)   dei jetnu jufra
+       This-utterance is-a-true-sentence.
+       What I am saying (at this moment) is true.
+
+4.5)   do'i jetnu jufra
+       Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence.
+       That=E2=80=99s true (where =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D is not necessaril=
y what was just said).
+
+  The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to th=
e context. The referent of =E2=80=9Cdei=E2=80=9D in the current utterance i=
s the same as the referent of =E2=80=9Cdi'u=E2=80=9D in the next utterance.=
 The term =E2=80=9Cutterance=E2=80=9D is used rather than =E2=80=9Csentence=
=E2=80=9D because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any o=
f these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utter=
ances may be thus referred to.
+  Note one very common construction with =E2=80=9Cdi'u=E2=80=9D and =
the cmavo =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o LAhE; see ) which precedes a sumti and means =E2=80=9Cthe thing referred =
to by (the sumti)=E2=80=9D:
+  4.6)   mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u
+       I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.
+       I love Jane, and I like that.
+
+  The effect of =E2=80=9Cla'e di'u=E2=80=9D in  is that the speaker likes, not the previous s=
entence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous senten=
ce, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a singl=
e word: =E2=80=9Cla'edi'u=E2=80=9D. It is important not to mix up =E2=80=9C=
di'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla'edi'u=E2=80=9D, or the wrong meaning will gen=
erally result:
+  4.7)   mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u
+       I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.
+
+  says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.
+  There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.
+

+
+

+  5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the br=
oda-series
+  The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ko'a    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-1
+     ko'e    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-2
+     ko'i    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-3
+     ko'o    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-4
+     ko'u    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-5
+     fo'a    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-6
+     fo'e    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-7
+     fo'i    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-8
+     fo'o    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-9
+     fo'u    KOhA    ko'a-series     it-10
+     broda   BRIVLA  broda-series    is-thing-1
+     brode   BRIVLA  broda-series    is-thing-2
+     brodi   BRIVLA  broda-series    is-thing-3
+     brodo   BRIVLA  broda-series    is-thing-4
+     brodu   BRIVLA  broda-series    is-thing-5
+     goi     GOI                     pro-sumti assignment
+     cei     CEI                     pro-bridi assignment
+
+  The discussion of personal pro-sumti in  may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronou=
ns include not only =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cyou=E2=80=9D but also =
=E2=80=9Che=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cshe=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cit=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cthey=E2=80=9D. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in =
fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized an=
d used very differently.
+  There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned f=
reely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word =E2=80=9Che=E2=80=9D can re=
fer only to males, =E2=80=9Cshe=E2=80=9D only to females (and ships and a f=
ew other things), =E2=80=9Cit=E2=80=9D only to inanimate things, and =E2=80=
=9Cthey=E2=80=9D only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no rest=
rictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the conte=
xt what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:
+  5.1)   la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu
+       Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.
+
+  The English gloss =E2=80=9Cit-1=E2=80=9D, plus knowledge about the=
 real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that =E2=80=9Cko'a=
=E2=80=9D refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is =E2=
=80=9Cle zarci=E2=80=9D. To a Lojbanist, however, =E2=80=9Cla .alis.=E2=80=
=9D is just as likely an antecedent, in which case  means that Alice, not the store, is blue.
+  To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cm=
avo =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D:
+  5.2)   la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis.=
 cu blanu
+       Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue.
+
+  Syntactically, =E2=80=9Cgoi la .alis.=E2=80=9D is a relative phras=
e (relative phrases are explained in ). Sem=
antically, it says that =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla .alis.=E2=80=
=9D refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because =E2=
=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D is being defined as meaning =E2=80=9Cla .alis.=E2=80=9D=
. It is equally correct to say:
+  5.3)   la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a=
 cu blanu
+       Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue.
+
+  in other words, =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D is symmetrical. There is a t=
erminator, =E2=80=9Cge'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always=
 elidable. The details are in .
+  The afterthought form of =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D shown in  and  is probably most common in speech, where we do not kno=
w until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice =
again. In writing, though, =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D may be assigned at the po=
int where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of =
=E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D is:
+  5.4)   la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu b=
lanu
+       Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.
+
+  Again, =E2=80=9Cko'a goi la .alis.=E2=80=9D would have been entire=
ly acceptable in . This l=
ast form is reminiscent of legal jargon: =E2=80=9CThe party of the first pa=
rt, hereafter known as Buyer, ... =E2=80=9D.
+  Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sum=
ti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want =
to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbr=
i or even a whole bridi:
+  5.5)   ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei bro=
da
+              .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu
+       These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies.
+              The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.
+
+  The pro-bridi =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D has as its antecedent the se=
lbri =E2=80=9Cslasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri=E2=80=9D. The cmavo =E2=
=80=9Ccei=E2=80=9D performs the role of =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D in assigning =
=E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D to this long phrase, and =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D ca=
n then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact, =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=
=9D and its relatives actually are brivla: they are gi=
smu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o=
 GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Logl=
an Project=E2=80=99s history.)
+  Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have t=
he grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following r=
ather contrived example, the antecedent of =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D is the w=
hole bridi =E2=80=9Cmi klama le zarci=E2=80=9D:
+  5.6)   mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode
+       I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store.  You claim-1.
+       I go to the store. You, too.
+
+  In the second bridi, =E2=80=9Cdo brode=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cdo =
klama le zarci=E2=80=9D, because =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D carries the x2 sum=
ti of =E2=80=9Cmi klama le zarci=E2=80=9D along with it. It also potentiall=
y carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=
=9D overrides the =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, =
any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, an=
d can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. T=
hese rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.
+  Another use of =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D and its relatives, without =
assignment, is as =E2=80=9Csample gismu=E2=80=9D:
+  5.7)   broda ke brode brodi
+       a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)
+
+  represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historic=
ally, this use was the original one.)
+  As is explained in , the words fo=
r Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are =
also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro=
-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit ass=
ignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description =
sumti beginning with the same letter:
+  5.8)   mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf.
+       I see the dog. D expresses the-word =E2=80=9CArf!=E2=80=9D.
+
+  The Lojban word =E2=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D begins with =E2=80=9Cg=E2=
=80=9D, so the antecedent of =E2=80=9Cgy.=E2=80=9D, the cmavo for the lette=
r =E2=80=9Cg=E2=80=9D, must be =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D. In the English t=
ranslation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as =E2=80=9CD=E2=
=80=9D. Of course, in case of ambiguity, =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D can be used =
to make an explicit assignment.
+  Furthermore, =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D can even be used to assign a na=
me:
+  5.9)   le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci
+       The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.
+       The woman, whom I=E2=80=99ll call Sam, goes to the store.
+
+  This usage does not imply that the woman=E2=80=99s name is Sam, or=
 even that the speaker usually calls the woman =E2=80=9CSam=E2=80=9D. =E2=
=80=9CSam=E2=80=9D is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the=
 current context only.
+

+
+

+  6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-=
series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ri      KOhA  ri-series     (repeats last sumti)
+     ra      KOhA  ri-series     (repeats previous sumti)
+     ru      KOhA  ri-series     (repeats long-ago sumti)
+
+     go'i    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats last bridi)
+     go'a    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats previous bridi)
+     go'u    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats long-ago bridi)
+     go'e    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats last-but-one bridi)
+     go'o    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats future bridi)
+     nei     GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats current bridi)
+     no'a    GOhA  go'i-series   (repeats outer bridi)
+
+     ra'o    RAhO                pro-cmavo update
+
+  The term =E2=80=9Canaphora=E2=80=9D literally means =E2=80=9Crepet=
ition=E2=80=9D, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose signi=
ficance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojba=
n provides three pro-sumti anaphora, =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cra=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphor=
a, =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgo'a=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cgo'u=E2=80=
=9D. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the =
=E2=80=9Cdistances=E2=80=9D referred to are not physical distances, but dis=
tances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D is the simplest of these; it has th=
e same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the =E2=80=9Cri=
=E2=80=9D:
+  6.1)   la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa
+       Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room.
+       Alice sleeps in her room.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D in  is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is =E2=80=9Cl=
a .alis.=E2=80=9D, so  is=
 equivalent to:
+  6.2)   la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa
+       Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room.
+       Alice sleeps in Alice=E2=80=99s room.
+
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D does not repeat =E2=80=9Cle ri kumf=
a=E2=80=9D, because that sumti is not yet complete when =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=
=9D appears. This prevents =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D from getting entangled in p=
aradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) No=
te also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and =
the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level =
sumti like =E2=80=9Cla alis.=E2=80=9D in  is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti =
that contains it.
+  Certain sumti are ignored by =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D; specifically, m=
ost of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent ler=
fu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:
+  6.3)   mi prami mi
+       I love me.
+       I love myself.
+
+  However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by =E2=80=9Cr=
i=E2=80=9D, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so rep=
eating =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D may not be effective. Likewise, =E2=80=9Cri=E2=
=80=9D itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later =E2=80=
=9Cri=E2=80=9D; in fact, a string of =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D cmavo with no oth=
er intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:
+  6.4)   la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri j=
imca
+       John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[repeat last=
] branch.
+       John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.
+
+  Here the second =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D has as antecedent the first =
=E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D, which has as antecedent =E2=80=9Cle tricu=E2=80=9D. A=
ll three refer to the same thing: a tree.
+  To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and=
 so on, =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D may be subscripted (subscripts are explained i=
n ):
+  6.5)   lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire
+             .i la .alis. pilno riximu
+       A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last].
+             Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last].
+
+  Here =E2=80=9Crixire=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cri-sub-2=E2=80=9D, skip=
s =E2=80=9Cla rik.=E2=80=9D to reach =E2=80=9Clo forca=E2=80=9D. In the sam=
e way, =E2=80=9Criximu=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cri-sub-5=E2=80=9D, skips =E2=
=80=9Cla .alis.=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Crixire=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cla rik.=E2=80=
=9D, and =E2=80=9Clo forca=E2=80=9D to reach =E2=80=9Clo smuci=E2=80=9D. As=
 can clearly be seen, this procedure is barely practicable in writing, and =
would break down totally in speech.
+  Therefore, the vaguer =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=
=9D are also provided. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D repeats a recently us=
ed sumti, and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D one that was further back in the speech =
or text. The use of =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D forces th=
e listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker.=
 Can =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D refer to the last sumti, like =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=
=9D? The answer is no if =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D has also been used. If =E2=80=
=9Cri=E2=80=9D has not been used, then =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D might be the la=
st sumti. Likewise, if =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D has been used, then any use of =
=E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D would repeat a sumti earlier than the one =E2=80=9Cra=
=E2=80=9D is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example 6.5, but one t=
hat depends more on context, is:
+  6.6)   lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra
+             .i la .alis. pilno ru
+       A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing].
+             Alice uses [some more remote thing].
+
+  In , the use of =
=E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D tells us that something other than =E2=80=9Cla rik.=E2=
=80=9D is the antecedent; =E2=80=9Clo forca=E2=80=9D is the nearest sumti, =
so it is probably the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of =E2=80=9Cru=
=E2=80=9D must be something even further back in the utterance than =E2=80=
=9Clo forca=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clo smuci=E2=80=9D is the obvious candida=
te.
+  The meaning of =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D must be determined every time =
it is used. Since =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D are more va=
guely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the l=
istener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to som=
ething repeated by =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9C=
ru=E2=80=9D, use =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D and a ko'a-series cmavo:
+  6.7)   la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu
+       Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 is-bl=
ue.
+
+  allows the store to be referred to henceforth as =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=
=80=9D without ambiguity.  is equivalent to  and e=
liminates any possibility of =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D being interpreted by th=
e listener as referring to Alice.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cgo'a=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cgo'u=E2=80=9D follow exactly the same rules as =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cra=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cru=E2=80=9D, except that they are pro-br=
idi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti =E2=80=94 specifically, main sen=
tence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relati=
ve clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-se=
ries, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes =E2=
=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D by itself convenient for answering a question affirmati=
vely, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:
+  6.8)   xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i
+       [True-false?] The-word =E2=80=9CJohn=E2=80=9D is-the-name of you? [=
repeat last bridi].
+       Is John your name? Yes.
+
+6.9)   mi klama le zarci .i do go'i
+       I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].
+       I go to the store. You, too.
+
+  Note that  means=
 the same as , but withou=
t the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. F=
or long-term reference, use =E2=80=9Cgo'i cei broda=E2=80=9D or the like, a=
nalogously to =E2=80=9Cri goi ko'a=E2=80=9D in .
+  The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for conve=
nience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cgo'e=E2=80=9D m=
eans the same as =E2=80=9Cgo'ixire=E2=80=9D: it repeats the last bridi but =
one. This is useful in conversation:
+  6.10)  A: mi ba klama le zarci
+       B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i
+       A: do go'e
+
+       A: I [future] go-to the store.
+       B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi].
+       A: You [repeat last bridi but one].
+
+       A: I am going to the store.
+       B: I like the idea of my going.
+       A: You=E2=80=99ll go, too.
+
+  Here B=E2=80=99s sentence repeats A=E2=80=99s within an abstractio=
n (explained in Chapter 11): =E2=80=9Cle si'o mi go'i=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=
=9Cle si'o mi klama le zarci=E2=80=9D. Why must B use the word =E2=80=9Cmi=
=E2=80=9D explicitly to replace the x1 of =E2=80=9Cmi klama le zarci=E2=80=
=9D, even though it looks like =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D is replacing =E2=80=9Cm=
i=E2=80=9D? Because B=E2=80=99s =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D refers to B, whereas A=
=E2=80=99s =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D refers to A. If B said:
+  6.11)  mi nelci le si'o go'i
+
+  that would mean:
+  
+     I like the idea of your going to the store.
+
+  The repetition signalled by =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D is not literall=
y of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with =
the x1 changed to =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D, meaning B. Note that in , the tense =E2=80=9Cba=E2=80=9D (f=
uture time) is carried along by both =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cgo=
'e=E2=80=9D.
+  Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for rep=
eating specific sumti of previous bridi:
+  6.12)  le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci
+              .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli
+       The black cat goes-to the store.
+              That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks-=
on the ice.
+       The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.
+
+  Here the =E2=80=9Cgo'i=E2=80=9D repeats =E2=80=9Cle xekri mlatu cu=
 klama le zarci=E2=80=9D, and since =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D makes the x1 place=
 into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is =E2=80=9Cle xekri ml=
atu=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cle go'i=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cle xekri mlatu=E2=80=
=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cgo'o=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cnei=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cno'a=E2=80=9D have been little used so far. They repeat respectively =
some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the curre=
nt bridi (=E2=80=9Cno'a=E2=80=9D, unlike the other members of the go'i- ser=
ies, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:
+  6.13)  mi nupre le nu mi go'o
+             .i ba dunda le djini le bersa
+             .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu
+       I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi]
+             [Future] give the money to-the son
+             [Future] give the house to-the daughter
+       I promise to do the following:
+             Give the money to my son.
+             Give the house to my daughter.
+
+  (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the =E2=80=9Cm=
y=E2=80=9D in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the spe=
aker=E2=80=99s son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the =
fact explicit, use =E2=80=9Cle bersa/tixnu be mi=E2=80=9D.)
+  For good examples of =E2=80=9Cnei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cno'a=E2=80=
=9D, we need nested bridi contexts:
+  6.14)  mi se pluka le nu do pensi
+             le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte
+       I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about
+             (the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting)=
.
+       I am pleased that you thought about whether I
+             would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.
+
+6.15)  mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a
+       I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]
+       I will go when you do.
+
+  Finally, =E2=80=9Cra'o=E2=80=9D is a cmavo that can be appended to=
 any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that=
 pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literall=
y and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used with=
in the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the prese=
nce of =E2=80=9Cra'o=E2=80=9D, however, their meanings must be reinterprete=
d with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:
+  6.16)  mi ba lumci lemi karce
+       I will wash my car.
+
+  you might reply either:
+  6.17)  mi go'i
+       I will wash your car.
+
+  or:
+  6.18)  mi go'i ra'o
+       I will wash my car.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cra'o=E2=80=9D forces the second =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D =
from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former spea=
ker. This means that =E2=80=9Cgo'e ra'o=E2=80=9D would be an acceptable alt=
ernative to =E2=80=9Cdo go'e=E2=80=9D in B=E2=80=99s statement in .
+  The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations,=
 but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since=
 speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.
+  However, a =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D-series or =E2=80=9Cgo'a=E2=80=9D-s=
eries reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an e=
arlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and cont=
ext. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without =
interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here=E2=80=99s an example:
+  6.19)  la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
+              .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u
+       John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote].
+              Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].
+       John says, =E2=80=9CI am going to the store.=E2=80=9D
+              Alice says, =E2=80=9CMe too.=E2=80=9D
+
+  Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring t=
o something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quo=
ted, are aware of what they are doing.
+

+
+

+  7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co=
'e-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     zo'e    KOhA  zo'e-series   the obvious value
+     zu'i    KOhA  zo'e-series   the typical value
+     zi'o    KOhA  zo'e-series   the nonexistent value
+
+     co'e    GOhA  co'e-series   has the obvious relationship
+
+  The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sum=
ti. The cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D represents an elliptical value for thi=
s sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipp=
ed without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always th=
e typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti bei=
ng defined as =E2=80=9Cwhatever I want it to mean but haven=E2=80=99t bothe=
red to figure out, or figure out how to express=E2=80=9D.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=9D, on the other hand, represents th=
e typical value for this place of this bridi:
+  7.1)   mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le z=
dani
+              zu'i zu'i
+       I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the house
+              [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means]
+
+  In , the first =
=E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=9D probably means something like =E2=80=9Cby the door=
=E2=80=9D, and the second =E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=9D probably means something l=
ike =E2=80=9Con foot=E2=80=9D, those being the typical route and means for =
leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise du=
ring a fire, neither =E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=9D is appropriate. It=E2=80=99s al=
so common to use =E2=80=9Czu'i=E2=80=9D in =E2=80=9Cby standard=E2=80=9D pl=
aces.
+  Finally, the cmavo =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D represents a value which=
 does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with =E2=80=9Czi=
'o=E2=80=9D, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is i=
rrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For examp=
le, the place structure of =E2=80=9Czbasu=E2=80=9D is
+  
+             zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3
+
+  Consider the sentence
+  
+      Living things are made from cells.
+
+  This cannot be correctly expressed as:
+  7.2)   loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci
+       The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of c=
ells
+
+  because the =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D, expressed or understood, in  indicates that there is st=
ill a =E2=80=9Cmaker=E2=80=9D in this relationship. We do not generally sup=
pose, however, that someone =E2=80=9Cmakes=E2=80=9D living things from cell=
s. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does n=
ot imply a =E2=80=9Cmaker=E2=80=9D: however, an alternative strategy is to =
use =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D to eliminate the maker place:
+  7.3)   loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci
+       The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of =
cells.
+
+  Note: The use of =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D to block up, as it were, o=
ne place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place s=
tructure. Consider the following examples:
+  7.4)   mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri
+       I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.
+       I make the building out of wood.
+
+7.5)   zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri
+       [without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.
+       The building is made out of wood.
+
+7.6)   mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri
+       I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.
+       I build using wood.
+
+7.7)   mi zbasu le dinju zi'o
+       I make the building [without-material].
+       I make the building.
+
+  If  is true, the=
n  through  must be true also. However,  does not correspond to any senten=
ce with three regular (non-=E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D) sumti.
+  The pro-bridi =E2=80=9Cco'e=E2=80=9D (which by itself constitutes =
the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban g=
rammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, alt=
hough any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relations=
hip requires the use of =E2=80=9Cco'e=E2=80=9D as a selbri place-holder:
+  7.8)   mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme
+       I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.
+       I try the door.
+
+  The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, =
that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actuall=
y specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unli=
ke English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not bei=
ng expressed.
+  The form of =E2=80=9Cco'e=E2=80=9D was chosen to resemble =E2=80=
=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D; the cmavo =E2=80=9Cdo'e=E2=80=9D of selma'o BAI (see ) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cdo'i=E2=80=9D, of the di'u-series, is also a ki=
nd of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted=
 to referring only to an utterance.
+

+
+

+  8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     vo'a    KOhA  vo'a-series   x1 of this bridi
+     vo'e    KOhA  vo'a-series   x2 of this bridi
+     vo'i    KOhA  vo'a-series   x3 of this bridi
+     vo'o    KOhA  vo'a-series   x4 of this bridi
+     vo'u    KOhA  vo'a-series   x5 of this bridi
+
+     soi     SOI                 reciprocity
+
+     se'u    SEhU                soi terminator
+
+  The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of=
 the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the othe=
r places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. T=
he same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some ex=
amples:
+  8.1)   mi lumci vo'a
+       I wash myself
+
+8.2)   mi klama le zarci vo'e
+       I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].
+
+  To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like =E2=80=
=9Cle se go'i ku=E2=80=9D do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the p=
revious main bridi, as explained in .
+  The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=
=9D (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is =
imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2=
=80=9D:
+  8.3)   mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e
+       I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].
+       I love you and vice versa (swapping =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cyou=E2=80=9D).
+
+  The significance of =E2=80=9Csoi vo'a vo'e=E2=80=9D is that the br=
idi is still true even if the x1 (specified by =E2=80=9Cvo'a=E2=80=9D) and =
the x2 (specified by =E2=80=9Cvo'e=E2=80=9D) places are interchanged. If on=
ly a single sumti follows =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=9D, then the sumti immediately=
 preceding =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=9D is understood to be one of those involved:=

+  8.4)   mi prami do soi vo'a
+       I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].
+
+  again involves the x1 and x2 places.
+  Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be us=
ed in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasona=
bly understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi prope=
r. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:
+  8.5)   mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e
+       mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i
+       soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta
+       I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this)=
.
+
+  The elidable terminator for =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=9D is =E2=80=9Cse'u=
=E2=80=9D (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just on=
e sumti after the =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=9D, and the =E2=80=9Csoi=E2=80=9D cons=
truction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using =E2=80=9Csoi=
=E2=80=9D are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is a=
n example where =E2=80=9Cse'u=E2=80=9D is required:
+  8.6)   mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta
+       I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that
+       I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.
+
+

+
+

+  9. sumti and bridi questions: =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cm=
o=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ma      KOhA                sumti question
+     mo      GOhA                bridi question
+
+  Lojban questions are more fully explained in , but =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D are listed =
in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D asks for a=
 sumti to make the bridi true:
+  9.1)   do klama ma
+       You go to-what-destination?
+       Where are you going?
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D, on the other hand, asks for a selb=
ri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then=
 the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the=
 same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:
+  9.2)   do mo
+       What predicate is true as applied to you?
+       How are you?
+       What are you doing?
+       What are you?
+
+   is a truly preg=
nant question that will have several meanings depending on context.
+  (One thing it probably does not mean is =E2=80=9CWho are you?=E2=
=80=9D in the sense =E2=80=9CWhat is your name/identity?=E2=80=9D, which is=
 better expressed by:
+  9.3)   ma cmene do
+       What sumti is-the-name-of you?
+       What is your name?
+
+  or even
+  9.4)   doi ma
+       O [what sumti?]
+
+  which uses the vocative =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D to address someone, =
and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)
+  A further example of =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D:
+  9.5)   lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda
+       A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing=
.
+       Which person hit you? The big one.
+
+  When =E2=80=9Cma=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cmo=E2=80=9D is repeated, mul=
tiple questions are being asked simultaneously:
+  9.6)   ma djuno ma
+       [What sumti] knows [what sumti]?
+       Who knows what?
+
+

+
+

+  10. Relativized pro-sumti: =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ke'a    KOhA                relativized sumti
+
+  This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in ) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits w=
ithin the clause. For example:
+  10.1)  mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu
+               ke'a lei slasi
+       I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes
+               the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of pla=
stic.
+       I see a cat made of plastic.
+
+  If =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D were omitted from , it might be confused with:
+  10.2)  mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a]
+               zbasu lei slasi
+       I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized
+               [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic
+       I see a cat that makes plastic.
+
+  The anaphora cmavo =E2=80=9Cri=E2=80=9D cannot be used in place of=
 =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D in  and , because the re=
lativized sumti is not yet complete when the =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D appears=
.
+  Note that =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D is used only with relative clause=
s, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the =
case of relative clauses within relative clauses, =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D ma=
y be subscripted to make the difference clear (see ).
+

+
+

+  11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti: =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ce'u    KOhA                abstraction focus
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D is used within abstraction bridi,=
 particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo =E2=80=9Cka=E2=
=80=9D. Abstractions, including the uses of =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=9D, are dis=
cussed in full in .
+  In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one o=
f the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using =E2=80=9Cce'u=E2=80=
=9D. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:
+  11.1)  le ka ce'u gleki
+       the property-of (X being-happy)
+       the property of being happy
+       happiness
+
+  and
+  11.2)  le ka gleki ce'u
+       the property-of (being-happy about-X)
+       the property of being that which someone is happy about
+
+

+
+

+  12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the=
 bu'a-series
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     da      KOhA  da-series     something-1
+     de      KOhA  da-series     something-2
+     di      KOhA  da-series     something-3
+
+     bu'a    GOhA  bu'a-series   some-predicate-1
+     bu'e    GOhA  bu'a-series   some-predicate-2
+     bu'i    GOhA  bu'a-series   some-predicate-3
+
+  Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and =
are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in . It is worth mentioning that the Lojban trans=
lation of  is:
+  12.1)  la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e des=
ygau da
+       John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.
+       John picked up a stick and shook it.
+
+

+
+

+  13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     da'o    DAhO                cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi
+
+  How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other wor=
ds, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we =
be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answ=
er to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.
+  Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker o=
r listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-b=
ridi last indefinitely or until rebound with =E2=80=9Cgoi=E2=80=9D or =E2=
=80=9Ccei=E2=80=9D. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally l=
ast until re-bound; details are available in .
+  Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which =
they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the brid=
i in which they appear; and =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D is stable only within it=
s relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within=
 narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.
+  Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and s=
umti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are u=
sed.
+  However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so =
that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D=
, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the c=
ancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo =E2=
=80=9Cda'o=E2=80=9D of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose;=
 it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containi=
ng it. One use of =E2=80=9Cda'o=E2=80=9D is when entering a conversation, t=
o indicate that one=E2=80=99s pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with=
 any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.
+  In addition, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cni'o=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cno'i=E2=
=80=9D of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topi=
c, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment=
s, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can=
 be found in .
+

+
+

+  14. The identity predicate: du
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     du      GOhA                identity
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D has the place structure:
+  
+       du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...
+
+  and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not =
a pro-bridi. =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D serves as mathematical =E2=80=9C=3D=E2=80=
=9D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying.=
 Mathematical examples may be found in .
+  The main difference between
+  14.1)  ko'a du le nanmu
+       It-1 is-identical-to the man
+
+  and
+  14.2)  ko'a mintu le nanmu
+       It-1 is-the-same-as the man
+
+  is this defining nature.  presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for informa=
tion about what =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D refers to, or that the speaker in so=
me way feels the need to define =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=80=9D for later reference.=
 A bridi with =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D is an identity sentence, somewhat metali=
nguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the sam=
e referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=
=80=9D, and all are said to be identical.
+  , however, pred=
icates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of =E2=80=9Cko'a=E2=
=80=9D, which presumably has been defined previously.
+  Note: =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D historically is derived from =E2=80=9Cd=
unli=E2=80=9D, but =E2=80=9Cdunli=E2=80=9D has a third place which =E2=80=
=9Cdu=E2=80=9D lacks: the standard of equality.
+

+
+

+  15. lujvo based on pro-sumti
+  There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but th=
ey are rarely used. (See  for a c=
omplete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in=
 an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as =
such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.
+  Thus =E2=80=9Cdonta'a=E2=80=9D, meaning =E2=80=9Cyou-talk=E2=80=9D=
, would be interpreted as =E2=80=9Ctavla be do=E2=80=9D, and would have the=
 place structure
+  15.1)  t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language=
 t4
+
+  since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=
=9D.
+  On the other hand, the lujvo =E2=80=9Cdonma'o=E2=80=9D, literally =
=E2=80=9Cyou-cmavo=E2=80=9D, which means =E2=80=9Ca second person personal =
pronoun=E2=80=9D, would be interpreted as =E2=80=9Ccmavo be zo do=E2=80=9D,=
 and have the place structure:
+  15.2)  c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4
+
+  since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place (=
the meaning) are obvious from the context =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D.
+  An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the =E2=80=9Cfo'a=E2=80=
=9D series is to express lujvo which can=E2=80=99t be expressed in a conven=
ient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inco=
nvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:
+  15.3)  fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga
+       x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.
+
+  Finally, lujvo involving =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D are also possible,=
 and are fully discussed in . In brief, th=
e convention is to use the rafsi for =E2=80=9Czi'o=E2=80=9D as a prefix imm=
ediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. T=
hus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if=
 anyone, drinks it) as a =E2=80=9Cse pinxe be zi'o=E2=80=9D, the lujvo corr=
esponding to this is =E2=80=9Czilrelselpinxe=E2=80=9D (deleting the second =
place of =E2=80=9Cse pinxe=E2=80=9D). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion=
 would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that =E2=80=9Cz=
ilpavypinxe=E2=80=9D has the same place structure as =E2=80=9Czilrelselpinx=
e=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Clo zilpavypinxe=E2=80=9D, like =E2=80=9Clo zilrels=
elpinxe=E2=80=9D, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.<=
/para>
+  The pro-bridi =E2=80=9Cco'e=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D, and =
=E2=80=9Cbu'a=E2=80=9D also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they w=
ere gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for =E2=80=9Cdu=E2=80=9D-based =
lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.
+

+
+

+  16. KOhA cmavo by series
+  
+         mi-series:
+     mi        I (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cmib=E2=80=9D)
+     do        you (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cdon=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2=80=9D=
)
+     mi'o      you and I
+     mi'a      I and others, we but not you
+     ma'a      you and I and others
+     do'o      you and others
+     ko        you-imperative
+
+         ti-series:
+     ti        this here; something nearby (rafsi: =E2=80=9Ctif=E2=80=9D)
+     ta        that there; something distant (rafsi: =E2=80=9Ctaz=E2=80=9D=
)
+     tu        that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: =E2=80=9Ctuf=E2=
=80=9D)
+
+         di'u-series:
+     di'u      the previous utterance
+     de'u      an earlier utterance
+     da'u      a much earlier utterance
+     di'e      the next utterance
+     de'e      a later utterance
+     da'e      a much later utterance
+     dei       this very utterance
+     do'i      some utterance
+
+         ko'a-series:
+     ko'a      it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti
+     ko'e      it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti
+     ko'i      it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti
+     ko'o      it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti
+     ko'u      it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti
+
+     fo'a      it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cfo'a=E2=80=
=9D)
+     fo'e      it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cfo'e=E2=80=
=9D)
+     fo'i      it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cfo'i=E2=80=
=9D)
+     fo'o      it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti
+     fo'u      it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti
+
+         ri-series:
+     ri        (repeats the last sumti)
+     ra        (repeats a previous sumti)
+     ru        (repeats a long-ago sumti)
+
+         zo'e-series:
+     zo'e      the obvious value
+     zu'i      the typical value
+     zi'o      the nonexistent value (rafsi: =E2=80=9Czil=E2=80=9D)
+
+         vo'a-series:
+     vo'a      x1 of this bridi
+     vo'e      x2 of this bridi
+     vo'i      x3 of this bridi
+     vo'o      x4 of this bridi
+     vo'u      x5 of this bridi
+
+         da-series:
+     da        something-1 (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cdav=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cdza=E2=
=80=9D)
+     de        something-2
+     di        something-3
+
+         others:
+     ke'a      relativized sumti
+     ma        sumti question
+     ce'u      abstraction focus
+
+

+
+

+  17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series
+  
+         broda-series (not GOhA):
+     broda     is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi
+     brode     is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi
+     brodi     is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi
+     brodo     is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi
+     brodu     is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi
+
+         go'i-series:
+     go'i      (repeats the last bridi)
+     go'a      (repeats a previous bridi)
+     go'u      (repeats a long-ago bridi)
+     go'e      (repeats the last-but-one bridi)
+     go'o      (repeats a future bridi)
+     nei       (repeats the current bridi)
+     no'a      (repeats the next outer bridi)
+
+         bu'a-series:
+     bu'a      some-predicate-1 (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cbul=E2=80=9D)
+     bu'e      some-predicate-2
+     bu'i      some-predicate-3
+
+         others:
+     co'e      has the obvious relationship (rafsi: =E2=80=9Ccom=E2=80=9D/=
=E2=80=9Cco'e=E2=80=9D)
+     mo        bridi question
+     du        identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi: =E2=80=9Cdu=
b=E2=80=9D/=E2=80=9Cdu'o=E2=80=9D)
+
+

+
+

+  18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter
+  
+     goi     GOI                 pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)
+     cei     CEI                 pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)
+     ra'o    RAhO                pro-sumti/pro-bridi update
+     soi     SOI                 reciprocity
+     se'u    SEhU                soi terminator
+     da'o    DAhO                cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84e8a8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/8.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,544 @@
+
+  Chapter 8
+Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated
+
+
+

+  1. What are you pointing at?
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     poi     NOI                 restrictive relative clause introducer
+     ke'a    GOhA                relative pro-sumti
+     ku'o    KUhO                relative clause terminator
+
+  Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we=
 are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer=
 to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D if =
it is nearby, or =E2=80=9Cta=E2=80=9D if it is somewhat further away, or =
=E2=80=9Ctu=E2=80=9D if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in =
.)
+  However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointin=
g lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often ha=
rd for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is poi=
nting at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and=
 says:
+  1.1)   ti cu barda
+       This-one is-big.
+
+  What is the referent of =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D? Is it the person? Or=
 perhaps it is the person=E2=80=99s nose? Or even (for =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D=
 can be plural as well as singular, and mean =E2=80=9Cthese ones=E2=80=9D a=
s well as =E2=80=9Cthis one=E2=80=9D) the pores on the person=E2=80=99s nos=
e?
+  To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a =
=E2=80=9Crelative clause=E2=80=9D. Relative clauses are usually attached to=
 the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as=
 explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of s=
elma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D (o=
f selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose, =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D is a cmavo of =
selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D=
, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.
+  In between the =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D and the =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=
=9D appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere=
 within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=
=9D (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the=
 relative clause is attached (called the =E2=80=9Crelativized sumti=E2=80=
=9D). Here are some examples before we go any further:
+  1.2)   ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda
+       This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large.
+       This thing which is a person is big.
+       This person is big.
+
+1.3)   ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda
+       This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large.
+       This thing which is a nose is big.
+       This nose is big.
+
+1.4)   ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda
+       This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-big.
+       These things which are nose-pores are big.
+       These nose-pores are big.
+
+  In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word =E2=
=80=9CIT=E2=80=9D, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo =E2=80=9Cke'=
a=E2=80=9D. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in  through , the cmavo =E2=80=9Cti=E2=80=9D) to which the relati=
ve clause is attached.
+  Of course, there is no reason why =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D needs to =
appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any pla=
ce, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here ar=
e two more examples:
+  1.5)   tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu
+       That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a-rat.
+       That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.
+       What the cat dragged is a rat.
+
+1.6)   ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti
+       That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) is-a-boat=
.
+       That thing that I want to own is a boat.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cke=
'a=E2=80=9D appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in=
 ) within a relative clause.
+  Like any sumti, =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D can be omitted. The usual p=
resumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:
+  1.7)   ti poi nazbi cu barda
+       This-thing which is-a-nose is-big.
+
+  almost certainly means the same thing as . However, =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D can be omitted i=
f it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:<=
/para>
+  1.8)   tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu
+       That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat
+
+  is equivalent to .
+  As stated before, =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D is an elidable terminator=
, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this cha=
pter, =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D will not be written in any of the examples unl=
ess it is absolutely required: thus,  can be written:
+  1.9)   ti poi prenu cu barda
+       That which is-a-person is-big.
+       That person is big.
+
+  without any change in meaning. Note that =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D is =
translated =E2=80=9Cwhich=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Csuch-that=E2=80=9D =
when =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D has been omitted from the x1 place of the relat=
ive clause bridi. The word =E2=80=9Cwhich=E2=80=9D is used in English to in=
troduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are =E2=80=
=9Cwho=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D, as in:
+  1.10)  I saw a man who was going to the store.
+
+  and
+  1.11)  The building that the school was located in =
is large.
+
+  In  the relativ=
e clause is =E2=80=9Cwho was going to the store=E2=80=9D, and in  it is =E2=80=9Cthat the school wa=
s located in=E2=80=9D. Sometimes =E2=80=9Cwho=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cwhich=E2=
=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D are used in literal translations in this=
 chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.
+

+
+

+  2. Incidental relative clauses
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     noi     NOI                 incidental relative clause introducer
+
+  There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relativ=
e clauses introduced by =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D, and incidental (sometimes ca=
lled simply =E2=80=9Cnon-restrictive=E2=80=9D) relative clauses introduced =
by =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D. The difference between restrictive and incidental=
 relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is e=
ssential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attache=
d, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which=
 is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the refere=
nt of the sumti. All of the examples in  are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative cl=
ause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, us=
es an incidental relative clause.)
+  Consider the following examples:
+  2.1)   le gerku poi blanu cu barda
+       The dog which is-blue is-large.
+       The dog which is blue is large.
+
+2.2)   le gerku noi blanu cu barda
+       The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large.
+       The dog, which is blue, is large.
+
+  In , the informa=
tion conveyed by =E2=80=9Cpoi blanu=E2=80=9D is essential to identifying th=
e dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general=
 to dogs that are blue. This is why =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D relative clauses =
are called restrictive. In , on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already =
been identified clearly, and the relative clause =E2=80=9Cnoi blanu=E2=80=
=9D just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn=
=E2=80=99t been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help =
identify it further.)
+  In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental rel=
ative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not re=
strictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses=
, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This d=
istinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone =
of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduc=
ed by =E2=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D as well as =E2=80=9Cwhich=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cwho=E2=80=9D, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with =E2=
=80=9Cthat=E2=80=9D. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=
=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D rather than punctuation or intonation to m=
ake the distinction.
+  Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:
+  2.3)   mi noi jdice cu zvati
+       I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place].
+       I, a judge, am present.
+
+  In this example, =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D is already sufficiently rest=
ricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided =
solely for the listener=E2=80=99s edification.
+  2.4)   xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi
+       [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.
+       Do you see my car, which is white?
+
+  In , the speaker=
 is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information =
that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, s=
ince =E2=80=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D can be plural, in which case the incidental=
 information is that each of them is white.) Contrast  with a restrictive relative clause:
+  2.5)   xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi
+       [True?] You see my car which is-white.
+       Do you see my car that is white?
+       Do you see my white car?
+
+  Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the=
 referent of the sumti =E2=80=9Cle mi karce=E2=80=9D (and thereby the liste=
ner=E2=80=99s attention) to the white one only.  means much the same as , which does not use a relative clause:
+  2.6)   xu do viska le mi blabi karce
+       [True?] You see my white car.
+       Do you see my car, the white one?
+
+  So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can oft=
en mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However, =E2=80=9Cblab=
i karce=E2=80=9D, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might=
 refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more compl=
icated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative c=
lause of  can only refer =
to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.
+

+
+

+  3. Relative phrases
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pe      GOI                 restrictive association
+     po      GOI                 restrictive possession
+     po'e    GOI                 restrictive intrinsic possession
+     po'u    GOI                 restrictive identification
+     ne      GOI                 incidental association
+     no'u    GOI                 incidental identification
+
+     ge'u    GEhU                relative phrase terminator
+
+  There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain se=
lbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a s=
hortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo =
of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.
+  Here is an example of =E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D, plus an equivalent sen=
tence using a relative clause:
+  3.1)   le stizu pe mi cu blanu
+       The chair associated-with me is-blue.
+       My chair is blue.
+
+3.2)   le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu
+       The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue.
+
+  In  and , the link between the chair and =
the speaker is of the loosest kind.
+  Here is an example of =E2=80=9Cpo=E2=80=9D:
+  3.3)   le stizu po mi cu xunre
+       The chair specific-to me is red.
+
+3.4)   le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre
+       The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me) is-red.
+
+   and  contrast with  and : the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plau=
sible (though not the only possible) contrast between  and  is that =E2=80=9Cpe mi=E2=80=9D would be appropriate for a chair =
the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that =
chair), and =E2=80=9Cpo mi=E2=80=9D for a chair owned by the speaker (wheth=
er or not he or she was currently occupying it).
+  As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by =E2=
=80=9Cpo=E2=80=9D is usually called =E2=80=9Cpossession=E2=80=9D, although =
it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central co=
ncept is that of specificity (=E2=80=9Csteci=E2=80=9D in Lojban).
+  Here is an example of =E2=80=9Cpo'e=E2=80=9D, as well as another e=
xample of =E2=80=9Cpo=E2=80=9D:
+  3.5)   le birka po'e mi cu spofu
+       The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken
+
+3.6)   le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu
+       The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-with) me is=
-broken.
+
+3.7)   le botpi po mi cu spofu
+       The bottle specific-to me is-broken
+
+   and  on the one hand, and  on the other, illustrate the contrast=
 between two types of possession called =E2=80=9Cintrinsic=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cextrinsic=E2=80=9D, or sometimes =E2=80=9Cinalienable=E2=80=9D and =
=E2=80=9Calienable=E2=80=9D, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or i=
nalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor=
, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of , people are usually taken to=
 intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains th=
e arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, howeve=
r, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic=
 possession is a matter of degree.)
+  By contrast, the bottle of  can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is=
 possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and =
extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Indep=
endence speaks of the =E2=80=9Cinalienable rights=E2=80=9D of men, but just=
 what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, va=
ries from culture to culture.
+  Note that  can a=
lso be expressed without a relative clause:
+  3.8)   le birka be mi cu spofu
+       The arm of-body me is broken
+
+  reflecting the fact that the gismu =E2=80=9Cbirka=E2=80=9D has an =
x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all,=
 cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using =E2=80=9Cp=
o'e=E2=80=9D by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the des=
cription selbri.
+  Here is an example of =E2=80=9Cpo'u=E2=80=9D:
+  3.9)   le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi
+       The dog which-is my friend kisses me.
+
+3.10)  le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi
+       The dog which =3D my friend kisses me.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpo'u=E2=80=9D does not represent possession at =
all, but rather identity. (Note that it means =E2=80=9Cpoi du=E2=80=9D and =
its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)
+  In , the use of =
=E2=80=9Cpo'u=E2=80=9D tells us that =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=
=9Cle mi pendo=E2=80=9D represent the same thing. Consider the contrast bet=
ween  and:
+  3.11)  le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi
+       My friend which-is the dog kisses me.
+
+  The facts of the case are the same, but the listener=E2=80=99s kno=
wledge about the situation may not be. In , the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is =
meant by =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D, so the speaker adds a relative phrase =
clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker=E2=80=99s fri=
end.
+  , however, assu=
mes that the listener does not know which of the speaker=E2=80=99s friends =
is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which =
dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:<=
/para>
+  3.12)  le tcadu po'u la nu,iork
+       The city of New York [not another city]
+
+3.13)  la nu,iork po'u le tcadu
+       New York the city (not the state or some other New York)
+
+  The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change plac=
es applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effe=
cts:
+  3.14)  le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu
+       The cup associated-with my friend is small.
+       My friend=E2=80=99s cup is small
+
+3.15)  le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu
+       My friend associated-with the cup is small.
+       My friend, the one with the cup, is small.
+
+   is useful in a=
 context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small,=
 whereas  is useful in a=
 context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about =E2=
=80=9Cmy friend of the cup=E2=80=9D, as opposed to some other friend of min=
e. Here the cup appears to =E2=80=9Cpossess=E2=80=9D the person! English ca=
n=E2=80=99t even express this relationship with a possessive =E2=80=94 =E2=
=80=9Cthe cup=E2=80=99s friend of mine=E2=80=9D looks like nonsense =E2=80=
=94 but Lojban has no trouble doing so.
+  Finally, the cmavo =E2=80=9Cne=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cno'u=E2=80=9D=
 stand to =E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cpo'u=E2=80=9D, respectively, as=
 =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D does to =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 they provide=
 incidental information:
+  3.16)  le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do
+       The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.
+       The white dog, which is mine, bites you.
+
+  In , the white =
dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows w=
hich dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental t=
o the main bridi claim.
+  Distinguishing between =E2=80=9Cpo'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cno'u=E2=
=80=9D can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one =
of whom is named Jim. If you don=E2=80=99t know their names, I might say:
+  3.17)  le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci
+       The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.
+       The man, Jim, is a poet.
+
+  Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally t=
elling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then
+  3.18)  le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci
+       The man who-is Jim is-a-poet.
+       The man Jim is a poet.
+
+  is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking=
 of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.
+  It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies posse=
ssion from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other la=
nguages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English =
sentence
+  3.19)  The man put his hands in his pockets.
+
+  seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pocket=
s would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put int=
o his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence
+  3.20)  le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski
+       The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket.
+
+  is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hand=
s into another=E2=80=99s pockets, or another=E2=80=99s hands into his pocke=
ts, the fact can be specified.
+  Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is =E2=80=9Cge'u=E2=
=80=9D of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical =
connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then =
an explicit =E2=80=9Cge'u=E2=80=9D is needed to allow the connective to aff=
ect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (Wh=
at about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in , as it is not semantically akin to the other =
kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)
+

+
+

+  4. Multiple relative clauses: =E2=80=9Czi'e=E2=80=9D
+  
+     zi'e    ZIhE                relative clause joiner
+
+  Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relati=
ve clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo =E2=80=
=9Czi'e=E2=80=9D (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relat=
ive clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same=
 sumti. For example:
+  4.1)   le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu =
klama
+       The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.
+
+  The most usual translation of =E2=80=9Czi'e=E2=80=9D in English is=
 =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, but =E2=80=9Czi'e=E2=80=9D is not really a logical =
connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explaine=
d in ), it cannot be converted into a logi=
cal connection between sentences.
+  It is perfectly correct to use =E2=80=9Czi'e=E2=80=9D to connect r=
elative clauses of different kinds:
+  4.2)   le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu pon=
se ke'a cu klama
+       The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my friend owns =
IT) goes.
+       The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.
+
+  In , the restric=
tive clause =E2=80=9Cpoi blabi=E2=80=9D specifies which dog is referred to,=
 but the incidental clause =E2=80=9Cnoi le mi pendo cu ponse=E2=80=9D is me=
re incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identif=
ied the dog from the =E2=80=9Cpoi blabi=E2=80=9D. Of course, the meaning (t=
hough not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause ap=
pears first.
+  It is also possible to connect relative phrases with =E2=80=9Czi'e=
=E2=80=9D, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:
+  4.3)   le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu
+       The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken.
+       My blue bottle is broken.
+
+  Note that if the colloquial translation of  were =E2=80=9CMy bottle, which is blue, is brok=
en=E2=80=9D, then =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D w=
ould have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the Eng=
lish implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written, <=
xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section4-example3"/> suggests that I probably =
have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out a=
s the blue one.
+  4.4)   mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do
+            zi'e poi xunre
+       I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you
+            and which-is red.
+       I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.
+
+   illustrates tha=
t more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with =E2=80=9C=
zi'e=E2=80=9D. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very =
un-English contrast between =E2=80=9Cpe mi=E2=80=9D, implying that the chai=
r is temporarily connected with me, and =E2=80=9Cpo do=E2=80=9D, implying t=
hat the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a gu=
est in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property=
.)
+  Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative=
 clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:
+  4.5)   mi ba citka le dembi pe mi
+            zi'e poi cpana le mi palta
+            zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi
+       I [future] eat the beans associated-with me
+            and which are-upon my plate
+            and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.
+       I=E2=80=99ll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave m=
e.
+
+

+
+

+  5. Non-veridical relative clauses: =E2=80=9Cvoi=E2=80=9D
+  
+     voi     NOI                 non-veridical relative clause introducer
+
+  There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a=
 third kind of relative clause: =E2=80=9Cvoi=E2=80=9D. Relative clauses int=
roduced by =E2=80=9Cvoi=E2=80=9D are restrictive, like those introduced by =
=E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D. However, there is a fundamental difference between =
=E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cvoi=E2=80=9D relative clauses. A =E2=80=
=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense =
that a description using =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cloi=E2=80=9D is: =
it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For =
example:
+  5.1)   le gerku poi blabi cu klama
+       The dog which is-white goes.
+
+  it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence co=
nstitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and =
the speaker uses =E2=80=9Cle gerku poi blabi=E2=80=9D to refer to the brown=
 dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,
+  5.2)   le gerku voi blabi cu klama
+       The dog which-I-describe-as white goes.
+
+  puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actua=
lly meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the =
speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way, =E2=80=9Cvo=
i=E2=80=9D is like =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D; the speaker=E2=80=99s intention de=
termines the meaning.
+  As a result, the following two sentences
+  5.3)   le nanmu cu ninmu
+       That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.
+       The =E2=80=9Cguy=E2=80=9D is actually a gal.
+
+5.4)   ti voi nanmu cu ninmu
+       This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.
+
+  mean essentially the same thing (except that  involves pointing thanks to the use of =E2=80=
=9Cti=E2=80=9D, whereas  =
doesn=E2=80=99t), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly al=
l right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the l=
istener) even if it actually is a woman.
+

+
+

+  6. Relative clauses and descriptors
+  So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative c=
lauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest=
 of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include rel=
ative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after th=
e sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and o=
riginally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possibl=
e which produce a variety of semantic effects.
+  There are actually three places where a relative clause can be att=
ached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before th=
e elidable terminator (which is =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D), and after the =E2=80=
=9Cku=E2=80=9D. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have s=
een have occupied the second position. Thus , if written out with all elidable terminators, would ap=
pear as:
+  6.1)   le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau
+       The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.
+       The dog which is white is going.
+
+  Here =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D is the terminator paired with =E2=80=
=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D with =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, and =E2=
=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D is the terminator of the whole bridi.
+  When a simple descriptor using =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D, like =E2=80=
=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D, has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter=
 of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the =
following examples are all equivalent in meaning to :
+  6.2)   le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama
+       The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes.
+
+6.3)   le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama
+       The (dog) which is-white goes.
+
+   will seem most =
natural to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative c=
lauses after the noun phrases they are attached to; , on the other hand, may seem more natural to Fi=
nnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in =
, the elidable terminator=
 =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause (=
=E2=80=9Cblabi=E2=80=9D) will merge with the selbri of the description (=E2=
=80=9Cgerku=E2=80=9D), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose =
of the form appearing in =
 will be apparent shortly.
+  As is explained in detail in , two=
 different numbers (known as the =E2=80=9Cinner quantifier=E2=80=9D and the=
 =E2=80=9Couter quantifier=E2=80=9D) can be attached to a description. The =
inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it app=
ears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifie=
r appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refer=
red to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the foll=
owing example,
+  6.4)   re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci
+       Two-of the five persons go to-the market.
+       Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the marke=
t.
+
+  =E2=80=9Cmu=E2=80=9D is the inner quantifier and =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=
=9D is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clau=
se to the sumti =E2=80=9Cre le mu prenu=E2=80=9D? Suppose the relative clau=
se is =E2=80=9Cpoi ninmu=E2=80=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Cwho are women=E2=80=9D)=
. Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on sig=
nificance.
+  6.5)   re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarc=
i
+       Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-the marke=
t.
+       Two women out of the five persons go to the market.
+
+6.6)   re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci
+       Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.
+       Two of the five women go to the market.
+
+6.7)   re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci
+       (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.
+       Two women out of the five persons go to the market.
+
+  As the parentheses show,  means that all five of the persons are women, whereas  means that the two who are going to=
 the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative c=
lause comes after the explicit =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, as in , then the sumti as a whole is qualified =
by the relative clause. If there is no =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, or if the rela=
tive clause comes before an explicit =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, then the relativ=
e clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri a=
pplies to.
+  What about ? By =
convention, it means the same as , and it requires no =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, but it does typically re=
quire a =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D instead. Note that the relative clause comes=
 before the inner quantifier.
+  When =E2=80=9Cle=E2=80=9D is the descriptor being used, and the su=
mti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understo=
od to be =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Call=E2=80=9D), as is explai=
ned in . Thus =E2=80=9Cle gerku=E2=80=9D is=
 taken to mean =E2=80=9Call of the things I refer to as dogs=E2=80=9D, poss=
ibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relati=
ve clause after the =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D or before it. However, if the desc=
riptor is =E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D, the difference is quite important:
+  6.8)   lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci
+       (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the market.
+       Some people, who are white, go to the market.
+
+6.9)   lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci
+       Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the market.
+       Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.
+
+  Both  and  tell us that one or more perso=
ns are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental cl=
aims. Now, what does =E2=80=9Clo prenu noi blabi=E2=80=9D mean? Well, the d=
efault inner quantifier is =E2=80=9Cro=E2=80=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Call=E2=80=
=9D), and the default outer quantifier is =E2=80=9Csu'o=E2=80=9D (meaning =
=E2=80=9Cat least one=E2=80=9D). Therefore, we must first take all persons,=
 then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.
+  In , the relativ=
e clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or =
more people, who are white, are going. But in , the relative clause actually describes the sumti bef=
ore the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning =E2=80=
=9CFirst take all persons =E2=80=94 by the way, they=E2=80=99re all white=
=E2=80=9D. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made=
 here is false.
+  The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=
=9D when attaching a =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D relative clause to a =E2=80=9Clo=
=E2=80=9D descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.
+  When the descriptor is =E2=80=9Cla=E2=80=9D, indicating that what =
follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative claus=
es has a different significance. A relative clause inside the =E2=80=9Cku=
=E2=80=9D, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name=
; a relative clause outside the =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D is not. Therefore,
+  6.10)  mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [k=
u]
+       I see that-named (=E2=80=9Cman which fears the of-IT horse=E2=80=9D=
).
+       I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.
+
+  says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who do=
es not necessarily fear any horses, whereas
+  6.11)  mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma=
.
+       I see that-named( =E2=80=9CMan=E2=80=9D ) which fears the of-IT hor=
se.
+       I see the person named =E2=80=9CMan=E2=80=9D who is afraid of his h=
orse.
+
+  refers to one (or more) of those named =E2=80=9CMan=E2=80=9D, name=
ly the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.
+  Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like =E2=80=9Cre karce=E2=80=
=9D, which means almost the same as =E2=80=9Cre lo karce=E2=80=9D (which in=
 turn means the same as =E2=80=9Cre lo ro karce=E2=80=9D), can have relativ=
e clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=E2=80=9Cku=E2=
=80=9D variety. Here is an example:
+  6.12)  mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri
+       I possess two cars which-are black.
+
+  The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being af=
fected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to t=
ry to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before a=
n explicitly expressed terminating =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D.) Use an explicit =
=E2=80=9Clo=E2=80=9D instead.
+

+
+

+  7. Possessive sumti
+  In  through , the sumti =E2=80=9Cle mi ka=
rce=E2=80=9D appears, glossed as =E2=80=9Cmy car=E2=80=9D. Although it migh=
t not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti=
 appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a =
=E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D relative phrase. So
+  7.1)   le mi karce cu xunre
+       My car is-red.
+
+  and
+  7.2)   le pe mi karce cu xunre
+       The (associated-with me) car is-red.
+
+  mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no speci=
al considerations of quantifiers here,
+  7.3)   le karce pe mi cu xunre
+       The car associated-with me is-red.
+
+  means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in  is called a =E2=80=9Cpossessive sumt=
i=E2=80=9D. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense =
of ownership, but like =E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D relative phrases, indicates onl=
y weak association; you can say =E2=80=9Cle mi karce=E2=80=9D even if you=
=E2=80=99ve only borrowed it for the night. (In English, =E2=80=9Cmy car=E2=
=80=9D usually means =E2=80=9Cle karce po mi=E2=80=9D, but we do not have t=
he same sense of possession in =E2=80=9Cmy seat on the bus=E2=80=9D; Lojban=
 simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti, =E2=80=
=9Cmi=E2=80=9D in , is co=
rrespondingly called the =E2=80=9Cpossessor sumti=E2=80=9D.
+  Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of re=
lative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative p=
hrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. =
When preposed relative clauses of the  type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed a=
s a special case of them.
+  Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged =
relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a=
 =E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro=
-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the p=
ossessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be=
 interpreted as the unusual =E2=80=9Cdescriptor + quantifier + sumti=E2=80=
=9D type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in .
+  Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:
+  7.4)   le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu
+       The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.
+       The man=E2=80=99s car is blue.
+
+  Note the explicit =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D at the end of the possessor=
 sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with =
the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this =E2=
=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, e=
specially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descrip=
tions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.
+  And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:
+  7.5)   le li mu jdice se bende
+       The of-the-number-five judging team-member
+       Juror number 5
+
+  which is not quite the same as =E2=80=9Cthe fifth juror=E2=80=9D; =
it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the=
 number 5.
+  A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached=
 to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special=
 rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is under=
stood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:
+  7.6)   le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama
+       The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn=E2=80=99t going.
+
+  means that my car isn=E2=80=99t going; the incidental claim of =E2=
=80=9Cnoi sipna=E2=80=9D applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to=
 say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:
+  7.7)   le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama
+    The of-me car which sleeps isn=E2=80=99t going.
+
+  Note that  uses =
=E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D at the end of the =
relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost alwa=
ys elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equall=
y valid alternative, =E2=80=9Cku'o=E2=80=9D.
+

+
+

+  8. Relative clauses and complex sumti: =E2=80=9Cvu'o=E2=80=9D</ti=
tle>
+  <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+     vu'o    VUhO                relative clause attacher
+</programlisting>
+  <para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of=
 sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An=
 example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example1"/>8.1)   li pai noi na'e frinu namcu
+       The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number
+       The irrational number pi
+</programlisting>
+  <para>And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:=
</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example2"/>8.2)   lu mi klama le zarci li'u
+            noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra
+       [quote] I go to-the market [unquote]
+            incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.
+       =E2=80=9CI=E2=80=99m going to the market=E2=80=9D, which I=E2=80=99=
d said, is a sentence.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some ot=
her relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appe=
ar only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
+  <para>In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE =
or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6"=
/>) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the=
 qualified sumti, as in:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example3"/>8.3)   la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'=
u
+            cu zvati le vu kumfa
+       A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]
+            is-at the [far distance] room.
+       An old =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=E2=80=9D is in the far room.
+</programlisting>
+  <para><xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example3"/> is a bit comple=
x, and may need some picking apart. The quotation =E2=80=9Clu le xunre cmax=
irma li'u=E2=80=9D means the string of words =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=E2=80=9D=
. If the =E2=80=9Cla'e=E2=80=9D at the beginning of the sentence were omitt=
ed, <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example3"/> would claim that a c=
ertain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously=
 a string of words can=E2=80=99t be in a room! The effect of the =E2=80=9Cl=
a'e=E2=80=9D is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words them=
selves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (pres=
umably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of =E2=80=9CThe Red Pony=
=E2=80=9D is identified by the restrictive relative clause. <xref linkend=
=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example3"/> means exactly the same as:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example4"/>8.4)   la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u
+            poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa
+       A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote])
+            which is-old is-at the [far distance] room.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note t=
he required =E2=80=9Clu'u=E2=80=9D terminator, which prevents the relative =
clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to a=
n old quotation!</para>
+  <para>Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause appl=
y to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-l=
ogical connection (explained in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14"/>). For exa=
mple,</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example5"/>8.5)   la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le =
zdani
+       Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.
+       Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The incidental claim in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-exa=
mple5"/> is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a ma=
n, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to =E2=80=9Cla djor=
dj=E2=80=9D, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
+  <para>To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically co=
nnected sumti in <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example5"/>, a new =
cmavo is needed, =E2=80=9Cvu'o=E2=80=9D (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed bet=
ween the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence=
 of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however m=
any logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example6"/>8.6)   la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klam=
a le zdani
+       Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.
+       Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The presence of =E2=80=9Cvu'o=E2=80=9D here means that the relativ=
e clause =E2=80=9Cnoi nanmu=E2=80=9D extends to the entire logically connec=
ted sumti =E2=80=9Cla frank. .e la djordj.=E2=80=9D; in other words, both F=
rank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.=
</para>
+  <para>English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case o=
f <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example5"/> and <xref linkend=3D"c=
ll_chapter8-section8-example6"/> by making use of number: =E2=80=9Cwho is=
=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cwho are=E2=80=9D. Lojban doesn=E2=80=99t dis=
tinguish between singular and plural verbs: =E2=80=9Cnanmu=E2=80=9D can mea=
n =E2=80=9Cis a man=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Care men=E2=80=9D, so another means=
 is required. Furthermore, Lojban=E2=80=99s mechanism works correctly in ge=
neral: if =E2=80=9Cnanmu=E2=80=9D (meaning =E2=80=9Cis-a-man=E2=80=9D) were=
 replaced with =E2=80=9Cpu bajra=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cran=E2=80=9D), English =
would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
+  <programlisting><anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter=
8-section8-example7"/>8.7)   la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama =
le zdani
+       Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.
+       Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.
+
+<anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d8"/><anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example=
8"/>8.8)   la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani
+       (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.
+       Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.
+</programlisting>
+  <para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, =
one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
+</section>
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9">
+  <title>9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases
+  Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in . Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or=
 discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take=
 three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (cal=
led =E2=80=9Cvocative words=E2=80=9D; there can be one or many), followed b=
y either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:
+  9.1)   coi. frank.
+       Hello, Frank.
+
+9.2)   co'o xirma
+       Goodbye, horse.
+
+9.3)   fi'i la frank. .e la djordj.
+       Welcome, Frank and George!
+
+  Note that  says =
farewell to something which doesn=E2=80=99t really have to be a horse, some=
thing that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be =
something (a person, for example) who is named =E2=80=9CHorse=E2=80=9D. In =
a sense,  is ambiguous be=
tween =E2=80=9Cco'o le xirma=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cco'o la xirma=E2=80=9D, =
a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general:=
 saying =E2=80=9CGeorge=E2=80=9D doesn=E2=80=99t distinguish between the po=
ssible Georges.
+  Similarly,  can =
be thought of as an abbreviation of:
+  9.4)   coi la frank.
+       Hello, the-one-named =E2=80=9CFrank=E2=80=9D.
+
+  Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and c=
an appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end =
of some complete construct; or, as in  to , as sen=
tences by themselves.
+  As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of=
 sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in=
 various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the voca=
tive words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:
+  9.5)   coi. frank. poi xunre se bende
+       Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member
+       Hello, Frank from the Red Team!
+
+  The restrictive relative clause in  suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the=
 Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be=
 distinguished.
+  A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses ei=
ther before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are=
 some examples:
+  9.6)   co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma
+       Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse
+       Goodbye, horse where I am!
+
+9.7)   co'o xirma poi mi zvati
+       Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).
+
+   and  mean the same thing. In fact, relat=
ive clauses can appear in both places.
+

+
+

+  10. Relative clauses within relative clauses
+  For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a =
sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a r=
elative clause:
+  10.1)  le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu mas=
no
+       The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow.
+
+  However, an ambiguity can exist if =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D is used =
in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermo=
st sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inn=
er relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a s=
ubscript on =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D:
+  10.2)  le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zba=
su ke'a cu masno
+       The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.
+       The person who is in the room which he built is slow.
+
+  Here, the meaning of =E2=80=9CIT-sub-2=E2=80=9D is that sumti atta=
ched to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. T=
herefore, =E2=80=9Cke'axipa=E2=80=9D (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain =E2=
=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D.
+  Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in ), which is syntactically a series of sumti follow=
ed by the special cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'u=E2=80=9D, prefixed to the relative cl=
ause bridi:
+  10.3)  le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati l=
e kumfa
+            poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno
+       The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room
+            which  (IT =3D it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow.
+
+   is more verbos=
e than , but may be clea=
rer, since it explicitly spells out the two =E2=80=9Cke'a=E2=80=9D cmavo, e=
ach on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo =E2=80=9Cko'=
a=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cko'e=E2=80=9D (explained in Chapter ).
+

+
+

+  11. Index of relative clause cmavo
+  Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):
+  
+     noi     incidental clauses
+     poi     restrictive clauses
+     voi     restrictive clauses (non-veridical)
+
+  Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):
+  
+     goi     pro-sumti assignment
+     pe      restrictive association
+     ne      incidental association
+     po      extrinsic (alienable) possession
+     po'e    intrinsic (inalienable) possession
+     po'u    restrictive identification
+     no'u    incidental identification
+
+  Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):
+  
+     ke'a    pro-sumti for relativized sumti
+
+  Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):
+  
+     zi'e    joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti
+
+  Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):
+  
+     vu'o    causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti
+
+  Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):
+  
+     ku'o    relative clause elidable terminator
+     ge'u    relative phrase elidable terminator
+
+

+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c35e06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,889 @@
+
+  Chapter 9
+To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals</ti=
tle>
+
+
+<section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section1">
+  <title>1. Introductory
+  The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the spe=
aker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are exp=
ressed by Lojban grammatical forms called =E2=80=9Csumti=E2=80=9D; the rela=
tionship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a =E2=80=9Cselb=
ri=E2=80=9D.
+  The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but accordi=
ng to a systematic pattern known as the =E2=80=9Cplace structure=E2=80=9D o=
f the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place st=
ructure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. Th=
e place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the s=
umti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy t=
he places of the selbri.
+  For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-k=
nown place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be=
 looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any diction=
ary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in ); if the selbri is a tanru, the place struct=
ure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.
+  The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu =E2=80=
=9Cklama=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4
+            employing means of transport x5.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cx1 ... x5=E2=80=9D indicates that =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=
=80=9D is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned b=
y the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, rout=
e, means.
+  The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects o=
f the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic pla=
ce structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actua=
l experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevita=
bly be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.
+

+
+

+  2. Standard bridi form: =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     cu      CU                  prefixed selbri separator
+
+  The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as =
=E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the =
sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti =
in order after the selbri, thus:
+  2.1)   mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu l=
e karce
+       I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.
+
+  Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:
+  
+       x1  agent         mi
+       x2  destination   la bastn.
+       x3  origin        la .atlantas.
+       x4  route         le dargu
+       x5  means         le karce
+
+  (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn =
out to have the same meaning as ; this fact will not be reiterated.)
+  This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other p=
laces in natural order after the selbri, is called =E2=80=9Cstandard bridi =
form=E2=80=9D, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in ma=
in sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possi=
ble, such as:
+  2.2)   mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce c=
u klama
+       I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go.
+
+  Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it.=
 However, the same order is maintained.
+  Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selb=
ri and others after it:
+  2.3)   mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu l=
e karce
+       I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.
+
+  All of the variant forms in this section and following sections ca=
n be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out =
of their standard places. Thus,  places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end);  emphasizes =E2=80=9Cla bastn.=E2=
=80=9D, because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one c=
omponent may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic signif=
icance has yet been established for drastic reordering.
+  In all these examples, the cmavo =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D (belonging t=
o selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It i=
s never absolutely necessary to use =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D. However, providin=
g it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may mak=
e it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the=
 speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, tha=
t would otherwise be necessary.
+  The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in t=
he bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and=
 it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti =
is taken to have been omitted:
+  2.4)   klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karc=
e
+       A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.
+       Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.
+       Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!
+
+  Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context w=
ho is going to Boston. In , =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D is glossed =E2=80=9Ca goer=E2=80=9D rather than =
=E2=80=9Cgo=E2=80=9D because =E2=80=9CGo=E2=80=9D at the beginning of an En=
glish sentence would suggest a command: =E2=80=9CGo to Boston!=E2=80=9D.  is not a command, simply a=
 normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fa=
ll on the selbri =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is c=
alled an =E2=80=9Cobservative=E2=80=9D, because it usually calls on the lis=
tener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 =
place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes=
 it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.
+  (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put t=
he selbri first in the bridi: see .)
+  Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 plac=
e? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth sayin=
g.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:
+  2.5)   mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.
+       I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an uns=
pecified means).
+
+   has empty x4 an=
d x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transpo=
rt. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places arou=
nd it are to be specified: in
+  2.6)   mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce
+       I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.
+
+  =E2=80=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D occupies the x4 place, and therefore  means:
+  
+       I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.
+
+  This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker =
presumably meant is expressed by:
+  2.7)   mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.  zo'e le karc=
e
+       I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car=
.
+
+  Here the sumti cmavo =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D is used to explicitly =
fill the x4 place; =E2=80=9Czo'e=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cthe unspecified th=
ing=E2=80=9D and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the liste=
ner must infer the correct meaning from context.
+

+
+

+  3. Tagging places: FA
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     fa      FA                  tags x1 place
+     fe      FA                  tags x2 place
+     fi      FA                  tags x3 place
+     fo      FA                  tags x4 place
+     fu      FA                  tags x5 place
+     fi'a    FA                  place structure question
+
+  In sentences like , it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, esp=
ecially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions=
. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place =
structures. The five cmavo =E2=80=9Cfa=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfe=E2=80=9D, =E2=
=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cfo=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cfu=E2=80=9D may be in=
serted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:
+  3.1)   fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. f=
o le dargu fu le karce
+       x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D the car.
+       I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.
+
+  In , the tag =E2=
=80=9Cfu=E2=80=9D before =E2=80=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D clarifies that =E2=80=
=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D occupies the x5 place of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D. The =
use of =E2=80=9Cfu=E2=80=9D tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning o=
f the x5 place; it simply says that =E2=80=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D occupies it.=

+  In , the tags ar=
e overkill; they serve only to make  even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the us=
e of FA tags for clarification:
+  3.2)   fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma v=
au fi la nu,IORK.
+       x1=3D I go x2=3D (the house of me) which is-rural x3=3D New York.
+
+  In , the place s=
tructure of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D is as follows:
+  
+       x1  agent         mi
+       x2  destination   le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau
+       x3  origin        la nu,IORK.
+       x4  route         (empty)
+       x5  means         (empty)
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D tag serves to remind the hearer that what=
 follows is in the x3 place of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D; after listening to =
the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it=E2=80=99s easy to get lost.
+  Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which the=
y are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. =
Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desire=
d, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:
+  3.3)   klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la=
 bastn. fo le dargu
+       go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road.
+       Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.
+
+  Note that no =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D is permitted before the selbri i=
n , because =E2=80=9Ccu=
=E2=80=9D separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and  has no such sumti.
+  3.4)   fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la=
 bastn. cu klama fa mi
+       x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go x1=3DI
+       Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.
+
+   exhibits the re=
verse of the standard bridi form seen in  and , bu=
t still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however=
, producing:
+  3.5)   le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu k=
lama mi
+       The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.
+       The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, us=
ing me as a means of transport.
+
+  the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.
+  Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the=
 places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for =E2=80=9Czo=
'e=E2=80=9D or special rules about the x1 place:
+  3.6)   klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karc=
e
+       A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car.
+       A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.
+
+  Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged wi=
th =E2=80=9Cfa=E2=80=9D or =E2=80=9Cfo=E2=80=9D; in addition, the x2 and x3=
 places appear in reverse order.
+  What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is tha=
t after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numeric=
ally succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is =
skipped:
+  3.7)   klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu l=
e karce
+       Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D the car.
+       Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.
+
+  In , the =E2=80=
=9Cfa=E2=80=9D causes =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D to occupy the x1 place, and then=
 the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. Thi=
s is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while sp=
ecifying a sumti for the x1 place.
+  Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:
+  3.8)   mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn=
. le karce
+       I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car.
+       I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cmi=
=E2=80=9D occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the senten=
ce (and is before the selbri). The second sumti, =E2=80=9Cla .atlantas.=E2=
=80=9D, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag =E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D, an=
d =E2=80=9Cle dargu=E2=80=9D occupies the x4 place as a result of following=
 =E2=80=9Cla .atlantas.=E2=80=9D. Finally, =E2=80=9Cla bastn.=E2=80=9D occu=
pies the x2 place because of its tag =E2=80=9Cfe=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cle =
karce=E2=80=9D skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in =
the x5 place.
+  Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except wh=
en trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-langu=
age) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard=
 interpretation is possible.
+  It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the =
same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:
+  3.9)   [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina =
fe le zdani fe le zarci
+       [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to x2=3D the movie x2=3D the house x2=
=3D the office
+
+  may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the h=
ouse, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it=
 will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical=
 connectives (explained in ), to say such =
things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd =
enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivatio=
n for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this =
way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an =
explicit FA cmavo tagging it.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cfi'a=E2=80=9D also belongs to selma'o FA, and a=
llows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi contain=
ing =E2=80=9Cfi'a=E2=80=9D is a question, asking the listener to supply the=
 appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:=

+  3.10)  fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu
+       [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose
+       In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?
+       Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?
+
+  In , the speake=
r uses the selbri =E2=80=9Cdunda=E2=80=9D, whose place structure is:
+  
+       dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3
+
+  The tagged sumti =E2=80=9Cfi'a do=E2=80=9D indicates that the spea=
ker wishes to know whether the sumti =E2=80=9Cdo=E2=80=9D falls in the x1 o=
r the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by =E2=80=9Cle rozgu=E2=80=
=9D). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmav=
o: =E2=80=9Cfa=E2=80=9D if the listener is the giver, =E2=80=9Cfi=E2=80=9D =
if he/she is the receiver.
+  I have inserted the tag =E2=80=9Cfe=E2=80=9D in brackets into , but it is actually not nec=
essary, because =E2=80=9Cfi'a=E2=80=9D does not count as a numeric tag; the=
refore, =E2=80=9Cle vi rozgu=E2=80=9D would necessarily be in the x2 place =
even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.
+  There is also another member of FA, namely =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=80=9D, =
which is discussed in .
+

+
+

+  4. Conversion: SE
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     se      SE                  2nd place conversion
+     te      SE                  3rd place conversion
+     ve      SE                  4th place conversion
+     xe      SE                  5th place conversion
+
+  So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but =
the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The=
 conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, =
and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place=
 structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the numbe=
r and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exc=
hanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 de=
pends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D is =
used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.
+  Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alp=
habetical order. There is no =E2=80=9C1st place conversion=E2=80=9D cmavo, =
because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.
+  Here are the place structures of =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       x1 is the destination of x2=E2=80=99s going from x3 via x4 using x5
+
+  and =E2=80=9Cte klama=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5
+
+  and =E2=80=9Cve klama=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5
+
+  and =E2=80=9Cxe klama=E2=80=9D:
+  
+       x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5
+
+  Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be =
listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.
+  Consider the following pair of examples:
+  4.1)   la bastn. cu se klama mi
+       Boston is-the-destination of-me.
+       Boston is my destination.
+       Boston is gone to by me.
+
+4.2)   fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi
+       x2 =3D Boston  go  x1=3DI.
+       To Boston go I.
+
+   and  mean the same thing, in the sense t=
hat there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Bost=
on as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Stru=
cturally, however, they are quite different.  has =E2=80=9Cla bastn.=E2=80=9D in the x1 place and =
=E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D in the x2 place of the selbri =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=
=9D, and uses standard bridi order;  has =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D in the x1 place and =E2=80=9Cla bastn.=
=E2=80=9D in the x2 place of the selbri =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D, and uses a=
 non-standard order.
+  The most important use of conversion is in the construction of des=
criptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA=
 or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri=
. We have already seen the descriptions =E2=80=9Cle dargu=E2=80=9D and =E2=
=80=9Cle karce=E2=80=9D. To this we could add:
+  4.3)   le klama
+       the go-er, the one who goes
+
+  In every case, the description is about something which fits into =
the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination =
(that is, something fitting the x2 place of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D), we mu=
st convert the selbri to =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=9D, whose x1 place is a de=
stination. The result is
+  4.4)   le se klama
+       the destination gone to by someone
+
+  Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:
+  4.5)   le te klama
+       the origin of someone=E2=80=99s going
+
+4.6)   le ve klama
+       the route of someone=E2=80=99s going
+
+4.7)   le xe klama
+       the means by which someone goes
+
+   does not mean =
=E2=80=9Cthe route=E2=80=9D plain and simple: that is =E2=80=9Cle pluta=E2=
=80=9D, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone =
for an act of =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D; that is, a journey with origin and d=
estination. A =E2=80=9Croad=E2=80=9D on Mars, on which no one has traveled =
or is ever likely to, may be called =E2=80=9Cle pluta=E2=80=9D, but it cann=
ot be =E2=80=9Cle ve klama=E2=80=9D, since there exists no one for whom it =
is =E2=80=9Cle ve klama be fo da=E2=80=9D (the route taken in an actual jou=
rney by someone [da]).
+  When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla,=
 it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the follow=
ing brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is=
 necessary to enclose the tanru in =E2=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D brackets:<=
/para>
+  4.8)   mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti
+       I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing
+
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Cblanu zdani=E2=80=9D (blue house) =
is the same as that of =E2=80=9Czdani=E2=80=9D, by the rule given in . The place structure of =E2=80=9Czdani=
=E2=80=9D is:
+  
+       zdani: x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2
+
+  The place structure of =E2=80=9Cse ke blanu zdani [ke'e]=E2=80=9D =
is therefore:
+  
+       x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2
+
+  Consequently,  m=
eans:
+  
+       I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.
+
+  Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects whi=
ch are explained in .
+  It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; late=
r (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example,=
 the place structure of =E2=80=9Cse te klama=E2=80=9D is achieved by exchan=
ging the x1 and x2 place of =E2=80=9Cte klama=E2=80=9D, producing:
+  
+       x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using=
 x5
+
+  On the other hand, =E2=80=9Cte se klama=E2=80=9D has a place struc=
ture derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of =E2=80=9Cse klama=E2=80=
=9D:
+  
+       x1 is the origin of x2=E2=80=99s going to x3 via x4 using x5
+
+  which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this =
are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more ea=
sily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion i=
s ever needed in a description.
+  (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth =
noting that compound conversions of the form =E2=80=9Csetese=E2=80=9D, wher=
e the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given pl=
aces while leaving the others, including x1, alone: =E2=80=9Csetese=E2=80=
=9D (or equivalently =E2=80=9Ctesete=E2=80=9D) swap the x2 and x3 places, w=
hereas =E2=80=9Ctexete=E2=80=9D (or =E2=80=9Cxetexe=E2=80=9D) swap the x3 a=
nd x5 places.)
+

+
+

+  5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     fi'o    FIhO                modal place prefix
+     fe'u    FEhU                modal terminator
+
+  Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequa=
te to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu =E2=80=9Cviska=E2=
=80=9D, whose place structure is:
+  
+       viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3
+
+  Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska),=
 an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing pos=
sible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in ge=
neral, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.
+  Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to=
 someone who doesn=E2=80=99t know that. You might want to say, =E2=80=9CI s=
ee you with the left eye.=E2=80=9D There is no place in the place structure=
 of =E2=80=9Cviska=E2=80=9D such as =E2=80=9Cwith eye x4=E2=80=9D or the li=
ke. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing =
the relationship:
+  5.1)   mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle
+       I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing
+       I see you with the left eye.
+
+  The three-place relation =E2=80=9Cviska=E2=80=9D has now acquired =
a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the c=
mavo =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this=
 case the gismu =E2=80=9Ckanla=E2=80=9D, forms a tag which is prefixed to t=
he sumti filling the new place, namely =E2=80=9Cle zunle=E2=80=9D. The sema=
ntics of =E2=80=9Cfi'o kanla le zunle=E2=80=9D is that =E2=80=9Cle zunle=E2=
=80=9D fills the x1 place of =E2=80=9Ckanla=E2=80=9D, whose place structure=
 is
+  
+       kanla: x1 is an/the eye of body x2
+
+  Thus =E2=80=9Cle zunle=E2=80=9D is an eye. The x2 place of =E2=80=
=9Ckanla=E2=80=9D is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It =
is important to remember that even though =E2=80=9Cle zunle=E2=80=9D is pla=
ced following =E2=80=9Cfi'o kanla=E2=80=9D, semantically it belongs in the =
x1 place of =E2=80=9Ckanla=E2=80=9D. The selbri may be terminated with =E2=
=80=9Cfe'u=E2=80=9D (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rare=
ly required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting =E2=
=80=9Cfe'u=E2=80=9D in that case would make the connective affect the selbr=
i).
+  The term for such an added place is a =E2=80=9Cmodal place=E2=80=
=9D, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the wo=
rd =E2=80=9Cmodal=E2=80=9D is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not =
agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too=
 entrenched to change easily.) The =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D construction mark=
ing a modal place is called a =E2=80=9Cmodal tag=E2=80=9D, and the sumti wh=
ich follows it a =E2=80=9Cmodal sumti=E2=80=9D; the purely Lojban terms =E2=
=80=9Csumti tcita=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cseltcita sumti=E2=80=9D, respective=
ly, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the b=
ridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning=
 unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmav=
o.
+  Consider  again.=
 Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker=E2=80=99s lef=
t eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes =E2=80=
=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D, whose place structure is
+  
+       pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
+
+  and we can rewrite  as
+  5.2)   mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla
+       I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.
+       I see you using my left eye.
+
+  Here the selbri belonging to the modal is =E2=80=9Cse pilno=E2=80=
=9D. The conversion of =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D is necessary in order to get=
 the =E2=80=9Ctool=E2=80=9D place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal s=
umti. The =E2=80=9Ctool user=E2=80=9D place is the x2 of =E2=80=9Cse pilno=
=E2=80=9D (because it is the x1 of =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D) and remains uns=
pecified. The tag =E2=80=9Cfi'o pilno=E2=80=9D would mean =E2=80=9Cwith too=
l user=E2=80=9D, leaving the tool unspecified.
+

+
+

+  6. Modal tags: BAI
+  There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constru=
cting modal tags. In particular, =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D is one of them. Th=
e place structure of =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D is:
+  
+       pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
+
+  and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to speci=
fy a tool. Having to say =E2=80=9Cfi'o se pilno=E2=80=9D frequently would m=
ake many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviat=
ion is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo =E2=80=9Csepi'o=
=E2=80=9D.
+  Here =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D is used before a cmavo, namely =E2=80=9C=
pi'o=E2=80=9D, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, whic=
h belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of =E2=80=9Cfi'o piln=
o fe'u=E2=80=9D. Since what we want is a tag based on =E2=80=9Cse pilno=E2=
=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D =E2=80=94 the tool, not the tool=
 user =E2=80=94 the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE c=
mavo.  may therefore be r=
ewritten as:
+  6.1)   mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla
+       I see you with-tool: the left eye
+       I see you using my left eye.
+
+  The compound cmavo =E2=80=9Csepi'o=E2=80=9D is much shorter than =
=E2=80=9Cfi'o se pilno [fe'u]=E2=80=9D and can be thought of as a single wo=
rd meaning =E2=80=9Cwith-tool=E2=80=9D. The modal tag =E2=80=9Cpi'o=E2=80=
=9D, with no =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D, similarly means =E2=80=9Cwith-tool-user=
=E2=80=9D, probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism wi=
th the place structure of =E2=80=9Cpilno=E2=80=9D makes the additional syll=
able worthwhile.
+  Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for =
example, =E2=80=9Cka'a=E2=80=9D, the BAI corresponding to the gismu =E2=80=
=9Cklama=E2=80=9D, has five usable forms corresponding to the five places o=
f =E2=80=9Cklama=E2=80=9D respectively:
+  
+       ka'a        with-goer
+       seka'a      with-destination
+       teka'a      with-origin
+       veka'a      with-route
+       xeka'a      with-means-of-transport
+
+  Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, a=
s in the following examples:
+  6.2)   la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi
+       Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.
+       I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.
+
+  ( may seem a bit=
 strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri, =E2=80=
=9Cvecnu=E2=80=9D in this case, may have a place added to it which might ot=
herwise seem utterly unrelated.)
+  6.3)   mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd.
+       I walk with-destination Bradford.
+       I am walking to Bradford.
+
+6.4)   bloti teka'a la nu,IORK.
+       [Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York
+       A boat from New York!
+
+6.5)   do bajra veka'a lo djine
+       You run with-route a circle.
+       You are running in circles.
+
+6.6)   mi citka xeka'a le vinji
+       I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.
+       I eat in the airplane.
+
+  There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu =
that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased to=
ward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corre=
sponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as =E2=80=9Cwi=
th=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cwithout=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cby means of=E2=80=9D. =
The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, bec=
ause their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding =
gismu.
+  All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, wh=
ere the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs =
are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in  shows the exceptions.
+  There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu=
: =E2=80=9Cdo'e=E2=80=9D. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,=
 but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext=
ra place:
+  6.7)   lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu
+       Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.
+       A man of the north came to the city.
+
+  Here =E2=80=9Cle berti=E2=80=9D is provided as a modal place of th=
e selbri =E2=80=9Cnanmu=E2=80=9D, but its exact significance is vague, and =
is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English prepositio=
n =E2=80=9Cof=E2=80=9D.  =
also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=
=9D. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires =
a modal place; this and other uses of =E2=80=9Cbe=E2=80=9D are more fully e=
xplained in .
+

+
+

+  7. Modal sentence connection: the causals
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     ri'a    BAI                 rinka modal: physical cause
+     ki'u    BAI                 krinu modal: justification
+     mu'i    BAI                 mukti modal: motivation
+     ni'i    BAI                 nibli modal: logical entailment
+
+  This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the gr=
ammatical construct called =E2=80=9Cmodal sentence connection=E2=80=9D. On =
the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (=
There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications: =E2=80=9Cja'e=E2=
=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cwith result=E2=80=9D, and so =E2=80=9Cseja'e=E2=80=9D=
 means =E2=80=9Cwith cause of unspecified nature=E2=80=9D; likewise, =E2=80=
=9Cgau=E2=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cwith agent=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctezu'e=E2=
=80=9D means =E2=80=9Cwith purpose=E2=80=9D. These other modal cmavo will n=
ot be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence co=
nnection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)
+  There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different ve=
rsions of the relationships lumped in English as =E2=80=9Ccausal=E2=80=9D:<=
/para>
+  
+       rinka: event x1 physically causes event x2
+       krinu: event x1 is the justification for event x2
+       mukti: event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2
+       nibli: event x1 logically entails event x2
+
+  Each of these gismu has a related modal: =E2=80=9Cri'a=E2=80=9D, =
=E2=80=9Cki'u=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cmu'i=E2=80=9D, and =E2=80=9Cni'i=E2=80=9D =
respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various cau=
sal sentences with different implications:
+  7.1)   le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi=
 le spati
+       The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water give to =
the plant.
+       The plant grows because you water it.
+
+7.2)   la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga
+       John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of John wins=
.
+       John got the first prize because he won.
+
+7.3)   mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta
+       I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book.
+       I took the book because I saw it.
+
+7.4)   la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna
+       Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is-human.
+       Socrates died because Socrates is human.
+
+  In  through , the same English word =E2=
=80=9Cbecause=E2=80=9D is used to translate all four modals, but the types =
of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on , and explore some variations on i=
t.
+  As written,  cla=
ims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an=
 abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in ) without actually making a claim. If I express , I have said that the plant in fact grows, =
but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a caus=
al relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetr=
ical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only =
mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main=
 bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:
+  7.5)   do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri ban=
ro
+       You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.
+       You water the plant; therefore, it grows.
+
+  with the =E2=80=9Cri'a=E2=80=9D changed to =E2=80=9Cseri'a=E2=80=
=9D. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:
+  7.6)   le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka
+             le nu le spati cu banro
+       The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes
+             the event-of (the plant grows).
+       Your watering the plant causes its growth.
+       If you water the plant, then it grows.
+
+  does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relations=
hip between them. So in ,=
 I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it.=
 The second colloquial translation shows a form of =E2=80=9Cif-then=E2=80=
=9D in English quite distinct from the logical connective =E2=80=9Cif-then=
=E2=80=9D explained in .
+  Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relat=
ionship? We can use one of two methods:
+  7.7)   le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi l=
e spati
+       The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant.
+       The plant grows because you water it.
+
+7.8)   do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro
+       You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows.
+       You water the plant; therefore, it grows.
+
+  The compound cmavo =E2=80=9C.iri'abo=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C.iseri'=
abo=E2=80=9D serve to connect two bridi, as the initial =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=
=9D indicates. The final =E2=80=9Cbo=E2=80=9D is necessary to prevent the m=
odal from =E2=80=9Ctaking over=E2=80=9D the following sumti. If the =E2=80=
=9Cbo=E2=80=9D were omitted from  we would have:
+  7.9)   le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le=
 spati
+       The plant grows.  Because of you, [something] water-gives to the pl=
ant.
+       The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.
+
+  Because =E2=80=9Cri'a do=E2=80=9D is a modal sumti in , there is no longer an explicit sumt=
i in the x1 place of =E2=80=9Cdjacu dunda=E2=80=9D, and the translation mus=
t be changed.
+  The effect of sentences like  and  is tha=
t the modal, =E2=80=9Cri'a=E2=80=9D in this example, no longer modifies an =
explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full b=
ridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fill=
s the x2 place of the gismu =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D; it specifies an event =
which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant g=
rows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relati=
onship between the two.
+  In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of=
 the type exemplified by =
 and . However, it makes =
little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstract=
ions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective=
 =E2=80=9C.ibaubo=E2=80=9D is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imag=
ine any two sentences which could be connected by an =E2=80=9Cin-language=
=E2=80=9D modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an even=
t can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.
+

+
+

+  8. Other modal connections
+  Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connect=
ion has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See  for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)  exemplifies only afterthought modal conn=
ection, illustrated here by:
+  8.1)   mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri
+       I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.
+       Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.
+       I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.
+
+  An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo=
 (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being conne=
cted. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct =
and between the two: the use of =E2=80=9Cboth=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cand=E2=
=80=9D in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connecti=
on (though not a modal one).
+  To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place th=
e modal plus =E2=80=9Cgi=E2=80=9D before the first bridi, and =E2=80=9Cgi=
=E2=80=9D between the two. No =E2=80=9C.i=E2=80=9D is used within the const=
ruct. The forethought equivalent of  is:
+  8.2)   ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu
+       With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of water.
+       Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.
+
+  Note that the cause, the x1 of =E2=80=9Crinka=E2=80=9D is now plac=
ed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of , we could say:
+  8.3)   seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kab=
ri
+       With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cup.
+
+  In English, the sentence =E2=80=9C*Therefore I grasp the water, I =
grasp the cup=E2=80=9D is ungrammatical, because =E2=80=9Ctherefore=E2=80=
=9D is not grammatically equivalent to =E2=80=9Cbecause=E2=80=9D. In Lojban=
, =E2=80=9Cseri'agi=E2=80=9D can be used just like =E2=80=9Cri'agi=E2=80=9D=
.
+  When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more e=
lements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed fo=
rms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both b=
ridi completely stated.
+  When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examp=
les 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:
+  8.4)   mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu
+       I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water.
+
+   means exactly t=
he same as  through , but there is no idiomatic En=
glish translation that will distinguish it from them.
+  If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, t=
hen a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in , but are essentially a mechanism for creating co=
nnections between multiple sumti simultaneously.
+  8.5)   mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. d=
unda lei jdini mi
+       I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of money t=
o-me.
+       I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.
+
+  means the same as:
+  8.6)   nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. l=
ei jdini mi nu'u dunda
+       [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me [end=
] gives.
+
+  Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because th=
e two bridi share only their selbri.
+  There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which d=
iffer only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal co=
nnection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in , but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional=
 sumti following it.  is =
suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:
+  8.7)   mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta
+       I, because saw the book, took the book.
+
+  Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even p=
ossible to shorten  furth=
er to:
+  8.8)   mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta
+       I because saw, therefore took, the book.
+
+  where =E2=80=9Cle cukta=E2=80=9D is set off by the non-elidable =
=E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D and is made to belong to both bridi-tails =E2=80=94 s=
ee  for more explanations.
+  Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing=
 out that  can be further=
 rearranged to:
+  8.9)   mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna
+       I, the book, because saw, therefore took.
+
+  which doesn=E2=80=99t require the extra =E2=80=9Cvau=E2=80=9D; all=
 sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.
+  Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.
+  8.10)  li ny. du li vo
+             .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re
+       the number n =3D the-number 4.
+             Entailed-by the-number n =3D the-number =
2 + 2.
+       n =3D 4 because n =3D 2 +=
 2.
+
+  can be reduced to:
+  8.11)  li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi=
 vo
+       the-number n =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) =
therefore 4.
+       n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cvei=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D represe=
nt mathematical parentheses, and are required so that =E2=80=9Cni'igi=E2=80=
=9D affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the fi=
rst =E2=80=9Cre=E2=80=9D. (The right parenthesis, =E2=80=9Cve'o=E2=80=9D, i=
s an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does  justice.
+  Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is n=
ot possible to form modal connectives using the =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus=
-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be com=
pounded as shown in  and .
+

+
+

+  9. Modal selbri
+  Consider the example:
+  9.1)   mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.
+       I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.
+       I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.
+
+   has two modal s=
umti, using the modals =E2=80=9Cbau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cbai=E2=80=9D. Sup=
pose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who=E2=
=80=99s doing the compelling. We can simplify  to:
+  9.2)   mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku].
+       I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion.
+
+  In , the elidabl=
e terminator =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D has taken the place of the sumti which wo=
uld normally follow =E2=80=9Cbai=E2=80=9D. Alternatively, we could specify =
the one who compels but keep the language vague:
+  9.3)   mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank.
+       I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank.
+
+  We are also free to move the modal-plus-=E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D aroun=
d the bridi:
+  9.4)   bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla
+       In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.
+
+  An alternative to using =E2=80=9Cku=E2=80=9D is to place the modal=
 cmavo right before the selbri, following the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D which of=
ten appears there. When a modal is present, the =E2=80=9Ccu=E2=80=9D is alm=
ost never necessary.
+  9.5)   mi bai tavla bau la lojban.
+       I compelledly speak in-language Lojban.
+
+  In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, alth=
ough grammatically it is quite distinct.  is very similar in meaning to:
+  9.6)   mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban.
+       I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban.
+
+  The =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D conversion is needed because =E2=80=9Cbap=
li tavla=E2=80=9D would be a =E2=80=9Ccompeller type of speaker=E2=80=9D ra=
ther than a =E2=80=9Ccompelled (by someone) type of speaker=E2=80=9D, which=
 is what a =E2=80=9Cbai tavla=E2=80=9D is.
+  If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using =E2=80=9Cfi'o=
=E2=80=9D, then =E2=80=9Cfe'u=E2=80=9D is required to prevent the main selb=
ri and the modal selbri from colliding:
+  9.7)   mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do
+       I with-eye see you.
+       I see you with my eye(s).
+
+  There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a p=
air of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logic=
al, or modal connection (see  for more on =
logical and non-logical connections):
+  9.8)   mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli =
[ke'e]
+       I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).
+       Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.
+
+  Here the =E2=80=9Cbai=E2=80=9D is spread over both =E2=80=9Cklama =
le zarci=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ccadzu le bisli=E2=80=9D, and the =E2=80=9Cge=
 ... gi=E2=80=9D represents the logical connection =E2=80=9Cboth-and=E2=80=
=9D between the two.
+  Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have=
 been combined with =E2=80=9Ctu'e=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Ctu'u=E2=80=9D, whic=
h are explained in more detail in :
+  9.9)   bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisl=
i [tu'u]
+       Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice [end=
].
+
+  means the same thing as .
+  Note: Either BAI modals or =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus-selbri moda=
ls may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this sect=
ion.
+

+
+

+  10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     pe      GOI                 restrictive relative phrase
+     ne      GOI                 incidental relative phrase
+     mau     BAI                 zmadu modal
+     me'a    BAI                 mleca modal
+
+  Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in =
. However, there is a construction which co=
mbines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Co=
nsider the following examples of relative clauses:
+  10.1)  la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubn=
stain. cu se nelci mi
+       The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-b=
y me.
+
+10.2)  la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi
+       The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.
+
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cl=
a .apasionatas.=E2=80=9D refers to a particular performance of the sonata, =
namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause =E2=
=80=9Cpoi se cusku=E2=80=9D uses the cmavo =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D (of selma'=
o NOI) to restrict the meaning of =E2=80=9Cla .apasionatas=E2=80=9D to the =
performance in question.
+  In , however, =
=E2=80=9Cla .apasionatas.=E2=80=9D refers to the sonata as a whole, and the=
 information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cm=
avo =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=80=9D (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental na=
ture of this relationship.
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cpe=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cne=E2=80=9D (of selma'=
o GOI) are roughly equivalent to =E2=80=9Cpoi=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cnoi=E2=
=80=9D respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We c=
an abbreviate  and  to:
+  10.3)  la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se n=
elci mi
+       The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.
+
+10.4)  la .apasionatas ne la betovn. se nelci mi
+       The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me.
+
+  Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we ca=
n tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (i=
n ) and Beethoven (in ), and that the relationsh=
ips are respectively restrictive and incidental.
+  It happens that both =E2=80=9Ccusku=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cfinti=E2=
=80=9D have BAI cmavo, namely =E2=80=9Ccu'u=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cfi'e=E2=
=80=9D. We can recast  a=
nd  as:
+  10.5)  la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain.=
 cu se nelci mi
+       The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.
+
+10.6)  la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi
+       The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.
+
+   and  have the full semantic content of=
  and  respectively.
+  Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo =E2=80=9C=
mau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cme'a=E2=80=9D, which are based on the comparative=
 gismu =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D (more than) and =E2=80=9Cmleca=E2=80=9D (les=
s than) respectively. The place structures are:
+  
+       zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
+       mleca: x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
+
+  Here are some examples:
+  10.7)  la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris=
.
+       Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.
+       Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.
+
+   requires that =
Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty excee=
ds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form =E2=80=9Csemau=E2=80=
=9D because the x2 place of =E2=80=9Czmadu=E2=80=9D is the basis for compar=
ison: in this case, Frank=E2=80=99s liking for Mary.
+  10.8)  la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la beti=
s.
+       Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.
+       Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.
+
+  Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; t=
he information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to re=
phrase  using =E2=80=9Cm=
e'a=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=80=9Csemau=E2=80=9D, and  using =E2=80=9Cmau=E2=80=9D rather than =E2=
=80=9Cseme'a=E2=80=9D, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Lik=
e many BAI cmavo, =E2=80=9Cmau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cme'a=E2=80=9D are more=
 useful when converted with =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D.
+  If the =E2=80=9Cne=E2=80=9D were omitted in  and , the modal sumti (=E2=80=9Cla meiris.=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cla b=
etis.=E2=80=9D respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole,=
 producing a very different translation.  would become:
+  10.9)  la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.
+       Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.
+       Frank=E2=80=99s liking Mary is less than Betty.
+
+  which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.<=
/para>
+  Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but=
 says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he m=
ay like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, a=
s:
+  10.10) le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu
+            le ni la frank. nelci la meiris.
+       The quantity-of Frank=E2=80=99s liking Betty is-more-than
+            the quantity-of Frank=E2=80=99s liking Mary.
+
+  The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many m=
odals other than =E2=80=9Csemau=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cseme'a=E2=80=9D. Some=
 other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are: =E2=80=
=9Cseba'i=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cinstead of=E2=80=9D), =E2=80=9Cci'u=E2=80=9D (=
=E2=80=9Con scale=E2=80=9D), =E2=80=9Cde'i=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cdated=E2=80=
=9D), =E2=80=9Cdu'i=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cas much as=E2=80=9D). Some BAI tags =
can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others s=
eem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefuln=
ess of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers =
of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.
+  Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable =
both to BAI modals and to =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus-selbri modals.
+

+
+

+  11. Mixed modal connection
+  It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in ) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously=
 asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the se=
ntences:
+  11.1)  mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein.
+       I like you. And I like Jane.
+
+  which is a logical connection, and
+  11.2)  mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein.
+       I like you. Justified-by I like Jane.
+
+  The meanings of  and  can be simultaneo=
usly expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:
+  11.3)  mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.
+       I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.
+
+  Here the two sentences =E2=80=9Cmi nelci do=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9C=
mi nelci la djein.=E2=80=9D are simultaneously asserted, their logical conn=
ection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical =
connective =E2=80=9Cje=E2=80=9D comes before the modal =E2=80=9Cki'u=E2=80=
=9D in all such mixed connections.
+  Since =E2=80=9Cmi nelci do=E2=80=9D and =E2=80=9Cmi nelci la djein=
.=E2=80=9D differ only in the final sumti, we can transform  into a mixed sumti connection:
+  11.4)  mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.
+       I like you and/because Jane.
+
+  Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connective=
s are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical o=
r modal.
+  There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical conn=
ectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a=
 bridi-tail connected version of  would be:
+  11.5)  mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.
+       I like you and/because like Jane.
+
+  The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.
+  11.6)   mi bevri le dakli
+             .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'ibo mi bevri le ml=
atu [tu'u]
+       I carry the sack.
+             And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [equal] I carry the cat=
.)
+       I carry the sack.
+             As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.
+
+11.7)  mi bevri le dakli
+             gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevri le mlatu [ke'e]
+       I carry the sack
+             and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal] carry the cat).
+       I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equ=
ally.
+
+11.8)  mi bevri le dakli
+             .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e]
+       I carry the sack
+             and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the dog).
+       I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.
+
+  In , the =E2=80=
=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D brackets are the equivalent of the =E2=80=9Cke ..=
. ke'e=E2=80=9D brackets in  and , because =E2=
=80=9Cke ... ke'e=E2=80=9D cannot extend across more than one sentence. It =
would also be possible to change the =E2=80=9C.ijeseri'abo=E2=80=9D to =E2=
=80=9C.ije seri'a=E2=80=9D, which would show that the =E2=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'=
u=E2=80=9D portion was an effect, but would not pin down the =E2=80=9Cmi be=
vri le dakli=E2=80=9D portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a t=
ense; see ) to modify the whole of a =E2=
=80=9Ctu'e ... tu'u=E2=80=9D construct.
+  Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable =
both to BAI modals and to =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus-selbri modals.
+

+
+

+  12. Modal conversion: JAI
+  The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
+  
+     jai     JAI                 modal conversion
+     fai     FA                  modal place structure tag
+
+  So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the additi=
on of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. How=
ever, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than ex=
changing two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. =
For example,
+  12.1)  mi cusku bau la lojban.
+       I express [something] in-language Lojban.
+
+  has an explicit x1 place occupied by =E2=80=9Cmi=E2=80=9D and an e=
xplicit =E2=80=9Cbau=E2=80=9D place occupied by =E2=80=9Cla lojban.=E2=80=
=9D To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of=
 =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, =
the modal conversion of =
 is:
+  12.2)  la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi
+       Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.
+
+  In , the modal =
place =E2=80=9Cla lojban.=E2=80=9D has become the x1 place of the new selbr=
i =E2=80=9Cjai bau cusku=E2=80=9D. What has happened to the old x1 place? T=
here is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special =E2=
=80=9Cunnumbered place=E2=80=9D marked by the tag =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=80=9D of =
selma'o FA.
+  Note: For the purposes of place numbering, =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=80=9D b=
ehaves like =E2=80=9Cfi'a=E2=80=9D; it does not affect the numbering of the=
 other places around it.
+  Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in =
descriptions. We may refer to =E2=80=9Cthe language of an expression=E2=80=
=9D as =E2=80=9Cle jai bau cusku=E2=80=9D, for example.
+  In addition, it is grammatical to use =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D withou=
t a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained =
here for completeness. The effect of =E2=80=9Cjai=E2=80=9D by itself is to =
send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the =E2=80=9Cfai=E2=
=80=9D position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi =
into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more deta=
il in . The following two examples mean th=
e same thing:
+  12.3)  le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi=
 viska le cukta
+       The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of (I see =
the book).
+       My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.
+
+12.4)  mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei
+             [fai le nu mi lebna le cukta]
+       I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book)
+             [namely, the event-of (I take the book)]
+       I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.
+
+  , with the brac=
keted part omitted, allows us to say that =E2=80=9CI am justified=E2=80=9D =
whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vag=
ue, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.
+  Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable =
both to BAI modals and to =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus-selbri modals.
+

+
+

+  13. Modal negation
+  Negation is explained in detail in . There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar neg=
ation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negat=
ion says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple ex=
ample is the difference between =E2=80=9CJohn didn=E2=80=99t go to Paris=E2=
=80=9D (contradictory negation) and =E2=80=9CJohn went to (somewhere) other=
 than Paris=E2=80=9D (scalar negation).
+  Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appendi=
ng =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of moda=
ls with =E2=80=9C-nai=E2=80=9D is to deny a causal relationship:
+  13.1)  mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi
+       I like you, but not because you like me.
+
+   denies that th=
e relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me=
 (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whethe=
r you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motiv=
ation for my liking you.
+  Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing =E2=80=9Cna'e=E2=80=9D (o=
f selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.
+  13.2)  le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu
+             do djacu dunda fi le spati
+       The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of
+             you water-give to the plant.
+
+   says that the =
relationship between the plant=E2=80=99s growth and your watering it is not=
 one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not s=
omething which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relati=
onship between watering and growth exists, but  doesn=E2=80=99t say what it is (presumably =E2=80=
=9Cri'a=E2=80=9D).
+  Note: Modals made with =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D plus a selbri cannot=
 be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradi=
ctory or with scalar negation, however.
+

+
+

+  14. Sticky modals
+  The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
+  
+     ki      KI                  stickiness flag
+
+  Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which=
 they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this =E2=80=9Cstickiness=
=E2=80=9D is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if i=
t appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by foll=
owing the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo =E2=80=9Cki=E2=
=80=9D of selma'o KI. For example,
+  14.1)  mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank=
.
+            .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.
+       I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank.
+            Afterward, I speak in-language English.
+
+  means the same as:
+  14.2)  mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.
+       .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.
+             bai tu'a la frank.
+       I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank.
+            Afterward, I speak in-language English
+                 compelled-by some-property-of Frank.
+
+  In , =E2=80=9Cb=
ai=E2=80=9D is made sticky, and so Frank=E2=80=99s compelling is made appli=
cable to every following bridi. =E2=80=9Cbau=E2=80=9D is not sticky, and so=
 the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a parti=
cular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.
+  To cancel stickiness, use the form =E2=80=9CBAI ki ku=E2=80=9D, wh=
ich stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the ne=
xt bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for =
any sticky tenses that exist (=E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D is used for both modals =
and tenses), use =E2=80=9Cki=E2=80=9D by itself, either before the selbri o=
r (in the form =E2=80=9Cki ku=E2=80=9D) anywhere in the bridi:
+  14.3)  mi ki tavla
+       I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).
+
+  Note: Modals made with =E2=80=9Cfi'o=E2=80=9D-plus-selbri cannot b=
e made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.
+

+
+

+  15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals
+  Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in . For the purposes of this chapter, it suffic=
es to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two brid=
i which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a conn=
ective between the modals. As a result,  and  me=
an the same thing:
+  15.1)  la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la fran=
k. bajra teka'a le zdani
+       Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-origin t=
he house.
+       Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.
+
+15.2)  la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani
+       Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house.
+       Frank runs to and from the house.
+
+  Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of runn=
ing is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of runn=
ing, you can use the form:
+  15.3)  la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a =
le zdani
+       Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-h=
ouse.
+
+  The cmavo =E2=80=9Cce'e=E2=80=9D creates a termset containing two =
terms (termsets are explained in  and ). When a termset contains more than one modal=
 tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are der=
ived from a common event.
+

+
+

+  16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms
+  There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=E2=80=9C=
do'e=E2=80=9D, discussed in ), are=
 derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely r=
egular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corres=
ponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BA=
I cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table=
 below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the=
 exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.=

+  
+   cmavo    gismu        comments
+
+    Monosyllables of the form CVV:
+
+    bai     bapli
+    bau     bangu
+    cau     claxu
+    fau     fasnu
+    gau     gasnu
+    kai     ckaji        uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+    mau     zmadu        uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+    koi     korbi
+    rai     traji        uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+    sau     sarcu
+    tai     tamsmi       based on lujvo, not gismu
+    zau     zanru
+
+    Second consonant of the gismu as the C:
+        (the gismu is always of the form CCVCV)
+
+    ga'a    zgana
+    kai     ckaji        has CVV form (monosyllable)
+    ki'i    ckini
+    la'u    klani        has irregular 2nd V
+    le'a    klesi        has irregular 2nd V
+    mau     zmadu        has CVV form (monosyllable)
+    me'e    cmene
+    ra'a    srana
+    ra'i    krasi
+    rai     traji        has CVV form (monosyllable)
+    ti'i    stidi
+    tu'i    stuzi
+
+    Irregular 2nd V:
+
+    fi'e    finti
+    la'u    klani        uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+    le'a    klesi        uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+    ma'e    marji
+    mu'u    mupli
+    ti'u    tcika
+    va'o    vanbi
+
+    Special cases:
+
+    ri'i    lifri        uses 3rd consonant of gismu
+    tai     tamsmi       based on lujvo, not gismu
+    va'u    xamgu        CV'V cmavo can=E2=80=99t begin with =E2=80=9Cx=E2=
=80=9D
+
+

+
+

+  17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</t=
itle>
+  <para>The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, =
and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second colu=
mn is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase whic=
h indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its m=
eaning when preceded by =E2=80=9Cse=E2=80=9D.</para>
+  <para>For those cmavo with meaningful =E2=80=9Cte=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cve=
=E2=80=9D, and even =E2=80=9Cxe=E2=80=9D conversions (depending on the numb=
er of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on o=
ne or two extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.</para>
+  <para>It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu con=
trol the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only=
 suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify wha=
t the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para>
+  <programlisting>
+    ba'i    basti   replaced by                    instead of
+    bai     bapli   compelled by                   compelling
+    bau     bangu   in language                    in language of
+    be'i    benji   sent by                        transmitting
+                    te=3Dsent to                     ve=3Dwith transmit or=
igin
+                    xe=3Dtransmitted via
+    ca'i    catni   by authority of                with authority over
+    cau     claxu   lacked by                      without
+    ci'e    ciste   in system                      with system function
+                    te=3Dof system components
+    ci'o    cinmo   felt by                        feeling emotion
+    ci'u    ckilu   on the scale                   on scale measuring
+    cu'u    cusku   as said by                     expressing
+                    te=3Das told to                  ve=3Dexpressed in med=
ium
+    de'i    detri   dated                          on the same date as
+    di'o    diklo   at the locus of                at specific locus
+    do'e    -----   vaguely related to
+    du'i    dunli   as much as                     equal to
+    du'o    djuno   according to                   knowing facts
+                    te=3Dknowing about
+                    ve=3Dunder epistemology
+    fa'e    fatne   reverse of                     in reversal of
+    fau     fasnu   in the event of
+    fi'e    finti   created by                     creating work
+                    te=3Dcreated                     for purpose
+    ga'a    zgana   to observer                    observing
+                    te=3Dobserved                    by means
+                    ve=3Dobserved under conditions
+    gau     gasnu   with agent                     as agent in doing
+    ja'e    jalge   resulting in                   results because of
+    ja'i    javni   by rule                        by rule prescribing
+    ji'e    jimte   up to limit                    as a limit of
+    ji'o    jitro   under direction                controlling
+    ji'u    jicmu   based on                       supporting
+    ka'a    klama   gone to by                     with destination
+                    te=3Dwith origin                 ve=3Dvia route
+                    xe=3Dby transport mode
+    ka'i    krati   represented by                 on behalf of
+    kai     ckaji   characterizing                 with property
+    ki'i    ckini   as relation of                 related to
+                    te=3Dwith relation
+    ki'u    krinu   justified by                   with justified result
+    koi     korbi   bounded by                     as boundary of
+                    te=3Dbordering
+    ku'u    kulnu   in culture                     in culture of
+    la'u    klani   as quantity of                 in quantity
+    le'a    klesi   in category                    as category of
+                    te=3Ddefined by quality
+    li'e    lidne   led by                         leading
+    ma'e    marji   of material                    made from material
+                    te=3Din material form of
+    ma'i    manri   in reference frame             as a standard for
+    mau     zmadu   exceeded by                    more than
+    me'a    mleca   undercut by                    less than
+    me'e    cmene   with name                      as a name for
+                    te=3Das a name to
+    mu'i    mukti   motivated by                   motive therefore
+    mu'u    mupli   exemplified by                 as an example of
+    ni'i    nibli   entailed by                    entails
+    pa'a    panra   in addition to                 similar to
+                    te=3Dsimilar in pattern
+                    ve=3Dsimilar by standard
+    pa'u    pagbu   with component                 as a part of
+    pi'o    pilno   used by                        using tool
+    po'i    porsi   in the sequence                sequenced by rule
+    pu'a    pluka   pleased by                     in order to please
+    pu'e    pruce   by process                     processing from
+                    te=3Dprocessing into
+                    ve=3Dpassing through stages
+    ra'a    srana   pertained to by concerning
+    ra'i    krasi   from source as an origin of
+    rai     traji   with superlative               superlative in
+                    te=3Dat extreme                  ve=3Dsuperlative amon=
g
+    ri'a    rinka   caused by                      causing
+    ri'i    lifri   experienced by                 experiencing
+    sau     sarcu   requiring                      necessarily for
+                    te=3Dnecessarily under conditions
+    si'u    sidju   aided by                       assisting in
+    ta'i    tadji   by method                      as a method for
+    tai     tamsmi  as a form of                   in form
+                    te=3Din form similar to
+    ti'i    stidi   suggested by                   suggesting
+                    te=3Dsuggested to
+    ti'u    tcika   with time                      at the time of
+    tu'i    stuzi   with site                      as location of
+    va'o    vanbi   under conditions               as conditions for
+    va'u    xamgu   benefiting from                with beneficiary
+    zau     zanru   approved by                    approving
+    zu'e    zukte   with actor                     with means to goal
+                    te=3Dwith goal
+</programlisting>
+  <para>The lujvo =E2=80=9Ctamsmi=E2=80=9D on which =E2=80=9Ctai=E2=80=9D =
is based is derived from the tanru =E2=80=9Ctarmi simsa=E2=80=9D and has th=
e place structure:</para>
+  <programlisting>
+       tamsmi: x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x=
4
+</programlisting>
+  <para>This lujvo is employed because =E2=80=9Ctarmi=E2=80=9D does not ha=
ve a place structure useful for the modal=E2=80=99s purpose.</para>
+</section>
+
+
+</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/README b/todocbook/README
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a289f29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/README
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+
+This directory is used to turn the old HTML many-files stuff into
+dockbook/xml.  It's not ever intended to be re-run once it's all
+working properly; the scripts and stuff are still here in case
+something is found that's easier to fix in the HTML and propogate
+through.
+
+Anyways, that's why these instructions on how to build everything
+aren't in a makefile or something:
+
+  superglom.sh
+
+  merge.sh
+
+  xmlto -o html/ html cll.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "=
jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
+
diff --git a/todocbook/dtd/docbook-5.0.dtd b/todocbook/dtd/docbook-5.0.dtd
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b7f54c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/dtd/docbook-5.0.dtd
@@ -0,0 +1,4201 @@
+<!-- From http://www.docbook.org/xml/5.0/dtd/docbook.dtd -->
+
+<!ENTITY % db.common.attributes "
+	xml:id	ID	#IMPLIED
+	version	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:base	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	remap	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xreflabel	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	revisionflag	(changed|added|deleted|off)	#IMPLIED
+	dir	(ltr|rtl|lro|rlo)	#IMPLIED
+	arch	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	audience	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	condition	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	conformance	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	os	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	revision	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	security	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	userlevel	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	vendor	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	wordsize	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	annotations	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+">
+
+<!ENTITY % db.common.linking.attributes "
+	linkend	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+	xmlns:xlink	CDATA	#FIXED	'http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'=09
+	xlink:href	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:arcrole	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:show	(new|replace|embed|other|none)	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:actuate	(onLoad|onRequest|other|none)	#IMPLIED
+
+">
+
+<!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date=
|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|non=
terminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|toke=
n|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guim=
enu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keys=
ym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fu=
nction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|metho=
dname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errort=
ext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST title
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT titleabbrev (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acrony=
m|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|=
firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|appl=
ication|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person=
|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termd=
ef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|marku=
p|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuite=
m|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycod=
e|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userin=
put|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename=
|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|=
errortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST titleabbrev
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT subtitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST subtitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT info ((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*|(abstract|address|artpagenum=
s|author|authorgroup|authorinitials|bibliocoverage|biblioid|bibliosource|co=
llab|confgroup|contractsponsor|contractnum|copyright|cover|date|edition|edi=
tor|issuenum|keywordset|legalnotice|mediaobject|org|orgname|othercredit|pag=
enums|printhistory|pubdate|publisher|publishername|releaseinfo|revhistory|s=
eriesvolnums|subjectset|volumenum|annotation|extendedlink|bibliomisc|biblio=
mset|bibliorelation|biblioset|itermset|productname|productnumber)*)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST info
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT subjectset ((subject)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST subjectset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	scheme	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT subject ((subjectterm)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST subject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	weight	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT subjectterm (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST subjectterm
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keywordset ((keyword)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST keywordset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keyword (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST keyword
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT procedure (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ordere=
dlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|=
calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informal=
figure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|m=
ediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|litera=
llayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark=
|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructor=
synopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|not=
e|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (step)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST procedure
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT step (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist|orderedli=
st|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|cal=
loutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfig=
ure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|medi=
aobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literalla=
yout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|re=
vhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsyn=
opsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|t=
ip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, ((substeps|stepalte=
rnatives), (itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segm=
entedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|eq=
uation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sideba=
r|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|con=
straintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlis=
ting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsyno=
psis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cm=
dsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara=
|annotation)*)?)|((substeps|stepalternatives), (itemizedlist|orderedlist|pr=
ocedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutl=
ist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|i=
nformaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobje=
ct|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|=
programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhist=
ory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis=
|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|wa=
rning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*)))>
+
+<!ATTLIST step
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	performance	(optional|required)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT stepalternatives ((info)?, (step)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST stepalternatives
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	performance	(optional|required)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT substeps ((step)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST substeps
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	performance	(optional|required)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sidebar (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedl=
ist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|ca=
lloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfi=
gure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|med=
iaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literall=
ayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|r=
evhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsy=
nopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|=
tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sidebar
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT abstract (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (anchor|para|formalpa=
ra|simpara)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST abstract
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT personblurb (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (anchor|para|forma=
lpara|simpara)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST personblurb
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT blockquote (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (attribution)?, (it=
emizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glos=
slist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informa=
lexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|a=
ddress|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msg=
set|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|=
bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsyn=
opsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caut=
ion|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST blockquote
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT attribution (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable|person|personname|citetitle|citation)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST attribution
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bridgehead (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym=
|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|f=
irstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|appli=
cation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|=
personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termde=
f|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup=
|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem=
|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode=
|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinp=
ut|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|=
methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|e=
rrortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bridgehead
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	renderas	(sect1|sect2|sect3|sect4|sect5|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otherrenderas	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT remark (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST remark
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT epigraph ((info)?, (attribution)?, (anchor|para|formalpara|simpa=
ra|literallayout)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST epigraph
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT footnote ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variabl=
elist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figur=
e|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequat=
ion|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|product=
ionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|=
programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis=
|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fields=
ynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpa=
ra|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST footnote
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT formalpara (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (indexterm)*, para)=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST formalpara
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT para (#PCDATA|info|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype|itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|v=
ariablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example=
|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informa=
lequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|p=
roductionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|scr=
eenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|revhistory|funcsynopsis|classsynop=
sis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmd=
synopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST para
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT simpara (#PCDATA|info|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subsc=
ript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acron=
ym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword=
|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|app=
lication|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|perso=
n|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|term=
def|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|mark=
up|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuit=
em|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keyco=
de|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|useri=
nput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacenam=
e|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode=
|errortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST simpara
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT itemizedlist (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ord=
eredlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|biblioli=
st|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|infor=
malfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigrap=
h|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lit=
erallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rem=
ark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construc=
torsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|=
note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (listitem)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST itemizedlist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	spacing	(compact|normal)	#IMPLIED
+	mark	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT orderedlist (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orde=
redlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolis=
t|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|inform=
alfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph=
|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lite=
rallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rema=
rk|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construct=
orsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|n=
ote|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (listitem)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST orderedlist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	spacing	(compact|normal)	#IMPLIED
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	startingnumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	inheritnum	(ignore|inherit)	#IMPLIED
+	numeration	(arabic|upperalpha|loweralpha|upperroman|lowerroman)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT listitem ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variabl=
elist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figur=
e|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequat=
ion|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|product=
ionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|=
programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis=
|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fields=
ynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpa=
ra|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST listitem
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	override	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT segmentedlist (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (segtitle)+, (se=
glistitem)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST segmentedlist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT segtitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST segtitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seglistitem ((seg)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST seglistitem
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seg (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|e=
mphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstter=
m|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application|=
hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|personn=
ame|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nonte=
rminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token|=
symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimen=
u|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym=
|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|func=
tion|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|methodn=
ame|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errortex=
t|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST seg
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT simplelist ((member)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST simplelist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	type	(horiz|vert|inline)	"vert"
+	columns	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT member (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|dat=
e|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|first=
term|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicati=
on|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pers=
onname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|no=
nterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|tok=
en|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gui=
menu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|key=
sym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|f=
unction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|meth=
odname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|error=
text|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST member
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT variablelist (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ord=
eredlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|biblioli=
st|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|infor=
malfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigrap=
h|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lit=
erallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rem=
ark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construc=
torsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|=
note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (varlistentry=
)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST variablelist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	spacing	(compact|normal)	#IMPLIED
+	termlength	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT varlistentry ((term)+, listitem)>
+
+<!ATTLIST varlistentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT term (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xre=
f|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|=
emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstte=
rm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application=
|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|person=
name|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nont=
erminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token=
|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guime=
nu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysy=
m|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fun=
ction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|method=
name|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errorte=
xt|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST term
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT example (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedl=
ist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|ca=
lloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfi=
gure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|med=
iaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literall=
ayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|r=
evhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsy=
nopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|=
tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST example
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	width	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT informalexample ((info)?, (itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|si=
mplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandas=
et|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltab=
le|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screens=
hot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlis=
tingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indext=
erm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructo=
rsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anch=
or|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST informalexample
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	width	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT literallayout (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|remark|=
superscript|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|index=
term|abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase=
|quote|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|product=
name|database|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebibl=
ioid|author|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|packa=
ge|parameter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inline=
equation|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|gu=
ibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keyc=
ombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|com=
puteroutput|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exception=
name|interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|ooin=
terface|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST literallayout
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+	class	(monospaced|normal)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT screen (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|remark|supersc=
ript|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|ab=
brev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|=
wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|da=
tabase|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|au=
thor|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|para=
meter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequatio=
n|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton=
|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|ke=
ycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computerou=
tput|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|in=
terfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface=
|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST screen
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+	width	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT screenshot (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), mediaobjec=
t)>
+
+<!ATTLIST screenshot
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT figure (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedli=
st|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|cal=
loutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfig=
ure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|medi=
aobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literalla=
yout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|re=
vhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsyn=
opsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|t=
ip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST figure
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT informalfigure ((info)?, (itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|sim=
plelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandase=
t|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltabl=
e|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screensh=
ot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlist=
ingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexte=
rm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructor=
synopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|ancho=
r|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST informalfigure
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT mediaobject ((info)?, (alt)?, (videoobject|audioobject|imageobje=
ct|textobject|imageobjectco)+, (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST mediaobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT inlinemediaobject ((info)?, (alt)?, (videoobject|audioobject|ima=
geobject|textobject|imageobjectco)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST inlinemediaobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT videoobject ((info)?, videodata)>
+
+<!ATTLIST videoobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT audioobject ((info)?, audiodata)>
+
+<!ATTLIST audioobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT imageobject ((info)?, (imagedata))>
+
+<!ATTLIST imageobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT textobject ((info)?, (phrase|textdata|(itemizedlist|orderedlist|=
procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|callou=
tlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure=
|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaob=
ject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayou=
t|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhi=
story|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynops=
is|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|=
warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST textobject
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT videodata (info)?>
+
+<!ATTLIST videodata
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	format	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	fileref	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	entityref	ENTITY	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top)	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	contentwidth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	scalefit	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	scale	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	depth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	contentdepth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT audiodata (info)?>
+
+<!ATTLIST audiodata
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	format	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	fileref	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	entityref	ENTITY	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT imagedata (info)?>
+
+<!ATTLIST imagedata
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	format	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	fileref	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	entityref	ENTITY	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top)	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	contentwidth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	scalefit	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	scale	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	depth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	contentdepth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT textdata (info)?>
+
+<!ATTLIST textdata
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	format	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	fileref	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	entityref	ENTITY	#IMPLIED
+	encoding	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT caption (#PCDATA|itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|v=
ariablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|caution=
|important|note|tip|warning|example|figure|table|informalexample|informalfi=
gure|informaltable|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screensh=
ot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|programlisting|screen|literallay=
out|synopsis|programlistingco|screenco|cmdsynopsis|funcsynopsis|classsynops=
is|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|brid=
gehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|equation|informalequation|anchor|para|fo=
rmalpara|simpara|html:form|annotation)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST caption
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT address (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e|personname|pob|street|city|state|postcode|country|phone|fax|email|uri|oth=
eraddr)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST address
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT street (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST street
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT pob (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST pob
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT postcode (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST postcode
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT city (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xre=
f|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST city
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT state (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST state
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT country (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST country
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT phone (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST phone
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT fax (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST fax
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT otheraddr (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST otheraddr
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT affiliation ((shortaffil)?, (jobtitle)*, ((org)?|((orgname)?, (o=
rgdiv)*, (address)*)))>
+
+<!ATTLIST affiliation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT shortaffil (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST shortaffil
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT jobtitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST jobtitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT orgname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST orgname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(consortium|corporation|informal|nonprofit|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otherclass	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT orgdiv (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|dat=
e|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|first=
term|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicati=
on|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pers=
onname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|no=
nterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|tok=
en|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gui=
menu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|key=
sym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|f=
unction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|meth=
odname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|error=
text|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST orgdiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT artpagenums (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST artpagenums
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT personname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able|honorific|firstname|surname|lineage|othername)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST personname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT author ((personname, (personblurb|affiliation|email|uri|address|=
contrib)*)|(orgname, (orgdiv|affiliation|email|uri|address|contrib)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST author
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT authorgroup ((author|editor|othercredit)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST authorgroup
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT collab ((person|personname|org|orgname)+, (affiliation)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST collab
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT authorinitials (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|sub=
script|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|rep=
laceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST authorinitials
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT person (personname, (address|affiliation|email|uri|personblurb)*=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST person
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT org (orgname, (address|affiliation|email|uri|orgdiv)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST org
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT confgroup ((confdates|conftitle|confnum|confsponsor|address)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST confgroup
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT confdates (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST confdates
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT conftitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST conftitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT confnum (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST confnum
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT confsponsor (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST confsponsor
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT contractnum (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST contractnum
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT contractsponsor (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|su=
bscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|re=
placeable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST contractsponsor
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT copyright ((year)+, (holder)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST copyright
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT year (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xre=
f|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST year
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT holder (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST holder
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT cover ((anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|itemizedlist|orderedlist|=
procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|callou=
tlist|qandaset|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequatio=
n|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productio=
nset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|pr=
ogramlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|funcsynopsis|classsynops=
is|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmds=
ynopsis)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST cover
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT date (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST date
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT edition (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST edition
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT editor ((personname, (personblurb|affiliation|email|uri|address|=
contrib)*)|(orgname, (orgdiv|affiliation|email|uri|address|contrib)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST editor
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT biblioid (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST biblioid
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(doi|isbn|isrn|issn|libraryofcongress|pubsnumber|uri|other)	#IMPLIE=
D
+	otherclass	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT citebiblioid (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subsc=
ript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repla=
ceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST citebiblioid
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(doi|isbn|isrn|issn|libraryofcongress|pubsnumber|uri|other)	#IMPLIE=
D
+	otherclass	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliosource (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subsc=
ript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repla=
ceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliosource
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(doi|isbn|isrn|issn|libraryofcongress|pubsnumber|uri|other)	#IMPLIE=
D
+	otherclass	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliorelation (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|sub=
script|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|rep=
laceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliorelation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(doi|isbn|isrn|issn|libraryofcongress|pubsnumber|uri|other)	#IMPLIE=
D
+	otherclass	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	type	(hasformat|haspart|hasversion|isformatof|ispartof|isreferencedby|isr=
eplacedby|isrequiredby|isversionof|references|replaces|requires|othertype)	=
#IMPLIED
+	othertype	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliocoverage (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|sub=
script|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|rep=
laceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliocoverage
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	spatial	(dcmipoint|iso3166|dcmibox|tgn|otherspatial)	#IMPLIED
+	otherspatial	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	temporal	(dcmiperiod|w3c-dtf|othertemporal)	#IMPLIED
+	othertemporal	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT legalnotice (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orde=
redlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolis=
t|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|inform=
alfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph=
|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lite=
rallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rema=
rk|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construct=
orsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|n=
ote|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST legalnotice
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT othercredit ((personname, (personblurb|affiliation|email|uri|add=
ress|contrib)*)|(orgname, (orgdiv|affiliation|email|uri|address|contrib)*))=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST othercredit
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(copyeditor|graphicdesigner|other|productioneditor|technicaleditor|=
translator)	#IMPLIED
+	otherclass	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT pagenums (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST pagenums
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT contrib (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST contrib
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT honorific (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST honorific
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT firstname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST firstname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT surname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST surname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT lineage (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST lineage
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT othername (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST othername
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT printhistory ((anchor|para|formalpara|simpara)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST printhistory
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT pubdate (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST pubdate
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT publisher (publishername, (address)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST publisher
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT publishername (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repl=
aceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST publishername
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT releaseinfo (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST releaseinfo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT revhistory (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (revision)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST revhistory
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT revision ((revnumber)?, date, (authorinitials|author)*, ((revrem=
ark|revdescription))?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST revision
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT revnumber (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST revnumber
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT revremark (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST revremark
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT revdescription ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|v=
ariablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example=
|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informa=
lequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|p=
roductionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|scr=
eenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsy=
nopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|=
fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|fo=
rmalpara|simpara|annotation)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST revdescription
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seriesvolnums (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repl=
aceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST seriesvolnums
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT volumenum (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST volumenum
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT issuenum (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST issuenum
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT package (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST package
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT email (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST email
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT lineannotation (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|sub=
script|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|rep=
laceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST lineannotation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT parameter (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST parameter
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(command|function|option)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT replaceable (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST replaceable
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(command|function|option|parameter)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT uri (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST uri
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT abbrev (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
|trademark)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST abbrev
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT acronym (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e|trademark)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST acronym
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT citation (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST citation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT citerefentry (refentrytitle, (manvolnum)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST citerefentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT refentrytitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acro=
nym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordaswor=
d|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|ap=
plication|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|pers=
on|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|ter=
mdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|mar=
kup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenui=
tem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keyc=
ode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|user=
input|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacena=
me|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcod=
e|errortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST refentrytitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT manvolnum (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST manvolnum
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT citetitle (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST citetitle
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	pubwork	(article|bbs|book|cdrom|chapter|dvd|emailmessage|gopher|journal|m=
anuscript|newsposting|part|refentry|section|series|set|webpage|wiki)	#IMPLI=
ED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT emphasis (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST emphasis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT foreignphrase (#PCDATA|abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|foo=
tnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|subscript|superscript|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|inlinemediaobject|indexterm|xref|link|oli=
nk|anchor|biblioref)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST foreignphrase
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT phrase (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|dat=
e|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|first=
term|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicati=
on|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pers=
onname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|no=
nterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|tok=
en|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gui=
menu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|key=
sym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|f=
unction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|meth=
odname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|error=
text|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST phrase
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT quote (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date=
|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|non=
terminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|toke=
n|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guim=
enu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keys=
ym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fu=
nction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|metho=
dname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errort=
ext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST quote
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT subscript (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST subscript
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT superscript (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST superscript
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT trademark (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST trademark
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(copyright|registered|service|trade)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT wordasword (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST wordasword
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT footnoteref EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST footnoteref
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT xref EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST xref
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	xrefstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	endterm	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT link (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xre=
f|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|=
emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstte=
rm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application=
|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|person=
name|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nont=
erminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token=
|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guime=
nu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysy=
m|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fun=
ction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|method=
name|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errorte=
xt|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST link
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	xrefstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	endterm	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT olink (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date=
|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|non=
terminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|toke=
n|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guim=
enu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keys=
ym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fu=
nction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|metho=
dname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errort=
ext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST olink
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	targetdoc	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xrefstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	localinfo	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	targetptr	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT anchor EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST anchor
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT alt (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST alt
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT set (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (toc)?, (set|book=
)+, (setindex)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST set
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT book (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (glossary|biblio=
graphy|index|toc|dedication|acknowledgements|preface|chapter|appendix|artic=
le|colophon|part|reference)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST book
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT dedication (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedl=
ist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|b=
ibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexampl=
e|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|=
epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scr=
een|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgeh=
ead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|c=
onstructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|imp=
ortant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST dedication
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT acknowledgements (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (ite=
mizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|gloss=
list|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informal=
example|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|ad=
dress|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgs=
et|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|b=
ridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsyno=
psis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|cauti=
on|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST acknowledgements
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT colophon (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
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structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST colophon
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT appendix (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), ((glossary|b=
ibliography|index|toc)*, (((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|v=
ariablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example=
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fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|fo=
rmalpara|simpara|annotation)+, ((((section)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+|=
((sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(refentry)+))?)|((section)+, (simplesect)*)|(simp=
lesect)+|((sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(refentry)+), (glossary|bibliography|ind=
ex|toc)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST appendix
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT chapter (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), ((glossary|bi=
bliography|index|toc)*, (((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|va=
riablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|=
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(sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(refentry)+))?)|((section)+, (simplesect)*)|(simpl=
esect)+|((sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(refentry)+), (glossary|bibliography|inde=
x|toc)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST chapter
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT part (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (partintro)?, (g=
lossary|bibliography|index|toc|dedication|acknowledgements|preface|chapter|=
appendix|article|colophon|refentry|reference)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST part
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT preface (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), ((glossary|bi=
bliography|index|toc)*, (((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|va=
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esect)+|((sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(refentry)+), (glossary|bibliography|inde=
x|toc)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST preface
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT partintro (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemized=
list|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|=
bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexamp=
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+))?)|((section)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+|((sect1)+, (simplesect)*)|(=
refentry)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST partintro
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT section (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedli=
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bliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample=
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tion)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+|(refentry)+))?)|((section)+, (simplese=
ct)*)|(simplesect)+|(refentry)+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST section
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT simplesect (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedl=
ist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|b=
ibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexampl=
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onstructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|imp=
ortant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST simplesect
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT article (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (glossary|bib=
liography|index|toc|appendix|acknowledgements|colophon)*, (((itemizedlist|o=
rderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|biblio=
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ry)+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc|appendix|acknowledgements|colophon)=
*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST article
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
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+	class	(faq|journalarticle|productsheet|specification|techreport|whitepape=
r)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT annotation (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|order=
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|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informa=
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te|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST annotation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	annotates	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT extendedlink ((locator|arc)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST extendedlink
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT locator EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST locator
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	xlink:label	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT arc EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST arc
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	xlink:from	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	xlink:to	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sect1 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist=
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iolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|i=
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)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+))?)|((sect2)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)=
+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sect1
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sect2 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist=
|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibl=
iolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|i=
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)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+))?)|((sect3)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)=
+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sect2
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sect3 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist=
|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibl=
iolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|i=
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)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)+))?)|((sect4)+, (simplesect)*)|(simplesect)=
+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sect3
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sect4 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist=
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iolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|i=
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+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sect4
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sect5 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedlist=
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iolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|i=
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ect)+)?)|(simplesect)+), (glossary|bibliography|index|toc)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST sect5
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
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+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
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+>
+
+<!ELEMENT reference (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (partintro)=
?, (refentry)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST reference
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
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+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
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+>
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+
+<!ATTLIST refentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
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+<!ATTLIST refmeta
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
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+>
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+
+<!ATTLIST refmiscinfo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
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+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
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+
+<!ATTLIST refdescriptor
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
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+>
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+<!ATTLIST refname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
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+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
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+>
+
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+
+<!ATTLIST refclass
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
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+
+>
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+<!ELEMENT refsynopsisdiv (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((ite=
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list|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informal=
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dress|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgs=
et|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|b=
ridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsyno=
psis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|cauti=
on|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, =
(((refsection)+|(refsect2)+))?)|(refsection)+|(refsect2)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST refsynopsisdiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT refsection (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemize=
dlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist=
|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexam=
ple|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|addres=
s|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|s=
creen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridg=
ehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis=
|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|i=
mportant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, (ref=
section)*)|(refsection)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST refsection
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT refsect1 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedl=
ist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|b=
ibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexampl=
e|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|=
epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scr=
een|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgeh=
ead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|c=
onstructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|imp=
ortant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, ((refs=
ect2)+)?)|(refsect2)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST refsect1
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT refsect2 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (((itemizedl=
ist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|b=
ibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexampl=
e|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|=
epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scr=
een|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgeh=
ead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|c=
onstructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|imp=
ortant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+, ((refs=
ect3)+)?)|(refsect3)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST refsect2
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT refsect3 (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bib=
liolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|=
informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|ep=
igraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scree=
n|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehea=
d|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|con=
structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST refsect3
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glosslist ((((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?))?, (itemizedlist|ord=
eredlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|biblioli=
st|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|infor=
malfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigrap=
h|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lit=
erallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rem=
ark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construc=
torsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|=
note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (glossentry)+=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST glosslist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossentry (glossterm, (acronym)?, (abbrev)?, (indexterm)*, (glo=
sssee|(glossdef)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	sortas	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossdef ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variabl=
elist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figur=
e|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequat=
ion|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|product=
ionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|=
programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis=
|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fields=
ynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpa=
ra|simpara|annotation)+, (glossseealso)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossdef
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	subject	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glosssee (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST glosssee
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	otherterm	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossseealso (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subsc=
ript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acron=
ym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword=
|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|app=
lication|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|perso=
n|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|term=
def|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|mark=
up|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuit=
em|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keyco=
de|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|useri=
nput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacenam=
e|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode=
|errortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossseealso
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	otherterm	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT firstterm (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST firstterm
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	baseform	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossterm (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossterm
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	baseform	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossary (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bib=
liolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|=
informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|ep=
igraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scree=
n|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehea=
d|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|con=
structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((glossd=
iv)*|(glossentry)*), (bibliography)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossary
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT glossdiv (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bib=
liolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|=
informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|ep=
igraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scree=
n|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehea=
d|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|con=
structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (glossen=
try)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST glossdiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT termdef (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|da=
te|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firs=
tterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicat=
ion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|per=
sonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|n=
onterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|to=
ken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gu=
imenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|ke=
ysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|=
function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|met=
hodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|erro=
rtext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST termdef
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	sortas	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	baseform	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT biblioentry ((abstract|address|artpagenums|author|authorgroup|au=
thorinitials|bibliocoverage|biblioid|bibliosource|collab|confgroup|contract=
sponsor|contractnum|copyright|cover|date|edition|editor|issuenum|keywordset=
|legalnotice|mediaobject|org|orgname|othercredit|pagenums|printhistory|pubd=
ate|publisher|publishername|releaseinfo|revhistory|seriesvolnums|subjectset=
|volumenum|annotation|extendedlink|bibliomisc|bibliomset|bibliorelation|bib=
lioset|itermset|productname|productnumber|abbrev|acronym|emphasis|footnote|=
footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|subscript|superscript|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|person|personblu=
rb|personname|subtitle|title|titleabbrev)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST biblioentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliomixed (#PCDATA|abstract|address|artpagenums|author|authorg=
roup|authorinitials|bibliocoverage|biblioid|bibliosource|collab|confgroup|c=
ontractsponsor|contractnum|copyright|cover|date|edition|editor|issuenum|key=
wordset|legalnotice|mediaobject|org|orgname|othercredit|pagenums|printhisto=
ry|pubdate|publisher|publishername|releaseinfo|revhistory|seriesvolnums|sub=
jectset|volumenum|annotation|extendedlink|bibliomisc|bibliomset|bibliorelat=
ion|biblioset|itermset|productname|productnumber|abbrev|acronym|emphasis|fo=
otnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|subscript|superscript|wordasw=
ord|firstterm|glossterm|coref|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|person|pe=
rsonblurb|personname|subtitle|title|titleabbrev)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliomixed
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT biblioset ((abstract|address|artpagenums|author|authorgroup|auth=
orinitials|bibliocoverage|biblioid|bibliosource|collab|confgroup|contractsp=
onsor|contractnum|copyright|cover|date|edition|editor|issuenum|keywordset|l=
egalnotice|mediaobject|org|orgname|othercredit|pagenums|printhistory|pubdat=
e|publisher|publishername|releaseinfo|revhistory|seriesvolnums|subjectset|v=
olumenum|annotation|extendedlink|bibliomisc|bibliomset|bibliorelation|bibli=
oset|itermset|productname|productnumber|abbrev|acronym|emphasis|footnote|fo=
otnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|subscript|superscript|wordasword|first=
term|glossterm|coref|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|person|personblurb=
|personname|subtitle|title|titleabbrev)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST biblioset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	relation	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliomset (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able|abstract|address|artpagenums|author|authorgroup|authorinitials|biblioc=
overage|biblioid|bibliosource|collab|confgroup|contractsponsor|contractnum|=
copyright|cover|date|edition|editor|issuenum|keywordset|legalnotice|mediaob=
ject|org|orgname|othercredit|pagenums|printhistory|pubdate|publisher|publis=
hername|releaseinfo|revhistory|seriesvolnums|subjectset|volumenum|extendedl=
ink|bibliomisc|bibliomset|bibliorelation|biblioset|itermset|productname|pro=
ductnumber|abbrev|acronym|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|quote=
|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|p=
erson|personblurb|personname|subtitle|title|titleabbrev)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliomset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	relation	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliomisc (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliomisc
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliography (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemize=
dlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist=
|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexam=
ple|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|addres=
s|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|s=
creen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridg=
ehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis=
|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|i=
mportant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((bi=
bliodiv)+|(biblioentry|bibliomixed)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliography
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliodiv (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedli=
st|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bi=
bliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample=
|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|e=
pigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scre=
en|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehe=
ad|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|co=
nstructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impo=
rtant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (biblio=
entry|bibliomixed)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliodiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT bibliolist ((((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?))?, (itemizedlist|or=
deredlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliol=
ist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|info=
rmalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigra=
ph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|li=
terallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|re=
mark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constru=
ctorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important=
|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (biblioentry=
|bibliomixed)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST bibliolist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT biblioref EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST biblioref
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	xrefstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	endterm	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+	units	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	begin	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	end	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT itermset ((indexterm)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST itermset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT indexterm ((primary)?, (((secondary, (((tertiary, ((see|(seealso=
)+))?)|see|(seealso)+))?)|see|(seealso)+))?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST indexterm
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	significance	(normal|preferred)	#IMPLIED
+	startref	IDREF	#IMPLIED
+	zone	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+	pagenum	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	scope	(all|global|local)	#IMPLIED
+	type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	class	(singular|startofrange|endofrange)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT primary (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|da=
te|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firs=
tterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicat=
ion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|per=
sonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|n=
onterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|to=
ken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gu=
imenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|ke=
ysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|=
function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|met=
hodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|erro=
rtext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST primary
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	sortas	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT secondary (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST secondary
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	sortas	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tertiary (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST tertiary
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	sortas	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT see (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|e=
mphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstter=
m|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application|=
hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|personn=
ame|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nonte=
rminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token|=
symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimen=
u|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym=
|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|func=
tion|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|methodn=
ame|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errortex=
t|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST see
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seealso (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|da=
te|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firs=
tterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicat=
ion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|per=
sonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|n=
onterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|to=
ken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|gu=
imenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|ke=
ysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|=
function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|met=
hodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|erro=
rtext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST seealso
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT index (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|o=
rderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutli=
st|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|in=
formaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobjec=
t|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|p=
rogramlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhisto=
ry|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|=
destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|war=
ning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((indexdiv)*|(indexentry)=
*|segmentedlist))>
+
+<!ATTLIST index
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT setindex (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bib=
liolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|=
informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|ep=
igraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scree=
n|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehea=
d|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|con=
structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((indexd=
iv)*|(indexentry)*))>
+
+<!ATTLIST setindex
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	type	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT indexdiv (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|glosslist|bibliolist|callou=
tlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure=
|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaob=
ject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayou=
t|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhi=
story|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynops=
is|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|=
warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((indexentry)+|segment=
edlist))>
+
+<!ATTLIST indexdiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	status	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT indexentry (primaryie, (seeie|seealsoie)*, ((secondaryie, (seeie=
|seealsoie|tertiaryie)*))*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST indexentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT primaryie (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST primaryie
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT secondaryie (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acrony=
m|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|=
firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|appl=
ication|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person=
|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termd=
ef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|marku=
p|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuite=
m|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycod=
e|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userin=
put|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename=
|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|=
errortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST secondaryie
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tertiaryie (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym=
|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|f=
irstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|appli=
cation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|=
personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termde=
f|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup=
|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem=
|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode=
|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinp=
ut|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|=
methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|e=
rrortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST tertiaryie
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seeie (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date=
|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|non=
terminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|toke=
n|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guim=
enu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keys=
ym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fu=
nction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|metho=
dname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errort=
ext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST seeie
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT seealsoie (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|=
date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fi=
rstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applic=
ation|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|p=
ersonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef=
|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|=
token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|=
guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|=
keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinpu=
t|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|m=
ethodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|er=
rortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST seealsoie
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT toc (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedlist|=
procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|callou=
tlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure=
|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaob=
ject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayou=
t|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhi=
story|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynops=
is|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|=
warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (tocdiv|tocentry)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST toc
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tocdiv (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|=
orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibli=
olist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|in=
formalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epig=
raph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|=
literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|=
remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|const=
ructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|importa=
nt|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (tocdiv|to=
centry)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST tocdiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	pagenum	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tocentry (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|d=
ate|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|fir=
stterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applica=
tion|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|pe=
rsonname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|=
nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|t=
oken|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|g=
uimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|k=
eysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput=
|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|me=
thodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|err=
ortext|errorname|errortype)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST tocentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	pagenum	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT task (((title|titleabbrev|subtitle)*, (info)?), (tasksummary)?, =
(taskprerequisites)?, procedure, (example)*, (taskrelated)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST task
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tasksummary (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orde=
redlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolis=
t|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|inform=
alfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph=
|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lite=
rallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rema=
rk|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construct=
orsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|n=
ote|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST tasksummary
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT taskprerequisites (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlis=
t|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bib=
liolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|=
informalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|ep=
igraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|scree=
n|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehea=
d|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|con=
structorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|impor=
tant|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST taskprerequisites
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT taskrelated (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orde=
redlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolis=
t|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|inform=
alfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph=
|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lite=
rallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rema=
rk|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construct=
orsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|n=
ote|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST taskrelated
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT calloutlist (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orde=
redlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolis=
t|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|inform=
alfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph=
|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|lite=
rallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|rema=
rk|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|construct=
orsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|n=
ote|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, (callout)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST calloutlist
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT callout ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variable=
list|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure=
|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequati=
on|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|producti=
onset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|p=
rogramlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|=
classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsy=
nopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpar=
a|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST callout
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	arearefs	IDREFS	#REQUIRED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT programlistingco ((info)?, areaspec, programlisting, (calloutlis=
t)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST programlistingco
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT areaspec ((area|areaset)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST areaspec
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	units	(calspair|linecolumn|linecolumnpair|linerange|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otherunits	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT area (alt)?>
+
+<!ATTLIST area
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	units	(calspair|linecolumn|linecolumnpair|linerange|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otherunits	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	coords	CDATA	#REQUIRED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT areaset ((area)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST areaset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	units	(calspair|linecolumn|linecolumnpair|linerange|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otherunits	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT screenco ((info)?, areaspec, screen, (calloutlist)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST screenco
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT imageobjectco ((info)?, areaspec, (imageobject)+, (calloutlist)*=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST imageobjectco
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT co EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST co
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	linkends	IDREFS	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT coref EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST coref
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT productionset (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (production|prod=
uctionrecap)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST productionset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT production (lhs, rhs, (constraint)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST production
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT lhs (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST lhs
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT rhs (#PCDATA|nonterminal|lineannotation|sbr)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST rhs
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT nonterminal (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST nonterminal
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	def	CDATA	#REQUIRED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT constraint EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST constraint
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT productionrecap EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST productionrecap
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT constraintdef (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|or=
deredlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliol=
ist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|info=
rmalfigure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigra=
ph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|li=
terallayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|re=
mark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constru=
ctorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important=
|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST constraintdef
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tgroup ((colspec)*, (spanspec)*, (thead)?, (tfoot)?, tbody)>
+
+<!ATTLIST tgroup
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	tgroupstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	cols	NMTOKEN	#REQUIRED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT colspec EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST colspec
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	colnum	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	colwidth	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	colname	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT spanspec EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST spanspec
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	spanname	CDATA	#REQUIRED
+	namest	CDATA	#REQUIRED
+	nameend	CDATA	#REQUIRED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT thead ((colspec)*, (row+|tr+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST thead
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tfoot ((colspec)*, (row+|tr+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST tfoot
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tbody ((row+|tr+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST tbody
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT row ((entry|entrytbl)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST row
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT entry (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date=
|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstt=
erm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|applicatio=
n|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|perso=
nname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|non=
terminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|toke=
n|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guim=
enu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keys=
ym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|fu=
nction|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|metho=
dname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errort=
ext|errorname|errortype|itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|varia=
blelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|fig=
ure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequ=
ation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|produ=
ctionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenc=
o|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|revhistory|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|=
methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsyno=
psis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|para|formalpara|simpara)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST entry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	valign	(bottom|middle|top)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	morerows	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	colname	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	namest	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	spanname	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	nameend	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rotate	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT entrytbl ((colspec)*, (spanspec)*, (thead)?, tbody)>
+
+<!ATTLIST entrytbl
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	colname	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	namest	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	spanname	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	nameend	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	tgroupstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	cols	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	align	(center|char|justify|left|right)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT table ((info?, (title, titleabbrev?), indexterm*, textobject*, (=
mediaobject+|tgroup+))|(caption, (col*|colgroup*), thead?, tfoot?, (tbody+|=
tr+)))>
+
+<!ATTLIST table
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	tabstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	orient	(land|port)	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	frame	(all|bottom|none|sides|top|topbot|void|above|below|hsides|lhs|rhs|v=
sides|box|border)	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	shortentry	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	tocentry	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowheader	(firstcol|norowheader)	#IMPLIED
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	summary	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	border	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	rules	(none|groups|rows|cols|all)	#IMPLIED
+	cellspacing	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	cellpadding	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT informaltable (info?, ((textobject*, (mediaobject+|tgroup+))|((c=
ol*|colgroup*), thead?, tfoot?, (tbody+|tr+))))>
+
+<!ATTLIST informaltable
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	tabstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	orient	(land|port)	#IMPLIED
+	colsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowsep	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	frame	(all|bottom|none|sides|top|topbot|void|above|below|hsides|lhs|rhs|v=
sides|box|border)	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	rowheader	(firstcol|norowheader)	#IMPLIED
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	summary	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	border	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	rules	(none|groups|rows|cols|all)	#IMPLIED
+	cellspacing	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	cellpadding	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT col EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST col
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	span	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(top|middle|bottom|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT colgroup ((col)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST colgroup
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	span	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	width	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(top|middle|bottom|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tr ((th|td)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST tr
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(top|middle|bottom|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT th (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref|=
link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|em=
phasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstterm=
|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application|h=
ardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|personna=
me|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nonter=
minal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token|s=
ymbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu=
|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|=
shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|funct=
ion|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|methodna=
me|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errortext=
|errorname|errortype|itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variable=
list|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure=
|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequati=
on|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|producti=
onset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|p=
rogramlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|revhistory|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|met=
hodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsi=
s|caution|important|note|tip|warning|para|formalpara|simpara)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST th
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	abbr	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	axis	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	headers	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	scope	(row|col|rowgroup|colgroup)	#IMPLIED
+	rowspan	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	colspan	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(top|middle|bottom|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT td (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref|=
link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|em=
phasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quote|wordasword|firstterm=
|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|database|application|h=
ardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|author|person|personna=
me|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|parameter|termdef|nonter=
minal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequation|tag|markup|token|s=
ymbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu=
|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|=
shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|funct=
ion|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|interfacename|methodna=
me|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerface|errorcode|errortext=
|errorname|errortype|itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variable=
list|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure=
|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequati=
on|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|producti=
onset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|p=
rogramlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|revhistory|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|met=
hodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsi=
s|caution|important|note|tip|warning|para|formalpara|simpara)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST td
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	class	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	style	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	title	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	lang	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	ondblclick	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousedown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseover	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmousemove	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onmouseout	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeypress	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeydown	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	onkeyup	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	abbr	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	axis	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	headers	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	scope	(row|col|rowgroup|colgroup)	#IMPLIED
+	rowspan	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	colspan	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	align	(left|center|right|justify|char)	#IMPLIED
+	char	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	charoff	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	valign	(top|middle|bottom|baseline)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgset (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), ((msgentry)+|(simplemsg=
entry)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgentry ((msg)+, (msginfo)?, (msgexplan)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT simplemsgentry (msgtext, (msgexplan)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST simplemsgentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	msgaud	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	msgorig	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	msglevel	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msg (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), msgmain, (msgsub|msgrel)*)=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST msg
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgmain (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), msgtext)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgmain
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgsub (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), msgtext)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgsub
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgrel (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), msgtext)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgrel
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgtext ((itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist|variable=
list|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure=
|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|informalequati=
on|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task|producti=
onset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|screenco|p=
rogramlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|=
classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsy=
nopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpar=
a|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgtext
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msginfo ((msglevel|msgorig|msgaud)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msginfo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msglevel (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST msglevel
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgorig (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgorig
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgaud (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgaud
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT msgexplan (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ordere=
dlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|=
calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informal=
figure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|m=
ediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|litera=
llayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark=
|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructor=
synopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|not=
e|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST msgexplan
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT qandaset (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ordered=
list|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|c=
alloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalf=
igure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|me=
diaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literal=
layout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|=
revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructors=
ynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note=
|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((qandadiv)+|(qan=
daentry)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST qandaset
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	defaultlabel	(none|number|qanda)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT qandadiv (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ordered=
list|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|c=
alloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalf=
igure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|me=
diaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literal=
layout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|=
revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructors=
ynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note=
|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)*, ((qandadiv)+|(qan=
daentry)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST qandadiv
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT qandaentry (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), question, (answer)*=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST qandaentry
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT question ((label)?, (itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simpleli=
st|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|exa=
mple|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|inf=
ormalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|ta=
sk|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco=
|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|fu=
ncsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynop=
sis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|par=
a|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST question
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT answer ((label)?, (itemizedlist|orderedlist|procedure|simplelist=
|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|calloutlist|qandaset|examp=
le|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure|informaltable|infor=
malequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaobject|screenshot|task=
|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayout|programlistingco|s=
creenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhistory|indexterm|func=
synopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsi=
s|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|warning|anchor|para|=
formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST answer
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT label (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST label
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT equation (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (alt)?, ((mediaobject=
)+|(mathphrase)+), (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST equation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	pgwide	(0|1)	#IMPLIED
+	floatstyle	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT informalequation ((info)?, (alt)?, ((mediaobject)+|(mathphrase)+=
), (caption)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST informalequation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT inlineequation ((alt)?, ((inlinemediaobject)+|(mathphrase)+))>
+
+<!ATTLIST inlineequation
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT mathphrase (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able|emphasis)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST mathphrase
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT markup (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST markup
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tag (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST tag
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(attribute|attvalue|element|emptytag|endtag|genentity|localname|nam=
espace|numcharref|paramentity|pi|prefix|comment|starttag|xmlpi)	#IMPLIED
+	namespace	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT symbol (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST symbol
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(limit)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT token (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST token
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT literal (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST literal
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT code (#PCDATA|function|parameter|varname|returnvalue|type|classn=
ame|exceptionname|interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooe=
xception|oointerface|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref|li=
nk|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST code
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT constant (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST constant
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(limit)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT productname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST productname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(copyright|registered|service|trade)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT productnumber (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repl=
aceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST productnumber
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT database (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST database
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(altkey|constraint|datatype|field|foreignkey|group|index|key1|key2|=
name|primarykey|procedure|record|rule|secondarykey|table|user|view)	#IMPLIE=
D
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT application (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST application
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(hardware|software)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT hardware (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST hardware
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guibutton (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guibutton
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guiicon (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guiicon
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guilabel (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guilabel
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guimenu (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guimenu
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guimenuitem (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guimenuitem
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT guisubmenu (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST guisubmenu
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT menuchoice ((shortcut)?, (guibutton|guiicon|guilabel|guimenu|gui=
menuitem|guisubmenu)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST menuchoice
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT mousebutton (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST mousebutton
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keycap (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST keycap
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	function	(alt|backspace|command|control|delete|down|end|enter|escape|home=
|insert|left|meta|option|pagedown|pageup|right|shift|space|tab|up|other)	#I=
MPLIED
+	otherfunction	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keycode (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST keycode
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keycombo ((keycap|keycombo|keysym|mousebutton)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST keycombo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	action	(click|double-click|press|seq|simul|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otheraction	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT keysym (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST keysym
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT accel (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST accel
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT shortcut ((keycap|keycombo|keysym|mousebutton)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST shortcut
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	action	(click|double-click|press|seq|simul|other)	#IMPLIED
+	otheraction	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT prompt (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST prompt
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT envar (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xr=
ef|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)=
*>
+
+<!ATTLIST envar
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT filename (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST filename
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	path	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	class	(devicefile|directory|extension|headerfile|libraryfile|partition|sy=
mlink)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT command (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST command
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT computeroutput (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|sub=
script|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|prompt|env=
ar|filename|command|computeroutput|userinput|replaceable|package|parameter|=
termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|co|tag|markup|token=
|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST computeroutput
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT userinput (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|prompt|envar|fi=
lename|command|computeroutput|userinput|replaceable|package|parameter|termd=
ef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|co|tag|markup|token|symb=
ol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu|gu=
isubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|sho=
rtcut|accel)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST userinput
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT cmdsynopsis ((info)?, (command|arg|group|sbr)+, (synopfragment)*=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST cmdsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	sepchar	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	cmdlength	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT arg (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xref=
|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable|ar=
g|group|option|synopfragmentref|sbr)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST arg
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	rep	(norepeat|repeat)	"norepeat"
+	choice	(opt|plain|req)	"opt"
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT group ((arg|group|option|synopfragmentref|replaceable|sbr)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST group
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	rep	(norepeat|repeat)	"norepeat"
+	choice	(opt|plain|req)	"opt"
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT sbr EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST sbr
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT synopfragment ((arg|group)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST synopfragment
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT synopfragmentref (#PCDATA)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST synopfragmentref
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT synopsis (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|remark|super=
script|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|=
abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phrase|quot=
e|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|productname|=
database|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebiblioid|=
author|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|package|pa=
rameter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlineequat=
ion|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|guibutt=
on|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|keycombo|=
keycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|computer=
output|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptionname|=
interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|oointerfa=
ce|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST synopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+	label	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT funcsynopsis ((info)?, (funcsynopsisinfo|funcprototype)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST funcsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT funcsynopsisinfo (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|rema=
rk|superscript|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|in=
dexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phr=
ase|quote|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|prod=
uctname|database|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citeb=
iblioid|author|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|pa=
ckage|parameter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inl=
ineequation|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon=
|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|k=
eycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|=
computeroutput|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|except=
ionname|interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|o=
ointerface|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST funcsynopsisinfo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT funcprototype ((modifier)*, funcdef, (void|varargs|((paramdef)+,=
 (varargs)?)), (modifier)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST funcprototype
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT funcdef (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e|type|function)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST funcdef
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT function (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST function
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT void EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST void
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT varargs EMPTY>
+
+<!ATTLIST varargs
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT paramdef (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le|initializer|type|parameter|funcparams)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST paramdef
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	choice	(opt|req)	"opt"
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT funcparams (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST funcparams
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT classsynopsis ((ooclass|ooexception|oointerface)+, (classsynopsi=
sinfo|methodsynopsis|constructorsynopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis)*=
)>
+
+<!ATTLIST classsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	class	(class|interface)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT classsynopsisinfo (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|rem=
ark|superscript|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|i=
ndexterm|abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|ph=
rase|quote|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|pro=
ductname|database|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|cite=
biblioid|author|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|p=
ackage|parameter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|in=
lineequation|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiico=
n|guibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|=
keycombo|keycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command=
|computeroutput|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|excep=
tionname|interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|=
oointerface|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST classsynopsisinfo
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT ooclass ((package|modifier)*, classname)>
+
+<!ATTLIST ooclass
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT oointerface ((package|modifier)*, interfacename)>
+
+<!ATTLIST oointerface
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT ooexception ((package|modifier)*, exceptionname)>
+
+<!ATTLIST ooexception
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT modifier (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST modifier
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT interfacename (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repl=
aceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST interfacename
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT exceptionname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subs=
cript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|repl=
aceable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST exceptionname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT fieldsynopsis ((modifier)*, (type)?, varname, (initializer)?)>
+
+<!ATTLIST fieldsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT initializer (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST initializer
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT constructorsynopsis ((modifier)*, (methodname)?, ((methodparam)+=
|(void)?), (exceptionname)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST constructorsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT destructorsynopsis ((modifier)*, (methodname)?, ((methodparam)+|=
(void)?), (exceptionname)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST destructorsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT methodsynopsis ((modifier)*, ((type|void))?, methodname, ((metho=
dparam)+|void), (exceptionname)*, (modifier)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST methodsynopsis
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT methodname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST methodname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT methodparam ((modifier|type)*, ((parameter, initializer?)|funcpa=
rams), (modifier)*)>
+
+<!ATTLIST methodparam
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	rep	(norepeat|repeat)	"norepeat"
+	choice	(opt|plain|req)	"req"
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT varname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|=
xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceabl=
e)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST varname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT returnvalue (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscr=
ipt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replac=
eable)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST returnvalue
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT type (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|xre=
f|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable)*=
>
+
+<!ATTLIST type
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT classname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST classname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT programlisting (#PCDATA|info|textobject|inlinemediaobject|remark=
|superscript|subscript|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|inde=
xterm|abbrev|acronym|date|emphasis|footnote|footnoteref|foreignphrase|phras=
e|quote|wordasword|firstterm|glossterm|coref|trademark|productnumber|produc=
tname|database|application|hardware|citation|citerefentry|citetitle|citebib=
lioid|author|person|personname|org|orgname|editor|jobtitle|replaceable|pack=
age|parameter|termdef|nonterminal|systemitem|option|optional|property|inlin=
eequation|tag|markup|token|symbol|literal|code|constant|email|uri|guiicon|g=
uibutton|guimenuitem|guimenu|guisubmenu|guilabel|menuchoice|mousebutton|key=
combo|keycap|keycode|keysym|shortcut|accel|prompt|envar|filename|command|co=
mputeroutput|userinput|function|varname|returnvalue|type|classname|exceptio=
nname|interfacename|methodname|modifier|initializer|ooclass|ooexception|ooi=
nterface|errorcode|errortext|errorname|errortype|lineannotation|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST programlisting
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	continuation	(continues|restarts)	#IMPLIED
+	linenumbering	(numbered|unnumbered)	#IMPLIED
+	startinglinenumber	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+	language	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	xml:space	(preserve)	#IMPLIED
+	width	NMTOKEN	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT caution (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedl=
ist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|ca=
lloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfi=
gure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|med=
iaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literall=
ayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|r=
evhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsy=
nopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|=
tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST caution
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT important (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|ordere=
dlist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|=
calloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informal=
figure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|m=
ediaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|litera=
llayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark=
|revhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructor=
synopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|not=
e|tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST important
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT note (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedlist=
|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|callo=
utlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigur=
e|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediao=
bject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayo=
ut|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revh=
istory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynop=
sis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip=
|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST note
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT tip (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedlist|=
procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|callou=
tlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfigure=
|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|mediaob=
ject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literallayou=
t|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|revhi=
story|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsynops=
is|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|tip|=
warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST tip
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT warning (((title|titleabbrev)*, (info)?), (itemizedlist|orderedl=
ist|procedure|simplelist|variablelist|segmentedlist|glosslist|bibliolist|ca=
lloutlist|qandaset|example|figure|table|equation|informalexample|informalfi=
gure|informaltable|informalequation|sidebar|blockquote|address|epigraph|med=
iaobject|screenshot|task|productionset|constraintdef|msgset|screen|literall=
ayout|programlistingco|screenco|programlisting|synopsis|bridgehead|remark|r=
evhistory|indexterm|funcsynopsis|classsynopsis|methodsynopsis|constructorsy=
nopsis|destructorsynopsis|fieldsynopsis|cmdsynopsis|caution|important|note|=
tip|warning|anchor|para|formalpara|simpara|annotation)+)>
+
+<!ATTLIST warning
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT errorcode (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST errorcode
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT errorname (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST errorname
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT errortext (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST errortext
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT errortype (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscrip=
t|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replacea=
ble)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST errortype
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT systemitem (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscri=
pt|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replace=
able|co)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST systemitem
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+	class	(daemon|domainname|etheraddress|event|eventhandler|filesystem|fqdom=
ainname|groupname|ipaddress|library|macro|netmask|newsgroup|osname|process|=
protocol|resource|server|service|systemname|username)	#IMPLIED
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT option (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript|x=
ref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceable=
)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST option
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT optional (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST optional
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
+<!ELEMENT property (#PCDATA|inlinemediaobject|remark|superscript|subscript=
|xref|link|olink|anchor|biblioref|alt|annotation|indexterm|phrase|replaceab=
le)*>
+
+<!ATTLIST property
+	xmlns	CDATA	#FIXED	"http://docbook.org/ns/docbook"
+	role	CDATA	#IMPLIED
+	%db.common.attributes;
+	%db.common.linking.attributes;
+
+>
+
diff --git a/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-lat1.ent b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-lat1.ent
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffee223
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-lat1.ent
@@ -0,0 +1,196 @@
+<!-- Portions (C) International Organization for Standardization 1986
+     Permission to copy in any form is granted for use with
+     conforming SGML systems and applications as defined in
+     ISO 8879, provided this notice is included in all copies.
+-->
+<!-- Character entity set. Typical invocation:
+    <!ENTITY % HTMLlat1 PUBLIC
+       "-//W3C//ENTITIES Latin 1 for XHTML//EN"
+       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-lat1.ent">
+    %HTMLlat1;
+-->
+
+<!ENTITY nbsp   " "> <!-- no-break space =3D non-breaking space,
+                                  U+00A0 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY iexcl  "¡"> <!-- inverted exclamation mark, U+00A1 ISOnum --=
>
+<!ENTITY cent   "¢"> <!-- cent sign, U+00A2 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY pound  "£"> <!-- pound sign, U+00A3 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY curren "¤"> <!-- currency sign, U+00A4 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY yen    "¥"> <!-- yen sign =3D yuan sign, U+00A5 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY brvbar "¦"> <!-- broken bar =3D broken vertical bar,
+                                  U+00A6 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY sect   "§"> <!-- section sign, U+00A7 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY uml    "¨"> <!-- diaeresis =3D spacing diaeresis,
+                                  U+00A8 ISOdia -->
+<!ENTITY copy   "©"> <!-- copyright sign, U+00A9 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY ordf   "ª"> <!-- feminine ordinal indicator, U+00AA ISOnum -=
->
+<!ENTITY laquo  "«"> <!-- left-pointing double angle quotation mark
+                                  =3D left pointing guillemet, U+00AB ISOn=
um -->
+<!ENTITY not    "¬"> <!-- not sign =3D angled dash,
+                                  U+00AC ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY shy    "­"> <!-- soft hyphen =3D discretionary hyphen,
+                                  U+00AD ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY reg    "®"> <!-- registered sign =3D registered trade mark s=
ign,
+                                  U+00AE ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY macr   "¯"> <!-- macron =3D spacing macron =3D overline
+                                  =3D APL overbar, U+00AF ISOdia -->
+<!ENTITY deg    "°"> <!-- degree sign, U+00B0 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY plusmn "±"> <!-- plus-minus sign =3D plus-or-minus sign,
+                                  U+00B1 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY sup2   "²"> <!-- superscript two =3D superscript digit two
+                                  =3D squared, U+00B2 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY sup3   "³"> <!-- superscript three =3D superscript digit thr=
ee
+                                  =3D cubed, U+00B3 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY acute  "´"> <!-- acute accent =3D spacing acute,
+                                  U+00B4 ISOdia -->
+<!ENTITY micro  "µ"> <!-- micro sign, U+00B5 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY para   "¶"> <!-- pilcrow sign =3D paragraph sign,
+                                  U+00B6 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY middot "·"> <!-- middle dot =3D Georgian comma
+                                  =3D Greek middle dot, U+00B7 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY cedil  "¸"> <!-- cedilla =3D spacing cedilla, U+00B8 ISOdia =
-->
+<!ENTITY sup1   "¹"> <!-- superscript one =3D superscript digit one,
+                                  U+00B9 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY ordm   "º"> <!-- masculine ordinal indicator,
+                                  U+00BA ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY raquo  "»"> <!-- right-pointing double angle quotation mark
+                                  =3D right pointing guillemet, U+00BB ISO=
num -->
+<!ENTITY frac14 "¼"> <!-- vulgar fraction one quarter
+                                  =3D fraction one quarter, U+00BC ISOnum =
-->
+<!ENTITY frac12 "½"> <!-- vulgar fraction one half
+                                  =3D fraction one half, U+00BD ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY frac34 "¾"> <!-- vulgar fraction three quarters
+                                  =3D fraction three quarters, U+00BE ISOn=
um -->
+<!ENTITY iquest "¿"> <!-- inverted question mark
+                                  =3D turned question mark, U+00BF ISOnum =
-->
+<!ENTITY Agrave "À"> <!-- latin capital letter A with grave
+                                  =3D latin capital letter A grave,
+                                  U+00C0 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Aacute "Á"> <!-- latin capital letter A with acute,
+                                  U+00C1 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Acirc  "Â"> <!-- latin capital letter A with circumflex,
+                                  U+00C2 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Atilde "Ã"> <!-- latin capital letter A with tilde,
+                                  U+00C3 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Auml   "Ä"> <!-- latin capital letter A with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00C4 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Aring  "Å"> <!-- latin capital letter A with ring above
+                                  =3D latin capital letter A ring,
+                                  U+00C5 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY AElig  "Æ"> <!-- latin capital letter AE
+                                  =3D latin capital ligature AE,
+                                  U+00C6 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ccedil "Ç"> <!-- latin capital letter C with cedilla,
+                                  U+00C7 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Egrave "È"> <!-- latin capital letter E with grave,
+                                  U+00C8 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Eacute "É"> <!-- latin capital letter E with acute,
+                                  U+00C9 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ecirc  "Ê"> <!-- latin capital letter E with circumflex,
+                                  U+00CA ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Euml   "Ë"> <!-- latin capital letter E with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00CB ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Igrave "Ì"> <!-- latin capital letter I with grave,
+                                  U+00CC ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Iacute "Í"> <!-- latin capital letter I with acute,
+                                  U+00CD ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Icirc  "Î"> <!-- latin capital letter I with circumflex,
+                                  U+00CE ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Iuml   "Ï"> <!-- latin capital letter I with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00CF ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ETH    "Ð"> <!-- latin capital letter ETH, U+00D0 ISOlat1 --=
>
+<!ENTITY Ntilde "Ñ"> <!-- latin capital letter N with tilde,
+                                  U+00D1 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ograve "Ò"> <!-- latin capital letter O with grave,
+                                  U+00D2 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Oacute "Ó"> <!-- latin capital letter O with acute,
+                                  U+00D3 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ocirc  "Ô"> <!-- latin capital letter O with circumflex,
+                                  U+00D4 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Otilde "Õ"> <!-- latin capital letter O with tilde,
+                                  U+00D5 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ouml   "Ö"> <!-- latin capital letter O with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00D6 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY times  "×"> <!-- multiplication sign, U+00D7 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY Oslash "Ø"> <!-- latin capital letter O with stroke
+                                  =3D latin capital letter O slash,
+                                  U+00D8 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ugrave "Ù"> <!-- latin capital letter U with grave,
+                                  U+00D9 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Uacute "Ú"> <!-- latin capital letter U with acute,
+                                  U+00DA ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Ucirc  "Û"> <!-- latin capital letter U with circumflex,
+                                  U+00DB ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Uuml   "Ü"> <!-- latin capital letter U with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00DC ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY Yacute "Ý"> <!-- latin capital letter Y with acute,
+                                  U+00DD ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY THORN  "Þ"> <!-- latin capital letter THORN,
+                                  U+00DE ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY szlig  "ß"> <!-- latin small letter sharp s =3D ess-zed,
+                                  U+00DF ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY agrave "à"> <!-- latin small letter a with grave
+                                  =3D latin small letter a grave,
+                                  U+00E0 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY aacute "á"> <!-- latin small letter a with acute,
+                                  U+00E1 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY acirc  "â"> <!-- latin small letter a with circumflex,
+                                  U+00E2 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY atilde "ã"> <!-- latin small letter a with tilde,
+                                  U+00E3 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY auml   "ä"> <!-- latin small letter a with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00E4 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY aring  "å"> <!-- latin small letter a with ring above
+                                  =3D latin small letter a ring,
+                                  U+00E5 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY aelig  "æ"> <!-- latin small letter ae
+                                  =3D latin small ligature ae, U+00E6 ISOl=
at1 -->
+<!ENTITY ccedil "ç"> <!-- latin small letter c with cedilla,
+                                  U+00E7 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY egrave "è"> <!-- latin small letter e with grave,
+                                  U+00E8 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY eacute "é"> <!-- latin small letter e with acute,
+                                  U+00E9 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ecirc  "ê"> <!-- latin small letter e with circumflex,
+                                  U+00EA ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY euml   "ë"> <!-- latin small letter e with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00EB ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY igrave "ì"> <!-- latin small letter i with grave,
+                                  U+00EC ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY iacute "í"> <!-- latin small letter i with acute,
+                                  U+00ED ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY icirc  "î"> <!-- latin small letter i with circumflex,
+                                  U+00EE ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY iuml   "ï"> <!-- latin small letter i with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00EF ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY eth    "ð"> <!-- latin small letter eth, U+00F0 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ntilde "ñ"> <!-- latin small letter n with tilde,
+                                  U+00F1 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ograve "ò"> <!-- latin small letter o with grave,
+                                  U+00F2 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY oacute "ó"> <!-- latin small letter o with acute,
+                                  U+00F3 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ocirc  "ô"> <!-- latin small letter o with circumflex,
+                                  U+00F4 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY otilde "õ"> <!-- latin small letter o with tilde,
+                                  U+00F5 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ouml   "ö"> <!-- latin small letter o with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00F6 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY divide "÷"> <!-- division sign, U+00F7 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY oslash "ø"> <!-- latin small letter o with stroke,
+                                  =3D latin small letter o slash,
+                                  U+00F8 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ugrave "ù"> <!-- latin small letter u with grave,
+                                  U+00F9 ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY uacute "ú"> <!-- latin small letter u with acute,
+                                  U+00FA ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY ucirc  "û"> <!-- latin small letter u with circumflex,
+                                  U+00FB ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY uuml   "ü"> <!-- latin small letter u with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00FC ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY yacute "ý"> <!-- latin small letter y with acute,
+                                  U+00FD ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY thorn  "þ"> <!-- latin small letter thorn,
+                                  U+00FE ISOlat1 -->
+<!ENTITY yuml   "ÿ"> <!-- latin small letter y with diaeresis,
+                                  U+00FF ISOlat1 -->
diff --git a/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-special.ent b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-special.=
ent
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca358b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-special.ent
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+<!-- Special characters for XHTML -->
+
+<!-- Character entity set. Typical invocation:
+     <!ENTITY % HTMLspecial PUBLIC
+        "-//W3C//ENTITIES Special for XHTML//EN"
+        "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-special.ent">
+     %HTMLspecial;
+-->
+
+<!-- Portions (C) International Organization for Standardization 1986:
+     Permission to copy in any form is granted for use with
+     conforming SGML systems and applications as defined in
+     ISO 8879, provided this notice is included in all copies.
+-->
+
+<!-- Relevant ISO entity set is given unless names are newly introduced.
+     New names (i.e., not in ISO 8879 list) do not clash with any
+     existing ISO 8879 entity names. ISO 10646 character numbers
+     are given for each character, in hex. values are decimal
+     conversions of the ISO 10646 values and refer to the document
+     character set. Names are Unicode names.=20
+-->
+
+<!-- C0 Controls and Basic Latin -->
+<!ENTITY quot    """> <!--  quotation mark, U+0022 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY amp     "&#38;"> <!--  ampersand, U+0026 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY lt      "&#60;"> <!--  less-than sign, U+003C ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY gt      ">"> <!--  greater-than sign, U+003E ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY apos	 "'"> <!--  apostrophe =3D APL quote, U+0027 ISOnum -->
+
+<!-- Latin Extended-A -->
+<!ENTITY OElig   "Œ"> <!--  latin capital ligature OE,
+                                    U+0152 ISOlat2 -->
+<!ENTITY oelig   "œ"> <!--  latin small ligature oe, U+0153 ISOlat2 -=
->
+<!-- ligature is a misnomer, this is a separate character in some language=
s -->
+<!ENTITY Scaron  "Š"> <!--  latin capital letter S with caron,
+                                    U+0160 ISOlat2 -->
+<!ENTITY scaron  "š"> <!--  latin small letter s with caron,
+                                    U+0161 ISOlat2 -->
+<!ENTITY Yuml    "Ÿ"> <!--  latin capital letter Y with diaeresis,
+                                    U+0178 ISOlat2 -->
+
+<!-- Spacing Modifier Letters -->
+<!ENTITY circ    "ˆ"> <!--  modifier letter circumflex accent,
+                                    U+02C6 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY tilde   "˜"> <!--  small tilde, U+02DC ISOdia -->
+
+<!-- General Punctuation -->
+<!ENTITY ensp    " "> <!-- en space, U+2002 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY emsp    " "> <!-- em space, U+2003 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY thinsp  " "> <!-- thin space, U+2009 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY zwnj    "‌"> <!-- zero width non-joiner,
+                                    U+200C NEW RFC 2070 -->
+<!ENTITY zwj     "‍"> <!-- zero width joiner, U+200D NEW RFC 2070 --=
>
+<!ENTITY lrm     "‎"> <!-- left-to-right mark, U+200E NEW RFC 2070 -=
->
+<!ENTITY rlm     "‏"> <!-- right-to-left mark, U+200F NEW RFC 2070 -=
->
+<!ENTITY ndash   "–"> <!-- en dash, U+2013 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY mdash   "—"> <!-- em dash, U+2014 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY lsquo   "‘"> <!-- left single quotation mark,
+                                    U+2018 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY rsquo   "’"> <!-- right single quotation mark,
+                                    U+2019 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY sbquo   "‚"> <!-- single low-9 quotation mark, U+201A NEW -=
->
+<!ENTITY ldquo   "“"> <!-- left double quotation mark,
+                                    U+201C ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY rdquo   "”"> <!-- right double quotation mark,
+                                    U+201D ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY bdquo   "„"> <!-- double low-9 quotation mark, U+201E NEW -=
->
+<!ENTITY dagger  "†"> <!-- dagger, U+2020 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY Dagger  "‡"> <!-- double dagger, U+2021 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY permil  "‰"> <!-- per mille sign, U+2030 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY lsaquo  "‹"> <!-- single left-pointing angle quotation mark=
,
+                                    U+2039 ISO proposed -->
+<!-- lsaquo is proposed but not yet ISO standardized -->
+<!ENTITY rsaquo  "›"> <!-- single right-pointing angle quotation mar=
k,
+                                    U+203A ISO proposed -->
+<!-- rsaquo is proposed but not yet ISO standardized -->
+
+<!-- Currency Symbols -->
+<!ENTITY euro   "€"> <!--  euro sign, U+20AC NEW -->
diff --git a/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-symbol.ent b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-symbol.en=
t
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63c2abf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml-symbol.ent
@@ -0,0 +1,237 @@
+<!-- Mathematical, Greek and Symbolic characters for XHTML -->
+
+<!-- Character entity set. Typical invocation:
+     <!ENTITY % HTMLsymbol PUBLIC
+        "-//W3C//ENTITIES Symbols for XHTML//EN"
+        "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-symbol.ent">
+     %HTMLsymbol;
+-->
+
+<!-- Portions (C) International Organization for Standardization 1986:
+     Permission to copy in any form is granted for use with
+     conforming SGML systems and applications as defined in
+     ISO 8879, provided this notice is included in all copies.
+-->
+
+<!-- Relevant ISO entity set is given unless names are newly introduced.
+     New names (i.e., not in ISO 8879 list) do not clash with any
+     existing ISO 8879 entity names. ISO 10646 character numbers
+     are given for each character, in hex. values are decimal
+     conversions of the ISO 10646 values and refer to the document
+     character set. Names are Unicode names.=20
+-->
+
+<!-- Latin Extended-B -->
+<!ENTITY fnof     "ƒ"> <!-- latin small letter f with hook =3D functi=
on
+                                    =3D florin, U+0192 ISOtech -->
+
+<!-- Greek -->
+<!ENTITY Alpha    "Α"> <!-- greek capital letter alpha, U+0391 -->
+<!ENTITY Beta     "Β"> <!-- greek capital letter beta, U+0392 -->
+<!ENTITY Gamma    "Γ"> <!-- greek capital letter gamma,
+                                    U+0393 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Delta    "Δ"> <!-- greek capital letter delta,
+                                    U+0394 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Epsilon  "Ε"> <!-- greek capital letter epsilon, U+0395 -->
+<!ENTITY Zeta     "Ζ"> <!-- greek capital letter zeta, U+0396 -->
+<!ENTITY Eta      "Η"> <!-- greek capital letter eta, U+0397 -->
+<!ENTITY Theta    "Θ"> <!-- greek capital letter theta,
+                                    U+0398 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Iota     "Ι"> <!-- greek capital letter iota, U+0399 -->
+<!ENTITY Kappa    "Κ"> <!-- greek capital letter kappa, U+039A -->
+<!ENTITY Lambda   "Λ"> <!-- greek capital letter lamda,
+                                    U+039B ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Mu       "Μ"> <!-- greek capital letter mu, U+039C -->
+<!ENTITY Nu       "Ν"> <!-- greek capital letter nu, U+039D -->
+<!ENTITY Xi       "Ξ"> <!-- greek capital letter xi, U+039E ISOgrk3 -=
->
+<!ENTITY Omicron  "Ο"> <!-- greek capital letter omicron, U+039F -->
+<!ENTITY Pi       "Π"> <!-- greek capital letter pi, U+03A0 ISOgrk3 -=
->
+<!ENTITY Rho      "Ρ"> <!-- greek capital letter rho, U+03A1 -->
+<!-- there is no Sigmaf, and no U+03A2 character either -->
+<!ENTITY Sigma    "Σ"> <!-- greek capital letter sigma,
+                                    U+03A3 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Tau      "Τ"> <!-- greek capital letter tau, U+03A4 -->
+<!ENTITY Upsilon  "Υ"> <!-- greek capital letter upsilon,
+                                    U+03A5 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Phi      "Φ"> <!-- greek capital letter phi,
+                                    U+03A6 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Chi      "Χ"> <!-- greek capital letter chi, U+03A7 -->
+<!ENTITY Psi      "Ψ"> <!-- greek capital letter psi,
+                                    U+03A8 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY Omega    "Ω"> <!-- greek capital letter omega,
+                                    U+03A9 ISOgrk3 -->
+
+<!ENTITY alpha    "α"> <!-- greek small letter alpha,
+                                    U+03B1 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY beta     "β"> <!-- greek small letter beta, U+03B2 ISOgrk3 -=
->
+<!ENTITY gamma    "γ"> <!-- greek small letter gamma,
+                                    U+03B3 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY delta    "δ"> <!-- greek small letter delta,
+                                    U+03B4 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY epsilon  "ε"> <!-- greek small letter epsilon,
+                                    U+03B5 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY zeta     "ζ"> <!-- greek small letter zeta, U+03B6 ISOgrk3 -=
->
+<!ENTITY eta      "η"> <!-- greek small letter eta, U+03B7 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY theta    "θ"> <!-- greek small letter theta,
+                                    U+03B8 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY iota     "ι"> <!-- greek small letter iota, U+03B9 ISOgrk3 -=
->
+<!ENTITY kappa    "κ"> <!-- greek small letter kappa,
+                                    U+03BA ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY lambda   "λ"> <!-- greek small letter lamda,
+                                    U+03BB ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY mu       "μ"> <!-- greek small letter mu, U+03BC ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY nu       "ν"> <!-- greek small letter nu, U+03BD ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY xi       "ξ"> <!-- greek small letter xi, U+03BE ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY omicron  "ο"> <!-- greek small letter omicron, U+03BF NEW --=
>
+<!ENTITY pi       "π"> <!-- greek small letter pi, U+03C0 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY rho      "ρ"> <!-- greek small letter rho, U+03C1 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY sigmaf   "ς"> <!-- greek small letter final sigma,
+                                    U+03C2 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY sigma    "σ"> <!-- greek small letter sigma,
+                                    U+03C3 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY tau      "τ"> <!-- greek small letter tau, U+03C4 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY upsilon  "υ"> <!-- greek small letter upsilon,
+                                    U+03C5 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY phi      "φ"> <!-- greek small letter phi, U+03C6 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY chi      "χ"> <!-- greek small letter chi, U+03C7 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY psi      "ψ"> <!-- greek small letter psi, U+03C8 ISOgrk3 --=
>
+<!ENTITY omega    "ω"> <!-- greek small letter omega,
+                                    U+03C9 ISOgrk3 -->
+<!ENTITY thetasym "ϑ"> <!-- greek theta symbol,
+                                    U+03D1 NEW -->
+<!ENTITY upsih    "ϒ"> <!-- greek upsilon with hook symbol,
+                                    U+03D2 NEW -->
+<!ENTITY piv      "ϖ"> <!-- greek pi symbol, U+03D6 ISOgrk3 -->
+
+<!-- General Punctuation -->
+<!ENTITY bull     "•"> <!-- bullet =3D black small circle,
+                                     U+2022 ISOpub  -->
+<!-- bullet is NOT the same as bullet operator, U+2219 -->
+<!ENTITY hellip   "…"> <!-- horizontal ellipsis =3D three dot leader=
,
+                                     U+2026 ISOpub  -->
+<!ENTITY prime    "′"> <!-- prime =3D minutes =3D feet, U+2032 ISOte=
ch -->
+<!ENTITY Prime    "″"> <!-- double prime =3D seconds =3D inches,
+                                     U+2033 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY oline    "‾"> <!-- overline =3D spacing overscore,
+                                     U+203E NEW -->
+<!ENTITY frasl    "⁄"> <!-- fraction slash, U+2044 NEW -->
+
+<!-- Letterlike Symbols -->
+<!ENTITY weierp   "℘"> <!-- script capital P =3D power set
+                                     =3D Weierstrass p, U+2118 ISOamso -->
+<!ENTITY image    "ℑ"> <!-- black-letter capital I =3D imaginary par=
t,
+                                     U+2111 ISOamso -->
+<!ENTITY real     "ℜ"> <!-- black-letter capital R =3D real part sym=
bol,
+                                     U+211C ISOamso -->
+<!ENTITY trade    "™"> <!-- trade mark sign, U+2122 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY alefsym  "ℵ"> <!-- alef symbol =3D first transfinite cardin=
al,
+                                     U+2135 NEW -->
+<!-- alef symbol is NOT the same as hebrew letter alef,
+     U+05D0 although the same glyph could be used to depict both character=
s -->
+
+<!-- Arrows -->
+<!ENTITY larr     "←"> <!-- leftwards arrow, U+2190 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY uarr     "↑"> <!-- upwards arrow, U+2191 ISOnum-->
+<!ENTITY rarr     "→"> <!-- rightwards arrow, U+2192 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY darr     "↓"> <!-- downwards arrow, U+2193 ISOnum -->
+<!ENTITY harr     "↔"> <!-- left right arrow, U+2194 ISOamsa -->
+<!ENTITY crarr    "↵"> <!-- downwards arrow with corner leftwards
+                                     =3D carriage return, U+21B5 NEW -->
+<!ENTITY lArr     "⇐"> <!-- leftwards double arrow, U+21D0 ISOtech -=
->
+<!-- Unicode does not say that lArr is the same as the 'is implied by' arr=
ow
+    but also does not have any other character for that function. So lArr =
can
+    be used for 'is implied by' as ISOtech suggests -->
+<!ENTITY uArr     "⇑"> <!-- upwards double arrow, U+21D1 ISOamsa -->
+<!ENTITY rArr     "⇒"> <!-- rightwards double arrow,
+                                     U+21D2 ISOtech -->
+<!-- Unicode does not say this is the 'implies' character but does not hav=
e=20
+     another character with this function so rArr can be used for 'implies=
'
+     as ISOtech suggests -->
+<!ENTITY dArr     "⇓"> <!-- downwards double arrow, U+21D3 ISOamsa -=
->
+<!ENTITY hArr     "⇔"> <!-- left right double arrow,
+                                     U+21D4 ISOamsa -->
+
+<!-- Mathematical Operators -->
+<!ENTITY forall   "∀"> <!-- for all, U+2200 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY part     "∂"> <!-- partial differential, U+2202 ISOtech  --=
>
+<!ENTITY exist    "∃"> <!-- there exists, U+2203 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY empty    "∅"> <!-- empty set =3D null set, U+2205 ISOamso -=
->
+<!ENTITY nabla    "∇"> <!-- nabla =3D backward difference,
+                                     U+2207 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY isin     "∈"> <!-- element of, U+2208 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY notin    "∉"> <!-- not an element of, U+2209 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY ni       "∋"> <!-- contains as member, U+220B ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY prod     "∏"> <!-- n-ary product =3D product sign,
+                                     U+220F ISOamsb -->
+<!-- prod is NOT the same character as U+03A0 'greek capital letter pi' th=
ough
+     the same glyph might be used for both -->
+<!ENTITY sum      "∑"> <!-- n-ary summation, U+2211 ISOamsb -->
+<!-- sum is NOT the same character as U+03A3 'greek capital letter sigma'
+     though the same glyph might be used for both -->
+<!ENTITY minus    "−"> <!-- minus sign, U+2212 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY lowast   "∗"> <!-- asterisk operator, U+2217 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY radic    "√"> <!-- square root =3D radical sign,
+                                     U+221A ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY prop     "∝"> <!-- proportional to, U+221D ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY infin    "∞"> <!-- infinity, U+221E ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY ang      "∠"> <!-- angle, U+2220 ISOamso -->
+<!ENTITY and      "∧"> <!-- logical and =3D wedge, U+2227 ISOtech --=
>
+<!ENTITY or       "∨"> <!-- logical or =3D vee, U+2228 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY cap      "∩"> <!-- intersection =3D cap, U+2229 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY cup      "∪"> <!-- union =3D cup, U+222A ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY int      "∫"> <!-- integral, U+222B ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY there4   "∴"> <!-- therefore, U+2234 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY sim      "∼"> <!-- tilde operator =3D varies with =3D simil=
ar to,
+                                     U+223C ISOtech -->
+<!-- tilde operator is NOT the same character as the tilde, U+007E,
+     although the same glyph might be used to represent both  -->
+<!ENTITY cong     "≅"> <!-- approximately equal to, U+2245 ISOtech -=
->
+<!ENTITY asymp    "≈"> <!-- almost equal to =3D asymptotic to,
+                                     U+2248 ISOamsr -->
+<!ENTITY ne       "≠"> <!-- not equal to, U+2260 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY equiv    "≡"> <!-- identical to, U+2261 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY le       "≤"> <!-- less-than or equal to, U+2264 ISOtech --=
>
+<!ENTITY ge       "≥"> <!-- greater-than or equal to,
+                                     U+2265 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY sub      "⊂"> <!-- subset of, U+2282 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY sup      "⊃"> <!-- superset of, U+2283 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY nsub     "⊄"> <!-- not a subset of, U+2284 ISOamsn -->
+<!ENTITY sube     "⊆"> <!-- subset of or equal to, U+2286 ISOtech --=
>
+<!ENTITY supe     "⊇"> <!-- superset of or equal to,
+                                     U+2287 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY oplus    "⊕"> <!-- circled plus =3D direct sum,
+                                     U+2295 ISOamsb -->
+<!ENTITY otimes   "⊗"> <!-- circled times =3D vector product,
+                                     U+2297 ISOamsb -->
+<!ENTITY perp     "⊥"> <!-- up tack =3D orthogonal to =3D perpendicu=
lar,
+                                     U+22A5 ISOtech -->
+<!ENTITY sdot     "⋅"> <!-- dot operator, U+22C5 ISOamsb -->
+<!-- dot operator is NOT the same character as U+00B7 middle dot -->
+
+<!-- Miscellaneous Technical -->
+<!ENTITY lceil    "⌈"> <!-- left ceiling =3D APL upstile,
+                                     U+2308 ISOamsc  -->
+<!ENTITY rceil    "⌉"> <!-- right ceiling, U+2309 ISOamsc  -->
+<!ENTITY lfloor   "⌊"> <!-- left floor =3D APL downstile,
+                                     U+230A ISOamsc  -->
+<!ENTITY rfloor   "⌋"> <!-- right floor, U+230B ISOamsc  -->
+<!ENTITY lang     "〈"> <!-- left-pointing angle bracket =3D bra,
+                                     U+2329 ISOtech -->
+<!-- lang is NOT the same character as U+003C 'less than sign'=20
+     or U+2039 'single left-pointing angle quotation mark' -->
+<!ENTITY rang     "〉"> <!-- right-pointing angle bracket =3D ket,
+                                     U+232A ISOtech -->
+<!-- rang is NOT the same character as U+003E 'greater than sign'=20
+     or U+203A 'single right-pointing angle quotation mark' -->
+
+<!-- Geometric Shapes -->
+<!ENTITY loz      "◊"> <!-- lozenge, U+25CA ISOpub -->
+
+<!-- Miscellaneous Symbols -->
+<!ENTITY spades   "♠"> <!-- black spade suit, U+2660 ISOpub -->
+<!-- black here seems to mean filled as opposed to hollow -->
+<!ENTITY clubs    "♣"> <!-- black club suit =3D shamrock,
+                                     U+2663 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY hearts   "♥"> <!-- black heart suit =3D valentine,
+                                     U+2665 ISOpub -->
+<!ENTITY diams    "♦"> <!-- black diamond suit, U+2666 ISOpub -->
diff --git a/todocbook/dtd/xhtml1-strict.dtd b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml1-strict.=
dtd
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2927b9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/dtd/xhtml1-strict.dtd
@@ -0,0 +1,978 @@
+<!--
+   Extensible HTML version 1.0 Strict DTD
+
+   This is the same as HTML 4 Strict except for
+   changes due to the differences between XML and SGML.
+
+   Namespace =3D http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml
+
+   For further information, see: http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1
+
+   Copyright (c) 1998-2002 W3C (MIT, INRIA, Keio),
+   All Rights Reserved.=20
+
+   This DTD module is identified by the PUBLIC and SYSTEM identifiers:
+
+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   SYSTEM "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"
+
+   $Revision: 1.1 $
+   $Date: 2002/08/01 13:56:03 $
+
+-->
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Character mnemonic en=
tities =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ENTITY % HTMLlat1 PUBLIC
+   "-//W3C//ENTITIES Latin 1 for XHTML//EN"
+   "xhtml-lat1.ent">
+%HTMLlat1;
+
+<!ENTITY % HTMLsymbol PUBLIC
+   "-//W3C//ENTITIES Symbols for XHTML//EN"
+   "xhtml-symbol.ent">
+%HTMLsymbol;
+
+<!ENTITY % HTMLspecial PUBLIC
+   "-//W3C//ENTITIES Special for XHTML//EN"
+   "xhtml-special.ent">
+%HTMLspecial;
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Imported Names =
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ENTITY % ContentType "CDATA">
+    <!-- media type, as per [RFC2045] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % ContentTypes "CDATA">
+    <!-- comma-separated list of media types, as per [RFC2045] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Charset "CDATA">
+    <!-- a character encoding, as per [RFC2045] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Charsets "CDATA">
+    <!-- a space separated list of character encodings, as per [RFC2045] -=
->
+
+<!ENTITY % LanguageCode "NMTOKEN">
+    <!-- a language code, as per [RFC3066] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Character "CDATA">
+    <!-- a single character, as per section 2.2 of [XML] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Number "CDATA">
+    <!-- one or more digits -->
+
+<!ENTITY % LinkTypes "CDATA">
+    <!-- space-separated list of link types -->
+
+<!ENTITY % MediaDesc "CDATA">
+    <!-- single or comma-separated list of media descriptors -->
+
+<!ENTITY % URI "CDATA">
+    <!-- a Uniform Resource Identifier, see [RFC2396] -->
+
+<!ENTITY % UriList "CDATA">
+    <!-- a space separated list of Uniform Resource Identifiers -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Datetime "CDATA">
+    <!-- date and time information. ISO date format -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Script "CDATA">
+    <!-- script expression -->
+
+<!ENTITY % StyleSheet "CDATA">
+    <!-- style sheet data -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Text "CDATA">
+    <!-- used for titles etc. -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Length "CDATA">
+    <!-- nn for pixels or nn% for percentage length -->
+
+<!ENTITY % MultiLength "CDATA">
+    <!-- pixel, percentage, or relative -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Pixels "CDATA">
+    <!-- integer representing length in pixels -->
+
+<!-- these are used for image maps -->
+
+<!ENTITY % Shape "(rect|circle|poly|default)">
+
+<!ENTITY % Coords "CDATA">
+    <!-- comma separated list of lengths -->
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Generic Attr=
ibutes =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- core attributes common to most elements
+  id       document-wide unique id
+  class    space separated list of classes
+  style    associated style info
+  title    advisory title/amplification
+-->
+<!ENTITY % coreattrs
+ "id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  class       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  style       %StyleSheet;   #IMPLIED
+  title       %Text;         #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!-- internationalization attributes
+  lang        language code (backwards compatible)
+  xml:lang    language code (as per XML 1.0 spec)
+  dir         direction for weak/neutral text
+-->
+<!ENTITY % i18n
+ "lang        %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  xml:lang    %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  dir         (ltr|rtl)      #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!-- attributes for common UI events
+  onclick     a pointer button was clicked
+  ondblclick  a pointer button was double clicked
+  onmousedown a pointer button was pressed down
+  onmouseup   a pointer button was released
+  onmousemove a pointer was moved onto the element
+  onmouseout  a pointer was moved away from the element
+  onkeypress  a key was pressed and released
+  onkeydown   a key was pressed down
+  onkeyup     a key was released
+-->
+<!ENTITY % events
+ "onclick     %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  ondblclick  %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onmousedown %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onmouseup   %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onmouseover %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onmousemove %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onmouseout  %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onkeypress  %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onkeydown   %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onkeyup     %Script;       #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!-- attributes for elements that can get the focus
+  accesskey   accessibility key character
+  tabindex    position in tabbing order
+  onfocus     the element got the focus
+  onblur      the element lost the focus
+-->
+<!ENTITY % focus
+ "accesskey   %Character;    #IMPLIED
+  tabindex    %Number;       #IMPLIED
+  onfocus     %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onblur      %Script;       #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!ENTITY % attrs "%coreattrs; %i18n; %events;">
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Text Element=
s =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ENTITY % special.pre
+   "br | span | bdo | map">
+
+
+<!ENTITY % special
+   "%special.pre; | object | img ">
+
+<!ENTITY % fontstyle "tt | i | b | big | small ">
+
+<!ENTITY % phrase "em | strong | dfn | code | q |
+                   samp | kbd | var | cite | abbr | acronym | sub | sup ">
+
+<!ENTITY % inline.forms "input | select | textarea | label | button">
+
+<!-- these can occur at block or inline level -->
+<!ENTITY % misc.inline "ins | del | script">
+
+<!-- these can only occur at block level -->
+<!ENTITY % misc "noscript | %misc.inline;">
+
+<!ENTITY % inline "a | %special; | %fontstyle; | %phrase; | %inline.forms;=
">
+
+<!-- %Inline; covers inline or "text-level" elements -->
+<!ENTITY % Inline "(#PCDATA | %inline; | %misc.inline;)*">
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Block level ele=
ments =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ENTITY % heading "h1|h2|h3|h4|h5|h6">
+<!ENTITY % lists "ul | ol | dl">
+<!ENTITY % blocktext "pre | hr | blockquote | address">
+
+<!ENTITY % block
+     "p | %heading; | div | %lists; | %blocktext; | fieldset | table">
+
+<!ENTITY % Block "(%block; | form | %misc;)*">
+
+<!-- %Flow; mixes block and inline and is used for list items etc. -->
+<!ENTITY % Flow "(#PCDATA | %block; | form | %inline; | %misc;)*">
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Content models =
for exclusions =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D-->
+
+<!-- a elements use %Inline; excluding a -->
+
+<!ENTITY % a.content
+   "(#PCDATA | %special; | %fontstyle; | %phrase; | %inline.forms; | %misc=
.inline;)*">
+
+<!-- pre uses %Inline excluding big, small, sup or sup -->
+
+<!ENTITY % pre.content
+   "(#PCDATA | a | %fontstyle; | %phrase; | %special.pre; | %misc.inline;
+      | %inline.forms;)*">
+
+<!-- form uses %Block; excluding form -->
+
+<!ENTITY % form.content "(%block; | %misc;)*">
+
+<!-- button uses %Flow; but excludes a, form and form controls -->
+
+<!ENTITY % button.content
+   "(#PCDATA | p | %heading; | div | %lists; | %blocktext; |
+    table | %special; | %fontstyle; | %phrase; | %misc;)*">
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Document Structure =
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- the namespace URI designates the document profile -->
+
+<!ELEMENT html (head, body)>
+<!ATTLIST html
+  %i18n;
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  xmlns       %URI;          #FIXED 'http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml'
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Document Head =3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ENTITY % head.misc "(script|style|meta|link|object)*">
+
+<!-- content model is %head.misc; combined with a single
+     title and an optional base element in any order -->
+
+<!ELEMENT head (%head.misc;,
+     ((title, %head.misc;, (base, %head.misc;)?) |
+      (base, %head.misc;, (title, %head.misc;))))>
+
+<!ATTLIST head
+  %i18n;
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  profile     %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!-- The title element is not considered part of the flow of text.
+       It should be displayed, for example as the page header or
+       window title. Exactly one title is required per document.
+    -->
+<!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST title=20
+  %i18n;
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!-- document base URI -->
+
+<!ELEMENT base EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST base
+  href        %URI;          #REQUIRED
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!-- generic metainformation -->
+<!ELEMENT meta EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST meta
+  %i18n;
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  http-equiv  CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  content     CDATA          #REQUIRED
+  scheme      CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--
+  Relationship values can be used in principle:
+
+   a) for document specific toolbars/menus when used
+      with the link element in document head e.g.
+        start, contents, previous, next, index, end, help
+   b) to link to a separate style sheet (rel=3D"stylesheet")
+   c) to make a link to a script (rel=3D"script")
+   d) by stylesheets to control how collections of
+      html nodes are rendered into printed documents
+   e) to make a link to a printable version of this document
+      e.g. a PostScript or PDF version (rel=3D"alternate" media=3D"print")
+-->
+
+<!ELEMENT link EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST link
+  %attrs;
+  charset     %Charset;      #IMPLIED
+  href        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  hreflang    %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  type        %ContentType;  #IMPLIED
+  rel         %LinkTypes;    #IMPLIED
+  rev         %LinkTypes;    #IMPLIED
+  media       %MediaDesc;    #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!-- style info, which may include CDATA sections -->
+<!ELEMENT style (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST style
+  %i18n;
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  type        %ContentType;  #REQUIRED
+  media       %MediaDesc;    #IMPLIED
+  title       %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  xml:space   (preserve)     #FIXED 'preserve'
+  >
+
+<!-- script statements, which may include CDATA sections -->
+<!ELEMENT script (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST script
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  charset     %Charset;      #IMPLIED
+  type        %ContentType;  #REQUIRED
+  src         %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  defer       (defer)        #IMPLIED
+  xml:space   (preserve)     #FIXED 'preserve'
+  >
+
+<!-- alternate content container for non script-based rendering -->
+
+<!ELEMENT noscript %Block;>
+<!ATTLIST noscript
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Document Bod=
y =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ELEMENT body %Block;>
+<!ATTLIST body
+  %attrs;
+  onload          %Script;   #IMPLIED
+  onunload        %Script;   #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT div %Flow;>  <!-- generic language/style container -->
+<!ATTLIST div
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Paragraphs =
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ELEMENT p %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST p
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Headings =3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!--
+  There are six levels of headings from h1 (the most important)
+  to h6 (the least important).
+-->
+
+<!ELEMENT h1  %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h1
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!ELEMENT h2 %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h2
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!ELEMENT h3 %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h3
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!ELEMENT h4 %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h4
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!ELEMENT h5 %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h5
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!ELEMENT h6 %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST h6
+   %attrs;
+   >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Lists =3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- Unordered list -->
+
+<!ELEMENT ul (li)+>
+<!ATTLIST ul
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!-- Ordered (numbered) list -->
+
+<!ELEMENT ol (li)+>
+<!ATTLIST ol
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!-- list item -->
+
+<!ELEMENT li %Flow;>
+<!ATTLIST li
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!-- definition lists - dt for term, dd for its definition -->
+
+<!ELEMENT dl (dt|dd)+>
+<!ATTLIST dl
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT dt %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST dt
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT dd %Flow;>
+<!ATTLIST dd
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Address =3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- information on author -->
+
+<!ELEMENT address %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST address
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Horizontal R=
ule =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ELEMENT hr EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST hr
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Preformatted=
 Text =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- content is %Inline; excluding "img|object|big|small|sub|sup" -->
+
+<!ELEMENT pre %pre.content;>
+<!ATTLIST pre
+  %attrs;
+  xml:space (preserve) #FIXED 'preserve'
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Block-like Q=
uotes =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ELEMENT blockquote %Block;>
+<!ATTLIST blockquote
+  %attrs;
+  cite        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Inserted/Del=
eted Text =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!--
+  ins/del are allowed in block and inline content, but its
+  inappropriate to include block content within an ins element
+  occurring in inline content.
+-->
+<!ELEMENT ins %Flow;>
+<!ATTLIST ins
+  %attrs;
+  cite        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  datetime    %Datetime;     #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT del %Flow;>
+<!ATTLIST del
+  %attrs;
+  cite        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  datetime    %Datetime;     #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D The Anchor Elem=
ent =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- content is %Inline; except that anchors shouldn't be nested -->
+
+<!ELEMENT a %a.content;>
+<!ATTLIST a
+  %attrs;
+  %focus;
+  charset     %Charset;      #IMPLIED
+  type        %ContentType;  #IMPLIED
+  name        NMTOKEN        #IMPLIED
+  href        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  hreflang    %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  rel         %LinkTypes;    #IMPLIED
+  rev         %LinkTypes;    #IMPLIED
+  shape       %Shape;        "rect"
+  coords      %Coords;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Inline=
 Elements =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!ELEMENT span %Inline;> <!-- generic language/style container -->
+<!ATTLIST span
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT bdo %Inline;>  <!-- I18N BiDi over-ride -->
+<!ATTLIST bdo
+  %coreattrs;
+  %events;
+  lang        %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  xml:lang    %LanguageCode; #IMPLIED
+  dir         (ltr|rtl)      #REQUIRED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT br EMPTY>   <!-- forced line break -->
+<!ATTLIST br
+  %coreattrs;
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT em %Inline;>   <!-- emphasis -->
+<!ATTLIST em %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT strong %Inline;>   <!-- strong emphasis -->
+<!ATTLIST strong %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT dfn %Inline;>   <!-- definitional -->
+<!ATTLIST dfn %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT code %Inline;>   <!-- program code -->
+<!ATTLIST code %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT samp %Inline;>   <!-- sample -->
+<!ATTLIST samp %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT kbd %Inline;>  <!-- something user would type -->
+<!ATTLIST kbd %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT var %Inline;>   <!-- variable -->
+<!ATTLIST var %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT cite %Inline;>   <!-- citation -->
+<!ATTLIST cite %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT abbr %Inline;>   <!-- abbreviation -->
+<!ATTLIST abbr %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT acronym %Inline;>   <!-- acronym -->
+<!ATTLIST acronym %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT q %Inline;>   <!-- inlined quote -->
+<!ATTLIST q
+  %attrs;
+  cite        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT sub %Inline;> <!-- subscript -->
+<!ATTLIST sub %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT sup %Inline;> <!-- superscript -->
+<!ATTLIST sup %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT tt %Inline;>   <!-- fixed pitch font -->
+<!ATTLIST tt %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT i %Inline;>   <!-- italic font -->
+<!ATTLIST i %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT b %Inline;>   <!-- bold font -->
+<!ATTLIST b %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT big %Inline;>   <!-- bigger font -->
+<!ATTLIST big %attrs;>
+
+<!ELEMENT small %Inline;>   <!-- smaller font -->
+<!ATTLIST small %attrs;>
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Object =
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+<!--
+  object is used to embed objects as part of HTML pages.
+  param elements should precede other content. Parameters
+  can also be expressed as attribute/value pairs on the
+  object element itself when brevity is desired.
+-->
+
+<!ELEMENT object (#PCDATA | param | %block; | form | %inline; | %misc;)*>
+<!ATTLIST object
+  %attrs;
+  declare     (declare)      #IMPLIED
+  classid     %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  codebase    %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  data        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  type        %ContentType;  #IMPLIED
+  codetype    %ContentType;  #IMPLIED
+  archive     %UriList;      #IMPLIED
+  standby     %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  height      %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  width       %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  usemap      %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  name        NMTOKEN        #IMPLIED
+  tabindex    %Number;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--
+  param is used to supply a named property value.
+  In XML it would seem natural to follow RDF and support an
+  abbreviated syntax where the param elements are replaced
+  by attribute value pairs on the object start tag.
+-->
+<!ELEMENT param EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST param
+  id          ID             #IMPLIED
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  value       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  valuetype   (data|ref|object) "data"
+  type        %ContentType;  #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Images =3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!--
+   To avoid accessibility problems for people who aren't
+   able to see the image, you should provide a text
+   description using the alt and longdesc attributes.
+   In addition, avoid the use of server-side image maps.
+   Note that in this DTD there is no name attribute. That
+   is only available in the transitional and frameset DTD.
+-->
+
+<!ELEMENT img EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST img
+  %attrs;
+  src         %URI;          #REQUIRED
+  alt         %Text;         #REQUIRED
+  longdesc    %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  height      %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  width       %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  usemap      %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  ismap       (ismap)        #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!-- usemap points to a map element which may be in this document
+  or an external document, although the latter is not widely supported -->
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Client-side ima=
ge maps =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- These can be placed in the same document or grouped in a
+     separate document although this isn't yet widely supported -->
+
+<!ELEMENT map ((%block; | form | %misc;)+ | area+)>
+<!ATTLIST map
+  %i18n;
+  %events;
+  id          ID             #REQUIRED
+  class       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  style       %StyleSheet;   #IMPLIED
+  title       %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  name        NMTOKEN        #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT area EMPTY>
+<!ATTLIST area
+  %attrs;
+  %focus;
+  shape       %Shape;        "rect"
+  coords      %Coords;       #IMPLIED
+  href        %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  nohref      (nohref)       #IMPLIED
+  alt         %Text;         #REQUIRED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Forms =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+<!ELEMENT form %form.content;>   <!-- forms shouldn't be nested -->
+
+<!ATTLIST form
+  %attrs;
+  action      %URI;          #REQUIRED
+  method      (get|post)     "get"
+  enctype     %ContentType;  "application/x-www-form-urlencoded"
+  onsubmit    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onreset     %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  accept      %ContentTypes; #IMPLIED
+  accept-charset %Charsets;  #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--
+  Each label must not contain more than ONE field
+  Label elements shouldn't be nested.
+-->
+<!ELEMENT label %Inline;>
+<!ATTLIST label
+  %attrs;
+  for         IDREF          #IMPLIED
+  accesskey   %Character;    #IMPLIED
+  onfocus     %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onblur      %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ENTITY % InputType
+  "(text | password | checkbox |
+    radio | submit | reset |
+    file | hidden | image | button)"
+   >
+
+<!-- the name attribute is required for all but submit & reset -->
+
+<!ELEMENT input EMPTY>     <!-- form control -->
+<!ATTLIST input
+  %attrs;
+  %focus;
+  type        %InputType;    "text"
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  value       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  checked     (checked)      #IMPLIED
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  readonly    (readonly)     #IMPLIED
+  size        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  maxlength   %Number;       #IMPLIED
+  src         %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  alt         CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  usemap      %URI;          #IMPLIED
+  onselect    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onchange    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  accept      %ContentTypes; #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT select (optgroup|option)+>  <!-- option selector -->
+<!ATTLIST select
+  %attrs;
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  size        %Number;       #IMPLIED
+  multiple    (multiple)     #IMPLIED
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  tabindex    %Number;       #IMPLIED
+  onfocus     %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onblur      %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onchange    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT optgroup (option)+>   <!-- option group -->
+<!ATTLIST optgroup
+  %attrs;
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  label       %Text;         #REQUIRED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT option (#PCDATA)>     <!-- selectable choice -->
+<!ATTLIST option
+  %attrs;
+  selected    (selected)     #IMPLIED
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  label       %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  value       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT textarea (#PCDATA)>     <!-- multi-line text field -->
+<!ATTLIST textarea
+  %attrs;
+  %focus;
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  rows        %Number;       #REQUIRED
+  cols        %Number;       #REQUIRED
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  readonly    (readonly)     #IMPLIED
+  onselect    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  onchange    %Script;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--
+  The fieldset element is used to group form fields.
+  Only one legend element should occur in the content
+  and if present should only be preceded by whitespace.
+-->
+<!ELEMENT fieldset (#PCDATA | legend | %block; | form | %inline; | %misc;)=
*>
+<!ATTLIST fieldset
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT legend %Inline;>     <!-- fieldset label -->
+<!ATTLIST legend
+  %attrs;
+  accesskey   %Character;    #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--
+ Content is %Flow; excluding a, form and form controls
+-->=20
+<!ELEMENT button %button.content;>  <!-- push button -->
+<!ATTLIST button
+  %attrs;
+  %focus;
+  name        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  value       CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  type        (button|submit|reset) "submit"
+  disabled    (disabled)     #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!--=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =
Tables =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D-->
+
+<!-- Derived from IETF HTML table standard, see [RFC1942] -->
+
+<!--
+ The border attribute sets the thickness of the frame around the
+ table. The default units are screen pixels.
+
+ The frame attribute specifies which parts of the frame around
+ the table should be rendered. The values are not the same as
+ CALS to avoid a name clash with the valign attribute.
+-->
+<!ENTITY % TFrame "(void|above|below|hsides|lhs|rhs|vsides|box|border)">
+
+<!--
+ The rules attribute defines which rules to draw between cells:
+
+ If rules is absent then assume:
+     "none" if border is absent or border=3D"0" otherwise "all"
+-->
+
+<!ENTITY % TRules "(none | groups | rows | cols | all)">
+ =20
+<!-- horizontal alignment attributes for cell contents
+
+  char        alignment char, e.g. char=3D':'
+  charoff     offset for alignment char
+-->
+<!ENTITY % cellhalign
+  "align      (left|center|right|justify|char) #IMPLIED
+   char       %Character;    #IMPLIED
+   charoff    %Length;       #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!-- vertical alignment attributes for cell contents -->
+<!ENTITY % cellvalign
+  "valign     (top|middle|bottom|baseline) #IMPLIED"
+  >
+
+<!ELEMENT table
+     (caption?, (col*|colgroup*), thead?, tfoot?, (tbody+|tr+))>
+<!ELEMENT caption  %Inline;>
+<!ELEMENT thead    (tr)+>
+<!ELEMENT tfoot    (tr)+>
+<!ELEMENT tbody    (tr)+>
+<!ELEMENT colgroup (col)*>
+<!ELEMENT col      EMPTY>
+<!ELEMENT tr       (th|td)+>
+<!ELEMENT th       %Flow;>
+<!ELEMENT td       %Flow;>
+
+<!ATTLIST table
+  %attrs;
+  summary     %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  width       %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  border      %Pixels;       #IMPLIED
+  frame       %TFrame;       #IMPLIED
+  rules       %TRules;       #IMPLIED
+  cellspacing %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  cellpadding %Length;       #IMPLIED
+  >
+
+<!ATTLIST caption
+  %attrs;
+  >
+
+<!--
+colgroup groups a set of col elements. It allows you to group
+several semantically related columns together.
+-->
+<!ATTLIST colgroup
+  %attrs;
+  span        %Number;       "1"
+  width       %MultiLength;  #IMPLIED
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!--
+ col elements define the alignment properties for cells in
+ one or more columns.
+
+ The width attribute specifies the width of the columns, e.g.
+
+     width=3D64        width in screen pixels
+     width=3D0.5*      relative width of 0.5
+
+ The span attribute causes the attributes of one
+ col element to apply to more than one column.
+-->
+<!ATTLIST col
+  %attrs;
+  span        %Number;       "1"
+  width       %MultiLength;  #IMPLIED
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!--
+    Use thead to duplicate headers when breaking table
+    across page boundaries, or for static headers when
+    tbody sections are rendered in scrolling panel.
+
+    Use tfoot to duplicate footers when breaking table
+    across page boundaries, or for static footers when
+    tbody sections are rendered in scrolling panel.
+
+    Use multiple tbody sections when rules are needed
+    between groups of table rows.
+-->
+<!ATTLIST thead
+  %attrs;
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!ATTLIST tfoot
+  %attrs;
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!ATTLIST tbody
+  %attrs;
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!ATTLIST tr
+  %attrs;
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+
+<!-- Scope is simpler than headers attribute for common tables -->
+<!ENTITY % Scope "(row|col|rowgroup|colgroup)">
+
+<!-- th is for headers, td for data and for cells acting as both -->
+
+<!ATTLIST th
+  %attrs;
+  abbr        %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  axis        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  headers     IDREFS         #IMPLIED
+  scope       %Scope;        #IMPLIED
+  rowspan     %Number;       "1"
+  colspan     %Number;       "1"
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
+<!ATTLIST td
+  %attrs;
+  abbr        %Text;         #IMPLIED
+  axis        CDATA          #IMPLIED
+  headers     IDREFS         #IMPLIED
+  scope       %Scope;        #IMPLIED
+  rowspan     %Number;       "1"
+  colspan     %Number;       "1"
+  %cellhalign;
+  %cellvalign;
+  >
+
diff --git a/todocbook/fix.tidy b/todocbook/fix.tidy
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5052dbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/fix.tidy
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+output-xhtml: yes
+add-xml-decl: yes
+anchor-as-name: no
+doctype: strict
+char-encoding: utf8
+indent: auto
+wrap: 0
+repeated-attributes: keep-last
+add-xml-space: yes
+enclose-block-text: yes
+enclose-text: no
+hide-comments: no
+fix-bad-comments: yes
diff --git a/todocbook/glom.sh b/todocbook/glom.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..618213b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/glom.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+#!/bin/sh
+
+chapter=3D$(echo $1 | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e 's;.*/;;')
+echo "chapter: $chapter"
+
+# Make the chapter header
+sed -n '1,/<\/h2>/p
+/<\/body>/,$p' $1/1/index.html | \
+  sed '/<div/,/<hr \/>/d' >/tmp/glom.out
+
+tidy -quiet -config fix.tidy /tmp/glom.out >/tmp/glom.out2
+
+xsltproc --path dtd/ --nonet --stringparam filename /tmp/glom.out2 \
+  --stringparam prefix cll html2docbook.xslt /tmp/glom.out2 \
+  > /tmp/glom.out3
+
+rm $chapter.xml
+touch $chapter.xml
+
+sed "s;<section xmlns:xlink=3D\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\" xml:id=3D\"=
cll_/tmp/glom.out2\">;<chapter xml:id=3D\"cll_chapter$chapter\">;" /tmp/glo=
m.out3 | \
+sed '/<?xml version=3D"1.0"?>/d' | \
+sed 's;</section>;;' >>$chapter.xml
+echo >>$chapter.xml
+
+for suffix in $(find $1 -type f -name '*.html' | sed -e "s;^$1/*;;" | sort=
 -t/ -k1n)
+do
+  file=3D"$1$suffix"
+  echo $file
+  section=3D$(echo $file | sed -e "s;^$1/*;;" -e "s;/.*;;")
+  echo s: $section
+
+  tidy -quiet -config fix.tidy $file >/tmp/glom.out
+  perl munge.pl /tmp/glom.out $chapter $section >/tmp/glom.out2
+
+  # Debugging
+  # cp /tmp/glom.out2 $chapter-$section.munged
+
+  xsltproc --maxdepth 512 --path dtd/ --nonet --stringparam filename /tmp/=
glom.out2 \
+    --stringparam prefix cll html2docbook.xslt /tmp/glom.out2 \
+    > /tmp/glom.out3
+
+  sed "s;<section xmlns:xlink=3D\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\" xml:id=3D=
\"cll_/tmp/glom.out2\">;<section xml:id=3D\"cll_chapter$chapter-section$sec=
tion\">;" /tmp/glom.out3 | \
+
+  # Fix up labels
+  sed 's;<anchor xml:id=3D"cll_yacc-\([^"]*\)"/>;<anchor xreflabel=3D"YACC=
 rule #\1" xml:id=3D"cll_yacc-\1"/>;g' | \
+  sed 's;<anchor xml:id=3D"cll_bnf-\([^"]*\)"/>;<anchor xreflabel=3D"BNF r=
ule #\1" xml:id=3D"cll_bnf-\1"/>;g' | \
+
+  sed '/<?xml version=3D"1.0"?>/d' >>$chapter.xml
+  echo >>$chapter.xml
+
+  rm /tmp/glom.out /tmp/glom.out2 /tmp/glom.out3
+done
+
+echo "
+</chapter>" >>$chapter.xml
diff --git a/todocbook/html2docbook.xslt b/todocbook/html2docbook.xslt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28e3f2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/html2docbook.xslt
@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+<?xml version=3D"1.0" encoding=3D"UTF-8"?><xsl:stylesheet version=3D"1.0"=
=20
+                xmlns:xsl=3D"http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"=20
+                xmlns:fo=3D"http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Format"=20
+                xmlns:html=3D"http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"=20
+                xmlns:xlink=3D"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"
+                xmlns:saxon=3D"http://icl.com/saxon"
+                exclude-result-prefixes=3D"xsl fo html saxon">
+
+<xsl:output method=3D"xml" indent=3D"yes"/>
+<xsl:param name=3D"filename"></xsl:param>=20
+<xsl:param name=3D"prefix">wb</xsl:param>
+<xsl:param name=3D"graphics_location">file:///epicuser/AISolutions/graphic=
s/AIWorkbench/</xsl:param>
+
+<!-- Main block-level conversions -->
+<xsl:template match=3D"html:html">
+ <xsl:apply-templates select=3D"html:body"/>
+</xsl:template>
+
+<!-- This template converts each HTML file encountered into a DocBook=20
+     section.  For a title, it selects the first h1 element -->
+<xsl:template match=3D"html:body">
+ <section>
+  <xsl:if test=3D"$filename !=3D ''">
+   <xsl:attribute name=3D"xml:id">
+    <xsl:value-of select=3D"$prefix"/>
+    <xsl:text>_</xsl:text>
+    <xsl:value-of select=3D"translate($filename,' ()','__')"/>
+   </xsl:attribute>
+  </xsl:if>
+  <title>
+   <xsl:value-of select=3D".//html:h1[1]
+                         |.//html:h2[1]
+                         |.//html:h3[1]"/>
+  
+  
+ 

+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+     
+    
+   
+   
+    
+    
+    
+   
+   
+    
+    
+    
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+       =20
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+  
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+
+
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+      
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+  
+    
+  
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  
+    
+      
+    
+    
+      
+        
+          
+        
+      
+    
+  
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+   _
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+   
+  
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+   
+   
+    
+    
+    
+   
+  
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    inlinemediaobject
+   
+   mediaobject
+  
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+ Matched
+ 

+  
+ 

+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+  
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+       =20
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+     
+    
+    
+     
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+  
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+     
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+       =20
+
+ No template for 
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+ No template for 
+ 
+ 
+
+       =20
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+       =20
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+ 

+  
+ 

+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+   _
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+   _
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+  
+   
+    
+     
+    
+    
+     
+    
+   
+   
+    
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+    
+   
+  
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ =20
+  
+   Attempting to count columns on a non-table element
+  
+  
+   Row parameter is not a valid row
+  
+  
+   
+   
+    
+     
+    
+   
+   
+   
+    
+     
+      
+     
+     
+      
+     
+    
+   
+   
+   
+    
+     
+    
+    
+     
+      
+      
+      
+     
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+   
+   
+    
+   
+  
+ 
+ 
+  
+   
+    
+    
+   
+  
+  
+   
+  
+ 
+
+
+
diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..2c0c179
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/merge.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+#!/bin/sh
+
+echo '
+
+
+
+' >cll.xml
+
+for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e =
's;.*/;;')
+do
+  cat $dir.xml >>cll.xml
+done
+
+echo '
+
+' >>cll.xml
diff --git a/todocbook/munge.pl b/todocbook/munge.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffde67e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/munge.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+#!/usr/bin/perl
+
+my $filename=3D$ARGV[0];
+
+my $chapter=3D$ARGV[1];
+
+my $section=3D$ARGV[2];
+
+if( ! $filename || ! $chapter || ! $section ) {
+  print "bad usage\n";
+  exit 1;
+}
+
+open my $fh, '<', $ARGV[0] or die "error opening $filename: $!";
+my $data =3D do { local $/ =3D undef; <$fh> };
+
+$data =3D~ s{.*?
}{}sg;
+$data =3D~ s{
.*?}{}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s!([^<]*)!$2!sg=
;
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s!([^<]*)!$2!sg;
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s!([^<]*)!$2!sg;
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s{
}{
}sg;
+
+$data =3D~ s{
.*?
}{}sg;
+$data =3D~ s{}{}sg;
+
+print $data;
diff --git a/todocbook/superglom.sh b/todocbook/superglom.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..e927d9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/superglom.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+#!/bin/sh
+
+for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e =
's;.*/;;')
+do
+  ./glom.sh ../$dir/ 2>&1 | grep -v 'Attempt to load network entity' | gre=
p -v '^s: [0-9]*$'
+done

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