<anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d3" />

Complex tanru grouping tanru grouping complex If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both ele= ments? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1" /> @@ -502,21 +502,21 @@ , not=20 . This rule may seem peculi= ar at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 bo is never necessary between the first two ele= ments of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 through=20 could have=20 bo inserted between=20 melbi and=20 cmalu with no change in meaning.

=20 -

Complex tanru with=20 <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> tanru grouping with ke The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -644,21 +644,21 @@

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ).

and in many other different forms as well.

=20 -

Logical connection within tanru The following cmavo are discussed in this section: je JA tanru logical=20 and ja JA tanru logical=20 or joi JOI mixed mass=20 and gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical=20 @@ -781,21 +781,21 @@ blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 blanu je zdani has no such implication - the bl= ueness of a=20 blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 pretty little girls' school - for a complete list. + for a complete li= st. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation.= There are at least two possible interpretations of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8" /> ta melbi je nixli ckule That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. @@ -1041,21 +1041,21 @@ leaves=20 mlatu outside the=20 gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of the=20 gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to tw= o or more brivla connected with=20 bo or=20 ke ... ke'e.

=20 -

Linked sumti:=20 <jbophrase>be=96bei=96be'o</jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be BE linked sumti marker @@ -1195,21 +1195,21 @@

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) a school for girls which is both beautiful and small

is simply that of=20 ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is disc= ussed in=20 - .) + .) It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure or= dering tags=20 linked sumti fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly s= pecify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place foll= owing the=20 @@ -1318,21 +1318,21 @@ requires either=20 ku or=20 be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of= =20 be, the=20 be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing= which occurrence of=20 le the=20 ku terminates (in fact the second one is correc= t).

=20 -

Inversion of tanru:=20 <jbophrase>co</jbophrase> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

co CO tanru inversion marker @@ -1374,21 +1374,21 @@ co (=20 zdani in=20 ) is the tertau, and the el= ement following=20 co (=20 blanu) in=20 ) is the seltau. The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a ta= nru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of=20 zdani co blanu is still that of=20 zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a= selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. In= stead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually f= ill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 - , we saw how to fill interior places with= =20 + , we saw how to fill interior pla= ces with=20 be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 and=20 have the same meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3" />

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. @@ -1554,21 +1554,21 @@

mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. I go to the store quickly.

=20 -

Other kinds of simple selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i GOhA repeats the previous bridi

du @@ -1760,21 +1760,21 @@ ti zdile kumfa This is-an-amuser room. which suggests the meaning=20 a room that amuses someone.

=20 -

selbri based on sumti:=20 <jbophrase>me</jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: me ME changes sumti to simple selbri me'u MEhU terminator for=20 me A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with=20 me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the el= idable terminator=20 @@ -1959,28 +1959,28 @@ Three Kings requires either=20 ku or=20 me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 be'o in=20 - ) the=20 + ) the=20 me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired w= ith.

=20 -

Conversion of simple selbri Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its place= s appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti w= ith the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in=20 - , and then rearranging the order in which= the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a d= istinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. + , and then rearranging the order = in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri = into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1" />

mi prami do I love you.

@@ -2060,21 +2060,21 @@ la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo=20 jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a mod= al or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly= like conversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 .

=20 -

Scalar negation of selbri Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in th= is chapter; see=20 . In brief, there are two main ty= pes of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1" />

la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci @@ -2094,21 +2094,21 @@ Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 klama is not negated), but by a means other tha= n that of walking.=20 negates both=20 cadzu and=20 klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the = market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking wit= hout going, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 - may be used in place of brivla in any of= these examples: + may be used in place of briv= la in any of these examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3" />

la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku Jones is non-1st speaker Jones is not the first speaker.

@@ -2247,41 +2247,41 @@ linked sumti le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though g= rammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where = a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) Finally, it is also possible to place=20 na'e before a=20 gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru construct= ion. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.

=20 -

Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1" />

mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market.

the cmavo=20 pu specifies that the action of the speaker goi= ng to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full deta= il in=20 . Tense is semantically a property = of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at = the front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are alternative way= s of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in= =20 , behave in the same way as te= nses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of= the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false wi= thout saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with th= e scalar negation of=20 - . For example: + . For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2" /> la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. @@ -2346,28 +2346,28 @@ I went to the market. Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginnin= g of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. negation cmavo

=20 -

Some types of asymmetrical tanru asymmetrical tanru This section and=20 - contain some example tanru classified i= nto groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau a= nd the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actual= ly observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each = group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables th= emselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages w= hich exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with = no English parallel) a translation. + contain some example tanr= u classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modi= fying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by co= mpounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which= follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship.= The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of t= he languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for tho= se tanru with no English parallel) a translation. Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languag= es (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or = not, so English is not explicitly noted): Aba =3D Abazin Kaz =3D Kazakh Chi =3D Chinese Kor =3D Korean =20 Korean Ewe =3D Ewe Mon =3D Mongolian @@ -2382,21 +2382,21 @@ Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that= is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of = the tanru. For example,=20 asymmetrical tanru junla dadysli, or=20 clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 dadysli junla, or=20 pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 - . + . The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents = the object of that action: pinsi nunkilbra pencil sharpener (Hun) zgike nunctu music instruction (Hun) mirli nunkalte deer hunting (Hun) finpe nunkalte fish hunting (Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba =3D fishi= ng) smacu terkavbu mousetrap (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba) zdani turni house ruler (Kar =3D host) zerle'a nunte'a thief fear (Skt =3D fear of thieves) cevni zekri god crime (Skt =3D offense against the = gods) @@ -2699,21 +2699,21 @@ It is clear that=20 tooth is being specified, and that=20 milk and=20 eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 ladru and=20 denci is something like=20 tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 kanla denci, the relationship is not only not p= resent on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.

Some types of symmetrical tanru symmetrical tanru This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not im= portant. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical= connective between the components. symmetrical tanru @@ -2796,21 +2796,21 @@ =20 sudysrasu =3D dry-grass so'imei =3D manysome =20 manysome

<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement = of=20 <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> for grouping and=20 <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase>jebo</jbophrase> for logical connection. Most of these are = definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>  commit 3d8f14a91e7dd539a2c8b2f01b0dc3f031d2d61f Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com> Date: Fri Dec 31 00:22:04 2010 -0500 Preliminary chapter 5 work (+ small chapter 3 change). =20 Changed a couple of <para>s inside <example>s to <en>s, and changed <quote>...</quote> to <jbophrase>...</jbophrase> where appropriate. Also removed valid=3D"false" from the two role=3D"rafsi" i= n chapter 3. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index aa189dd..a00b50f 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1552,22 +1552,22 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d11" /> bisydja BI,sy,dja BI,syd,ja This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 - bis and=20 - dja. When they a= re joined, an impermissible consonant pair results:=20 + bis and=20 + dja. When they are joined, an im= permissible consonant pair results:=20 sd. In acco= rdance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in=20 , a=20 y is inserted to separate the= impermissible consonant pair; the=20 y is not counted as a syllabl= e for purposes of stress determination. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12" /> da'udja diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 7f3ba0c..7d464f5 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ - - <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selb= ri + <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojb= an selbri + =20

Lojban content words: brivla At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban b= ridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a = relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is ref= erred to. The difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1" />

do mamta mi You are-a-mother-of me @@ -20,21 +20,21 @@

do patfu mi You are-a-father-of me. You are my father.

lies in the different selbri. The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a b= rivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built= into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations o= f the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified f= orm) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo= that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in=20 - , and discussed in full in= =20 + , and discussed in full in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike.= For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d3" />

ta bloti That is-a-boat. That is a boat. @@ -60,20 +60,21 @@ ta blotrskunri That is-a-(boat)-schooner. That is a schooner.

illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla = respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word who= se meaning can be learned independent of its origins. The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example b= rivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind tha= t wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivl= a.

Simple tanru nouns brivla as Lojban equivalents verbs brivla as Lojban equivalents @@ -165,39 +166,39 @@ tanru. The first component is called the=20 seltau, and the second component is called the= =20 tertau. The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that th= e tertau carries the primary meaning. A=20 pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and only se= condarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alte= rnative translation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d5" /> - That is a lemon type of tree. + That is a lemon type of tree. This=20 type of relationship between the components of a tanru = is fundamental to the tanru concept. We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tert= au: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d6" /> - That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to t= rees) + That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to tre= es) would be another possible translation of=20 . In the same way, a more e= xplicit translation of=20 might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d7" /> - John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big. + John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big. This=20 way that boys are big would be quite different from the= way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant. All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d8" />

ta klama jubme @@ -239,91 +240,91 @@ do cmalu prenu You are-a-small person.

are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between= =20 barda and=20 prenu is the same as that between=20 cmalu and=20 prenu.=20 - and=20 - contain a partial listing = of some types of tanru, with examples. + and=20 + contain a partial listing of some types= of tanru, with examples.

Three-part tanru grouping with=20 <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> tanru grouping three-part The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

bo BO closest scope grouping

Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d1" /> - That's a little girls' school. + That's a little girls' school. What does it mean? Two possible readings are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d2" /> - That's a little school for girls. + That's a little school for girls. <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d3" /> - That's a school for little girls. + That's a school for little girls. This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguit= y described in=20 . We understand that=20 girls' school means=20 a school where girls are the students, and not=20 a school where girls are the teachers or=20 a school which is a girl (!). Likewise, we understand t= hat=20 little girl means=20 girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 girls' school to be taken as a unit, with=20 little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type = of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or=20 speech rhythm for grouping in English exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used = to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented. - tanru grouping with bo - Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; ex= plicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 + + Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit = words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed = between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojb= an translation of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4" />

ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small girl [] school.

- - might be translated: + might be translated:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d5" />

ta cmalu bo nixli ckule That is-a-small [] girl school.

The=20 @@ -391,21 +392,22 @@ ta klama bo jubme That is-a-goer [] table. is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 , and is ambiguous in exact= ly the same ways. The cmavo=20 bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: i= t says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.

+ +

Complex tanru grouping tanru grouping complex If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both ele= ments? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1" /> @@ -470,53 +472,54 @@

ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of scho= ol)). That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.

uses a construction which = has not been seen before:=20 - cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive uses of= =20 - bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 - bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 - bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 + cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive u= ses of=20 + bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 + bo constructions is the opposite of the rule wh= en no=20 + bo is present at all: the last two are grouped = together. Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 right-grouping rule - bo in the language. Therefore, + bo in the language. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6" />

ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).

means the same as=20 , not=20 . This rule may seem peculi= ar at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 - bo is never necessary between the first two elements of= any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 + bo is never necessary between the first two ele= ments of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 through=20 could have=20 - bo inserted between=20 - melbi and=20 - cmalu with no change in meaning. + bo inserted between=20 + melbi and=20 + cmalu with no change in meaning.

+ +

Complex tanru with=20 - <quote>ke</quote> and=20 - <quote>ke'e</quote> + ke and=20 + ke'e tanru grouping with ke The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke KE start grouping @@ -530,22 +533,22 @@ There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed wi= th the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grou= ping parentheses cmavo,=20 pretty little girls' school grouping parentheses - ke and=20 - ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). A= ny portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a = single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respecti= vely). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken = to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Th= us,=20 can be rewritten in any of= the following ways: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1" />

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

@@ -561,78 +564,78 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3" />

ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).

Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 - ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num= ber of=20 - ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a wa= ste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the fo= llowing is equivalent to=20 + ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a = like number of=20 + ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these = are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However= , the following is equivalent to=20 and may be easier to under= stand: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4" />

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of s= chool.

Likewise, a=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e version of=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e version of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5" />

ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).

The final=20 - ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that = it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 + ke'e is given in square brackets here to indica= te that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 square brackets - ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 + ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6" />

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). That is a beautiful school for small girls.

is distinctly different in= meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the=20 - ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-grouping rule is appl= ied to=20 - cmalu nixli ckule. + ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-grouping rule= is applied to=20 + cmalu nixli ckule. tanru grouping with ke and bo It is perfectly all right to mix=20 - bo and=20 - ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For instance,=20 + bo and=20 + ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For instance,= =20 , which in pure=20 - ke ... ke'e form is + ke ... ke'e form is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7" />

ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ).

can equivalently be expressed as: @@ -640,21 +643,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d8" />

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ).

and in many other different forms as well.

+ +

Logical connection within tanru The following cmavo are discussed in this section: je JA tanru logical=20 and ja JA tanru logical=20 or joi JOI mixed mass=20 and gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical=20 @@ -697,21 +701,21 @@ big type-of (red type-of dog) much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the= English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not mer= ely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are i= ndependent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjecti= ve ordering prevent us from saying=20 adjective ordering red big dog. The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 - je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 + je, which is one of the many equivalents of Eng= lish=20 and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: big red dog <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3" />

@@ -723,24 +727,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4" />

xunre je barda gerku (red and big) type-of dog

is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examp= les indicate, joining two brivla with=20 - je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, expli= cit grouping with=20 - bo or=20 - ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closely than=20 - je does: + je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. Howeve= r, explicit grouping with=20 + bo or=20 + ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closely than= =20 + je does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5" /> barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog big yellowish-red dog @@ -753,45 +757,45 @@ barda je pelxu xunre gerku ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog biggish- and yellowish-red dog which again raises the question of=20 : what does=20 biggish-red mean? Unlike=20 - bo and=20 - ke ... ke'e,=20 - je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanr= u. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru: + bo and=20 + ke ... ke'e,=20 + je is useful as well as merely legal within sim= ple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7" />

ta blanu je zdani that is-blue and is-a-house

definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 - blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 - blanu zdani refers to something which is blue in the wa= y that houses are blue;=20 - blanu je zdani has no such implication - the blueness o= f a=20 - blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness. + blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 + blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 + blanu je zdani has no such implication - the bl= ueness of a=20 + blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= With the addition of=20 - je, many more versions of=20 + je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 pretty little girls' school - for a complete list. + for a complete list. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation.= There are at least two possible interpretations of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8" /> ta melbi je nixli ckule That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. @@ -833,21 +837,21 @@

That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.

so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the = formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives= that exist outside tanru; see=20 for further details. The logical connective=20 - je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: + je is only one of the fourteen logical connecti= ves that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13" />

le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).

@@ -875,65 +879,65 @@

vajni ju pluka nuntavla (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing

In=20 ,=20 - ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 - je but means=20 + ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 + je but means=20 or (more precisely,=20 and/or). Likewise,=20 - naja means=20 + naja means=20 only if in=20 ,=20 - jo means=20 + jo means=20 if and only if in=20 , and=20 - ju means=20 + ju means=20 whether or not in=20 . Now consider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17" />

ricfu je blanu jabo crino jabo rich and (blue or green)

which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 - ja and=20 - bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to f= orm a compound whose meaning is that of=20 - ja but which groups more closely;=20 - jabo is to=20 + ja and=20 + bo between tanru components. The two cmavo comb= ine to form a compound whose meaning is that of=20 + ja but which groups more closely;=20 + jabo is to=20 jabo - ja as plain=20 - bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 - ja and=20 - jabo group less closely than=20 + ja as plain=20 + bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 + ja and=20 + jabo group less closely than=20 jabo - bo does: + bo does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18" />

ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu jabo @@ -946,21 +950,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19" />

ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] rich and (blue or green)

In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety= of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. = The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 - joi, which is the kind of=20 + joi, which is the kind of=20 and that denotes a mixture: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20" />

ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue and red) ball. @@ -973,21 +977,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21" />

ti blanu xunre bolci This is a bluish-red ball

which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 - xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, + xunre is the more important of the two componen= ts. On the other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22" />

ti blanu je xunre bolci This is a (blue and red) ball blue and red @@ -995,64 +999,65 @@

is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. blue and red Finally, just as English=20 and has the variant form=20 both ... and, so=20 - je between tanru components has the variant form=20 - gu'e ... gi, where=20 - gu'e is placed before the components and=20 - gi between them: + je between tanru components has the variant for= m=20 + gu'e ... gi, where=20 + gu'e is placed before the components and=20 + gi between them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23" />

gu'e barda gi xunre gerku (both big and red) type-of dog

is equivalent in meaning to=20 . For each logical connecti= ve related to=20 - je, there is a corresponding connective related to=20 - gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. + je, there is a corresponding connective related= to=20 + gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. The portion of a=20 - gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 - gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri reso= urces including=20 - je logical connections. After the=20 - gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 - gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same scope as=20 - bo: + gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 + gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the sel= bri resources including=20 + je logical connections. After the=20 + gi, logical connections are taken to be wider i= n scope than the=20 + gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same scope= as=20 + bo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24" />

gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu (both (big and red) and dog) or cat something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat

leaves=20 - mlatu outside the=20 - gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of the=20 - gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or mor= e brivla connected with=20 - bo or=20 - ke ... ke'e. + mlatu outside the=20 + gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of the=20 + gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to tw= o or more brivla connected with=20 + bo or=20 + ke ... ke'e.

+ +

Linked sumti:=20 - <quote>be=96bei=96be'o</quote> + be=96bei=96be'o The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be BE linked sumti marker linked sumti @@ -1072,63 +1077,63 @@ linked sumti terminator linked sumti

The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 . One grammatical structure re= lated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 , the place structure of the s= elbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu=20 - mamta. What about more complex selbri? + mamta. What about more complex selbri? For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structu= re of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place = structure of=20 - blanu zdani is that of=20 - zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. + blanu zdani is that of=20 + zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the= x2 place is its occupants. What about the places of=20 - blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 - blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 - zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 - blanu with=20 - xamgu, we get: + blanu? Is there any way to get them into the ac= t? In fact,=20 + blanu has only one place, and this is merged, a= s it were, with the x1 place of=20 + zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that i= s being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 + blanu with=20 + xamgu, we get: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1" />

ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. good house This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.

Since=20 - xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 + xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2,= the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 necessarily omits informat= ion about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, howeve= r! <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2" />

ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. This is a house that is good for you by my standards.

Here, the gismu=20 - xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 - be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 - bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 - be'o (of selma'o BEhO). + xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 + be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or m= ore sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place stru= cture, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting wit= h x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 + bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is = terminated by the elidable terminator=20 + be'o (of selma'o BEhO). Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion = plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a f= ully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in= : FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3" />

ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o @@ -1153,25 +1158,25 @@ This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical s= chool, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn= , teaching poetry Brooklyn to the New York community and operated by the state.

Here the three places of=20 - cmalu, the three of=20 - nixli, and the four of=20 - ckule are fully specified. Since the places of=20 - ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was no= t necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 - ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: + cmalu, the three of=20 + nixli, and the four of=20 + ckule are fully specified. Since the places of= =20 + ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, i= t was not necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 + ckule. It would have been legal to do so, howev= er: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4" />

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] I go (to-the market from-the house).

means the same as @@ -1189,51 +1194,51 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6" />

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) a school for girls which is both beautiful and small

is simply that of=20 - ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 - .) + ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is disc= ussed in=20 + .) It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure or= dering tags=20 linked sumti - fe,=20 - fi,=20 - fo, and=20 - fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 + fe,=20 + fi,=20 + fo, and=20 + fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly s= pecify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place foll= owing the=20 - be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: + be is the x2 place and the other places follow = in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be ac= complished as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7" />

ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.

which is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Note that the order of=20 - be,=20 - bei, and=20 - be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 - fi tells us that=20 - mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted= =20 - fe tells us that=20 - do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> + be,=20 + bei, and=20 + be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 + fi tells us that=20 + mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the in= serted=20 + fe tells us that=20 + do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumt= i is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or = rhythm. Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8" />

ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. This is a good house by my standards. @@ -1266,26 +1271,26 @@ ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. That is a blue house, as I see it.

See discussions in=20 of modals and in=20 of tenses for more explanations. The terminator=20 - be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 + be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the= selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will = attach to the last linked sumti unless=20 linked sumti - be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: + be'o is used, in which case it will attach to t= he outer description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11" />

le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.

@@ -1293,58 +1298,59 @@

le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house

(Relative clauses are explained in=20 .) In other cases, however,=20 - be'o cannot be elided if=20 - ku has also been elided: + be'o cannot be elided if=20 + ku has also been elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13" />

le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani the good (for the teacher) house

requires either=20 - ku or=20 - be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 - be, the=20 - be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which o= ccurrence of=20 - le the=20 - ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct). + ku or=20 + be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of= =20 + be, the=20 + be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing= which occurrence of=20 + le the=20 + ku terminates (in fact the second one is correc= t).

+ +

Inversion of tanru:=20 - <quote>co</quote> + co The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

co CO tanru inversion marker tanru inversion

The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precede= s what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of=20 blue houses, not of=20 houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 - co.=20 + co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the same thin= g: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1" />

ta blanu zdani That is-a-blue type-of-house. That is a blue house. @@ -1359,31 +1365,31 @@ That is-a-house of-type blue. That is a blue house.

This change is called=20 tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 tanru inversion - co (=20 - zdani in=20 + co (=20 + zdani in=20 ) is the tertau, and the el= ement following=20 - co (=20 - blanu) in=20 + co (=20 + blanu) in=20 ) is the seltau. The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a ta= nru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of=20 - zdani co blanu is still that of=20 - zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 - , we saw how to fill interio= r places with=20 - be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 + zdani co blanu is still that of=20 + zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a= selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. In= stead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually f= ill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 + , we saw how to fill interior places with= =20 + be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 and=20 have the same meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3" />

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. I try to go to the market from the house. @@ -1414,25 +1420,25 @@ troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 trying to go is a=20 going type of trying, not a=20 trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going - if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.

Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the= places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way.= In=20 inverted tanru ,=20 - mi fills the x1 place of=20 - troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 - troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 - le zarci and=20 - le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite appearanc= es. + mi fills the x1 place of=20 + troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 + troci. The other places of the selbri remain un= filled. The trailing sumti=20 + le zarci and=20 + le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite a= ppearances. As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 ) for referring to individ= ual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 , because they are not real= ly=20 sumti of the bridi at all. When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it= only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversi= on of=20 , for instance, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5" /> @@ -1440,44 +1446,44 @@ ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. That's a girls' school which is small. tanru grouping effect of tanru inversion on Note that the=20 - bo of=20 + bo of=20 is optional in=20 , because=20 - co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 - ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a=20 - co: + co groups more loosely than any other cmavo use= d in tanru, including none at all. Not even=20 + ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a=20 + co: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6" />

ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.

In=20 , the=20 - ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 - co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 - co from any selbri: change=20 - A co B to=20 - ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti following the= selbri must be transformed into=20 - be ... bei ... be'o form and attached following B.) The= refore, + ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 + co rather than at its usual place at the end of= the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removin= g=20 + co from any selbri: change=20 + A co B to=20 + ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti follo= wing the selbri must be transformed into=20 + be ... bei ... be'o form and attached following= B.) Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7" />

ckule co melbi nixli school of-type pretty girl school for beautiful girls

@@ -1485,27 +1491,27 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8" />

ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule (pretty girl) school

Multiple=20 - co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multipl= e inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 + co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating= multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 right-grouping rule - bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 - co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: + bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret = such selbri, but all=20 + co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9" />

ckule co nixli co cmalu school of-type (girl of-type little)

becomes formally @@ -1534,34 +1540,35 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12" />

mi klama co sutra I am-a-goer of-type quick I go quickly

cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 - sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 - be: + sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (= which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 + be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13" />

mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. I go to the store quickly.

+ +

Other kinds of simple selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i GOhA repeats the previous bridi

du @@ -1604,21 +1611,21 @@ kei KEI terminator for NU

So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from bri= vla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Loj= ban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either d= irectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple= selbri are discussed at length in=20 ,=20 , and=20 ; but for completeness these types a= re mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in s= elbri. The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-brid= i, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a = fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 - go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: + go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the prev= ious bridi, or part of it. If I say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1" />

la djan. klama le zarci John goes-to the market.

you may retort: @@ -1638,37 +1645,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3" />

la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.

because the whole bridi of=20 has been packaged up into = the single word=20 - go'i and inserted into=20 + go'i and inserted into=20 . The exceptional member of GOhA is=20 - du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: + du, which represents the relation of identity. = Its place structure is: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 . Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into= selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 mathematical expressions - su'i, meaning=20 + su'i, meaning=20 plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 - nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure i= s: + nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place str= ucture is: x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, = x3, etc. for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4" />

li vo nu'a su'i li re li re @@ -1726,21 +1733,21 @@ two brothers brothers

Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivl= a is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of se= lma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator=20 - kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 + kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions = are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramificat= ions are documented in=20 . A few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8" /> ti nu zdile kei kumfa This is-an-event-of amusement room. This is an amusement room. @@ -1752,32 +1759,33 @@

ti zdile kumfa This is-an-amuser room.

which suggests the meaning=20 a room that amuses someone.

+ +

selbri based on sumti:=20 - <quote>me</quote> + me The following cmavo are discussed in this section: me ME changes sumti to simple selbri me'u MEhU terminator for=20 -me +me A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with=20 - me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable t= erminator=20 - me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pl= ace structure + me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the el= idable terminator=20 + me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri wit= h the place structure x1 is one of the referents of=20 [the sumti] which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1" />

@@ -1816,22 +1824,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4" />

la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru Melchior is one of the three kings.

If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of=20 - me is much like that of=20 - du: + me is much like that of=20 + du:

<anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5" /> do du la djan. You are-identical-with the-one-called=20 John. You are John. @@ -1842,65 +1850,65 @@

do me la djan. You are-the-referent-of=20 the-one-called =91John'. You are John.

It is common to use=20 - me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 - la, as seltau. For example: + me selbri, especially those based on name sumti= using=20 + la, as seltau. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7" />

ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called =91Chrysler') car. Chrysler That is a Chrysler car. Chrysler

The elidable terminator=20 - me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 - me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 + me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely r= equired only if the=20 + me selbri is being used in an indefinite descri= ption (a type of sumti explained in=20 restricted variable indefinite description ), and if the indefinite description= is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 restricted variable indefinite description ) or a sumti logical conn= ective (explained in=20 ). Without a=20 - me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 - me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= + me'u, the relative clause or logical connective= would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 + me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of se= ntences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8" />

re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi Two of the group=20 the three kings and John are white.

@@ -1908,70 +1916,71 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d9" />

re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi Two of the three kings, and John, are white.

In=20 the=20 - me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the ind= efinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we can= not say which two. In=20 + me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and= the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white= : we cannot say which two. In=20 restricted variable indefinite description , though, the=20 - me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are = said to be white, and so is John. + me selbri covers only the three kings: two of t= hem are said to be white, and so is John. Finally, here is another example requiring=20 - me'u: + me'u: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d10" />

ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book. That is the kind of book you were talking about.

There are other sentences where either=20 - me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expresse= d: + me'u or some other elidable terminator must be = expressed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d11" />

le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating the Three Kings celebration Three Kings

requires either=20 - ku or=20 - me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 - be'o in=20 - ) the=20 - me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with. + ku or=20 + me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 + be'o in=20 + ) the=20 + me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired w= ith.

+ +

Conversion of simple selbri Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its place= s appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti w= ith the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in=20 - , and then rearranging the o= rder in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the se= lbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places= . + , and then rearranging the order in which= the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a d= istinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1" />

mi prami do I love you.

@@ -1995,159 +2004,160 @@

la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. Alice walks to the market.

To convert this sentence so that=20 - le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is: + le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4" />

le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.

The=20 - ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to be conve= rted by the=20 - se, which would otherwise convert only=20 - cadzu, leading to: + ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to = be converted by the=20 + se, which would otherwise convert only=20 + cadzu, leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5" />

le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.

whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 - cadzu klama is that of=20 - klama alone, is to convert only the latter: + cadzu klama is that of=20 + klama alone, is to convert only the latter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6" />

le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.

But the tanru in=20 may or may not have the sa= me meaning as that in=20 ; in particular, because=20 - cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that alth= ough Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as= x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense: + cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion t= hat although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different = sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sens= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7" />

la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo=20 - jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 + jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a mod= al or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly= like conversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 .

+ +

la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something oth= er than that of walking there. But if the=20 - ke were omitted, the result would be: + ke were omitted, the result would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2" />

la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 - klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 + klama is not negated), but by a means other tha= n that of walking.=20 negates both=20 - cadzu and=20 - klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. + cadzu and=20 + klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the = market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking wit= hout going, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 - may be used in place of bri= vla in any of these examples: + may be used in place of brivla in any of= these examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3" />

la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku Jones is non-1st speaker Jones is not the first speaker.

Since only=20 - pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he i= s some other kind of speaker. + pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is t= hat he is some other kind of speaker. Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the inter= action of scalar negation with=20 - bo grouping,=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 - be and=20 - bei: + bo grouping,=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti li= nked with=20 + be and=20 + bei: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4" />

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.<= /en>

In=20 ,=20 - na'e negates only=20 - sutra. Contrast=20 + na'e negates only=20 + sutra. Contrast=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5" />

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.<= /en>

Now consider=20 and=20 , which are equivalent in m= eaning, but use=20 - ke grouping and=20 - bo grouping respectively: + ke grouping and=20 + bo grouping respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6" />

mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci I (quickly =96 (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to t= he market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly.

@@ -2155,21 +2165,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7" />

mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly.

However, if we place a=20 - na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 + na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 and=20 , we get different results:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8" />

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci I ( (non- quickly) =96 (walking using the arms) and slowly)= go-to the market. I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quic= kly, and also slowly. @@ -2179,98 +2189,99 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d9" />

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my a= rms, and also slowly.

The difference arises because the=20 - na'e in=20 + na'e in=20 negates the whole construc= tion from=20 - ke to=20 - ke'e, whereas in=20 + ke to=20 + ke'e, whereas in=20 it negates=20 - sutra alone. + sutra alone. Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the= explicit=20 omitting terminators - ke'e is left out in=20 + ke'e is left out in=20 , it is transformed into: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10" />

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking using my arms and slowly going to the market.

And if both=20 - ke'e and=20 - be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: + ke'e and=20 + be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11" />

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, = both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.

In=20 , everything after=20 - be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 + be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is= that of=20 linked sumti - cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 + cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upo= n. It is less than clear what an=20 arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 linked sumti - le zarci following the selbri falls into the nonexisten= t x4 place of=20 - cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) + le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 + cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though g= rammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where = a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) Finally, it is also possible to place=20 - na'e before a=20 - gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru construction. The= meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established. + na'e before a=20 + gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru construct= ion. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.

+ +

Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1" />

mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market.

the cmavo=20 - pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 + pu specifies that the action of the speaker goi= ng to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full deta= il in=20 . Tense is semantically a property = of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at = the front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are alternative way= s of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in= =20 , behave in the same way as te= nses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 - na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 - . For example: + na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of= the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false wi= thout saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with th= e scalar negation of=20 + . For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2" /> la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. @@ -2288,34 +2299,34 @@

mi na pu klama le zarci mi pu na klama le zarci It is false that I went to the market. I didn't go to the market.

It is also possible to have more than one=20 - na, in which case pairs of=20 - na cmavo cancel out: + na, in which case pairs of=20 + na cmavo cancel out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4" />

mi na na klama le zarci It is false that it is false that I go to the market. I go to the market.

It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple= =20 - na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 + na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subjec= t to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a c= ompound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses @@ -2334,28 +2345,29 @@ I didn't not go to the market. I went to the market. Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginnin= g of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. negation cmavo

+ +

Some types of asymmetrical tanru asymmetrical tanru This section and=20 - contain some example tanru= classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modif= ying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by com= pounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which = follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. = The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of th= e languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for thos= e tanru with no English parallel) a translation. + contain some example tanru classified i= nto groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau a= nd the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actual= ly observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each = group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables th= emselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages w= hich exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with = no English parallel) a translation. Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languag= es (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or = not, so English is not explicitly noted): Aba =3D Abazin Kaz =3D Kazakh Chi =3D Chinese Kor =3D Korean =20 Korean Ewe =3D Ewe Mon =3D Mongolian @@ -2366,25 +2378,25 @@ Hun =3D Hungarian Swe =3D Swedish Imb =3D Imbabura Quechua Tur =3D Turkish Kar =3D Karaitic Udm =3D Udmurt Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that= is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of = the tanru. For example,=20 asymmetrical tanru - junla dadysli, or=20 + junla dadysli, or=20 clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 - dadysli junla, or=20 + dadysli junla, or=20 pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 - . + . The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents = the object of that action: pinsi nunkilbra pencil sharpener (Hun) zgike nunctu music instruction (Hun) mirli nunkalte deer hunting (Hun) finpe nunkalte fish hunting (Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba =3D fishi= ng) smacu terkavbu mousetrap (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba) zdani turni house ruler (Kar =3D host) zerle'a nunte'a thief fear (Skt =3D fear of thieves) cevni zekri god crime (Skt =3D offense against the = gods) @@ -2407,22 +2419,22 @@ cpumi'i lijgri tractor column (Qab) cevni jenmi god army (Skt) cevni prenu god folk (Skt) =20 lijgri =3D line-group lamgri =3D adjacent-group mulgri =3D complete-group cpumi'i =3D pull-machine Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents = a set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the te= rtau is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning a= ppropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between=20 - zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 - linji zdani in this one, which shows why this kind of t= anru is called=20 + zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 + linji zdani in this one, which shows why this k= ind of tanru is called=20 asymmetrical. carvi dirgo raindrop (Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba) linji zdani row house The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or det= ail of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying t= hat it is a detail of that whole and not some other. junla dadysli clock pendulum (Hun) purdi vorme garden door (Qab) purdi bitmu garden wall (Que) @@ -2546,21 +2558,21 @@ rokci bitmu stone wall (Ewe) solji carce gold chariot (Skt) mudri xarci wood weapon (Skt =3D wooden weapon) cmaro'i dargu pebble road (Chi) sudysrasu cutci straw shoe (Chi) =20 cmaro'i =3D small-rock sudysrasu =3D dry-grass Note: the two senses of=20 - blaci kanla can be discriminated as: + blaci kanla can be discriminated as: blaci kanla bo tarmi glass (eye shape) =3D glass eye blaci kanla bo sidju glass (eye helper) =3D spectacles The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity= and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers t= o a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compo= unds of this form, as a rule. tumla spisa land piece (Tur =3D piece of land) tcati kabri tea cup (Kor,Aba =3D cup of tea) nanba spisa bread piece (Kor =3D piece of bread) bukpu spisa cloth piece (Udm,Aba =3D piece of cloth= ) @@ -2682,42 +2694,42 @@ Finally, some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categ= ories. ladru denci milk tooth (Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab) kanla denci eye tooth It is clear that=20 tooth is being specified, and that=20 milk and=20 eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 - ladru and=20 - denci is something like=20 + ladru and=20 + denci is something like=20 tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 - kanla denci, the relationship is not only not present o= n the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all. + kanla denci, the relationship is not only not p= resent on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.

Some types of symmetrical tanru symmetrical tanru This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not im= portant. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical= connective between the components. symmetrical tanru The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by b= oth tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetri= cal tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 asymmetrical tanru - je is appropriate: + je is appropriate: cipnrstrigi pacru'i owl demon (Skt) nolraitru prije royal sage (Skt) remna nakni human-being male (Qab =3D man) remna fetsi human-being female (Qab =3D woman) sonci tolvri soldier coward (Que) panzi nanmu offspring man (Ewe =3D son) panzi ninmu offspring woman (Ewe =3D daughter) solji sicni gold coin (Tur) solji junla gold watch (Tur,Kor,Hun) @@ -2728,21 +2740,21 @@ solji carce gold chariot (Skt) mudri xarci wooden weapon (Skt) zdani tcadu home town (Chi) =20 cipnrstrigi =3D fu'ivla for=20 owl based on Linnean name pacru'i =3D evil-spirit tolvri =3D opposite-of-brave The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either = of the tanru components. The connective=20 - ja is appropriate: + ja is appropriate: nunji'a nunterji'a victory defeat (Skt =3D victory or defe= at) donri nicte day night (Skt =3D day and night) lunra tarci moon stars (Skt =3D moon and stars) patfu mamta father mother (Imb,Kaz,Chi =3D parents) =20 father mother @@ -2784,47 +2796,47 @@ =20 sudysrasu =3D dry-grass so'imei =3D manysome =20 manysome

<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement = of=20 - <quote>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</quote> using=20 - <quote>bo</quote> or=20 - <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> for grouping and=20 - <quote>je</quote> or=20 - <quote>jebo</quote> for logical connection. Most of these are definite= ly not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 + <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 + <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> or=20 + <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> for grouping and=20 + <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> or=20 + <jbophrase>jebo</jbophrase> for logical connection. Most of these are = definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>  <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>pretty little girls' school</primary> </indexterm> <para>Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Exampl= es 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. The seven examples fol= lowing each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the pre= sence or absence of=20 - <quote>je</quote> at each possible site. Some of the examples have mor= e than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mecha= nism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> + <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> at each possible site. Some of the examples = have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in groupi= ng mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> <para>The logical connective=20 - <quote>je</quote> is associative: that is,=20 + <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> is associative: that is,=20 <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as=20 <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16= .40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connect= ed and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted = in the examples themselves. However, if=20  <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>irrelevant</primary> </indexterm> - <quote>je</quote> were replaced by=20 - <quote>naja</quote> or=20 - <quote>jo</quote> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct.</para> + <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> were replaced by=20 + <jbophrase>naja</jbophrase> or=20 + <jbophrase>jo</jbophrase> or most of the other logical connectives, th= e meanings would become distinct.</para> <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent onl= y one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjzw" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1" /> melbi cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school school for girls who are beautifully small @@ -3229,11 +3241,12 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d40" />

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little and girl) and school) thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

+ =20 commit f6b3722cc9c95fbb3b2d29c67cbc87213ae4f0ff Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Thu Dec 30 23:45:00 2010 -0500 Removed "Chapter X" from chapter titles. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index 2490450..1d68fb3 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book<= /title> + <title>Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book Lojbanistan

What is Lojban? Lojban (pronounced=20 LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions= of the language were called=20 Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan= Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for= the language were first described in the open literature in the article=20 diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 9cb543e..b781bf9 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 10 Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System= + Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System

Introductory This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time ten= se system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the for= m=20 tense system How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban? Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting = to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is= understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the rea= der should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being c= orrectly understood. diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 1bae5fe..64d23d4 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: = On Lojban Abstraction + Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban A= bstraction

The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole brid= i and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abs= tractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and comp= lex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and ano= ther. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a = result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with = this difficulty until=20 . An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and prece= ding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are k= nown as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index b19d623..895d83b 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-lujvo"> - <title>Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Str= uctures + Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures</ti= tle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section1"> <title>Why have lujvo? The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu,= made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not = intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal = list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for = the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in = certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, fo= ods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mi= llion or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken togethe= r. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures = and function as selbri. world's languages word lists diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 08fd2f4..6c9e732 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Ind= icators + Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</ti= tle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1"> <title>What are attitudinal indicators? attitudinal indicators This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words tone of voice diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 79fbf5a..da2b67a 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</t= itle> + <title>If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System

Logical connection and truth tables truth tables Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself me= ans=20 logical language diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index aad3788..3d72b65 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 15=20 + <title> <quote>No</quote> Problems: On Lojban Negation

Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. logical language diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 837d4e9..43dafb7 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 16=20 + <title> <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? The following brief dialogue is from=20 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1" /> diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index b152991..327d34d 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its U= ses + As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses

What's a letteral, anyway? James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the= word=20 Brown letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index d19af5b..84e43bc 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 18 lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban</titl= e> + <title>lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban

Introductory lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: representing all the different forms of expression used by m= athematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambi= guously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expec= t a listener to understand it; providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms w= hich can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full r= esources of Lojban; diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 370696a..38cedeb 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 19 Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Loj= ban Texts + Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts</= title> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section1"> <title>Introductory This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo = that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragra= phs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are foun= d in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described= are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents. This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).

Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 5fee8c6..eb54d27 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams + A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams

The concept of the bridi This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence = structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successi= ve variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are man= y more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in l= ater chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: John and Sam diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index f5db42b..547474d 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 20 A Catalogue of selma'o + A Catalogue of selma'o

<para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a = brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter n= umber where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are g= iven in capital letters (with =93h=94 serving as the capital of =93'=94) an= d are the names of a representative cmavo, often the most important or the = first in alphabetical order. One example is given of each selma'o: for selm= a'o which have several uses, the most common use is shown.</para>  <indexterm type=3D"general"> <primary>capital letters</primary> diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index b1aac7c..0a678ac 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-grammars"> - <title>Chapter 21 Formal Grammars + Formal Grammars

YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. formal grammar /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index ec7cbb6..aa189dd 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban + The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

Orthography Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance = can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can= be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a conseque= nce, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or= phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sou= nd or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronun= ciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) a= nd pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition,= everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when wri= tten) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. = These two properties together are known technically as=20 tone of voice orthography diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index f9606b1..4396c6d 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,12 +1,13 @@ - Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology + The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology + =20

Introductory Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of wo= rds. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many language= s, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. E= nglish has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like R= ussian, but it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 plural boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 33eea89..425b484 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti + To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti

The five kinds of simple sumti simple sumti If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti i= s by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of = simple Lojban sentences like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1" /> diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 5b13606..153b3c6 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"> - <title>Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-brid= i + Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi

What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require me= chanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to= express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what = we have to say. In English, we have words called=20 pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: nouns diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index d836861..231ce39 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-relative-clauses"> - <title>Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicate= d + Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated

What are you pointing at? The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

poi NOI restrictive relative clause introducer diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 76a8d4e..8a12712 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ - Chapter 9 To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The= Land Of Modals + To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals

Introductory The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the s= peaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are e= xpressed by Lojban grammatical forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 selbri. The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but accor= ding to a systematic pattern known as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well= -known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can = be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dicti= onary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in= =20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the pla= ce structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.