Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book<= /title>  <indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter1-section1">

- 28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</ti= tle> + <title>List of spatial directions and direction-like relations spatial directions The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for= the cmavo, first when used without=20 mo'ito express a direction, and then when used with=20 mo'ito express movement in the direction. When possible= , the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.

ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backward= zu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita b= elow downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o = pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to te'e bordering moving along the border (of) diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index c82461e..7512a3b 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: = On Lojban Abstraction

- 1. The syntax of abstraction + The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstractionis to provide a means for taking whole bridi= and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abst= ractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and compl= ex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and anot= her. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a r= esult, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with t= his difficulty until=20 . An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and prece= ding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are k= nown as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example1" /> @@ -71,21 +71,21 @@ <para>Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical f= orm used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />we see=20 <quote>my going-to the store</quote>rather than=20 <quote>I go-to the store</quote>; likewise, in the glosses of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example3" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example4" />we see=20 <quote>being-a-soldier</quote>rather than=20 <quote>is-a-soldier</quote>. This procedure reflects the desire for mo= re understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban f= orm. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of= an abstraction selbri.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2"> - <title>2. Event abstraction + Event abstraction The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

nu NU event abstractor

The examples in=20 made use of=20 @@ -237,21 +237,21 @@ (The=20 whenof the English would also be appropriate for a cons= truction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than t= hat the studying is concurrent with the ease.) The place structure of a=20 nuabstraction selbri is simply: x1 is an event of (the bridi)

- 3. Types of event abstractions + Types of event abstractions event abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mu'e mu'e NU point-event abstractor @@ -433,21 +433,21 @@ za'i continuous =20 zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeat= ed actions x2 zu'o

- 4. Property abstractions + Property abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ka NU property abstractor property abstractor

@@ -677,21 +677,21 @@ bridi: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3 The place structure of=20 kaabstraction selbri is simply: ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)

- 5. Amount abstractions + Amount abstractions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ni NU amount abstraction amount abstraction @@ -787,21 +787,21 @@ Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort= of scale, and so the place structure of=20 niabstraction selbri is: ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2 Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is= to use something like=20 le ni ... kei be. See=20 for the use of thi= s construction.

- 6. Truth-value abstraction:=20 + <title>Truth-value abstraction:=20  <indexterm><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexterm> <quote>jei</quote> The=20 blueness of the picturediscussed in=20 refers to the measurable am= ount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of tr= uth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in= Lojban using=20 jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 ni. In the simplest cases,=20 le jeiproduces not a number but a truth value: @@ -854,21 +854,21 @@ jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 Abstractions using=20 jeiare the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 jeiabstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclu= sive (as distinct from=20 niabstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). = The detailed conventions for using=20 jeiin fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establishe= d.

- 7. Predication/sentence abstraction + Predication/sentence abstraction sentence abstraction The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du'u NU predication abstraction predication abstraction @@ -1016,21 +1016,21 @@ claims only that h= e said some words or other which were to the same purpose. le se du'uis much the same as=20 lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but=20 se du'ucan be used as a selbri, whereas=20 lu'eis ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 for a discussion of=20 lu'e.)

- 8. Indirect questions + Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

kau kau UI indirect question marker indirect question @@ -1200,21 +1200,21 @@ is-at the park. I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park. In addition,=20 is only a loose pa= raphrase of=20 , because it is le= ft to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-t= o-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.

- 9. Minor abstraction types + Minor abstraction types The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

li'i li'i NU experience abstractor experience abstractor @@ -1353,21 +1353,21 @@ Note the importance of using=20 keiafter=20 su'uwhen the x2 of=20 su'u(or any other abstractor) is being specified; other= wise, the=20 be loends up inside the abstraction bridi. abstraction bridi

- 10. Lojban sumti raising + Lojban sumti raising sumti raising The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving

@@ -1543,21 +1543,21 @@ le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death)

- 11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses + Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses This section is a logical continuation of=20 . There exists a relationship between the four types of events exp= lained in=20 and the event contour tense= cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually i= nterdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU even= t types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 event types , and only summarized here. The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: @@ -1652,21 +1652,21 @@ ca'o(a point-event has no duration), and the achievemen= t contour=20 co'i. co'i Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be = treated as such. The points in time may be seen as=20 mu'epoint-events; the spans of time may constitute proc= esses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes with= in processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract= things. mu'e

- 12. Abstractor connection + Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 . The connection can be expanded to = one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent in= meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section12-example2" /> @@ -1678,21 +1678,21 @@ <en>and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en> <jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo> <en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>  <indexterm><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody kno= ws what uses it may eventually have.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section13"> - <title>13. Table of abstractors + Table of abstractors The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for = it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the a= ssociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks th= an for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the fo= llowing line) its place structure. nu event of fasnu nun =20 x1 is an event of (the bridi) ka property of ckaji kam x1 is a property of (the bridi) ni amount of klani nil x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2 jei truth-value of jetnu jez diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 4c137cd..9935cf3 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Str= uctures

- 1. Why have lujvo? + Why have lujvo? The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu,= made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not = intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal = list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for = the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in = certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, fo= ods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten mi= llion or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken togethe= r. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures = and function as selbri. world's languages word lists semantic primitives plants @@ -63,21 +63,21 @@ bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as=20 seor=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo= as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo= may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru cou= ld produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tan= ru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 .

- 2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour + The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour necessary detour The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as= - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru= corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvoin Lojban, and since there is no concise English = equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (= modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the s= eltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the v= eljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifierfor=20 seltauand=20 modifiedfor=20 @@ -184,21 +184,21 @@ is arguably true. = If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru=20 gerku zdani, then the meaning of=20 gerku zdanichanges. So if we understand=20 gerku zdanias having the same meaning as the English wo= rd=20 doghouse, the White House would no longer be a=20 gerku zdaniwith respect to Spot, because as far as we k= now Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is = not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding). derogatory terms

- 3. The meaning of lujvo + The meaning of lujvo This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say= =20 doghouse! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there= . Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tan= ru - the one left deliberately vague - is the precise relation between the = tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving= an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru. A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru= . That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we = don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the selta= u. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by t= he specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure = of the lujvo itself. disambiguated instance Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujv= o and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more s= pecific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one wil= l be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r. The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the = relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks,= above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should = be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language = compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau pla= ce and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship=20 dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in houseis too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a= single short word; the relationship=20 dog lives in houseis not. From all the various interpre= tations of=20 gerku zdani, the person creating=20 @@ -273,32 +273,32 @@

z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2

Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not = yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places shoul= d also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. The= se concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are n= ow equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.

- 4. Selecting places + Selecting places The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the pla= ces of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are = derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnece= ssary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meanin= g to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed b= y a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, = because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of v= alues for it. It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo fr= om scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what argumen= ts contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two rea= sons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in thi= s chapter. The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or rea= der, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to = convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or sh= e would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encoun= tered in order to work out what a=20 se jboplior a=20 te klagauis. But this would mean that, rather than havi= ng to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist would als= o have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or no apparen= t pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines documented i= n this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional wherever = possible. The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the = lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are form= ulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulate= d may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo o= f the lujvo. If that is the case - that is to say, if the lujvo places are = not a subset of the veljvo gismu places - then it will be very difficult fo= r the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place means, and wha= t it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that will be furthe= r discussed in=20 . However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is use= ful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the velj= vo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should l= ook like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin w= ith, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are rele= vant or not relevant to expressing that idea.

- 5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo + Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-maki= ng creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 great soldier banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structures are:= @@ -446,21 +446,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example9" />

kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.

instead.

- 6. Dependent places + Dependent places In order to understand which places, if any, should be completel= y removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept o= f dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on anothe= r if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other= places. For example, the g2 place of=20 notation conventions lujvo place structure gerkuis dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we= know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then = we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent p= laces provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 @@ -638,21 +638,21 @@ d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to aud= ience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem= to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. school building

- 7. Ordering lujvo places. + Ordering lujvo places. So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into = the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In us= ing selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the su= mti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical:= the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader u= nfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which. If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the= order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this do= es not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo= =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example1" />

@@ -784,21 +784,21 @@ ailment using treatment m4

Since the shared place is m2=3Dd1, the animal patient, the remai= ning seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then t= he remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo. animal patient

- 8. lujvo with more than two parts. + lujvo with more than two parts. The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with t= wo parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An examp= le is=20 bavlamdei,=20 tomorrow: it is composed of the rafsi for=20 tomorrow future,=20 adjacent, and=20 day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo = like this? The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify t= hem as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or = the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of=20 bavlamdeias having two components:=20 @@ -882,21 +882,21 @@ long-sword with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what co= unts legally as a=20 sword, rather than just a=20 knife, depends on the length of the blade (the legal li= mit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of=20 cladakyxa'imay not often be explicitly filled, but it i= s still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best t= hat it be last.

- 9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau + Eliding SE rafsi from seltau It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of= selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo constructio= n for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on = the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word = should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lu= jvo refers to a rare or unusual concept. Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: proposed law <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1" /> @@ -963,21 +963,21 @@  <indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm> <quote>ti'ifla</quote>are given the place structure they would have wi= th the appropriate SE added to the seltau.</para> <para>Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE inse= rtion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely t= o be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists sho= uld be aware of the risk of ambiguity.</para>  <indexterm><primary>implausible</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10"> - <title>10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau + Eliding SE rafsi from tertau Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To = understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some ty= pe of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,=20 posydjidescribes a type of=20 djica,=20 gerzdadescribes a type of=20 zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 gerzdadoes not describe a=20 se zdani- it is not a word that could be used to descri= be an inhabitant such as a dog. Now consider how we would translate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 @@ -1023,21 +1023,21 @@ sewould almost always be required. What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wro= ngly, under the influence of English. The English suffix=20 -eyeddoes not mean=20 eye, but someone with an eye, which is=20 selkanla. Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a=20 sethat really should be there), any attempt to accommod= ate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting = a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with S= E rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more exp= licit counterparts: in this case,=20 blaselkanla.

- 11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo + Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as po= ssible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. T= he first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually=20 keand=20 ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We c= an usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau wit= h=20 keand=20 ke'emissing is less plausible than that with the cmavo = inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is beefsteak @@ -1212,21 +1212,21 @@ se te, more than likely should be interpreted in the sa= me way, namely as=20 se te se ke te, since there is no need to re-order places in = the way that=20 se teprovides. (See=20 se te .)

- 12. Abstract lujvo + Abstract lujvo The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of = a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard e= xample,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example1" /> k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. @@ -1356,21 +1356,21 @@ faiplace as a=20 faiplace of the lujvo; it does not participate in the r= egular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 notation conventions lujvo place structure faiis also explained in=20 .)

- 13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo + Implicit-abstraction lujvo abstraction lujvo Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producing a clas= s of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. implicit-abstraction lujvo abstraction lujvo @@ -1592,21 +1592,21 @@ and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice. Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language = of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and= increasing the expressive power of the language. expressive power abstraction lujvo

- 14. Anomalous lujvo + Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 unusual position jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example1" /> @@ -1792,21 +1792,21 @@ <quote>xanmi'e</quote>wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there = is a latent component to the meaning of=20  <indexterm><primary>latent component</primary></indexterm> <quote>xanmi'e</quote>, the gismu=20 <quote>pilno</quote>, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also= means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, ra= ther than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivati= on for=20 <quote>xancypliminde</quote>or one of the other possibilities that is = analogous to the analysis of=20 <quote>terlantroge'u</quote>above, even if he or she decides to stick = with a shorter, more convenient form like=20 <quote>xanmi'e</quote>. In addition, of course, the possibilities of e= lliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously - an unavoida= ble fact which should be borne in mind.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15"> - <title>15. Comparatives and superlatives + Comparatives and superlatives English has the concepts of=20 comparative adjectivesand=20 adjectives superlative adjectiveswhich can be formed from other ad= jectives, either by adding the suffixes=20 adjectives -erand=20 -estor by using the words=20 moreand=20 @@ -2079,21 +2079,21 @@ Judy la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka Einstein was the greatest of all scientists. Einstein

- 16. Notes on gismu place structures + Notes on gismu place structures Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gi= smu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-c= ase analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list = is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, ce= rtain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ord= ering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, an= d which are therefore discussed here. The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of f= our different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and = regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lu= jvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implica= tions of each are roughly as follows: Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has= , the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in= =20 , a brivla with fewer p= lace structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, beca= use they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space. virtue diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 74ebba2..d9bb0dc 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Ind= icators

- 1. What are attitudinal indicators? + What are attitudinal indicators? attitudinal indicators This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words tone of voice <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example1" /> @@ -119,21 +119,21 @@ feelings .uishould not really be=20 happinessbut some sound or tone that expresses happines= s. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or ob= vious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emo= tions Lojban speakers can readily express. happiness Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific g= ismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of= the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, t= hus: [gismu]. square brackets

- 2. Pure emotion indicators + Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. real world Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicatorsexpress the way the speaker is f= eeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators com= prise the attitudinals which begin with=20 uor=20 oand many of those beginning with=20 i. The cmavo beginning with=20 uare simple emotions, which represent the speaker's rea= ction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be. @@ -381,21 +381,21 @@ la djan. klama .iu John is-coming [love!] where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. is a compact way = of swearing at John: you could translate it as=20 That good-for-nothing John is coming.

- 3. Propositional attitude indicators + Propositional attitude indicators As mentioned at the beginning of=20 , attitudinals may be divid= ed into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, = and a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 real world hypothetical world what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in Engl= ish) something like=20 I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The em= otion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically in= dependent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like=20 @@ -628,21 +628,21 @@ do sazri le karce .i .e'a e'a You drive the car. [Permission]. You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.

- 4. Attitudes as scales + Attitudes as scales In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales r= un from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 positiveand=20 negativeare put into quotation marks because they are l= oaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects t= his loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positivewords, namely=20 .ii(fear) and=20 .oi(pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly though= t of as less=20 @@ -746,21 +746,21 @@ You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion.= This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about wh= ich you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicato= r=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 cai cu'iby itself. cu'i

- 5. The space of emotions + The space of emotions Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimen= sional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-= dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are repres= ented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicator= s serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inven= tory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of= the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as = a distinct single point, which is our attitude. dimension Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudina= ls to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more t= han one or two emotions at a time - usually the ones that are strongest or = which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system p= rovides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might= be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists expres= s compound emotions when they do recognize them. compound emotions The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion.= We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in=20 that multiply the set of sc= ales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale,= which might be expressed by=20 magnitude @@ -774,21 +774,21 @@ fortitudemight be=20 .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security. Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects= several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of= importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression ref= lects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to = us is also revealing - of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. T= here is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express= them; the=20 vector sumnaturally expresses the result. This is vital= to their nature as attitudinals - if you had to stop and think about them,= or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.= People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi jus= t like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying= =20 I'm awedis not the same as saying=20 Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effec= ts of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simp= ly feel in Lojban. A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or compl= ex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in lea= rning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of a= ttitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As y= ou learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more preci= sely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.

- 6. Emotional categories + Emotional categories The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a lo= ng list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available= VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in t= he list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assig= ned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result= is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express= very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment. The most significant=20 common featurewe identified was that the emotional word= s on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of wh= ich was assigned its own cmavo: ro'a social asocial antisocial=20 ro'a ro'e mental mindless @@ -859,21 +859,21 @@ ro'u re'e hands moving around spiritual re'e The implicit metaphors=20 heartfor emotional and=20 bellyfor physical are not really Lojbanic, but they wor= k fine for English-speakers.

- 7. Attitudinal modifiers + Attitudinal modifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness=20 ga'i rank lack of rank =20 le'o aggressive passive defensive @@ -1184,21 +1184,21 @@ .e'enaise'anai [I can't!] [dependent] I can't do it by myself! Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to us= e. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combination= s will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, ano= ther person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what= emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known= and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations w= ill come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.

- 8. Compound indicators + Compound indicators The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are= optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still gram= matical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of = the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed i= s presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo= has some meaning. Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of inte= rpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modi= fier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one.= (There is an=20 unspecified emotionword,=20 unspecified emotion ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a = modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous= but distinct emotional expression.) ge'e For example,=20 .ieru'eexpresses a weak positive value on the scale of = agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with somethi= ng else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But= =20 @@ -1259,21 +1259,21 @@ ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an at= titudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2= nd or greater position, either=20 ge'e ge'eor a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers = from modifying the previous attitudinal. ge'e

- 9. The uses of indicators + The uses of indicators The behavior of indicators in the=20 outside grammaris nearly as simple as their internal st= ructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalingu= istic erasers=20 metalinguistic erasers si,=20 sa, and=20 suand some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The de= tails of such interactions are discussed in=20 . A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicato= r may, except in those few situations (as in=20 zoquotation, explained in=20 @@ -1298,21 +1298,21 @@ I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!] can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in w= hich case it means=20 Damn, I snapped at you; or as expressing both anger and= complaint about the listener, in which case it means=20 I told you, you pest! Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be= taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as= the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla.= Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, = this ambiguity is acceptable. Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impr= actical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in wr= itten expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move w= ords around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of bo= dy language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.

- 10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours + Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours empathy The following cmavo are discussed in this section: pei attitude question=20 dai empathy empathy @@ -1513,21 +1513,21 @@ mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (= I am-sad). I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad. which is a straightforward bridi claim.=20 states that you = have (or have had) certain emotions;=20 expresses those = emotions directly.

- 11. Evidentials + Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ja'o [jalge] I conclude=20 ca'e I define ca'e ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember ba'a @@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@ ju'a ju'apeimeans=20 ju'apei What is the basis for your statement?and serves as an e= vidential, as distinct from emotional, question. basis

- 12. Discursives + Discursives The term=20 discursiveis used for those members of selma'o UI that = provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utte= rance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular = bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that=20 I also came, we would have to say=20 I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional in= stance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence, whic= h is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are wor= ds or phrases like=20 however,=20 summarizing,=20 in conclusion, and=20 for example. Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emo= tion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that referen= ce the sentence or text they are found in. Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, o= ften attached to the=20 @@ -2189,21 +2189,21 @@ ru is the equivalent of either=20 or=20 .)

- 13. Miscellaneous indicators + Miscellaneous indicators Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitu= dinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following misc= ellaneous indicators: ki'a metalinguistic confusion=20 na'i metalinguistic negator jo'a metalinguistic affirmer jo'a li'o omitted text (quoted material) @@ -2432,21 +2432,21 @@ mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. know who

- 14. Vocative scales + Vocative scales Vocativesare words used to address someone directly; th= ey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 direct address la(and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name use= d to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in fact, dis= cursives - but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of list= eners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of = UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negatedwith=20 naito get the opposite part of the scale. Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lo= jban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales= . Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 redundancy @@ -2716,21 +2716,21 @@ wilco,=20 over and out. This form of translation does not mean th= at Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural = languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in speci= fic domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Loj= ban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener ma= y not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protoc= ol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include compu= ter communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the = protocol question=20 protocol ta'apeiwould mean=20 ta'apei Will the speaker yield?

- 15. A sample dialogue + A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 protocol sei ... se'uindicate the speaker of each sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example2" /> @@ -2900,21 +2900,21 @@ <en> <quote>Goodbye to all of you,</quote>said George sneeringly,=20 <quote>except John.</quote></en> <jbo>.i la djordj. cliva</jbo> <gloss>George leaves.</gloss> <en>George left.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section16"> - <title>16. Tentative conclusion + Tentative conclusion The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage = are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language befo= re. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transc= ription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. Whe= n communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are = often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we e= ver ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could = be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven= , is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, = noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent t= o attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot iden= tify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things = like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed. Sapir-Whorf effects Kzinti anticipated We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinct= ions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. B= ut it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to = choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances = in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using= the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 , to create metalinguistic comments = that act like indicators. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 2e7de67..f476149 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section1"> - <title>1. Logical connection and truth tables + Logical connection and truth tables truth tables Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself me= ans=20 logical language logical language. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t= here are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the n= otions of a=20 logical language sentence(sometimes called a=20 statementor=20 @@ -140,21 +140,21 @@ FFTT first is false whether or not second is true. FFTF first is false, but second is true. FFFT neither first nor second is true. FFFF (always false) Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.<= /para> truth tables

- 2. The Four basic vowels + The Four basic vowels Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, = and assigns them the four vowels=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U. These letters do not repres= ent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual= logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. H= ere are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:= truth tables A TTTF or, and/or =20 @@ -205,21 +205,21 @@ E with first sentence negated FFFT =20 E with both sentences negated Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with=20 U. The three other basic truth= functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of= the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some= of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employe= d. truth tables

- 3. The six types of logical connectives + The six types of logical connectives In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section3-example1" />

Mary went to the window and ... @@ -262,21 +262,21 @@ guheks giheks There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not= logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be i= ntroduced later. joigiks giks

- 4. Logical connection of bridi + Logical connection of bridi Now we are ready to express=20 in Lojban! The kin= d of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect= them logically is an ijek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example1" />

la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-a-woman. @@ -426,21 +426,21 @@ seare present, which is legal but never necessary,=20 nawould come before=20 se. The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is: .i [na] [se] JA [nai] where the cmavo in brackets are optional.

- 5. Forethought bridi connection + Forethought bridi connection imperatives bridi connection Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, g= enerally referred to as=20 afterthoughtand=20 forethought.=20 discussed what is called=20 afterthought bridi logical connection. The word=20 @@ -624,21 +624,21 @@ giks observatives forethought connection gi [nai]

- 6. sumti connection + sumti connection sumti connection Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical co= nnection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to= be logically connected have one or more portions in common: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example1" />

la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci @@ -717,21 +717,21 @@ John only if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market only if Alice does.

Note the period in=20 na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore m= ust always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connecti= ve compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be= marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the=20 naand=20 awould tend to run together.

- 7. More than two propositions + More than two propositions So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly = two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojb= an? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions. Of the four primitive truth functions=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U, all but=20 Ohave the same truth values no= matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d1" /> @@ -835,21 +835,21 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris.</jbo> <en>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</e= n> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>is not equivalent to=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />, but is instead a= valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example5" />.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8"> - <title>8. Grouping of afterthought connectives + Grouping of afterthought connectives There are several ways in Lojban to render=20 using afterthought= only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 bo(of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in = Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In p= articular, if=20 bois placed after an ijek, the result is a grammaticall= y distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Con= nections marked with=20 boare interpreted before connections not so marked.=20 is equivalent in m= eaning to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d1" /> @@ -1018,21 +1018,21 @@ <gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss> <gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss> <en>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all = three component sentences are true or all three are false.</para>  <indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9"> - <title>9. Compound bridi + Compound bridi So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have n= o similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical exc= ept for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural= to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for ha= ving different selbri. sumti connection imperatives bridi connection Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed= to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided = as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called=20 compound bridi. Compound bridi result from logically co= nnecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their s= umti. @@ -1206,21 +1206,21 @@ The syntax of giheks is: giheks [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.

- 10. Multiple compound bridi + Multiple compound bridi compound bridi Giheks can be combined with=20 boin the same way as eks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example1" />

@@ -1370,21 +1370,21 @@

mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.= I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).<= /en>

- 11. Termset logical connection + Termset logical connection So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and= require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and per= mit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly = one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connec= tives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not= in the selbri, such as: sumti connection imperatives bridi connection <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d1" /> @@ -1506,21 +1506,21 @@ <en>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 <quote>nu'i</quote>is used.</para> <para>The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter12" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16" />.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12"> - <title>12. Logical connection within tanru + Logical connection within tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical conne= ctive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is po= ssible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru= that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ba= ll, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue= and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within the tanru= . (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were = always prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: pe'e @@ -1721,21 +1721,21 @@ I see a man and woman. But=20 means that you s= ee one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A=20 nanmu je ninmuis a manwoman, a presumably non-existent = creature who is both a=20 nanmuand a=20 ninmu.

- 13. Truth questions and connective questions + Truth questions and connective questions connective questions So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. The simplest kind of question is of the type=20 Is it true that ...where some statement follows. This t= ype is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1" /> @@ -2027,21 +2027,21 @@ <quote>but</quote>is the same as=20 <quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 <quote>but</quote>is felt to be in tension or opposition to the senten= ce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive c= mavo=20 <quote>ku'i</quote>(of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20  <indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter13" />, to the logical=20 <quote>.ije</quote>.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14"> - <title>14. Non-logical connectives + Non-logical connectives Way back in=20 , the point was made that n= ot every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 if ... then andof: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1" /> @@ -2342,21 +2342,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example16" />

la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi James and-respectively George love two sisters.

which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, = though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.

- 15. More about non-logical connectives + More about non-logical connectives The final three JOI cmavo,=20 jo'e,=20 jo'e ku'a, and=20 ku'a pi'u, are probably only useful when talking explicitly = about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called=20 pi'u @@ -2604,21 +2604,21 @@ coffee or tea joi Mixed-mass-and. Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together). Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)

- 16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection= + Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</ti= tle>  <indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm> <para>In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explai= ned in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section14" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section15" />, there are three other co= nnectives which can appear in joiks:=20 <quote>bi'i</quote>,=20 <quote>bi'o</quote>, and=20 <quote>mi'i</quote>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used= to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo= =20  <indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> @@ -2822,21 +2822,21 @@

mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive).

In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separ= ated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers t= o the first endpoint.

- 17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso + Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar f= or representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 mathematical expressions 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are = operands, like=20 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethoug= ht with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected = in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru c= omponents. (However, jeks and joiks with=20 guheks @@ -2947,21 +2947,21 @@ d) x Note that the=20 boiin=20 is not elidable, = because the=20 xisubscript needs something to attach to.

- 18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection + Tenses, modals, and logical connection The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical = connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, = so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with e= mphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapte= r, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI = are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, a= nd the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time = when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses);= preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, = simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generall= y a=20 le nuabstraction; see=20 ). The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connecti= ves are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The form= er are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two c= onnected bridi that differ only in tense: logically connected tenses @@ -3209,21 +3209,21 @@ pu ge I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food I went to the market and bought some food. is similar to=20 . There is no tim= e relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply = set in the past.

- 19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</t= itle> + <title>Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title= > <para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is al= lowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection c= an be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in= abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.=20   <indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />are equivalent in= meaning:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-C7PL"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d1" /> @@ -3264,21 +3264,21 @@ <gloss>.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</g= loss> <gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= </gloss> <en>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at= Jupiter</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=20 <quote>jinvi</quote>requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, u= nlike=20 <quote>krici</quote>).</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section20"> - <title>20. Constructs and appropriate connectives + Constructs and appropriate connectives The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that c= an be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connecti= ve is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes.= An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted. A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not po= ssible. @@ -3352,21 +3352,21 @@ jek - joik -

- 21. Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives</titl= e> + <title>Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most= -often used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six = types of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for = example,=20 se.ameans the same as=20 a, and could be used instead.) @@ -3494,21 +3494,21 @@ genai=E2=80=93ginai gu'enai=E2=80=93ginai Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, exce= pt for the prefixed=20 .i.

- 22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title= > + <title>Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives The full set of rules for inserting=20 na,=20 se, and=20 naiinto any connective is: Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks): giheks Negate first construct: Place=20 @@ -3554,21 +3554,21 @@ joigik Exchange constructs: Place=20 sebefore the connective cmavo.

- 23. Locations of other tables + Locations of other tables : a table explaining the me= aning of each truth function in English. : a table relating the trut= h functions to the four basic vowels. : a table of the connectiv= e question cmavo. connective question cmavo : a table of the meanings = of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 1e4b1d9..931bbbe 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,15 +1,15 @@ Chapter 15=20 <quote>No</quote>Problems: On Lojban Negation

- 1. Introductory + Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 notwith different grammatical effect must be different = words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. logical language In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subjectand=20 predicate. In the statement @@ -101,21 +101,21 @@ The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner. The King of Mexico did come to dinner. In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both = of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico. The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model= of negation.

- 2. bridi negation + bridi negation In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical = negation that simply denies the truth of a statement=20 bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the eq= uivalent of=20 I haven't stopped beating my wifewithout implying that = I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply=20 It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.Since= Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negati= on is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level. For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence be= ing negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a neg= ative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradicto= ry, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to negative answer <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d1" /> @@ -371,21 +371,21 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was= aided by my uncle the Senator.</jbo> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 <quote>-nar-</quote>has been reserved for=20 <quote>na</quote>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that yo= u intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation desc= ribed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section3" />, which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3"> - <title>3. Scalar Negation + Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example1" />

The chair is not brown.

@@ -582,21 +582,21 @@ non-,=20 un-,=20 il-, and=20 im-. Just which form and permissible values are implied= by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept = which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English resul= ts from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixe= s. In the examples of=20 , we will translate the gen= eral case of scalar negation using the general formula=20 other thanwhen a phrase is scalar-negated, and=20 non-when a single word is scalar-negated.

- 4. selbri and tanru negation + selbri and tanru negation All the scalar negations illustrated in=20 are expressed in Lojban usi= ng the cmavo=20 na'e(of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of=20 na'eis as a prefix to the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example2" /> @@ -891,21 +891,21 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note:=20 <quote>lo</quote>is used in these sentences because negation relates t= o truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentence= s carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually ap= plies to the referent. A sentence using=20 <quote>le</quote>instead of=20 <quote>lo</quote>can be true even if there is no current king of Franc= e, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as t= he current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 <quote>le</quote>in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter6" />.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5"> - <title>5. Expressing scales in selbri negation + Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 , the default is the set of= plausible alternatives. Thus if we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example1" />

le stizu cu na'e xunre The chair is a non-(red-thing). @@ -1063,21 +1063,21 @@ ultimately uglyor=20 ultimately beautiful. Other scales, like temperature, a= re open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature = (so-called=20 absolute zero) but no maximum temperature. Still other = scales are closed at both ends. Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious=20 to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others hav= e more than one, and need=20 ci'uto specify which opposite is meant. ci'u

- 6. sumti negation + sumti negation There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choi= ce of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator=20 na'ebobefore the sumti. It turns out that a zero quanti= fication serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,=20 na'ebo na'eboforms a scalar negation. na'ebo Let us show examples of each. @@ -1129,21 +1129,21 @@ <en>I go to Perth.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. I= n a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better=20 <quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, b= ecause attaching=20 <quote>to'ebo</quote>to a description sumti is usually the same as att= aching=20 <quote>to'e</quote>to the selbri of the description.</para> <para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type i= nto bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be = used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations lo= gically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natu= ral languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section7"> - <title>7. Negation of minor grammatical constructs + Negation of minor grammatical constructs We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them = based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-co= mbining negator, which is=20 nai.=20 nai, by the way, is almost always written as a compound= into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separ= ate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI. Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be = discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular = construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here. The following are places where=20 naiis used: When attached to tenses and modals (see=20 ), the=20 naisuffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of= the tagged bridi. Thus=20 punaias a tense inflection means=20 @@ -1224,21 +1224,21 @@ su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai nijust as=20 punai je cacorresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically conn= ected abstractors will be: see=20 . A=20 naiattached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI= or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the = specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical c= onnectives are discussed in=20 .

- 8. Truth questions + Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yesor=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xuis in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a senten= ce, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example1" />

@@ -1349,21 +1349,21 @@ [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom. John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.

He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 keand=20 ke'ewould have been essential if the selbri had been a = tanru.

- 9. Affirmations + Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding n= egator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positiv= e in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assumi= ng the same context as in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example1" />

@@ -1451,21 +1451,21 @@

ta je'a melbi that is-indeed beautiful.

- 10. Metalinguistic negation forms + Metalinguistic negation forms The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with= negation. Consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example1" />

I have not stopped beating my wife.

@@ -1661,21 +1661,21 @@ Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 jo'a jo'amight be to affirm that a particular construction, = though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would= be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negati= on. jo'a

- 11. Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Ans= wered? + Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answere= d? <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section11-example1" />

na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i

diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index f862da6..d22bcad 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,15 +1,15 @@ Chapter 16=20 <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1"> - <title>1. What's wrong with this picture? + What's wrong with this picture? The following brief dialogue is from=20 of=20 Through The Looking Glassby Lewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example1" />

@@ -97,21 +97,21 @@ mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. I see the man/men.

that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the abili= ty to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are appli= ed. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclud= e nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.

- 2. Existential claims, prenexes, and variables + Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />

Something sees me.

@@ -244,21 +244,21 @@ da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. Ralph has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of= the following bridi is completely unspecified.

- 3. Universal claims + Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everythingfor=20 somethingin=20 ? We get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example1" />

@@ -337,21 +337,21 @@ can see There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 universal claims anybody/anythingrather than=20 everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference whic= h of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle o= ne which is explained in=20 .

- 4. Restricted claims:=20 + <title>Restricted claims:=20 <quote>da poi</quote> The universal claims of=20 universal claims are not only false but absu= rd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivia= l about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over th= e distinction between=20 everythingand=20 everybodyand the other pairs ending in=20 -thingand=20 -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. In Lojban, a variable=20 @@ -451,21 +451,21 @@ da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Some dog breathes. dog breathes

- 5. Dropping the prenex + Dropping the prenex It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving varia= bles to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've see= n so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simp= le: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did = in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 roor=20 poiappearing in the prenex must be transferred to the f= irst occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 becomes just: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example1" />

@@ -591,21 +591,21 @@

ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-perso= n by-Z.

As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes = for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban= is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose= one), provided the rules are observed.

- 6. Variables with generalized quantifiers + Variables with generalized quantifiers So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or = with the cmavo=20 roin front. Now=20 rois a Lojban number, and means=20 all; thus=20 ro prenumeans=20 ro prenu all persons, just as=20 all persons @@ -743,21 +743,21 @@

re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.

Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (alo= ng with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables= are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.

- 7. Grouping of quantifiers + Grouping of quantifiers Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions= neither of which is=20 roor=20 su'o(remembering that=20 su'ois implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section7-example1" />

@@ -850,21 +850,21 @@ [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.

means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 leother than=20 ro, the problems of this section reappear.

- 8. The problem of=20 + <title>The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example1" /> Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. @@ -1009,21 +1009,21 @@ There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need which is what=20 says, whereas=20 turns out to be an= effective translation of our original=20 . So uses of=20 anythat aren't universal end up being reflected by vari= ables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.

- 9. Negation boundaries + Negation boundaries This section, as well as=20 through=20 , are in effect a continua= tion of=20 , introducing features of Lojban neg= ation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examp= les below,=20 there is a Yand the like must be understood as=20 there is a Y there is at least one Y, possibly more. As explained in=20 , the negation of a bridi is usually= accomplished by inserting=20 @@ -1289,21 +1289,21 @@ . The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you = cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first mov= e the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers= they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated. interactions between quantifiers and negation interactions between quantifiers and negation double negatives

- 10. bridi negation and logical connectives + bridi negation and logical connectives negation and logical connectives negation and logical connectives bridi negation and logical connectives negation and logical connectives A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in=20 . What is said here is intentionally= quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications. @@ -1439,21 +1439,21 @@ nakupast a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you m= ust invert the quantifier. A=20 nabefore the selbri is always transformed into a=20 nakuat the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice ve= rsa.

- 11. Using=20 + <title>Using=20 <quote>naku</quote>outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example1" /> Some children do not go to school. @@ -1672,21 +1672,21 @@ mi naku naku le zarci cu klama Other expressions using two=20 nakus may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantif= ied variable between them, then the=20 nakus cancel. Negation with internal=20 nakuis clumsy and non-intuitive for logical manipulatio= ns, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating.

- 12. Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law + Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective between ter= ms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a change i= n the connective. Thus (where=20 pand=20 qstand for terms or sentences)=20 not (p or q)is identical to=20 not p and not q, and=20 not (p and q)is identical to=20 not p or not q. The corresponding changes for the other= two basic Lojban connectives are:=20 not (p equivalent to q)is identical to=20 not p exclusive-or not q, and=20 not (p whether-or-not q)is identical to both=20 @@ -1866,21 +1866,21 @@ (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John. la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom. John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome. That=20 and=20 mean the same sh= ould become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work = through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.

- 13. selbri variables + selbri variables selbri variables In addition to the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 dithat we have seen so far, which function as sumti and= belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables=20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 bu'e @@ -1953,21 +1953,21 @@ and=20 are almost certai= nly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, o= r at least have the property of being jointly human.=20 brothers is palpably false= , however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, the= n they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossib= le. brothers

- 14. A few notes on variables + A few notes on variables A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even thou= gh it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous ap= pearance, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14-example1" /> ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. @@ -2017,16 +2017,16 @@ The=20 pa dain=20 does not specify = the number of things to which=20 darefers, as the preceding=20 ci dadoes. Instead, it selects one of them for use in t= his sumti only. The number of referents of=20 daremains three, but a single one (there is no way of k= nowing which one) is selected to be the leader.

- 15. Conclusion + Conclusion This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic= that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in = abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a langu= age that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completel= y will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban bette= r than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-un= derstood (and by implication, those that are not). logic and Lojban

diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index ab6b904..1bdea05 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its U= ses

- 1. What's a letteral, anyway? + What's a letteral, anyway? James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the= word=20 Brown letteral(by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 for=20 z. A typical example of its use might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1" /> @@ -39,21 +39,21 @@ <para>Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti - the equivalent of= English pronouns.</para>  <indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm> <para>In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to u= se the word=20 <quote>lerfu</quote>for both the letterals themselves and for the Lojb= an words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthl= essly suppressed, and the term=20 <quote>lerfu word</quote>will invariably be used for the latter. The L= ojban equivalent would be=20 <quote>lerfu valsi</quote>or=20 <quote>lervla</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2"> - <title>2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one + A to Z in Lojban, plus one The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any languag= e is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The ler= fu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 doubleyouand=20 wis strictly historical in nature;=20 aitchrepresents=20 hbut has no clear relationship to it at all; and=20 zhas two distinct lerfu words,=20 zeeand=20 zed, depending on the dialect of English in question. All of Lojban's basic lerfu words are made by one of three rules= : @@ -185,21 +185,21 @@ micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor. A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 yunless the next word is also a cmavo ending in=20 y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after a= ll of them.

- 3. Upper and lower cases + Upper and lower cases Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (ca= pital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin wi= th an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used= in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus: upper-case letters upper-case lower-case <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1" /> @@ -283,21 +283,21 @@ <gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss> <en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>If a shift to upper-case is in effect when=20  <indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm> <quote>tau</quote>appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower= case, reversing its usual effect.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section4"> - <title>4. The universal=20 + <title>The universal=20 <quote>bu</quote> So far we have seen=20 buonly as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerf= u words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it pr= oved to be useful to allow=20 buto be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to al= low arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. Formally,=20 bumay be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound c= mavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 ba'e,=20 za'e,=20 @@ -374,21 +374,21 @@ syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 denpaand=20 slakaare normal gismu with normal stress:=20 denpabuwould be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another l= anguage into Lojban) stressed=20 denPAbu. No pause is required between=20 denpa(or=20 slaka) and=20 bu, though.

- 5. Alien alphabets + Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of cultural= neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many = other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text= (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a stand= ard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with t= he language itself, Lojbanized and with=20 buadded. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alphain running Lojban text is probably most easily han= dled by calling it=20 alpha .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made int= o a Lojbanized name by adding=20 sand then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 @@ -578,21 +578,21 @@ lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leav= ing font and case shifts in place. na'a lo'a font Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of pr= oposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.

- 6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words + Accent marks and compound lerfu words Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special m= arks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent = marks above vowels, called (in English)=20 Latin alphabet accent marks acute,=20 grave, and=20 circumflex. Likewise, German uses a mark called=20 circumflex @@ -645,21 +645,21 @@ In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissi= ble to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locall= y or well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 llor Croatian=20 ljcould be called=20 libu, but that usage would not necessarily be universal= ly understood. contains a table of propos= ed lerfu words for some common accent marks. accent marks

- 7. Punctuation marks + Punctuation marks Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and= the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, = use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words f= or these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the c= mavo=20 punctuation marks lauof selma'o LAU.=20 lau laumust always be followed by a BY word; the interpreta= tion of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typicall= y, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 lau busuffix. @@ -684,21 +684,21 @@ Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, t= he interpretation of a=20 punctuation marks lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphab= et shift and the current font shift. lau font

- 8. What about Chinese characters? + What about Chinese characters? syllabaries pinyin Chinese characters Chinese characters (=20 syllabaries @@ -798,21 +798,21 @@ syllabaries pinyin Chinese characters tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.

- 9. lerfu words as pro-sumti + lerfu words as pro-sumti So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spell= ing out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words with= in Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. = Therefore, the term=20 spelling out words lerfu stringis introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers = to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: @@ -925,21 +925,21 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>requires the first=20 <quote>boi</quote>to separate the lerfu string=20 <quote>xy.</quote>from the digit string=20  <indexterm><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm> <quote>ro</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10"> - <title>10. References to lerfu + References to lerfu The rules of=20 make it impossible to use u= nmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example1" />

.abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. @@ -1019,21 +1019,21 @@ la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu la'e lu The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.

which is correct.

- 11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings + Mathematical uses of lerfu strings This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained= in=20 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu = strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. A lerfu string as mathematical variable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d1" /> @@ -1155,21 +1155,21 @@ <quote>abc</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could be employed t= hat made the value of a variable like=20 <quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values = of the variables=20 <quote>a</quote>,=20 <quote>b</quote>, and=20 <quote>c</quote>multiplied together.)</para> <para>There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: = shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing = outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.</para>  <indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12"> - <title>12. Acronyms + Acronyms An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are= =20 acronym DNA,=20 DNA NATO,=20 NATO CIA. In English, some of these are spelled out (like=20 @@ -1323,21 +1323,21 @@ does not of cours= e refer to a bear (=20 le cribeor=20 lo cribe) but to something else, probably a person, nam= ed=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abuis a predicate which can be used as a nam= e, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual= lerfu words. acronym

- 13. Computerized character codes + Computerized character codes character codes Since the first application of computers to non-numerical inform= ation, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called=20 character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punct= uation marks (collectively called=20 punctuation marks character codes characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 @@ -1390,21 +1390,21 @@ me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-a= t-peace When a=20 se'estring appears in running discourse, some metalingu= istic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other b= ase, and which character set is in use. se'e

- 14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo + List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

bu BU makes previous word into a lerfu word

ga'e ga'e @@ -1509,31 +1509,31 @@ FOI end compound lerfu word

Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equiva= lent, where=20 equivalentmeans: either any Lojban word followed by=20 bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a= =20 tei ... foicompound cmavo.

- 15. Proposed lerfu words - introduction + Proposed lerfu words - introduction The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words fo= r some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The = first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name suf= ficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu= word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based = on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorit= ies within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagre= eing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working= basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of l= erfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat= before settling down into a final, conventional form. basis For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu).

- 16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet + Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet Greek alphabet alpha .alfas. bu .abu=20 alpha beta .betas. bu by gamma .gamas. bu gy delta .deltas. bu dy @@ -1555,21 +1555,21 @@ upsilon .Upsilon. bu .ubu phi .fis. bu py. bu chi .xis. bu ky. bu psi .psis. bu psis. bu omega .omegas. bu .o'obu rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu

- 17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet + Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillic alphabet The second column in this listing is based on the historical nam= es of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russia= n are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as n= eeded. a .azys. bu .abu=20 b .bukys. bu by v .vedis. bu vy g .glagolis. bu gy d .dobros. bu dy @@ -1596,21 +1596,21 @@ shch .ctas. bu ctcys. bu hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu yu .ius. bu .iubu ya .ias. bu .iabu

- 18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet + Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet Hebrew alphabet aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu=20 bet .bet. bu by gimel .gimel. bu gy daled .daled. bu dy he .xex. bu .y'y vav .vav. bu vy @@ -1639,21 +1639,21 @@ segol .seGOL. bu .ebu qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu qamatz .kamats. bu .abu patach .patax. bu .a'abu sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu kholem .xolem. bu .obu shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu

- 19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple let= ters + Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters= multiple letters accent marks This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are = lerfu such as Polish=20 darkl and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols. acute .akut. bu=20 or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu] @@ -1689,21 +1689,21 @@ ligatured fi Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi Dutch ij German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi

- 20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication + Proposed lerfu words for radio communication radio communication There is a set of English words which are used, by international= agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in= noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are k= nown as the=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. ICAO Phonetic Alphabet This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 carlis. bu, not=20 tcarlis. bu). diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index c25e26c..e81ea7c 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 18 lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban</titl= e> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"> - <title>1. Introductory + Introductory lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: representing all the different forms of expression used by m= athematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambi= guously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expec= t a listener to understand it; providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms w= hich can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full r= esources of Lojban; @@ -42,21 +42,21 @@ 3xand=20 2ythan as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the L= ojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 multiplication must not omit the = multiplication operators. multiplication The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is = currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete= as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those compo= nents - as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso= facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clar= ified.

- 2. Lojban numbers + Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pa PA 1

re PA @@ -157,21 +157,21 @@ o,=20 urespectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end i= n the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i, and=20 orespectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the s= ame consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments. noisy environments

- 3. Signs and numerical punctuation + Signs and numerical punctuation The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ma'u PA positive sign positive sign ni'u PA negative sign subtraction operator negative sign @@ -339,21 +339,21 @@ .022 pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa ki'o point one comma one two comma one .001012001

- 4. Special numbers + Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ci'i PA infinity infinity ci'i ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1) ka'o @@ -430,21 +430,21 @@ is not=20 1 minus 2, which is represented by a different cmavo se= quence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a mean= ing. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they m= ay be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban = number system. It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 odditiesdo have a meaningful use in some restricted are= a of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specia= lized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would = use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 to=20 .

- 5. Simple infix expressions and equations + Simple infix expressions and equations infix expressions The following cmavo are discussed in this section: du GOhA equals su'i VUhU plus vu'u VUhU minus pi'i VUhU times te'a VUhU raised to the power @@ -684,21 +684,21 @@ is required, but = the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, t= he first=20 square brackets bi'e(also marked by square brackets) is not necessary t= o get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the ot= her one. square brackets bi'e

- 6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) + Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse pe'o PEhO forethought flag pe'o ku'e KUhE forethought terminator py. BY letter=20 p @@ -843,21 +843,21 @@ Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands re= ally are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless par= enthesized with=20 infix expressions veiand=20 ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief bec= ause I forgot this rule.

- 7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi + Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example1" />

li xy. mleca li mu @@ -926,21 +926,21 @@ li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5

As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not = say anything about what might be true.

- 8. Indefinite numbers + Indefinite numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro PA all

so'a @@ -1300,21 +1300,21 @@ I am-married-to many/three persons. I am married to three persons (which is=20 manyin the circumstances). assumes a mostly = monogamous culture by stating that three is=20 many.

- 9. Approximation and inexact numbers + Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ji'i PA approximately su'e PA at most su'e at most su'o PA at least me'i PA less than @@ -1467,21 +1467,21 @@ at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 su'o,=20 piro, and=20 pisu'oare particularly important in Lojban, as they are= implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA = and LE, as explained in=20 pisu'o . Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter.

- 10. Non-decimal and compound bases + Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ju'u VUhU to the base

dau PA @@ -1676,21 +1676,21 @@

dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. This is Sentence 10.11.

- 11. Special mekso selbri + Special mekso selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mei MOI cardinal selbri cardinal selbri

@@ -2037,21 +2037,21 @@ Note: the elidable terminator=20 boiis not used between a number and a member of MOI. As= a result, the=20 me'uin=20 could also be re= placed by a=20 boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 paand=20 moifrom joining into a compound.

- 12. Number questions + Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xo xo PA number question

@@ -2094,21 +2094,21 @@ The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 to which the correct reply would be=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammati= cal Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xoquestions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting o= ff physical objects one by one.) xo

- 13. Subscripts + Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso= ; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammaticall= y a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of= course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted: @@ -2161,21 +2161,21 @@ xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo x See=20 for the standard= method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 .

- 14. Infix operators revisited + Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o tu'o PA null operand dimension pi'aand=20 pi'a sa'i. sa'i

- 16. Reverse Polish notation + Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fu'a fu'a FUhA reverse Polish flag

@@ -2514,21 +2514,21 @@ ge'a gei fu'a The-number 30-comma-comma equals the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.= 30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

- 17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso + Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: .abu BY letter=20 a by BY letter=20 b cy BY letter=20 c fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root) lo'o LOhO terminator for LI @@ -2738,21 +2738,21 @@ ce'o xsub (=20 bsequence=20 d) x

- 18. Using Lojban resources within mekso + Using Lojban resources within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

na'u NAhU selbri to operator

ni'e @@ -2860,21 +2860,21 @@ mo'e I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. I see a pride of lions. pride of lions

- 19. Other uses of mekso + Other uses of mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me'o LI the mekso

nu'a NUhA @@ -3058,21 +3058,21 @@ roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 roi once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . Note: the elidable terminator=20 boiis not used between a number and a member of MAI or = ROI.

- 20. Explicit operator precedence + Explicit operator precedence operator precedence As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment = using=20 metalinguistic comment ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 ti'o sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalin= guistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse whic= h the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 @@ -3084,21 +3084,21 @@ ni'e, or=20 ni'e ma'owould remain at the standard low precedence; declar= ations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is pr= obable that such a parser would have a set of=20 commonly assumed precedencesbuilt into it (selectable b= y a special=20 ti'odeclaration) that would match mathematical intuitio= n: times higher than plus, and so on. ti'o

- 21. Miscellany + Miscellany A few other points: secan be used to convert an operator as if it were a se= lbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example1" />

li ci se vu'u vo du li pa @@ -3229,21 +3229,21 @@ ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu= string such as=20 fy.into an operator. In fact,=20 ma'ocan be followed by any mekso operand, using the eli= dable terminator=20 te'uif necessary. There is a potential semantic ambiguity in=20 ma'o fy. [te'u]if=20 fy.is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean=20 the function whose value is always =E2=80=98f'. However= , mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as bot= h functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.

- 22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem + Four score and seven: a mekso problem Four score and seven Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 Gettysburg Address Abraham Lincoln Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 Four score and seven @@ -3319,21 +3319,21 @@ 47 Overall,=20 probably captures= the flavor of the English best.=20 and=20 are too simple, a= nd=20 is too tricky. Ne= vertheless, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these example= s illustrate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all= , can probably be said in more than one way.

- 23. mekso selma'o summary + mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo. BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings BY lerfu for variables and functions (see=20 ) FUhA reverse-Polish flag GOhA includes=20 du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo mathematical equality @@ -3358,21 +3358,21 @@ PEhO optional forethought mekso marker TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI VEI left parenthesis VEhO right parenthesis VUhU operators (see=20 ) XI subscript flag

- 24. Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures</titl= e> + <title>Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a,= b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethough= t operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules= apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU. su'i plus (((a + b) + c) + ...) pi'i times (((a =C3=97 b) =C3=97 c)= =C3=97 ...) vu'u minus (((a =E2=88=92 b) =E2=88= =92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) fe'i divided by (((a / b) / c) / ...) ju'u number base numeral string=20 a interpreted in the base b pa'i ratio the ratio of a to b, a:b fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse 1 /=20 @@ -3410,21 +3410,21 @@ integral sa'o derivative derivative of a with res= pect to b of degree c (default 1) fu'u non-specific operator (variable) si'i sigma (=CE=A3) summation summation of a usin= g variable b over range c va'a negation of/additive inverse -a re'a matrix transpose/dual a *

- 25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other = numbers. + Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numb= ers. Decimal digits:=20 no, pa, re, ci, vo, mu, xa, ze, bi, so 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 rafsi: non, pav, rel, cib, von, mum, xav, zel, biv, soz @@ -3539,21 +3539,21 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (fro= m frinu; see tu'o number question, null operand sentence separator @@ -62,21 +62,21 @@ .i. Another use might be a set of directions, where eac= h numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 tu'e ... tu'uand contain one or more sentences separate= d by=20 .i. Grouping with=20 tu'eand=20 tu'uis analogous to grouping with=20 keand=20 ke'eto establish the scope of logical or non-logical co= nnectives (see=20 ).

- 3. Paragraphs: NIhO + Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o NIhO new topic

no'i NIhO @@ -146,21 +146,21 @@ previous topic no'ialso resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments droppe= d at the previous=20 ni'o. If a=20 ni'ois subscripted, then a=20 no'iwith the same subscript is assumed to be a continua= tion of it. A=20 no'imay also have a negative subscript, which would spe= cify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found= thereby.

- 4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU + Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

zo'u ZOhU topic/comment separator

The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the norm= al English sentence which has a subject and a predicate: @@ -330,21 +330,21 @@ topic-comment are inherently vag= ue, and this difference between=20 ponse(which expects a physical object in x2) and=20 djicais ignored. See=20 for another topic/= comment sentence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subjectin the English sense.

- 5. Questions and answers + Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

xu UI truth question

ma KOhA @@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ nai(to vaguely negate something or other, see=20 ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.

- 6. Subscripts: XI + Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

The cmavo=20 xi(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number,= a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attac= hed to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (o= r its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either= to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refine= d distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this = section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. @@ -885,21 +885,21 @@ I truly-sub-.5 am-broad Finally, as mentioned in=20 ,=20 ni'oand=20 no'icmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and t= he continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assi= gned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.

- 7. Utterance ordinals: MAI + Utterance ordinals: MAI ordinals The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mai MAI utterance ordinal, -thly utterance ordinal @@ -952,21 +952,21 @@ mo'oenumerates larger subdivisions of a text;=20 maiwas designed for lists of numbered items, whereas=20 lists mo'owas intended to subdivide structured works. If this= chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with=20 mo'o: this section would then be introduced with=20 zemo'o, or=20 Section 7.

- 8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO + Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fu'e fu'e FUhE open attitudinal scope

@@ -1060,21 +1060,21 @@ Here, only the=20 blanu zdaniportion of the three-part tanru=20 blanu zdani ponseis marked as a belief of the speaker. = Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interp= reting multi-part tanru:=20 blanu zdanigroups first because tanru group from left t= o right unless overridden with=20 keor=20 bo. Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudi= nals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active at= titudinals rather than superseding them.

- 9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU + Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lu LU begin quotation

li'u LIhU @@ -1217,21 +1217,21 @@ lo'uquotation, it is not directly possible to have a=20 lo'uquotation within another=20 lo'uquotation. However, it is possible for a=20 le'uto occur within a=20 lo'u ... le'uquotation by preceding it with the cmavo= =20 zo, discussed in=20 . Note that=20 le'uis not an elidable terminator; it is required.

- 10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI + More on quotations: ZO, ZOI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo ZO quote single word

zoi ZOI @@ -1433,21 +1433,21 @@ Using=20 la'ofor all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, mak= es for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 cumbersome text la'omight be=20 la me zoi.

- 11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE + Contrastive emphasis: BAhE The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ba'e BAhE emphasize next word

za'e @@ -1563,21 +1563,21 @@ appropriate standard la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in Albania= n. Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 za'eindicates that the word has been made up on the spo= t and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary= (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). za'e unabridged dictionary

- 12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</ti= tle> + <title>Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI metalinguistic commentary The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

to TO open parenthesis

@@ -1771,21 +1771,21 @@ seiand its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not p= art of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 sa'acmavo would probably be dropped. sa'a The elidable terminator for=20 seiis=20 se'u(of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to s= eparate a selbri within the=20 seicomment from an immediately following selbri (or com= ponent) outside the comment.

- 13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU + Erasure: SI, SA, SU The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

si SI erase word

sa SA @@ -1987,21 +1987,21 @@ multiple speakers suwill only erase the remarks made by the one who said = it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 susuis needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conver= sation. Note: The current machine parser does not implement either=20 suor=20 susuerasure. erasure

- 14. Hesitation: Y + Hesitation: Y The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.y. Y hesitation noise hesitation

@@ -2023,21 +2023,21 @@ isomorphism isomorphism audio-visual isomorphism isomorphism .y.has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywh= ere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.

- 15. No more to say: FAhO + No more to say: FAhO The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fa'o fa'o FAhO end of text

@@ -2048,21 +2048,21 @@ fa'o computer interaction zoor with=20 lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at the end= of subordinate texts quoted with=20 lu ... li'uor parenthesized with=20 to ... toi.

- 16. List of cmavo interactions + List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. zoquotes the following word, no matter what it is.<= /para> sierases the preceding word unless it is a=20 zo. @@ -2150,21 +2150,21 @@ fu'e fu'oare the same as UI, but do not absorb a followi= ng=20 fu'o nai.

- 17. List of Elidable Terminators + List of Elidable Terminators The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban.= The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that = starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kin= ds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cm= avo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo. elidable terminators

be'o BE sumti attached to a tanru unit

diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index b508181..0d034cc 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams

- 1. The concept of the bridi + The concept of the bridi This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence = structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successi= ve variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are man= y more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in l= ater chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tourof the material later covered more slowly thr= oughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discu= ss Lojban grammar. Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: John and Sam <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2" /> @@ -100,21 +100,21 @@ <para>In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of argume= nts, known collectively as its=20 <quote>place structure</quote>. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 <quote>gismu</quote>, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places.</para> <para>This book uses the Lojban terms=20 <quote>bridi</quote>,=20 <quote>sumti</quote>, and=20 <quote>selbri</quote>, because it is best to come to understand them i= ndependently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which = are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.</para> <para>The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the = book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline= (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section2"> - <title>2. Pronunciation + Pronunciation Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the read= er from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 uand=20 y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 aas in=20 @@ -186,21 +186,21 @@ Lojban also has three=20 semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 glottal stop h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unle= ss that vowel is=20 y, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-= last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that sylla= ble is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.

- 3. Words that can act as sumti + Words that can act as sumti Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table = provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be foun= d in=20 . mi I/me, we/us do you ti this, these ta that, those tu that far away, those far away zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious) @@ -215,21 +215,21 @@ Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with= the word=20 la: la meris. the one/ones named Mary la djan. the one/ones named John Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 for more information.

- 4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations + Some words used to indicate selbri relations Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in thi= s chapter: vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in languag= e x4 sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3 cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait) klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x= 4 (route) using @@ -246,21 +246,21 @@ zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3= (storekeeper) Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role= of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, tha= t order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, an= d x5. Like the table in=20 , this table is far from com= plete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new word= s to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the = existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference betw= een Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and Englis= h; in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words, and= =20 explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings.

- 5. Some simple Lojban bridi + Some simple Lojban bridi Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the = gismu=20 tavlais <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example1" /> x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 @@ -366,21 +366,21 @@ ta You talk to me about that thing (in some language). Note that=20 is not subject to e= llipsis by this direct method, as the=20 ellipsis zo'ein it is not at the end of the bridi.

- 6. Variant bridi structure + Variant bridi structure Consider the sentence 6.1) =20 mi [c= u]=20 vecnu ti ta zo'e seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 @@ -451,21 +451,21 @@ cudoes not occur in an observative;=20 observative cuis a separator, and there must be a sumti before the = selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 cuto be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 cuis not permitted. Short words like=20 cuwhich serve grammatical functions are called=20 cmavoin Lojban.

- 7. Varying the order of sumti + Varying the order of sumti For one reason or another you may want to change the order, plac= ing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So 7.1) =20 mi tavla do ti I talk to you about this. @@ -515,21 +515,21 @@ The effect is similar to what in English is called the=20 passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 passive voice converted selbri le selbri [ku](see=20 ).

- 8. The basic structure of longer utterances + The basic structure of longer utterances People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific= structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entire= ty of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sent= ences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the= cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 .i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at al= l) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, questi= on mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent = the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a t= railing sumti of the previous sentence. punctuation marks The cmavo=20 ni'oseparates paragraphs (covering different topics of = discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text= may be indicated by multiple=20 ni'os, with perhaps=20 ni'oni'oni'oused to indicate a chapter,=20 ni'oni'oto indicate a section, and a single=20 @@ -539,21 +539,21 @@ xu, discussed in=20 , is one such word - it tur= ns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than= one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 .ieven though she/he may be continuing on the same topi= c. It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 .ibefore continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxim= um clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be ad= ding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translatio= n for=20 .iis the=20 andused in run-on sentences when people are talking inf= ormally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....

- 9. tanru + tanru When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, = and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such comb= inations of gismu are called=20 tanru. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example1" /> sutra tavla @@ -697,21 +697,21 @@ 9.13) =20 la tam. [cu= ]=20 se tavla melbi la meris. Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty.

- 10. Description sumti + Description sumti Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the l= istener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker= other than=20 mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into = the first place of=20 tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls= this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a=20 description sumti. The description sumti=20 le tavla kumeans=20 the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. For example, 10.1) =20 @@ -806,21 +806,21 @@ sellerin the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to = describe a particular=20 sellerthat the speaker has in mind (one that he or she = probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker= has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 leto mark=20 blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-g= reen. It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 kuin=20 , and it is also s= afe to omit the=20 cu.

- 11. Examples of brivla + Examples of brivla The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which = may by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words= ), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All ha= ve identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu o= r tanru built from gismu. borrowings gismu: 11.1) =20 mi [cu]= =20 klama @@ -856,21 +856,21 @@ 11.4) =20 ta [cu]=20 go'i That too/same-as-last selbri. That (is spaghetti), too. spaghetti

- 12. The sumti=20 + <title>The sumti=20 <quote>di'u</quote>and=20 <quote>la'e di'u</quote> In English, I might say=20 The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 This pleases me.How do you know what=20 pleases thisrefers to? Lojban uses different expressions to con= vey the possible meanings of the English: @@ -914,41 +914,41 @@ pleases uses one sumti to = point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 la'edi'uas a single word; it is used more often than=20 la'edi'u di'uby itself.

- 13. Possession + Possession Possessionrefers to the concept of specifying an object= by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posses= sion is given in=20 . A simple means of expressing posses= sion, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object = within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, betwe= en the=20 leand the selbri of the description: 13.1) =20 le mi gerku= cu=20 sutra The of-me dog is fast. My dog is fast. In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one ma= y=20 possessa chair simply by sitting on it, even though it = actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the s= ame way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimat= e relationships:=20 my armdoesn't mean=20 some arm I ownbut rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.

- 14. Vocatives and commands + Vocatives and commands commands You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addres= sing them by using=20 doifollowed by their name. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example1" />

@@ -1043,21 +1043,21 @@ ko ko kurji both mean=20 You take care of youand=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.

- 15. Questions + Questions There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations a= ppear in=20 and in various other chapters throug= hout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questi= ons, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. sumti questions selbri questions The cmavo=20 mais used to create a sumti question: it indicates that= the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locatio= n of the=20 mato make the bridi true. It can be translated as=20 Who?or=20 @@ -1241,21 +1241,21 @@ A general negative answer may be given by=20 negative answer na go'i.=20 namay be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 It is not true that ...before the bridi. It does not im= ply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is = not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 .

- 16. Indicators + Indicators Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety= of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written langu= age. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. A= ha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to cul= ture. interjections Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 attitudinal indicatorswhich specifically covers this ty= pe of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, bu= t require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very s= imple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the en= tire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately t= o the left. For example: attitudinal indicators 16.1) .ie=20 @@ -1346,21 +1346,21 @@ 16.8) za'a=20 za'a do [cu]=20 melbi I directly observe! You are beautiful.

- 17. Tenses + Tenses In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category ca= lled tense: past, present, or future. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example1" />

John went to the store

@@ -1459,21 +1459,21 @@ 17.9) =20 le vi tavla [ku] cu=20 ba klama The here talker [future] goes. The talker who is here will go. This talker will go.

- 18. Lojban grammatical terms + Lojban grammatical terms grammatical terms Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this ch= apter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are them= selves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like= =20 grammatical terms indicatorin=20 that are not explained here. See the= Index for further help with these. bridi: diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index d422ebc..07881f3 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 21 Formal Grammars

- 1. YACC Grammar of Lojban + YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. formal grammar /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. machine grammar Step 1 - Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failure= s of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a tex= t file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules. @@ -7000,21 +7000,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ZO_quote_435

- 2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban + EBNF Grammar of Lojban Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain = by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization a= t: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273= ) Explanation of notation: All rules have the form: name=20 number=3D bnf-expression which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80= =9D is defined by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-refere= nces this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are = the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled wit= h A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. I= n addition, rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar bu= t =E2=80=9Cstag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearanc= e. YACC grammar @@ -7967,21 +7967,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ null=20 1101=3D any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable i= nput.

- 3. EBNF Cross-Reference + EBNF Cross-Reference A 802 diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index a841678..03ab029 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

- 1. Orthography + Orthography Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance = can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can= be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a conseque= nce, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or= phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sou= nd or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronun= ciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) a= nd pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition,= everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when wri= tten) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. = These two properties together are known technically as=20 tone of voice orthography audio-visual isomorphism. isomorphism @@ -36,21 +36,21 @@ for an explanation of the sy= mbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize = the vowel letter, in this case=20 square brackets O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the who= le syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 capitalization sesyllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant t= o represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little = distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rul= es of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.

- 2. Basic Phonetics + Basic Phonetics Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonet= ic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By c= onvention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for exampl= e, the word=20 square brackets catis pronounced (in General American pronunciation)=20 General American [k=C3=A6t].=20 contains a brief explanatio= n of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues = in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the te= chnical terms used in describing speech sounds. technical terms @@ -310,21 +310,21 @@ churchand the=20 jof=20 judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant so= unds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represe= nted in Lojban by the two separate consonants:=20 tc(IPA=20 [t=CA=83]) and=20 dj(IPA=20 [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 tsas a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojba= n consider it to be a consonant cluster.

- 3. The Special Lojban Characters + The Special Lojban Characters The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They a= re all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a d= ifferent pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons: The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy = English=20 h, (IPA=20 [h]). The letter=20 his not used to represent this sound for two reasons: p= rimarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also beca= use the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight = representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is= not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morpho= logy (word-formation), which is explained in=20 . In addition, the apostrophe visuall= y parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different way= s) to separate syllables. The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth tra= nsition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In f= act, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowe= l glide. unvoiced vowel glide As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those = already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA=20 @@ -387,21 +387,21 @@ , it would appear a= s: 3.4) .i'ai'i'ai'on. =20 [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94] which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, = of the original English.

- 4. Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants + Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is= a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a gli= de, either a labial (IPA=20 [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-s= ound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively = brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audib= le. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the = vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position.= Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sound= s do not affect the determination of syllables. The six Lojban vowels are=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u, and=20 @@ -506,21 +506,21 @@ syllabic consonants Earl Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stress= ed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see=20 syllabic consonants ).

- 5. Vowel Pairs + Vowel Pairs Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in = a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) b= y an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with = the=20 vowel pairs [h]sound between (and not by a glottal s= top or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). glottal stop All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with = the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphth= ongs when the apostrophe is not included. The Lojban vowel pairs are: vowel pairs @@ -584,21 +584,21 @@ which contains the vowel=20 efollowed by the diphthong=20 ii. In rough English representation,=20 is=20 May Een, whereas=20 is=20 Meh Yeen.

- 6. Consonant Clusters + Consonant Clusters A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that preced= es or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or= following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant requi= red in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: f= or the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consona= nt. An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of v= oicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the correspon= ding voiced ones: unvoiced consonants UNVOICED VOICED p b t d k g f v @@ -682,21 +682,21 @@ =20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 djeimz., which contains a forbidden consonant pair.

- 7. Initial Consonant Pairs + Initial Consonant Pairs The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a= word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly l= arge group of permissible consonant pairs described in=20 consonant pairs . Even so, it is more than E= nglish allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and other= s) can learn to pronounce. There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as f= ollows: initial consonant pairs consonant pairs @@ -752,21 +752,21 @@ consonant triples consonant pairs doubled consonants consonant clusters

- 8. Buffering Of Consonant Clusters + Buffering Of Consonant Clusters Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even t= hose languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojb= an set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound bet= ween consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sou= nd may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener= from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 doubled consonants consonant clusters [=C9=AA],=20 [=C9=A8],=20 [=CA=8A], or even=20 [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 [=C9=AA]in this chapter) are: @@ -855,21 +855,21 @@ buffer vowel would be pronounced= 8.9) =20 [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] with lengthened vowels.

- 9. Syllabication And Stress + Syllabication And Stress A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthong= s, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as=20 syllabic consonants vowelsfor the purposes of this section.) Syllabication = rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the= preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventi= onal only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllab= ified in any language are always very complex. A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A cons= onant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair= constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned= to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first an= d second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syll= able breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables. It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. = For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names w= ith consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to i= ndicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication. syllabication @@ -1111,21 +1111,21 @@ le re no bliprenu le re no bliPREnu If the cmavo=20 noin=20 were to be stresse= d, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 , which is unaccep= table in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.

- 10. IPA For English Speakers + IPA For English Speakers There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to = define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader.= All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less al= phabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, s= ome attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. = These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of o= ther dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television = sets. television Received Pronunciation General American [=CB=88] @@ -1628,21 +1628,21 @@ [=CA=90] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 z. Not an English sound. The voiced version of=20 [=CA=82].

- 11. English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs + English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are= similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an officia= l pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers. Lojban English =20 ai =20 pie ei =20 pay oi =20 boy @@ -1675,21 +1675,21 @@ woo =20 iy =20 million (the=20 io part, that is) uy =20 was (when unstressed)

- 12. Oddball Orthographies + Oddball Orthographies The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been writt= en or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained = in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except peopl= e with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanat= ion or further apology. orthography There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 orthography xis replaced by=20 h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. How= ever, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows: vowel pairs diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 41fe4ca..bf34490 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology

- 1. Introductory + Introductory Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of wo= rds. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many language= s, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. E= nglish has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like R= ussian, but it does have changes like=20 boysas the plural of=20 plural boy, or=20 walkedas the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. @@ -173,21 +173,21 @@ to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 doctor, and=20 freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 James,=20 Afghanistan, and=20 Pope John Paul II.

- 2. cmavo + cmavo The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are th= e cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language togethe= r. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affec= t the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the= equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and p= unctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as= =20 structure words punctuation marks prepositions hundred @@ -401,21 +401,21 @@

le re NANmu

This would probably be the most common usage.

- 3. brivla + brivla Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of t= he semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of En= glish nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech= . verbs nouns adverbs adjectives @@ -461,21 +461,21 @@ lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and fu'ivla (literally=20 copy-word), the specialized words that are not Lojb= an primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other l= anguages.

- 4. gismu + gismu The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing c= oncepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reaso= ns: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represen= t concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added bec= ause they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because= they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like=20 cmavoand=20 gismuthemselves). The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning o= f semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical r= easons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only= weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic= space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human conce= rns. There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to= learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as=20 magnitude learning Lojban rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will= be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a = lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar= communications in other languages. @@ -550,21 +550,21 @@ nanmu man ninmu woman A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 for a list.

- 5. lujvo + lujvo When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or,= more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), = a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban ta= nru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 metaphorused in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be u= sed to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. Th= is modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the b= roader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or spe= cific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adv= erbs or adjectives. For example, adverbs adjectives <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example1" /> @@ -726,21 +726,21 @@ <quote>r</quote>making up the=20 <quote>rs</quote>consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. With= out the=20 <quote>r</quote>, the word would break up into=20 <quote>soi sai</quote>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation = to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this ca= se), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>  <indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm> <para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= .</para> <para>Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you spe= ak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for whic= h you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules= for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be unde= rstood without explanation.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6"> - <title>6. rafsi + rafsi Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form= , but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of = the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will m= ost easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules= of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determi= ne which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard diction= ary form (see=20 ). Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu= itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its= final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms= are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 rafsi form long rafsi, they are called=20 long rafsi @@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@ hepatitis the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable,= because its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a= brivla must be constructed ad hoc. Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 zeiphrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look = like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the t= wo uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or= in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate b= ut closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts o= f lujvo.

- 7. fu'ivla + fu'ivla The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very con= crete or specific terms (e.g.=20 specific terms brieor=20 brie cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow fie= ld (e.g.=20 jargon @@ -1464,21 +1464,21 @@ Chosenshould have been used instead of the internationa= lly known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 borrowings Navajois far more widely known than=20 Navajo Dine'e.

- 8. cmene + cmene Lojbanized names, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. direct address Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban a= ttempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modific= ation. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analy= zable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they a= re Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban= equivalents: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2" /> @@ -1869,21 +1869,21 @@  <indexterm><primary>Mao Zedong</primary></indexterm> Japanese=20 <quote>Fujiko</quote> fudjikos.  <indexterm><primary>Fujiko</primary></indexterm> or fujikos. </programlisting> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section9"> - <title>9. Rules for inserting pauses + Rules for inserting pauses Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses= between Lojban words: Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always il= legal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word int= o two words. Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause= . Necessarily, all such words are cmene. Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a paus= e. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begi= n with consonants. @@ -1905,21 +1905,21 @@ When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be prece= ded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in= =20 non-Lojban text .)

- 10. Considerations for making lujvo + Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can = be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds o= r looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combina= tions of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean e= xactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in=20 is used to choose the stand= ard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionar= y.) The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanr= u is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one= that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a g= ismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic uni= verse, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most use= ful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift = in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the m= ost useful one may change. linguistic drift in Lojban @@ -1947,21 +1947,21 @@ This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given luj= vo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more = than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning f= or the tanru was already competing for the=20 rightto define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to= use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others= . If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is li= kely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more= of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter= form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorte= r lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a= more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be sh= orter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more compl= ex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term. anticipated And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an u= nknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no s= ense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the = grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate g= roupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible.= (The grouping of tanru is explained in=20 ; abstraction is explained in=20 .) Plausibility is the key to learni= ng new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.

- 11. The lujvo-making algorithm + The lujvo-making algorithm The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban luj= vo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafs= i. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown = for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assis= tance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original=20 Brown tosmabru test. tosmabru test Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo: 1) @@ -2035,21 +2035,21 @@ Note that the=20 tosmabru testimplies that the algorithm will be more ef= ficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to le= ft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be = completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. tosmabru test hyphens

- 12. The lujvo scoring algorithm + The lujvo scoring algorithm This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. = It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that p= eople find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowe= st-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In pr= evious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.) 1) Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 hyphens L. @@ -2176,21 +2176,21 @@ (1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 =3D 10385 zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976

- 13. lujvo-making examples + lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 gerku zdani(=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 lujvo meaning dog house doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 , using every possible rafs= i. The rafsi for=20 @@ -2348,21 +2348,21 @@ Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctuis the shortest and is preferred by the sc= oring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a l= ujvo for=20 cinse ctuca(which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely importan= t. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu(=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 kerequired for grouping need not be expressed.

- 14. The gismu creation algorithm + The gismu creation algorithm The gismu were created through the following process: 1) At least one word was found in each of the six source lang= uages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to = the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather lib= erally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding frica= tive were simplified to just the fricative (=20 source languages @@ -2424,21 +2424,21 @@ Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered suffici= ently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as = an extreme example,=20 stressed vowel bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi(but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

- 15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu + Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the letter=20 o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu. The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently uni= que to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gi= smu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually = similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unli= ke lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex= lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo= reasonably short. broda 1st assignable predicate brode 2nd assignable predicate brodi 3rd assignable predicate brodo 4th assignable predicate brodu 5th assignable predicate @@ -2605,21 +2605,21 @@ A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above: jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) semto Semitic slovo Slavic xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)

- 16. rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal + rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controvers= ial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismuor=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zeimechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1" /> diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 9d3b7a4..b423caa 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -1,15 +1,15 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5"> <title>Chapter 5=20 <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selb= ri

- 1. Lojban content words: brivla + Lojban content words: brivla At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban b= ridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a = relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is ref= erred to. The difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example1" />

do mamta mi You are-a-mother-of me You are my mother @@ -66,21 +66,21 @@ schooner That is a schooner. schooner

illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla = respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word who= se meaning can be learned independent of its origins. The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example b= rivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind tha= t wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivl= a.

- 2. Simple tanru + Simple tanru Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla pla= ced together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla,= it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The neares= t analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as=20 nouns lemon tree. There is no way to tell just by looking at = the phrase=20 lemon tree lemon treeexactly what it refers to, even if you know t= he meanings of=20 lemon tree lemonand=20 @@ -237,21 +237,21 @@ are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between= =20 bardaand=20 prenuis the same as that between=20 cmaluand=20 prenu.=20 and=20 contain a partial listing o= f some types of tanru, with examples.

- 3. Three-part tanru grouping with=20 + <title>Three-part tanru grouping with=20   <indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm> <quote>bo</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

bo BO @@ -384,21 +384,21 @@ ta klama bo jubme That is-a goer=E2=80=93table. is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 , and is ambiguous = in exactly the same ways. The cmavo=20 boserves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says no= thing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.

- 4. Complex tanru grouping + Complex tanru grouping tanru inversion tanru grouping If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both ele= ments? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example1" /> @@ -476,21 +476,21 @@ , not=20 . This rule may see= m peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 bois never necessary between the first two elements of = any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 through=20 could have=20 boinserted between=20 melbiand=20 cmaluwith no change in meaning.

- 5. Complex tanru with=20 + <title>Complex tanru with=20 <quote>ke</quote>and=20 <quote>ke'e</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke KE start grouping

@@ -599,21 +599,21 @@

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ).

and in many other different forms as well.

- 6. Logical connection within tanru + Logical connection within tanru The following cmavo are discussed in this section: je JA tanru logical=20 and ja JA tanru logical=20 or joi JOI mixed mass=20 and gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical=20 and @@ -973,21 +973,21 @@ leaves=20 mlatuoutside the=20 gu'e ... giconstruction. The scope of the=20 giarm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more= brivla connected with=20 boor=20 ke ... ke'e.

- 7. Linked sumti:=20 + <title>Linked sumti:=20 <quote>be=E2=80=93bei=E2=80=93be'o</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be BE linked sumti marker linked sumti @@ -1232,21 +1232,21 @@ requires either=20 kuor=20 be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 be, the=20 be'omust match it, whereas it may be confusing which oc= currence of=20 lethe=20 kuterminates (in fact the second one is correct).

- 8. Inversion of tanru:=20 + <title>Inversion of tanru:=20 <quote>co</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

co CO tanru inversion marker tanru inversion @@ -1452,21 +1452,21 @@

mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. I go to the store quickly.

- 9. Other kinds of simple selbri + Other kinds of simple selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i GOhA repeats the previous bridi

du GOhA @@ -1640,21 +1640,21 @@ ti zdile kumfa This is-an-amuser room. which suggests the meaning=20 a room that amuses someone.

- 10. selbri based on sumti:=20 + <title>selbri based on sumti:=20 <quote>me</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section: me ME changes sumti to simple selbri me'u MEhU terminator for=20 me A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with=20 me(of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable te= rminator=20 me'u(of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pla= ce structure @@ -1827,21 +1827,21 @@ requires either=20 kuor=20 me'uto be explicit, and (as with=20 be'oin=20 ) the=20 me'uleaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.

- 11. Conversion of simple selbri + Conversion of simple selbri Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its place= s appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti w= ith the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in=20 , and then rearranging the o= rder in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the se= lbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places= . In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example1" />

mi prami do @@ -1929,21 +1929,21 @@ la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo=20 jaiof selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or ten= se construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like con= version using SE. More details can be found in=20 .

- 12. Scalar negation of selbri + Scalar negation of selbri Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in th= is chapter; see=20 . In brief, there are two main types= of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example1" />

la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci @@ -2107,21 +2107,21 @@ arm-type goermight be. Furthermore, since the x3 place = has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 linked sumti le zarcifollowing the selbri falls into the nonexistent= x4 place of=20 cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) Finally, it is also possible to place=20 na'ebefore a=20 gu'e ... gilogically connected tanru construction. The = meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.

- 13. Tenses and bridi negation + Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example1" />

mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market. @@ -2200,21 +2200,21 @@ went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. I went to the market.

Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginnin= g of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. negation cmavo

- 14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru + Some types of asymmetrical tanru asymmetrical tanru This section and=20 contain some example tanru = classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modify= ing seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by comp= ounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which f= ollow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. T= he tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the= languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those= tanru with no English parallel) a translation. Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languag= es (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or = not, so English is not explicitly noted): Aba =3D Abazin Kaz =3D Kazakh Chi =3D Chinese Kor =3D Korean Korean @@ -2543,21 +2543,21 @@ It is clear that=20 toothis being specified, and that=20 milkand=20 eyeact as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 ladruand=20 denciis something like=20 tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 kanla denci, the relationship is not only not present o= n the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.

- 15. Some types of symmetrical tanru + Some types of symmetrical tanru symmetrical tanru This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not im= portant. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical= connective between the components. symmetrical tanru The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by b= oth tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetri= cal tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 asymmetrical tanru jeis appropriate: @@ -2622,21 +2622,21 @@ prenu so'imei people multitude (Mon =3D masses) djacu dertu water earth (Chi =3D climate) =20 sudysrasu =3D dry-grass so'imei =3D manysome manysome

- 16.=20 + <title> <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement = of=20 <quote>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</quote>using=20 <quote>bo</quote>or=20 <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>for grouping and=20 <quote>je</quote>or=20 <quote>jebo</quote>for logical connection. Most of these are definitel= y not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>  <indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 9fc4547..3e723f9 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6"> <title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti

- 1. The five kinds of simple sumti + The five kinds of simple sumti simple sumti If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti i= s by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of = simple Lojban sentences like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example1" />

mi klama le zarci @@ -116,21 +116,21 @@ ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 li ci, a number. Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 ,=20 , and=20 respectively, so this chapter only g= ives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 through=20 for these summaries.

- 2. The three basic description types + The three basic description types The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le LE the, the one(s) described as

lo LE @@ -371,21 +371,21 @@ , and in the case of a description im= mediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit=20 cubefore the selbri makes the=20 kuunnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 ku: in the compound negator=20 naku(discussed in=20 ) and to terminate place-structure, = tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 and=20 ).

- 3. Individuals and masses + Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lei LE the mass I describe as

loi LE @@ -538,21 +538,21 @@ in a context where=20 la cribewould be understood as plural, would mean that = either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the= book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using= =20 plural lainstead of=20 laiin=20 would give the impl= ication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.=

- 4. Masses and sets + Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le'i LE the set described as

lo'i LE @@ -628,21 +628,21 @@ typical Lojban user Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 lo'iwere changed to=20 loin=20 , the meaning would= be something like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.

- 5. Descriptors for typical objects + Descriptors for typical objects typical objects The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lo'e LE the typical

@@ -732,21 +732,21 @@ is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 lo'eand=20 le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 typical Georgeor a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. typical Smith

- 6. Quantified sumti + Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro PA all of/each of

su'o PA @@ -900,21 +900,21 @@

mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss.

- 7. Quantified descriptions + Quantified descriptions The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

piro PA the whole of

Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantif= ier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing = before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those = referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular b= ridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 le gerkurefers to three dogs. Then we can say that exac= tly two of them are white as follows: @@ -1152,21 +1152,21 @@ Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 lodescriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasiona= lly be useful. Note that the inner quantifier of=20 le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 le ci nanmumeans=20 what I describe as three men, not=20 three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 ledescription represents the speaker's viewpoint rather= than the objective way things are.

- 8. Indefinite descriptions + Indefinite descriptions By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descript= or=20 lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 ; namely, one which= has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The fol= lowing example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section8-example1" />

ci gerku [ku] cu blabi @@ -1201,21 +1201,21 @@

mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes I own three (or more) shoes.

- 9. sumti-based descriptions + sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consist = of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always= been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be emplo= yed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in= =20 .) In the intervening sections, inner= and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to dis= cuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descripti= on. sumti-based description A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would nor= mally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An = outer quantifier is permitted but not required. sumti-based description A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: @@ -1268,21 +1268,21 @@ three bears In each case,=20 le ci criberestricts the bears (or alleged bears) being= talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.=20 says that two of th= em (which two is not stated) are brown.=20 says that a specifi= c pair of them are brown.=20 says that of a spec= ific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is = brown.

- 10. sumti qualifiers + sumti qualifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

la'e LAhE something referred to by

lu'e LAhE @@ -1549,21 +1549,21 @@ (In=20 , the sumti=20 rarefers to some previously mentioned sumti other than = that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 rihere, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sumti available t= o=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 .)

- 11. The syntax of vocative phrases + The syntax of vocative phrases Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapte= r because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a v= ocative phrase is one of the so-called=20 vocative phrase free modifiersof Lojban, along with subscripts, parenth= eses, and various other constructs explained in=20 free modifiers . They can be placed after many, but= not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable term= inator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and en= ds of sentences, and in many other places. The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being add= ressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening.= A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which = are explained in more detail in=20 vocative phrase @@ -1703,21 +1703,21 @@ doi djan. ko klama mi John, come to me! ko klama mi doi djan. Come to me, John! As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 , make for more possibilities.

- 12. Lojban names + Lojban names Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually ca= lled=20 nameswhen talking about Lojban. The naming predicates o= f=20 are just ordinary predicates= which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a c= lass of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recog= nized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some ex= amples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example1" />

@@ -1878,21 +1878,21 @@ sor=20 nwhen borrowing vowel-final names from English; speaker= s of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.

borrowing The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 lafollowed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 lafollowed by a selbri.

- 13. Pro-sumti summary + Pro-sumti summary The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall in= to several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-= counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. Mo= re details are given in=20 ; this section mostly duplicates info= rmation found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each p= ro-sumti. The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless ot= herwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro(all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other = sumti, the=20 rosignifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. Personal pro-sumti (=20 mi,=20 do,=20 mi'o,=20 @@ -2123,21 +2123,21 @@ The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 question pro-sumti su'o(at least one), because the listener is only being = asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related= selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti. definable pro-sumti

- 14. Quotation summary + Quotation summary There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, wor= ds quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information= is provided in=20 word quotation word quotation single-word quotation @@ -2200,21 +2200,21 @@ mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot I say=20 I'm John. The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o(at least one), because quotations are analogous to= =20 lodescriptions: they refer to things which actually are= words or sequences of words.

- 15. Number summary + Number summary The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li(of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso= , or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up = to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and s= o on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increas= ing complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3" /> diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 815df9e..4e1f081 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7"> <title>Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-brid= i

- 1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? + What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require me= chanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to= express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what = we have to say. In English, we have words called=20 pronounswhich allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases= with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like = this: nouns <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example1" />

@@ -67,21 +67,21 @@ John loves himself

the antecedent of=20 himselfis=20 John; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in t= his case). John, the person, would be the referent of=20 himself. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedent= s, but all of them have referents.

- 2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series + Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: mi KOhA mi-series I, me=20 do KOhA mi-series you mi'o KOhA mi-series you and I mi'a KOhA mi-series I and others, we but not you mi'a ma'a KOhA mi-series you and I and others @@ -239,21 +239,21 @@ Make=20 I see the person that loves youtrue! Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! Show me the person who loves you! As mentioned in=20 , some pro-sumti series have= corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-= series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.

- 3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series + Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ti KOhA ti-series this here, a nearby object=20 ta KOhA ti-series that there, a medium-distant object tu KOhA ti-series that yonder, a far-distant object It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by = some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words=20 thisand=20 thatserve this function among others:=20 @@ -329,21 +329,21 @@ ti noi bloti ti noi this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-ser= ies: you can't point to a relationship.

- 4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series + Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance=20 de'u KOhA di'u-series an earlier utterance de'u da'u KOhA di'u-series a much earlier utterance da'u @@ -490,21 +490,21 @@ mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.

- 5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the = broda-series + Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the bro= da-series The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: cmavo and gismu ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1=20 ko'e KOhA ko'a-series it-2 ko'i KOhA ko'a-series it-3 ko'o KOhA ko'a-series it-4 ko'u KOhA ko'a-series it-5 @@ -730,21 +730,21 @@ le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store. The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store. This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even = that the speaker usually calls the woman=20 Sam.=20 Samis simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in= the current context only.

- 6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'= i-series + Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-s= eries The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti)=20 ra KOhA ri-series (repeats previous sumti) ru KOhA ri-series (repeats long-ago sumti) =20 go'i GOhA go'i-series (repeats last bridi) go'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats previous bridi) @@ -1194,21 +1194,21 @@ Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. John says,=20 I am going to the store. Alice says,=20 Me too. Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring= to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are q= uoted, are aware of what they are doing.

- 7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the = co'e-series + Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'= e-series zo'e-series co'e The following cmavo are discussed in this section: zo'e KOhA zo'e-series the obvious value zo'e-series zu'i KOhA zo'e-series the typical value @@ -1388,21 +1388,21 @@ do'eof selma'o BAI (see=20 do'e ) also belongs to the same group of c= mavo. Note that=20 do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. indefinite pro-sumti

- 8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series + Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series reciprocal pro-sumti reciprocal The following cmavo are discussed in this section: vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi=20 vo'e KOhA vo'a-series x2 of this bridi vo'i KOhA vo'a-series x3 of this bridi @@ -1514,21 +1514,21 @@ I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocity I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.

- 9. sumti and bridi questions:=20 + <title>sumti and bridi questions:=20  <indexterm><primary>bridi questions</primary></indexterm> <quote>ma</quote>and=20 <quote>mo</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma KOhA sumti question @@ -1623,21 +1623,21 @@

ma djuno ma [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? Who knows what?

- 10. Relativized pro-sumti:=20 + <title>Relativized pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ke'a</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke'a KOhA relativized sumti relativized sumti @@ -1682,21 +1682,21 @@ , because the rela= tivized sumti is not yet complete when the=20 relativized sumti ke'aappears. Note that=20 ke'ais used only with relative clauses, and not with ot= her embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative c= lauses within relative clauses,=20 ke'amay be subscripted to make the difference clear (se= e=20 ).

- 11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 + <title>Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 <quote>ce'u</quote> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ce'u KOhA abstraction focus

The cmavo=20 @@ -1733,21 +1733,21 @@

le ka gleki ce'u the property-of (being-happy about-X) the property of being that which someone is happy about

- 12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and t= he bu'a-series + Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the b= u'a-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section: da KOhA da-series something-1=20 de KOhA da-series something-2 di KOhA da-series something-3 =20 bu'a GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-1 bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2 @@ -1765,21 +1765,21 @@

la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. John picked up a stick and shook it.

- 13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling + Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da'o da'o DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

@@ -1806,21 +1806,21 @@ da'o da'ois when entering a conversation, to indicate that o= ne's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already = made by other participants in the conversation. da'o In addition, the cmavo=20 ni'oand=20 no'iof selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indica= te shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro= -bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explana= tions of NIhO can be found in=20 .

- 14. The identity predicate: du + The identity predicate: du identity predicate The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du GOhA identity

@@ -1870,21 +1870,21 @@ duhistorically is derived from=20 dunli, but=20 dunli dunlihas a third place which=20 dunli dulacks: the standard of equality.

- 15. lujvo based on pro-sumti + lujvo based on pro-sumti There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but = they are rarely used. (See=20 for a complete list.) The o= bvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate plac= e of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually s= tand as the first rafsi in their lujvo. Thus=20 donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 you-talk tavla be do, and would have the place structure @@ -1956,21 +1956,21 @@ <indexterm><primary>beverage</primary></indexterm> <para>The pro-bridi=20 <quote>co'e</quote>,=20  <indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm> <quote>du</quote>, and=20 <quote>bu'a</quote>also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they = were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 <quote>du</quote>-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.</par= a> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section16"> - <title>16. KOhA cmavo by series + KOhA cmavo by series mi-series: mi I (rafsi:=20 mib) do you (rafsi:=20 don and=20 doi) mi'o you and I mi'a I and others, we but not you @@ -2064,21 +2064,21 @@ =20 others: ke'a relativized sumti relativized sumti ma sumti question ce'u abstraction focus

- 17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series + GOhA and other pro-bridi by series broda-series (not GOhA): broda is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi brode is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi brodi is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi brodo is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi brodu is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi =20 go'i-series: go'i (repeats the last bridi) @@ -2119,21 +2119,21 @@ co'e) co'e mo bridi question du identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi:=20 dub/ du'o)

- 18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter + Other cmavo discussed in this chapter

goi GOI pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) pro-sumti assignment

cei diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 830d902..df74b5c 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicate= d

- 1. What are you pointing at? + What are you pointing at? The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

poi NOI restrictive relative clause introducer restrictive relative clause

@@ -184,21 +184,21 @@ In=20 the relative claus= e is=20 who was going to the store, and in=20 it is=20 that the school was located in. Sometimes=20 who,=20 which, and=20 thatare used in literal translations in this chapter in= order to make them read more smoothly.

- 2. Incidental relative clauses + Incidental relative clauses The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

noi NOI incidental relative clause introducer incidental relative clause

@@ -309,21 +309,21 @@ So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can o= ften mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,=20 restrictive relative clause blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in prin= ciple, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express = some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restric= tive relative clause of=20 restrictive relative clause can only refer to a= car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.

- 3. Relative phrases + Relative phrases The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe GOI restrictive association

po GOI @@ -646,21 +646,21 @@ is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his ha= nds into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact c= an be specified. Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is=20 ge'uof selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howev= er, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relat= ive phrase, then an explicit=20 ge'uis needed to allow the connective to affect the rel= ativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about th= e cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 relativized sumti , as it is not semantically akin to t= he other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)

- 4. Multiple relative clauses:=20 + <title>Multiple relative clauses:=20 <quote>zi'e</quote>

zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner

Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one rela= tive clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 zi'e(of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mor= e relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to t= he same sumti. For example: @@ -751,21 +751,21 @@ beans and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.<= /en> beans

- 5. Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 + <title>Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 <quote>voi</quote>

voi NOI non-veridical relative clause introducer

There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 @@ -817,21 +817,21 @@ ti voi nanmu cu ninmu This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. mean essentially the same thing (except that=20 involves pointing t= hanks to the use of=20 ti, whereas=20 doesn't), and neith= er one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe somethi= ng as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actuall= y is a woman.

- 6. Relative clauses and descriptors + Relative clauses and descriptors So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 le,=20 lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 ku), and after the=20 ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out wi= th all elidable terminators, would appear as: elidable terminators @@ -1035,21 +1035,21 @@ restrictive relative clause sumti with lo indefinite sumti ku.) Use an explicit=20 loinstead.

- 7. Possessive sumti + Possessive sumti In=20 through=20 , the sumti=20 le mi karceappears, glossed as=20 my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 perelative phrase. So <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example1" /> @@ -1168,21 +1168,21 @@ </example> <para>Note that=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example6" />uses=20 <quote>vau</quote>rather than=20 <quote>ku'o</quote>at the end of the relative clause: this terminator = ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though= , it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20  <indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm> <quote>ku'o</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8"> - <title>8. Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 + <title>Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 <quote>vu'o</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher

Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: @@ -1346,21 +1346,21 @@ la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. tone of voice

- 9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases + Relative clauses in vocative phrases Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in=20 . Briefly, they are a method of indic= ating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inten= ded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from = selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d3" /> @@ -1432,21 +1432,21 @@ <en>Goodbye, horse where I am!</en> <jbo>co'o xirma poi mi zvati</jbo> <en>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example6" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example7" />mean the same thing= . In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10"> - <title>10. Relative clauses within relative clauses + Relative clauses within relative clauses For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: = a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a= relative clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example1" /> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow. @@ -1490,21 +1490,21 @@ is more verbose th= an=20 , but may be clear= er, since it explicitly spells out the two=20 ke'acmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to t= he assignable cmavo=20 ko'aand=20 ko'e(explained in Chapter=20 ).

- 11. Index of relative clause cmavo + Index of relative clause cmavo Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI): noi incidental clauses poi restrictive clauses voi restrictive clauses (non-veridical) Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI): goi pro-sumti assignment diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 5326d9d..be4802b 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -1,34 +1,34 @@ Chapter 9 To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The= Land Of Modals

- 1. Introductory + Introductory The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the s= peaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are e= xpressed by Lojban grammatical forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 selbri. The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but accor= ding to a systematic pattern known as the=20 place structureof the selbri. This chapter describes th= e various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed an= d by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequ= ence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are pl= aced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well= -known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can = be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dicti= onary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in= =20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the pla= ce structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 klama: klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5. The=20 x1 ... x5indicates that=20 klamais a five-place predicate, and show the natural or= der (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destina= tion, origin, route, means. The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects= of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic p= lace structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of act= ual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevi= tably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.

- 2. Standard bridi form:=20 + <title>Standard bridi form:=20 <quote>cu</quote> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu CU prefixed selbri separator selbri separator @@ -166,21 +166,21 @@ mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-th= e car. Here the sumti cmavo=20 zo'eis used to explicitly fill the x4 place;=20 zo'emeans=20 the unspecified thingand has the same meaning as leavin= g the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context= .

- 3. Tagging places: FA + Tagging places: FA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fa FA tags x1 place

fe FA @@ -423,21 +423,21 @@ , but it is actual= ly not necessary, because=20 fi'adoes not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 fi'a le vi rozguwould necessarily be in the x2 place even if= no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. There is also another member of FA, namely=20 fai, which is discussed in=20 .

- 4. Conversion: SE + Conversion: SE The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

se SE 2nd place conversion

te SE @@ -646,21 +646,21 @@ setese setese(or equivalently=20 setese tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 texete(or=20 xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)

- 5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU + Modal places: FIhO, FEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fi'o FIhO modal place prefix

fe'u FEhU @@ -748,21 +748,21 @@ seltcita sumti modal sumti tool userplace is the x2 of=20 se pilno(because it is the x1 of=20 pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 fi'o pilnowould mean=20 with tool user, leaving the tool unspecified.

- 6. Modal tags: BAI + Modal tags: BAI There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 pilnois one of them. The place structure of=20 pilnois: pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to spe= cify a tool. Having to say=20 fi'o se pilnofrequently would make many Lojban sentence= s unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the l= anguage design: the compound cmavo=20 sepi'o. @@ -907,21 +907,21 @@ Here=20 le bertiis provided as a modal place of the selbri=20 nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 of.=20 also illustrates a = modal place bound into a selbri with=20 be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 beare more fully explained in=20 .

- 7. Modal sentence connection: the causals + Modal sentence connection: the causals causals The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ri'a BAI rinka modal: physical cause

@@ -1118,21 +1118,21 @@ is that the modal,= =20 ri'ain this example, no longer modifies an explicit sum= ti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthe= rmore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 pla= ce of the gismu=20 rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective = of the type exemplified by=20 and=20 . However, it makes= little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstrac= tions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connectiv= e=20 .ibaubois perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imag= ine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 in-languagemodal. This is because a sentence describes = an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.

- 8. Other modal connections + Other modal connections Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 for a more detailed discussion of Lo= jban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthough= t modal connection, illustrated here by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />

mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri @@ -1309,21 +1309,21 @@ ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 justice. Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is= not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 modal connectives fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined mod= als of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 and=20 .

- 9. Modal selbri + Modal selbri Consider the example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />

mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. @@ -1458,21 +1458,21 @@ bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice= [end].

means the same thing as=20 . Note: Either BAI modals or=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of= the constructions discussed in this section.

- 10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison + Modal relative phrases; Comparison The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe GOI restrictive relative phrase

ne GOI @@ -1719,21 +1719,21 @@ de'i dated),=20 du'i(=20 du'i as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

- 11. Mixed modal connection + Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 ) with modal connection, in a way th= at simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship= . Consider the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example1" />

mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein. I like you. And I like Jane. @@ -1840,21 +1840,21 @@ .ijeseri'aboto=20 .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 tu'e ... tu'uportion was an effect, but would not pin d= own the=20 mi bevri le dakliportion as the cause. It is legal for = a modal (or a tense; see=20 ) to modify the whole of a=20 tu'e ... tu'uconstruct. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

- 12. Modal conversion: JAI + Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai JAI modal conversion modal conversion

@@ -1933,21 +1933,21 @@ I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book. , with the bracket= ed part omitted, allows us to say that=20 I am justifiedwhereas in fact it is my action that is j= ustified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-la= nguage methods of expression. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

- 13. Modal negation + Modal negation Negation is explained in detail in=20 . There are two forms of negation in= Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresse= s what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what= has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 John didn't go to Paris(contradictory negation) and=20 John went to (somewhere) other than Paris(scalar negati= on). Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appen= ding=20 -nai(of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals= with=20 -naiis to deny a causal relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1" /> @@ -1977,21 +1977,21 @@ <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />says that the rela= tionship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of moti= vation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something whi= ch can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship betwe= en watering and growth exists, but=20  <indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />doesn't say what i= t is (presumably=20 <quote>ri'a</quote>).</para> <para>Note: Modals made with=20 <quote>fi'o</quote>plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbr= i can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, = however.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14"> - <title>14. Sticky modals + Sticky modals The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki KI stickiness flag

Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in whi= ch they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this=20 stickinessis to make the modal, along with its followin= g sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put= into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the = cmavo=20 @@ -2039,21 +2039,21 @@ mi ki tavla I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). Note: Modals made with=20 fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.

- 15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals + Logical and non-logical connection of modals non-logical connection Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in= =20 . For the purposes of this chapter, = it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between= two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi wi= th a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thin= g: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example1" /> @@ -2079,21 +2079,21 @@ <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo> <en>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin = the-house.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The cmavo=20 <quote>ce'e</quote>creates a termset containing two terms (termsets ar= e explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14" />and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter16" />). When a termset contains more than= one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two ta= gs are derived from a common event.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section16"> - <title>16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms + CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 do'e, discussed in=20 do'e ), are derived directly from= selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the fo= rm CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the= Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irr= egular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is d= ivided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo= appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted. cmavo gismu comments =20 Monosyllables of the form CVV: =20 @@ -2144,21 +2144,21 @@ =20 Special cases: =20 ri'i lifri uses 3rd consonant of gismu tai tamsmi based on lujvo, not gismu va'u xamgu CV'V cmavo can't begin with=20 x

- 17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents<= /title> + <title>Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</tit= le> <para>The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI= , and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second co= lumn is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase wh= ich indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its= meaning when preceded by=20 <quote>se</quote>.</para> <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 <quote>te</quote>,=20 <quote>ve</quote>, and even=20 <quote>xe</quote>conversions (depending on the number of places of the= underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra row= s following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> <para>It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu c= ontrol the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are on= ly suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify w= hat the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ba'i basti replaced by instead of=20  diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fee21e --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ + +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D + Instructions For Helpers +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D +Fix the chapter name so it's just the second part, i.e. + + <title>Chapter 5 + <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban = selbri + +becomes: + + <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lo= jban selbri + +Make sure the bits look right (which is why the +columns are so spaced out). + +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D + Data +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D +- lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"), + others?... should each have their own index + +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D + Display +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D +- links to examples should *say* "example N"; easy to test from the + index +- links to sections should say the number of section and chapter +- examples should be 5.2.1 rather than 5.6 for the first example in + section 2 of chatpre 5 + +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D + Both/Other +=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D +- make sure backwards-compatible anchors exist diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html.css b/todocbook/docbook2html.css index 0dff909..963c94b 100644 --- a/todocbook/docbook2html.css +++ b/todocbook/docbook2html.css @@ -46,10 +46,15 @@ em[lang=3Djbo] { .example-literalistic { font-style: italic; font-size: 1em; } =20 .example-final { font-size: 1em; font-weight: bold; } */ + +td +{ + padding:15px; +} --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.