Received: from mail-gy0-f189.google.com ([209.85.160.189]) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PV5Rh-00033N-0d; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:52:18 -0800 Received: by gyb11 with SMTP id 11sf3869950gyb.16 for ; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:52:11 -0800 (PST) DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; c=relaxed/relaxed; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=domainkey-signature:received:mime-version:x-beenthere:received :received:received:received:received:received-spf:received:received :received:date:message-id:to:subject:from:x-original-sender :x-original-authentication-results:reply-to:precedence:mailing-list :list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive:sender:list-subscribe :list-unsubscribe:content-type:content-transfer-encoding; bh=v7IKf5nQYXkRPf8MRv/BFlluyP5MGyfEO+VP+xI6FZA=; b=oSP49NgTo2pSZ2Kf1KtHJs4fCaE3/Qq12j2tVfhNdOOrmu32HLKlIo8Nhe09WiNifS Pf1XOztvG55z3oaU5VYrzPpqHV+J00bti45l+vamVDqHRs7Qkcj6nMrphWjBTuKPV9t7 EjkRqAgfjROA098C64Y4TbeIXI42zo3IMJtwE= DomainKey-Signature: a=rsa-sha1; c=nofws; d=googlegroups.com; s=beta; h=mime-version:x-beenthere:received-spf:date:message-id:to:subject :from:x-original-sender:x-original-authentication-results:reply-to :precedence:mailing-list:list-id:list-post:list-help:list-archive :sender:list-subscribe:list-unsubscribe:content-type :content-transfer-encoding; b=3ZK6H+4bJQnJc1kd5zzL7ubfOKGOqiKVsK1nw+B7lBvYcNjDyctb00bs6MlAGUBdqf W5xsF4B36NyN67Q42qHTDTQhrxD2EzFXVlS05IlCZaOUg/wO1ZwM+P8oRM3uxDCrZhx7 +GMJrqWiiZhe+Grno4jgXkFcgzEU+0DtrAV9U= Received: by 10.100.242.20 with SMTP id p20mr161747anh.43.1292950325344; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:52:05 -0800 (PST) MIME-Version: 1.0 X-BeenThere: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Received: by 10.100.56.38 with SMTP id e38ls1252649ana.3.p; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:52:04 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.100.202.11 with SMTP id z11mr952758anf.0.1292950324848; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:52:04 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.211.16 with SMTP id j16mr4317672wfg.17.1292948611993; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:23:31 -0800 (PST) Received: by 10.142.211.16 with SMTP id j16mr4317665wfg.17.1292948611550; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:23:31 -0800 (PST) Received: from chain.digitalkingdom.org (digitalkingdom.org [173.13.139.234]) by gmr-mx.google.com with ESMTPS id f13si5532240wfo.4.2010.12.21.08.23.29 (version=TLSv1/SSLv3 cipher=RC4-MD5); Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:23:31 -0800 (PST) Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) client-ip=173.13.139.234; Received: from nobody by chain.digitalkingdom.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PV4zn-0003P1-Tu for bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:23:28 -0800 Received: from 128-177-28-49.ip.openhosting.com ([128.177.28.49] helo=oh-www1.lojban.org) by chain.digitalkingdom.org with esmtp (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PV4xn-0003Lm-TJ for bpfk@lojban.org; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 08:23:27 -0800 Received: from www-data by oh-www1.lojban.org with local (Exim 4.72) (envelope-from ) id 1PV4xV-0004KA-VP for bpfk@lojban.org; Tue, 21 Dec 2010 11:21:21 -0500 Date: Tue, 21 Dec 2010 11:21:05 -0500 Message-Id: To: bpfk@lojban.org Subject: [bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Tue Dec 21 11:21:05 EST 2010 From: www-data X-Original-Sender: www-data@oh-www1.lojban.org X-Original-Authentication-Results: gmr-mx.google.com; spf=pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of nobody@digitalkingdom.org designates 173.13.139.234 as permitted sender) smtp.mail=nobody@digitalkingdom.org Reply-To: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com Precedence: list Mailing-list: list bpfk-list@googlegroups.com; contact bpfk-list+owners@googlegroups.com List-ID: List-Post: , List-Help: , List-Archive: Sender: bpfk-list@googlegroups.com List-Subscribe: , List-Unsubscribe: , Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Length: 1576231 commit 8d153db4a8c3863349d71a92da705732aa843416 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Tue Dec 21 08:01:02 2010 -0800 Many semi-automated id changes. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index a3d3dea..543f03b 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -79,21 +79,21 @@ mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. Lojbanistan
What are the typographical conventions of this book? typographical conventions Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used= throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the se= lf-same sentences: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter1-section3-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. I go to the store. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 70aede3..e86e4ed 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -28,21 +28,21 @@ all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the= present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound ten= se usually called=20 tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense present progressive. Likewise, a newspaper headline say= s=20 JONES DIES, although it is obvious that the time referr= ed to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every = sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, beca= use every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojba= n brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them. In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not mer= ely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information a= bout location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optiona= l in Lojban: a sentence like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to the market. can be understood as: @@ -52,58 +52,58 @@ I have gone to the market. I will go to the market. I continually go to the market. as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is c= orrect. The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy= : right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the=20 cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 cu(although in very complex sentences the rules for eli= ding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,=20 pu is the tense marker for=20 past time: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example2" /> mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci I in-the-past go-to the market. I went to the market. It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi= by adding=20 ku after it. This=20 ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never pos= sible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example3" /> puku mi klama le zarci In-the-past I go-to the market. Earlier, I went to the market. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example4" /> mi klama puku le zarci I go-to in-the-past the market. I went earlier to the market. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section1-example5" /> mi klama le zarci pu [ku] I go-to the market in-the-past. I went to the market earlier. @@ -179,38 +179,38 @@ , asks the reader? Because = the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space t= han for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 time tenses resume . English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there ar= e plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is abs= olutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel = for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of= view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated id= entically. time tenses Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at whic= h it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imagina= ry journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify th= e direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gon= e. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example1" /> le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi= : the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The= speaker's location. We can understand the=20 va as saying:=20 If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location = of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified)= . This=20 imaginary journey can be used to understand not only=20 , but also every o= ther spatial tense construct. Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a= distance with a VA cmavo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example2" /> le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location = to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left = (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reason= able translation is: @@ -228,35 +228,35 @@ vi,=20 va, and=20 vu are intended to be reminiscent of=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu, the demonstrative pronouns=20 this-here,=20 that-there, and=20 that-yonder.) What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule = here is that the direction must come before the distance: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example3" /> le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. As explained in=20 , it would be perfectly cor= rect to use=20 ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of th= e sentence to emphasize it: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section2-example4" /> zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. @@ -268,21 +268,21 @@ zu'a means=20 on the left and=20 vi means=20 nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example1" /> le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku The man [up] [left] bites the dog. The proper interpretation of=20 @@ -291,65 +291,65 @@ Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-= biting is going on at the edge of the street.) manhole In the English translation, the keywords=20 left and=20 above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This = effect is typical of what happens when we=20 unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equiva= lents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Loj= ban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. The opposite order also makes sense: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example2" /> le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku The man [left] [up] bites the dog. Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog. In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left i= s the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationshi= p does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, the= n east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is t= he North Pole. Each direction can have a distance following: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example3" /> le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites = the dog. Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites th= e dog. A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct= , without any specified direction. (=20 , with VA alone, i= s really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example4" /> le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with o= r without specified distances for each: tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section3-example5" /> le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [wit= hin] bites the dog. Within a place a long distance to the right of a place whic= h is a medium @@ -393,21 +393,21 @@ zu ZI long time distance Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only t= wo main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like t= he spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and = when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense cons= truct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed = before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous= .) temporal tenses temporal tense - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example1" /> le nanmu pu batci le gerku The man [past] bites the dog. The man bit the dog. @@ -440,21 +440,21 @@ time tenses tense system relativity theory point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they do = not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, sti= ll less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjectiv= e but also observer-based.) Here are some examples of temporal tenses: temporal tenses - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example4" /> le nanmu puzi batci le gerku @@ -467,21 +467,21 @@ The man had been biting the dog. le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog. Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will= bite the dog. Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog. The man will have just bitten the dog. The man will just have been biting the dog. What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lo= jban does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example6" /> le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku The man [short] [past] bites the dog. Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bi= te the dog. @@ -495,33 +495,33 @@ are perfectly leg= itimate, but may not be very much used:=20 zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time cl= ose to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the fut= ure. A rough translation might be=20 about now, but not exactly now. Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortabl= e with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (=20 nearby or=20 far away), but we live only from past to future, and th= e idea of an event which happens=20 nearby in time is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots = of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, = even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limi= tation of English. nearby in time Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial te= nse: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example7" /> le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog. Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog. Alternatively, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section4-example8" /> le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. The man bit the dog long ago and far away. long ago and far away @@ -561,160 +561,160 @@ ze'u ZEhA long time interval So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought = of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog= at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more=20 spread out than that:=20 mi vasxu(I breathe) is something which is true during t= he whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the ea= rth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time= ) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to sp= ecify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is c= laimed to be true. breathe - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example1" /> le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. In a small space, the child walks on the ice. The child walks about a small area of the ice. means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distan= ces, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as=20 small, medium, large, and are relative to the context: = a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room. Here is an example using a time interval: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example2" /> le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice= . Note that with no time direction word,=20 does not say when= the walking happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible = to specify both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the = interval always comes afterward: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example3" /> le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. For a medium time, the child walked on the ice. The child walked on the ice for a while. In=20 , the relationship= of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. = Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered o= n the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, th= is question can be conclusively answered: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example4" /> mi ca ze'ica cusku dei I [present] [short time interval =E2=80=93 present] express= this-utterance. I am now saying this sentence. means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and= extending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance whi= ch is=20 . Of course,=20 short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sen= tence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, t= he era of=20 Homo sapiens would only be a=20 ze'i interval. By contrast, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example5" /> mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei I [present] [short time interval =E2=80=93 past] express th= is-utterance. I have just been saying this sentence. means that for a short time interval extending from the past to = the present I have been expressing=20 . Here the imagina= ry journey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, = moves into the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example6" /> mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal. For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal. I ate my meal for a while. With=20 ca instead of=20 ba,=20 becomes=20 , - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example7" /> mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval =E2=80=93 present] eat my me= al. For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. I ate my meal for a while. because the interval would then be centered on the past moment r= ather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Englis= h translations are the same - English is not well-suited to representing th= is distinction. Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and wi= thout specified directions: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example8" /> ta ri'u ve'i finpe That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish. That thing on my right is a fish. In=20 , there is no equi= valent in the colloquial English translation of the=20 small interval which the fish occupies. Neither the Loj= ban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section5-example9" /> ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe That-there [right] [short space interval =E2=80=93 front] i= s-a-fish. That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish. Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a poin= t on my right to another point in front of the first point.
Vague intervals and non-specific tenses What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size = of the type discussed in=20 interval size ? The Lojban rule is that i= f no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left= vague by the speaker. For example: interval size - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section6-example1" /> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. really means: @@ -727,21 +727,21 @@ points up a funda= mental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past= -tense sentence like=20 I went to the market generally signifies that the going= -to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete= at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 pu has no such implication. This property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tense = system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property,= however: tense system aorist - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section6-example3" /> le tricu ba crino The tree [future] is-green. The tree will be green. @@ -784,21 +784,21 @@ The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One = fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is mu= lti-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves ove= r a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows= for this. I can specify that a motion=20 in a small space is more specifically=20 in a short line,=20 in a small area, or=20 through a small volume. What about the child walking on the ice in=20 through=20 ? Given the nature= of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this= assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section7-example1" /> le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli vi'a The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on = the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. @@ -844,51 +844,51 @@ mo'i MOhI movement flag All the information carried by the tense constructs so far prese= nted has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or ot= her in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the tr= uth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents = an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represent= ed by the tense system, using the cmavo=20 tense system mo'i(of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opti= onal distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather tha= n a static direction from the speaker. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example1" /> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. toward my right This is quite different from: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example2" /> le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [right] walks-on the ice. To the right of me, the child walks on the ice. In either case, however, the reference frame for defining=20 reference frame right and=20 left is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be cha= nged thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example3" /> le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a ma'i The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-= frame the-x1-place. The child walks toward her right on the ice. @@ -901,40 +901,40 @@ . The cmavo=20 ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 ma'i ), and allows specifying a reference = frame. reference frame Both a regular and a=20 mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 mo'i construct coming last: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example4" /> le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on= the ice. Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward= my right on the ice. toward my right It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 zu'a ca'u after=20 mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separ= ate bridi. complex movements Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently= involving movement: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section8-example5" /> mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. @@ -982,33 +982,33 @@ ze'e whole time interval ve'e VEhA whole space interval ve'e Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time.= Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is invo= lved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lo= jban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or= non-continuous actions. continuous - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example1" /> mi puzu ze'u velckule I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attend= ee (pupil). Long ago I attended school for a long time. probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throu= ghout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school ever= y day, except for school holidays. More explicitly, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example2" /> mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule di'i I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-p= upil. Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. @@ -1021,57 +1021,57 @@ di'i covers the parts of the interval which are systema= tically spaced subintervals;=20 di'i na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which par= t is determined by context;=20 na'o ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with referen= ce to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the = x1 place of the bridi). ta'e Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time d= irection or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they ar= e vague). For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example3" /> mi ba ta'e klama le zarci ta'e I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. I will habitually go to the market. I will make a habit of going to the market. specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefi= nite. Similarly, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example4" /> mi na'o klama le zarci na'o I [typically] go-to the market. I typically go/went/will go to the market. illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no dist= ance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is = no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-= to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine t= hese vague values. Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, = but by adding the negation suffix=20 -nai(which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 ru'i. For example: ru'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example5" /> le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. The child intermittently walks on the ice. intermittently @@ -1091,56 +1091,56 @@ once,=20 twice,=20 thrice, ...=20 always, and by the related phrases=20 many times,=20 a few times,=20 too many times, and so on. All of these are handled in = Lojban by a number plus=20 -roi: roi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example7" /> mi paroi klama le zarci I [one time] go-to the market. I go to the market once. mi du'eroi klama le zarci I [too-many times] go-to the market. I go to the market too often. With the quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past,= the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified tense= need not stand alone: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example8" /> mi pu reroi klama le zarci I [past] [two times] go-to the market. I went to the market twice. The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both= goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the= Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the inter= val may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future. Adding=20 -nai to=20 roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 roi other than (the number specified): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example9" /> le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese. The rat eats the cheese other than twice. @@ -1150,21 +1150,21 @@ , where a quantifi= ed tense appears without an interval. What=20 really says is th= at during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set i= n the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example= says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is= often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market= once and only once, we can use the cmavo=20 only once ze'e which represents the=20 ze'e whole time interval: conceptually, an interval which st= retches from time's beginning to its end: whole time interval - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example10" /> mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci ze'e I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market. @@ -1182,21 +1182,21 @@ ze'epu signifies the interval stretching from the infin= ite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken y= ou);=20 ze'epu ze'eba is the interval stretching from the reference po= int to the infinite future. The remaining form,=20 ze'eba ze'eca, makes specific the=20 ze'eca whole of time interpretation just given. These compound= forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without= asserting that it never will. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section9-example11" /> mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci ze'epu I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market. I have never gone to the market. @@ -1310,21 +1310,21 @@ PU tenses speaker-relative viewpoint<= /indexterm> event-relative viewpoint The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o(etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to= an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, r= espectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example3" /> mi pu'o damba @@ -1372,59 +1372,59 @@ through=20 refer to spans o= f time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated w= ith an event: the beginning, marked by=20 co'a, and the end, marked by=20 co'u. Specifically,=20 co'a marks the boundary between the=20 pu'o and=20 ca'o parts of an event, and=20 co'u marks the boundary between the=20 ca'o and=20 ba'o parts: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example5" /> mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi I [future] [initiative] eat my meal. I will begin to eat my meal. mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi I [past] [cessitive] eat my meal. I ceased eating my meal. Compare=20 with: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example6" /> mi ba di'i co'a bajra di'i I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run. I will regularly begin to run. which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO. A process can have two end points, one reflecting the=20 natural end(when the process is complete) and the other= reflecting the=20 natural end actual stopping point(whether complete or not).=20 may be contraste= d with: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example7" /> mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi I [past] [completitive] eat my meal. I finished eating my meal. finished @@ -1437,21 +1437,21 @@ , the meal has me= rely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end. natural end A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uni= nterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events:= the point just before the interruption, marked by=20 de'a, and the point just after the interruption, marked= by=20 de'a di'a. Some examples: di'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example9" /> mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi de'a @@ -1465,82 +1465,82 @@ resume In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its= natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end point= s is represented by=20 natural end za'o: za'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example10" /> le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri za'o The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics= problem to the student-group. The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the = class too long. too long That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already = understood the problem. An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmav= o=20 co'i: co'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example11" /> la djan. pu co'i catra la djim co'i John [past] [achievative] kills Jim. John was at the point in time where he killed Jim. Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can = be referred to using a number followed by=20 re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI: re'u - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example12" /> mi pare'u klama le zarci I [first time] go-to the store. I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval)= . Note the difference between: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example13" /> mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci I [first time] [one time] go-to the store. For the first time, I go to the store once. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section10-example14" /> mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci I [one time] [first time] go-to the store. There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first= time. @@ -1560,21 +1560,21 @@ interval properties continuous fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A = space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size = and/or dimensionality cmavo: interval size interval properties dimensionality - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example3" /> ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni @@ -1600,21 +1600,21 @@ As shown in=20 , when a tense co= mes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri = (in this case=20 du), it is emphasized. The=20 fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose befor= e members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction= meaning=20 be'a north of.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section11-example4" /> tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci That-yonder [medium space interval =E2=80=93 north] [space]= [initiative] is-a-rock. That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north. That is the south face of a rock. @@ -1640,60 +1640,60 @@ fe'e flag must be prefixed to each.
Tenses as sumti tcita So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equ= ivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with=20 ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as= sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or tempo= ral information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: temporal information argument tags - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example1" /> mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the hou= se. I go to the market when you go to the house. Here=20 ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with=20 ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, the=20 le nu construct. What=20 asserts is that = the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event men= tioned by that sumti. So=20 ca, which means=20 now when used with a selbri, means=20 simultaneously-with when used with a sumti. Consider an= other example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example2" /> mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the ho= use. The second=20 pu is simply the past tense marker for the event of you= r going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. Ho= w are we to understand the first=20 pu, the sumti tcita? All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker= 's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey t= hat starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to th= e house.=20 then says that m= y going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present= moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.=20 can therefore be= translated: I had gone to the market before you went to the house. (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present = context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example5" /> le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka @@ -1708,75 +1708,75 @@ The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance= ] park The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park. The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents,= prefixed with=20 tense direction event contours fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretatio= n of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. T= he event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of t= he main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, = or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is= seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the = main bridi is intended. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example6" /> mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live. I die in the aftermath of my living. in the aftermath Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my liv= ing-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast=20 with: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example7" /> mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive I am-dead [future] the event-of I live. As explained in=20 ,=20 does not exclude= the possibility that I died before I ceased to live! Likewise, we might say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example8" /> mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store,= whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example9" /> mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating= . finished Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and sp= atial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example10" /> le bloti pu za'o xelklama za'o fe'e ba'o le lalxu The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism @@ -1792,50 +1792,50 @@ xelklama appears to mean simply=20 is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not - the bridi of=20 has four omitte= d arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as = part of its meaning. too long The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, = dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the = sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates: interval size dimension - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example11" /> mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day. I go/went/will go to the market twice today. twice today Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a t= ense used within a seltcita sumti: seltcita sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example12" /> loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [pr= esent] winter. Snow falls during this winter. claims that the interval specified by=20 this winter is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section12-example13" /> loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] wi= nter. Snow falls in the long winter. @@ -1854,149 +1854,149 @@ KI sticky tense set/reset So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban = provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a si= ngle bridi. This property is known as=20 stickiness: the tense gets=20 stuck and remains in effect until explicitly=20 unstuck. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the = place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way= -station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses= are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than= from the speaker. To make a tense sticky, suffix=20 ki to it: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example1" /> mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.<= /gloss> I went to the market. The man bit the dog. Here the use of=20 puki rather than just=20 pu ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence= as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be= no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might ha= ppen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence. (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form p= art of a narrative. See=20 for an explanation of=20 story time, which employs a different set of convention= s.) story time What if the second sentence has a tense anyway? - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example2" /> mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the d= og. Here the second=20 pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, i= n the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be= the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example3" /> I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog. had earlier and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation fr= om any other sentences) to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example4" /> mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog= . The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly gra= mmatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example5" /> puku mi ba klama le zarci [past] I [future] go-to the market. Earlier, I was going to go to the market. Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating = free and specified by=20 puku, the second in the usual place and specified by=20 ba. They are considered cumulative in the same way as t= he two tenses in separate sentences of=20 .=20 is therefore equ= ivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example6" /> mi puba klama le zarci I [past] [future] go-to the market. I was going to go to the market. Compare=20 and=20 , which have a di= fferent meaning from=20 and=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example8" /> mi ba klama le zarci puku I [future] go-to the market [past]. I will have gone to the market earlier. mi bapu klama le zarci I [future] [past] go-to the market. I will have gone to the market. So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved= , order counts - the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if there = were only one tense to worry about. But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They s= pecify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in ord= er to make part of a tense sticky. Consider=20 , which adds a se= cond bridi and a=20 ki to=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example9" /> pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the= dog. What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not=20 puba, but only=20 pu, since only=20 pu was made sticky with=20 ki. So the translation is: I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog. Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another brid= i: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions = contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate b= ridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the= tense of the main bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example10" /> mi pu klama le ba'o zarci I [past] go-to the [perfective] market I went to the former market. former market @@ -2006,21 +2006,21 @@ ba'o in=20 is that the spe= aker's destination is described as being=20 in the aftermath of being a market; that is, it is a ma= rket no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market = is in the speaker's past, because the=20 in the aftermath ba'o is interpreted relative to the=20 pu tense of the main bridi. Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi: abstraction bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section13-example11" /> mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead. I now believe that I will be dead. @@ -2043,21 +2043,21 @@ would be intolerably awkw= ard when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the na= rrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of tim= e within the story itself. The term=20 story in this section refers to any series of statement= s related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.<= /para> Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly cal= led=20 story time, for inferring tense within a story. It is p= resumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time mor= e or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are impli= citly tensed as=20 story time what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setti= ng is advanced by each sentence. The following mini-story illustrates the important features of s= tory time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows: story time - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section14-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d5" /> @@ -2143,21 +2143,21 @@ <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>stories</primary></indexterm> <!-- ^^ jokes, 4 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15"> <title>Tenses in subordinate bridi English has a set of rules, formally known as=20 sequence of tense rules, for determining what tense sho= uld be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the mai= n sentence. Here are some examples: sequence of tense rules - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example4" /> @@ -2177,21 +2177,21 @@ went. But if the tense of the main sentence is the past= , with=20 said, then the tense required in the subordinate clause= is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past tense=20 went; if George goes before John speaks, we get the pas= t-perfect tense=20 had gone. The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the ma= in sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative= to the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks= =20 through=20 ). Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention.= A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense a= lready set in the main bridi. Thus=20 through=20 can be expressed= in Lojban respectively thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example8" /> @@ -2222,21 +2222,21 @@ now.) It is not grammatical to combine=20 nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a= logical or non-logical connection (see=20 non-logical connection nau ). Here is a convoluted se= ntence with several nested bridi which uses=20 nau at the lowest level: nau - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15-example9" /> la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci= nau John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the s= tatement-that @@ -2248,35 +2248,35 @@ The use of=20 nau does not affect sticky tenses. nau
Tense relations between sentences The sumti tcita method, explained in=20 , of asserting a tense rel= ationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example1" /> le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le ge= rku The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bite= s the dog. The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites = the dog. which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man bitin= g the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks= on the ice. By the nature of=20 le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to w= ithout being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can b= e expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of=20 .i connecting them: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example2" /> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisl= i The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice= . @@ -2288,56 +2288,56 @@ zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, namely=20 le verba. Note that the bridi in=20 appear in the re= verse order from their appearance in=20 . With=20 .izu'abo(and all other afterthought tense connectives) = the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a na= tural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between t= his form and the sumti tcita form. converting means the same t= hing as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example3" /> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli la'edi'u The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on= the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the chil= d walks on the ice. If the=20 bo is omitted in=20 , the meaning cha= nges: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example4" /> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli= The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-o= n the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something wal= ks on the ice. Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, beca= use=20 zu'a has absorbed the sumti=20 le verba. Do not confuse either=20 or=20 with the followi= ng: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section16-example5" /> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bis= li The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.= @@ -2356,33 +2356,33 @@ tense connection tense system and touched on only in summary here= . By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 through 17.3 are= equivalent in meaning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example3" /> la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. satre le ractu Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit. la teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit. la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit. Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical conne= ctive=20 and? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later stroke= s the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective b= y placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo= =20 bo, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example6" /> la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu @@ -2485,21 +2485,21 @@ tensed logical connective tensed logical connective tensed logical connective ke ... ke'e(=20 tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical connective sy= stem makes=20 through=20 equivalent in me= aning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example9" /> mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri l= e mlatu tu'u @@ -2510,21 +2510,21 @@ I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or c= arry both. mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat). I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both. Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variet= y of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all ca= ses, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat o= r the dog or both. To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and th= en the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form= =20 through=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section17-example12" /> mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri le gerku @@ -2544,35 +2544,35 @@ through=20 are equivalent = in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless=20 through=20 respectively.
Tense negation Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can= be contradicted by a=20 -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example1" /> mi punai klama le zarci I [past] [not] go-to the market. I didn't go to the market. As a contradictory negation,=20 implies that the= bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When= the negated tense is a sumti tcita,=20 -nai negation indicates that the stated relationship do= es not hold: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example4" /> mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani @@ -2582,21 +2582,21 @@ The man bites the dog [within] [not] the room. The man didn't bite the dog inside the room. mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive I am-dead [continuitive - negated] the event-of I live. It is false that I am dead during my life. It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense co= nstructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory nega= tion, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some ten= se other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation an= alogues of=20 to=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example8" /> @@ -2614,21 +2614,21 @@ I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live. I am dead other than during my life. Unlike=20 -nai contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses = is not limited to PU and FAhA: scalar negation of tenses negation of tenses - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section18-example9" /> le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice The child walks on the ice other than to my right. @@ -2667,50 +2667,50 @@ pu'i CAhA can and has Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to = actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For= example: potential events actual events - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example1" /> ro datka cu flulimna All ducks are-float-swimmers. All ducks swim by floating. ducks swim is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translatio= n is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi= doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or e= ven at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to=20 , - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example2" /> ro datka ca flulimna All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are now swimming by floating. the resulting=20 might still be c= onsidered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likel= y to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are no= t exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of=20 All ducks are now swimming, we must append a marker fro= m selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example3" /> ro datka ca ca'a flulimna ca'a All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are now actually swimming by floating. @@ -2721,54 +2721,54 @@ is false in both= Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, presen= t fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least o= ne duck that is not swimming now. Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some duck= s have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have = been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at al= l). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming - = it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 innate capability ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability: ka'e innate capability - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example4" /> ro datka ka'e flulimna ka'e All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers. All ducks are innately capable of swimming. Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in = order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals= belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themse= lves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example: innate capability - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example5" /> la djan. ka'e viska ka'e John [capable] sees. John is innately capable of seeing. John can see. can see might be true about a human being named John, even though he has= been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into = his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions m= ight occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for ex= ample). On the other hand, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example6" /> le cukta ka'e viska ka'e The book [capable] sees. The book can see. @@ -2776,21 +2776,21 @@ can see is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is = not part of the innate nature of a book. Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. T= hey have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that pote= ntial. This may be expressed using=20 nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential: undemonstrated potential nu'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example7" /> ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna nu'o All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers. All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimm= ing by floating. @@ -2798,21 +2798,21 @@ undemonstrated potential infant ducks Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet. Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then=20 pu'i is appropriate: pu'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example8" /> la frank. pu'i viska pu'i Frank [can and has] sees. Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing. @@ -2834,21 +2834,21 @@ ca into their meaning, and are really correct for=20 ca ca'a,=20 ca'a ca nu'o, and=20 nu'o ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningf= ul with other tenses than the present: pu'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example10" /> mi pu ca'a klama le zarci ca'a @@ -2856,159 +2856,159 @@ I actually went to the store. la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani nu'o Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store. Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store (at some understood moment in the future). As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indetermi= nate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example11" /> ta jelca That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn. with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different Engl= ish sentences=20 That is on fire and=20 That is inflammable. The first demands immediate action= (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be= disambiguated with: inflammable - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example12" /> ta ca ca'a jelca ca'a That [present] [actual] burns. That is on fire. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example13" /> ta ka'e jelca ka'e That [capable] burns. That is capable of burning. That is inflammable. inflammable When no indication is given, as in the simple observative observative - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section19-example14" /> jelca It burns! the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning=20 Fire!
Logical and non-logical connections between tenses Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; l= ogical connection is explained in more detail in=20 . Some of the terminology in this se= ction will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives. The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logi= cal connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentenc= es: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example1" /> mi pu je ba klama le zarci I [past] and [future] go-to the market. I went and will go to the market. means the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example2" /> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi ba klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. And I [future] go-to the market.= I went to the market, and I will go to the market. Tense connection and tense negation are combined in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example3" /> mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci I [past] [not] and [present] [not] and [future] go-to the m= arket. I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future. is far more spec= ific than - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example4" /> mi ba klama le zarci I [future] go-to the market. which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about = my past or present.=20 ba does not imply=20 punai or=20 canai; to compel that interpretation, either a logical = connection or a ZAhO is needed. Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the = logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example6" /> mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk. I walk not leftward but rightward. There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allo= wed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to overrid= e simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default. The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are a= lso permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not b= y size, but by their end-points (=20 bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-poin= ts of an ordered interval, like English=20 from ... to): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section20-example7" /> mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe. breathe I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come. @@ -3020,21 +3020,21 @@ One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is d= iscussed in=20 . Other uses will probably= be identified in future.
Sub-events Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk a= bout sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six= bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine = twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus: six-shooter - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example1" /> mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti pi'u I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-= launcher. @@ -3053,21 +3053,21 @@ Cartesian product product: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifi= es very precisely what occurs. In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and even= t contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logica= l connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type: interval properties tense direction event contours - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21-example3" /> la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska George [continuitive] [initiative] writes. George continues to start to write. @@ -3090,195 +3090,195 @@ tense conversion fai FA indefinite place Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the pl= aces of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exch= anging the first place with one of the others: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example2" /> mi cu klama le zarci I go-to the market. le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by-me. It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumt= i tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the fron= t, by using=20 jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example4" /> le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. The rat eats the cheese in the park. le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat. The park is where the rat eats the cheese. In=20 , the constructio= n JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous = first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered p= lace; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with=20 fai, the indefinite member of selma'o FA. (The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc= . places of a bridi explicitly: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example5" /> fa mi cu klama fe le zarci means the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example6" /> fe le zarci cu klama fa mi as well as the simple - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example7" /> mi cu klama le zarci in which the place structure is determined by position.) Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in= descriptions with LE selma'o: tense conversion name-words LE selma'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example8" /> mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla I saw the place-of eating the cheese. Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no=20 fai appears. Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI: temporal tenses - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section22-example9" /> mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan. I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. I know the time of John's death. I know when John died.
Tenses versus modals Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly parall= eled by some use of modals as explained in=20 . Modals and tenses alike can be foll= owed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed = connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect= . However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs = and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two fo= rms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier= versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically intercha= ngeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.<= /para> The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example1" /> mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi mu'i I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me. I like you because you like me. places the=20 le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu=20 mukti(which underlies the modal=20 mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi mu'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example2" /> mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi I like you after the event-of you like me. I like you after you like me. places the=20 le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu=20 balvi(which underlies the tense=20 ba), namely the point of reference for the future tense= . Paraphrases of=20 and=20 , employing the b= rivla=20 mukti and=20 balvi explicitly, would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example3" /> le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci do The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.= Your liking me is the motive for my liking you. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example4" /> le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu do nelci mi The event-of I like you is after the event of you like me.<= /gloss> My liking you follows (in time) your liking me. (Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference i= n what is claimed;=20 and=20 claim only the c= ausal and temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of t= he events themselves.) As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of=20 and=20 are, respectivel= y: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example6" /> mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi I like you. [That is] Because you like me. do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do @@ -3293,32 +3293,32 @@ , however, the or= der is reversed: the origin point=20 do nelci mi physically appears before the future-time e= vent=20 mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi characterizing th= e event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event i= n the x1 place of=20 mukti or=20 balvi. In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modal= s and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of=20 forethought connections and=20 are - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example7" /> mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do Because you like me, I like you. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section23-example8" /> bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do After you like me, I like you. respectively. @@ -3346,54 +3346,54 @@ CUhE tense question There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main E= nglish tense question words are=20 When? and=20 Where?. These may be paraphrased respectively as=20 At what time? and=20 At what place? In these forms, their Lojban equivalents= simply involve a tense plus=20 ma, the Lojban sumti question: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example2" /> do klama le zdani ca ma You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?]. You go to the house at what time? When do you go to the house? le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the i= ce. The child at/near what place walked on the ice? Where did the child walk on the ice? There is also a non-specific tense and modal question,=20 cu'e, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used where= ver a tense or modal construct can be used. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example3" /> le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku The man [what tense?] bites the dog. When/Where/How does the man bite the dog? Possible answers to=20 might be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example7" /> @@ -3407,47 +3407,47 @@ vi le lunra [short space] The moon. On the moon. pu'o [inchoative] He hasn't yet done so. or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see=20 ): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example8" /> seka'a le briju With-destination the office. The only way to combine=20 cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical connecti= on, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example9" /> do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain? You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow i= t? when else Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a= question word: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section24-example10" /> la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru je'i Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king Was Arthur a king or will he be? @@ -3461,21 +3461,21 @@ the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former.
Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 and=20 .) It is grammatical for a termset t= o be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows bo= th the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. He= re is an example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section25-example1" /> la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end te= rmset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George. @@ -3493,37 +3493,37 @@ It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 magnitude magnitude explicit magnitude magnitude is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section25-example2" /> la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u lo mitre be li mu Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5. Frank stands five meters to the left.
Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e26d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section26-example1" /> .a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe a'o fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 356a190..0c99707 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,67 +1,67 @@ Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: = On Lojban Abstraction
The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole brid= i and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abs= tractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and comp= lex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and ano= ther. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a = result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with = this difficulty until=20 . An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and prece= ding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are k= nown as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to the store into an abstraction using=20 nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example2" /> nu mi klama le zarci [kei] an-event-of my going-to the store The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumt= i, as here. It is important to beware of eliding=20 kei improperly, as many of the common uses of abstracti= on selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of= the abstraction if=20 kei had been elided. (Technically,=20 kei is never necessary, because the elidable terminator= =20 vau that closes every bridi can substitute for it; howe= ver,=20 kei is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost= always clearer.) The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the sa= me as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be us= ed as observatives, as in=20 observatives , or used in tanru= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example3" /> la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by= =20 le(or any other member of selma'o LE): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section1-example4" /> la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction eithe= r at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its=20 @@ -88,21 +88,21 @@ The examples in=20 made use of=20 nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most comm= on abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state = of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 common abstractor le description built on a=20 nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d5" /> @@ -129,34 +129,34 @@ <en>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by som= e route using some means</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example1" /> through=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example5" /> are descriptions = that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri=20 <quote>klama</quote>.=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example6" /> describes somethi= ng associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.</para> <para>In Lojban, the term=20 <quote>event</quote> is divorced from its ordinary English sense of so= mething that happens over a short period of time. The description:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-mxAt"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-mxAt"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example7" /> le nu mi vasxu the event-of my breathing is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal c= ircumstances). On the other hand, normal circumstances - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example8" /> le nu la djan. cinba la djein. the event-of John kissing Jane kissing Jane @@ -167,69 +167,69 @@ comparison We can see from=20 can see through=20 that ellipsis of = sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main brid= i of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able t= o figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recogn= ize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 ellipsis nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place el= lipsized: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example9" /> mi nelci le nu limna I like the event-of swimming. I like swimming. is elliptical, and most probably means: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example10" /> mi nelci le nu mi limna I like the event-of I swim. In the proper context, of course,=20 could refer to th= e event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,=20 I like swimming, can't be interpreted as=20 I like Frank's swimming; this is a fundamental distinct= ion between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatev= er the context indicates that it should mean. Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can someti= mes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of=20 , the appearance = of=20 le se nelci(=20 that which is liked) is in effect an abstraction: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example11" /> le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. The thing which I like happens often. which in this context means My swimming happens often. Event descriptions with=20 le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and = lujvo place structures: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section2-example12" /> la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study Lojban is easy for me when I study. @@ -290,42 +290,42 @@ nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long= , short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discr= iminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other= abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events,= or four ways of looking at the same event. An event considered as a point in time is called a=20 point-event, or sometimes an=20 achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in t= his context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event ca= n be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought o= f as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor=20 triumph mu'e means=20 mu'e point-event-of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example1" /> le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri mu'e The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.= killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a b= eginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a= =20 process. The abstractor=20 pu'u means=20 pu'u process-of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example2" /> ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a pu'u cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu selcatra @@ -338,40 +338,40 @@ Roman Empire many Emperors were killed. An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive= is called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 zu'o means=20 zu'o activity-of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example3" /> mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe zu'o I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump). I am tired because I jump. An event considered as something that is either happening or not= happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a=20 state. The abstractor=20 za'i means=20 za'i state-of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section3-example4" /> le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do za'i The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. My being alive is dangerous to you. @@ -459,54 +459,54 @@ The things described by=20 le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, the thin= gs of which=20 nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderat= ely=20 abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in = space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is=20 the property of being blue, or=20 the property of being a go-er? They are what logicians = call=20 intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 has a heart the property of having a heart is an abstract object wh= ich, when applied to John, is true. In fact, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example1" /> la djan. cu se risna zo'e John has-as-heart something-unspecified. John has a heart. has a heart has the same truth conditions as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example2" /> la djan. cu ckaji le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei] John has-the-property the property-of having-as-heart something. John has the property of having a heart. (The English word=20 have frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban pro= perties: things are said to=20 have properties, but this is not the same sense of=20 have as in=20 I have money, which is possession.) Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted= to fill places in brivla place structures: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example3" /> do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei] You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red. You are new to me in redness. @@ -516,65 +516,65 @@ -ness often signals a property abstraction, as does the= suffix=20 relationship abstraction property abstraction -ity.) We can also move the property description to the x1 place of=20 property description , producing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example4" /> le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi The property-of your being-red is-new to me. Your redness is new to me. It would be suitable to use=20 and=20 to someone who ha= s returned from the beach with a sunburn. sunburn beach There are several different properties that can be extracted fro= m a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is=20 understood as being specified externally. Thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example5" /> ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei] a-property-of me loving something-unspecified is quite different from - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example6" /> ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei] a-property-of something-unspecified loving me In particular, sentences like=20 and=20 are quite differe= nt in meaning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example8" /> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X) I love John more than I love George. @@ -589,72 +589,72 @@ as a place-holder= cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means t= hat there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned= in=20 ellipsis . Instead, the cmavo=20 ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti= is wanted. (The form=20 X will be used in literal translations.) Therefore, an explicit equivalent of=20 , with no ellipsis= , is: ellipsis - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example9" /> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X). and of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example10" /> la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka ce'u prami mi John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me). This convention allows disambiguation of cases like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example11" /> le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of giving the horse giving the horse into - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example12" /> le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse to someone-unspecified) the property of being a giver of the horse which is the most natural interpretation of=20 , versus - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section4-example13" /> le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei] the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the horse to X) the property of being one to whom the horse is given @@ -695,88 +695,88 @@ amount abstraction amount abstraction amount abstraction amount abstraction Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property = abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted b= ridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example1" /> le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the amount-of (the picture being-blue) the amount of blueness in the picture because=20 blueness could be measured with a colorimeter or a simi= lar device. However, colorimeter - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example2" /> le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei] the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother) the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?) the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?) makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply d= o not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother. measurement scale Semantically, a sumti with=20 le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treated gramma= tically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo= =20 mo'e: mo'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example3" /> li pa vu'u mo'e mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue) 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example4" /> le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue). The picture varies in being blue. The picture varies in blueness. is not the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section5-example5" /> le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue). The picture varies in how blue it is. The picture varies in blueness. @@ -797,49 +797,49 @@ Truth-value abstraction:=20 <!-- ^^ value abstraction, 262 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexter= m> <quote>jei</quote> The=20 blueness of the picture discussed in=20 refers to the measurable a= mount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of t= ruth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed i= n Lojban using=20 jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 ni. In the simplest cases,=20 le jei produces not a number but a truth value: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section6-example1" /> le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4 the truth of 2 + 2 being 4 is equivalent to=20 truth, and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section6-example2" /> le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5 the truth of 2 + 2 being 5 is equivalent to=20 falsehood. However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply tr= ue or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and=20 jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of g= rey intended: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section6-example3" /> mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei] I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime doer)). I will decide whether George is a criminal. @@ -871,106 +871,106 @@ NU predication abstraction predication abstraction There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a su= mti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicia= ns call these the=20 propositional attitudes, and they include (in English) = things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Co= nsider the English sentence: propositional attitudes - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example1" /> I know that Frank is a fool. Frank is a fool How's that in Lojban? Let us try: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example2" /> mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the event of Frank being a fool. Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, an= d can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feel= ing, and the like;=20 comes close to cl= aiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of= the speaker. (In fact,=20 mental activity is an instance of= improperly marked=20 sumti raising, a concept discussed further in=20 sumti raising ). Try again: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example3" /> mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool. Closer.=20 says that I know = whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as=20 Frank is a fool does. To catch th= at nuance, we must say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example4" /> mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the predication that Frank is a fool. Frank is a fool Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion=20 Frank is a fool is not a property of=20 Frank is a fool le du'u abstraction, but of=20 djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a res= ult,=20 djuno like=20 jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how w= e know.)=20 has no such impli= ed assertion: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example5" /> mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. Frank is a fool curious and here=20 du'u could probably be replaced by=20 jei without much change in meaning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example6" /> mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. Frank is a fool @@ -979,34 +979,34 @@ As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,=20 du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (p= iece of language) expressing the bridi: du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2 and=20 le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places of selb= ri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding= bridi: linguistic behavior - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example7" /> la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei] John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to = the store John says that George goes to the store. differs from - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section7-example8" /> la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote. John says=20 George goes to the store. @@ -1031,31 +1031,31 @@ kau UI indirect question marker indirect question There is an alternative type of sentence involving=20 du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. = In addition to sentences like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example1" /> I know that John went to the store. we can also say things like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example2" /> I know who went to the store. know who @@ -1074,21 +1074,21 @@ kau indirect questions le du'u abstraction, but rather than using a question w= ord like=20 who(=20 ma in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatica= lly and mark it with the suffix particle=20 kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically= it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 kau is therefore: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example3" /> mi djuno le du'u makau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of X [indirect question] [past] going to the store. @@ -1098,21 +1098,21 @@ In=20 , we have chosen t= o use=20 ma as the word marked by=20 kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:= =20 kau zo'e or=20 da or even=20 la djan.. Using=20 la djan. would suggest that it was John who I knew had = gone to the store, however: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example4" /> mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu kau klama le zarci @@ -1132,66 +1132,66 @@ indefinite pro-sumti ma,=20 zo'e, or=20 da does not suggest any particular value. Why does Lojban require the=20 kau marker, rather than using=20 kau ma as English and Chinese and many other languages do? = Because=20 ma always signals a direct question, and so - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example5" /> mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example6" /> Who is it that I know goes to the store? It is actually not necessary to use=20 le du'u and=20 kau at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; t= here is generally a paraphrase of the type: kau indirect question - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example7" /> mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci I know about the [past] goer to-the store. I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, = his identity). because the x3 place of=20 djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fa= ct that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a= logical connection, then there is no good alternative to=20 kau: kau - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section8-example8" /> mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le panka I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [connective indirect question] George @@ -1229,49 +1229,49 @@ su'u NU general abstractor There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little u= sed so far. The abstractor=20 li'i expresses experience: li'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example1" /> mi morji le li'i mi verba li'i I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child) The abstractor=20 si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example2" /> mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete. Finally, the abstractor=20 su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasp= ed from context: vague abstractor - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example3" /> ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running @@ -1299,43 +1299,43 @@ Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort= of abstraction=20 su'u is representing, so its place structure is: su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2 The x2 place of=20 su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the = other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example, template - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example4" /> le nu mi klama the event-of my going can be paraphrased as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example5" /> le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section9-example6" /> le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape @@ -1378,172 +1378,172 @@ abstraction conversion It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract d= escription is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we= can say: pro-sumti for we English we abstract description - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example1" /> I try to open the door. which in Lojban is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example2" /> mi troci le nu [mi] gasnu le nu le vorme cu karbi'o I try the event-of (I am-agent-in the event-of (the door open-becomes)). which has an abstract description within an abstract description= , quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), w= e may also say: abstract description - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example3" /> I try the door. try the door where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door = itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in L= ojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo i= s=20 tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equival= ent of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example4" /> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-action-to-do-with the door. The term=20 sumti-raising, as in the title of this section, signifi= es that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even with= in an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is=20 intermediate abstraction raised to the main bridi level. This transformation fro= m=20 to=20 loses informatio= n: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was. Using=20 tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at= the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prep= ared for the listener to respond something like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example5" /> tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a lu'u something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!] which indicates that=20 tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The terminator for= =20 tu'a is=20 lu'u, and is used in=20 lu'u to make clear ju= st what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word=20 vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti = might be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example6" /> tu'a la djan. cu cafne something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 tu'a,=20 would mean that = John considered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John h= as some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as= events in English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem = to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe= it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not the name of some= event.) Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to=20 tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete= one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 jai(of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one funct= ion, discussed in=20 and=20 ; for the purposes of this chapter, = it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE= . This conversion changes - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example7" /> tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death. into - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example8" /> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. In English, the subject of=20 cause can either be the actual cause (an event), or els= e the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the= x1 of=20 rinka is always an event.=20 and=20 look equally con= venient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions,=20 can be altered t= o: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example9" /> le jai rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your death) the one who caused your death because=20 jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description - not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section10-example10" /> le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death) @@ -1657,21 +1657,21 @@ mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute pro= cesses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes wit= hin processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstrac= t things. mu'e
Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 . The connection can be expanded to = one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent i= n meaning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter11-section12-example2" /> le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index f724651..6b1a899 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -13,32 +13,32 @@ plants minimal list lists compound words basis There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, = lujvo are condensed forms of tanru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section1-example1" /> ti fagri festi That is-fire waste. contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section1-example2" /> ti fagyfesti That is-fire-waste. That is-ashes. @@ -92,33 +92,33 @@ dark, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to=20 sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or col= or. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in w= hich the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of t= he time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or colo= r will be rejected as irrelevant. irrelevant As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru=20 klama zdani, or=20 goer-house. The gismu=20 goer-house zdani has two places: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section2-example1" /> x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2 (but in this chapter we will use simply=20 house, for brevity), and the gismu=20 klama has five: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section2-example2" /> x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 u= sing means x5 The tanru=20 klama zdani will also have two places, namely those of= =20 @@ -159,21 +159,21 @@ gerku zdani if there is any relationship (r) at all bet= ween the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate= by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a d= ifferent relationship.) The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as=20 The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea = Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White Ho= use) or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take anoth= er dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we sa= y that the White House cannot fit into the first place of=20 Chelsea Clinton Bill Clinton gerku zdani. As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the = definition of=20 gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the= dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the = relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambi= guous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if = it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, = can be expressed - thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section2-example3" /> la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD.= be'o zdani la bil. klinton. The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernar= d) type-of-house-for Bill Clinton. @@ -218,63 +218,63 @@ (The notation introduced casually in=20 will be useful in the rest= of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent p= laces, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the=20 x, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve a= mbiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of=20 zdani, and g2 is the second place of=20 gerku.) The place structure of=20 zdani is given as=20 , but is repeated = here using the new notation: new notation - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example1" /> z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2 The place structure of=20 gerku is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example2" /> g1 is a dog of breed g2 But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structu= re for=20 gerzda now becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example3" /> z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2 which can also be written - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example4" /> z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2 or more comprehensively - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section3-example5" /> z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=3Dg1 of breed g2 Despite the apparently conclusive nature of=20 , our task is not = yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places shoul= d also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. The= se concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are n= ow equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions. @@ -293,74 +293,74 @@
Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-maki= ng creates what is called a=20 symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on = a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalen= t to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characteriz= es the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo=20 balsoi: it is intended to mean=20 both great and a soldier- that is,=20 great soldier, which is the interpretation we would ten= d to give its veljvo,=20 great soldier banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structures are:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example1" /> banli: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3 sonci: s1 is a soldier of army s2 In this case the s1 place of=20 sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 pl= ace of=20 banli. Therefore the place structure of=20 balsoi need not include places for both s1 and b1, as t= hey refer to the same thing. So the place structure of=20 balsoi is at most at most - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example2" /> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 great soldier Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in additi= on to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo=20 symmetrical veljvo tinju'i,=20 to listen(=20 to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The pl= ace structures of the gismu=20 tirna and=20 jundi are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example3" /> tirna: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t= 3 background noise jundi: j1 pays attention to j2 and the place structure of the lujvo is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example4" /> j1=3Dt1 listens to j2=3Dt2 against background noise t3 background noise @@ -375,32 +375,32 @@ symmetrical tanru .) In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symm= etrical lujvo. Consider=20 gerzda, discussed in=20 , where we learned that the= g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligne= d, we could convert=20 zdani to=20 se zdani(or=20 selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure = of=20 selzda is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example5" /> s1 is housed by nest s2 and so the three-part lujvo=20 gerselzda would have the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example6" /> s1=3Dg1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2 However, although=20 gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate=20 @@ -410,44 +410,44 @@ From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always= be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and i= f the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of th= e lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be= applied, just as in interpreting tanru. plausibility The lujvo=20 karcykla, for example, is based on=20 karce klama, or=20 car goer. The place structure of=20 car goer karce is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example7" /> karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3 A asymmetrical interpretation of=20 karcykla that is strictly analogous to the place struct= ure of=20 gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) pl= aces, would lead to the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example8" /> kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 = from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5 But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, s= o a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to t= he kl5 place, leading to - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section5-example9" /> kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3. instead. @@ -459,86 +459,86 @@ notation conventions lujvo place structure gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when w= e know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then= we know what fits in the g2 place (=20 St. Bernard, let us say). In other words, when the valu= e of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determin= ed by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed con= tains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know = only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone whic= h dog is meant. For=20 zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency betwee= n the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not det= ermined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By t= he same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the ide= ntity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller. The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent p= laces provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in=20 gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from the tenta= tive place structure given in=20 , leaving the plac= e structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example1" /> z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1 Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a = lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the dog= house, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example2" /> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. Mon Repos really means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example3" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. Mon Repos since that is the interpretation we have given=20 gerzda. But that in turn means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example4" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified bree= d. unspecified breed Mon Repos Specifically, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example5" /> la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNAR= D. Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernar= d. Mon Repos and in that case, it makes little sense to say - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example6" /> la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. = Bernard, Mon Repos @@ -549,38 +549,38 @@ . The dog breed is= redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and = (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed = is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. supplementary information As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 beetle calku cinki, or=20 shell-insect. The gismu place structures are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example7" /> calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3 cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2 arthropod This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of o= ne gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, becau= se all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits = into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insec= t has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equi= valent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is cross-dependency - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example8" /> ci1=3Dca2 is a beetle of species ci2 beetle @@ -622,71 +622,71 @@ playgrounds elementary schools auditoriums kuldi'u(from=20 ckule dinju, and meaning=20 school building) needs to be school building - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section6-example9" /> d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to aud= ience c4 even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other pla= ces of=20 ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem= to be necessary to the concept=20 school building, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so th= ey are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place str= uctures is demonstrated. school building
Ordering lujvo places. So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into = the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In us= ing selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the su= mti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical:= the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader u= nfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which. If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the= order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this do= es not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo= =20 jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer. In the sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example1" /> di'e jdaselsku la dong. di'e This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong. Dong we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer,= giving the meaning Dong - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example2" /> This is a prayer by Dong Dong or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example3" /> This is a prayer to Dong Dong @@ -699,46 +699,46 @@ multiple SE lujvo creation We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo a= nd one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like=20 balsoi(from=20 ) has the places of its ter= tau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination proce= ss. For=20 elimination process balsoi, the surviving places of=20 banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example4" /> b1=3Ds1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by stand= ard b3 great soldier just what appears in=20 . In fact, all pla= ce structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the convent= ions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now. The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujv= o bridi-schema - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example5" /> b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3 b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3= and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example6" /> b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3 b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-stan= dard-b3 where=20 @@ -748,40 +748,40 @@ Asymmetrical lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The= seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rath= er immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first plac= e of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 veterinarian danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : animal doctor - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example7" /> danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2 mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 = using treatment m4 ailment and the lujvo place structure is: notation conventions lujvo place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section7-example8" /> m1 is a doctor for animal m2=3Dd1 of species d2 for ailment m= 3 ailment using treatment m4 @@ -804,81 +804,81 @@ bavlamdei as having two components:=20 bavla'i,=20 next, and=20 djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure f= or the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usua= l way. notation conventions lujvo place structure In this case,=20 bavla'i is given the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example1" /> b1=3Dl1 is next after b2=3Dl2 making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with=20 djedi, which has the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example2" /> duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3 While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places = before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept= than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of=20 tomorrow bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidelines pre= sented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that= must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in orde= r of relative importance. The resulting place structure is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example3" /> d1=3Db1=3Dl1 is a day following b2=3Dl2, d2 days later (defau= lt 1) by standard d3 Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:=20 cladakyxa'i, meaning=20 long-sword, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gis= mu place structures are: medieval weapon long-sword - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example4" /> clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3 dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made= of d3 xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wield= er xa3 Since=20 cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on=20 cladakfu xarci, and=20 cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the n= ecessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife),= and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing c= ut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swo= rds are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is= always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is depe= ndent on c1=3Dd1=3Dxa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in righ= t-to-left order we get: sword blade - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section8-example5" /> xa1=3Dd1=3Dc1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=3Dd2 by wie= lder xa3, long-sword with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3. @@ -890,64 +890,64 @@
Eliding SE rafsi from seltau It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of= selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo constructio= n for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on = the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word = should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lu= jvo refers to a rare or unusual concept. Consider as an example the lujvo=20 ti'ifla, from the veljvo=20 stidi flalu, and meaning=20 bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are: proposed law - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example1" /> stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audien= ce st3 flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 u= nder conditions f4 by lawgiver f5 This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the sec= ond seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, name= ly f1. However, if we understand=20 ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo=20 selti'ifla, then we get the first places of seltau and = tertau lined up. The place structure of=20 lined up selti'i is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example2" /> selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 = to audience se3 Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1= (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structur= e is: can see - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example3" /> f1=3Dse1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dse3 or, relabeling the places, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section9-example4" /> f1=3Dst2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under condi= tions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=3Dst3 where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.= @@ -978,46 +978,46 @@ zdani, and so on. What is certain is that=20 gerzda does not describe a=20 se zdani- it is not a word that could be used to descri= be an inhabitant such as a dog. Now consider how we would translate the word=20 blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as=20 blue-eyed blakanla(from=20 blanu kanla, meaning=20 blue eye). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot= say - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10-example1" /> la djak. cu blakanla Jack is-a-blue-eye because Jack is not an eye,=20 kanla, but someone with an eye,=20 se kanla. At best we can say - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10-example2" /> la djak. cu se blakanla Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes But look now at the place structure of=20 blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place struc= ture is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section10-example3" /> bl1=3Dk1 is a blue eye of bl2=3Dk2 We end up being most interested in talking about the second plac= e, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so=20 se would almost always be required. @@ -1034,99 +1034,99 @@ People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as po= ssible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. T= he first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually=20 ke and=20 ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We c= an usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau wit= h=20 ke and=20 ke'e missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo= inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important. For example, in=20 bakrecpa'o, meaning=20 beefsteak, the veljvo is beefsteak - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example1" /> [ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo ( bovine meat ) slice bovine because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn'= t seem to be much difference between that veljvo and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example2" /> bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e] bovine ( meat slice ) meat slice bovine On the other hand, the lujvo=20 zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o sneak in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example3" /> zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e] crime ( inside go ) to go within, criminally because the alternative, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example4" /> [ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go = into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost i= dentical with=20 anyway?) There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can = produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,=20 xaskemcakcurnu means=20 oceanic shellfish, and has the veljvo shellfish - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example5" /> xamsi ke calku curnu ocean type-of (shell worm) shell worm (=20 worm in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but=20 invertebrate xasycakcurnu has the veljvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example6" /> [ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu (ocean shell) type-of worm ocean shell @@ -1151,21 +1151,21 @@ to'e before it, it's better to leave the result as two = words, or else to insert=20 ke, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on. It is all right to replace the phrase=20 se klama with=20 selkla, and the places of=20 selkla are exactly those of=20 se klama. But consider the related lujvo=20 dzukla, meaning=20 to walk to somewhere. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, deriv= ed from the veljvo=20 cadzu klama as follows: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section11-example7" /> cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3 klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5<= /gloss> @@ -1215,94 +1215,94 @@ se ke te, since there is no need to re-order places in = the way that=20 se te provides. (See=20 se te .)
Abstract lujvo The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of = a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard e= xample,=20 klama: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example1" /> k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. The selbri=20 nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of-going, = but the full five places exist implicitly between=20 nu and=20 kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed th= ere. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently = the lujvo=20 nunkla(=20 nun- is the rafsi for=20 nu), needs to have six places: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example2" /> nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route= k4 by means k5. Here the first place of=20 nunklama is the first and only place of=20 nu, and the other five places have been pushed down by = one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on=20 nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this = section, is given in=20 . For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the sta= ndard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the plac= es of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of=20 nilkla, the lujvo derived from=20 ni klama, is the imposing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example3" /> ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via rout= e k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2. It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making = of more complex lujvo as well. For example,=20 nunsoidji, from the veljvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example4" /> nu sonci kei djica event-of being-a-soldier desirer has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example5" /> d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for p= urpose d3 where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by= the places of the seltau. As shown in=20 , the ordering fo= llows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point= where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau. The lujvo=20 nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary asymmetr= ic lujvo=20 asymmetric lujvo soidji, a=20 soldier desirer, whose place structure is just - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example6" /> d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3 A=20 nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enlist, wher= eas a=20 @@ -1320,34 +1320,34 @@ kam- lujvo (=20 kam- is the rafsi for=20 ka);=20 kambla is=20 blueness. Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing = the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-s= cope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in=20 . There is also a rafsi for the cmavo=20 jai, namely=20 jax, which allows sentences like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example7" /> mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death. explained in=20 , to be rendered with lujvo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section12-example8" /> mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying. In making a lujvo that contains=20 @@ -1374,68 +1374,68 @@ implicit-abstraction lujvo<= /indexterm> abstraction lujvo Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo=20 nunctikezgau, meaning=20 to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwi= nded, be patient.) The veljvo of=20 feed nunctikezgau is=20 nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structures are:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example1" /> nu: n1 is an event citka: c1 eats c2 gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2 In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo = given in=20 , we will first create an i= ntermediate lujvo,=20 nuncti, whose veljvo is=20 nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in=20 ,=20 nuncti has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example2" /> n1 is the event of c1 eating c2 Now we can transform the veljvo of=20 nunctikezgau into=20 nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is brought about by th= e actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). S= o we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place struc= ture of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example3" /> g1 is the actor in the event n1=3Dg2 of c1 eating c2 But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 plac= e describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a b= ridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the selt= au), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place struc= ture). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In f= act, the n1=3Dg2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depe= nd on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the selta= u, it is omissible. So the final place structure of=20 notation conventions lujvo place structure nunctikezgau is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example4" /> g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2 There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already = seen with=20 balsoi in=20 @@ -1460,49 +1460,49 @@ do as=20 bring about an event; so the seltau must refer to an ev= ent,=20 nu citka. The English slang meanings of=20 do someone, namely=20 socialize with someone and=20 have sex with someone, are not relevant to=20 gasnu.) So we can simply use=20 ctigau with the same place structure as=20 nunctikezgau: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example5" /> agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2 g1 feeds c2 to c1. This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau = serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is c= alled an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an= abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit). implicit-abstraction lujvo<= /indexterm> abstraction lujvo To give another example: the gismu=20 basti, whose place structure is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example6" /> b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3 can form the lujvo=20 basygau, with the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example7" /> g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3 where both=20 basti and=20 @@ -1512,35 +1512,35 @@ In addition,=20 gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we would consi= der nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, s= o adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is cons= istent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For ex= ample, the gismu=20 verbs nouns adjectives litki, meaning=20 liquid, with the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example8" /> l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions= l3 can give=20 likygau, meaning=20 to liquefy: liquefy - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example9" /> g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of compositio= n l2 under conditions l3. While=20 @@ -1557,37 +1557,37 @@ abstraction lujvo Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and = therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction luj= vo. For example, lujvo based on=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo<= /indexterm> event abstractions abstraction lujvo rinka, with its place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example10" /> event r1 causes event r2 to occur are closely related to those based on=20 gasnu. However,=20 rinka is less generally useful than=20 gasnu, because its r1 place is another event rather tha= n a person:=20 lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place struc= ture of=20 likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to=20 likygau, is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e13d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section13-example11" /> event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3 and would be useful in translating sentences like=20 @@ -1599,62 +1599,62 @@ abstraction lujvo
Anomalous lujvo Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban= writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the p= laces that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual po= sition, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or b= oth. An example of the first kind is=20 unusual position jdaselsku, meaning=20 prayer, which was mentioned in=20 . The gismu places are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example1" /> lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and belie= fs l3 cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in mediu= m c4 and=20 selsku, the tertau of=20 jdaselsku, has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example2" /> s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4 Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: = the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2).= This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been give= n in=20 or=20 ; therefore, for lack of a= better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau place= s after them, leading to the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example3" /> s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=3Dl2 to audience s3 in medium = s4 pertaining to religion l1 The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l= 1 place (the religion) and so is omitted. We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with=20 se seljdasku, where=20 seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place stru= cture: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example4" /> c1=3Dl2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in med= ium s4 pertaining to religion l1 which, according to the rule expressed in=20 @@ -1677,34 +1677,34 @@ lange'u, meaning=20 sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sh= eep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed= (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no ove= rlap in the places of=20 sheepdog sheep breed lanme and=20 gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which c= ontrols sheep flocks, a=20 terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is=20 terlantroge'u with place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example5" /> g1=3Dj1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=3Dj2 made up of= sheep l1 sheep flock in activity j3 of dog breed g2 based on the gismu place structures - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example6" /> lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock= l3 gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2 @@ -1716,21 +1716,21 @@ gerku, but=20 lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, t= he breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo=20 lange'u is both shorter than=20 terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant its use= : its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lu= jvo, for which=20 lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation. Another example is=20 xanmi'e,=20 to command by hand, to beckon. The component place stru= ctures are: beckon - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example7" /> xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2 minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happe= n @@ -1742,46 +1742,46 @@ commands xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided=20 sel- in the seltau, as if from=20 se xance minde, misses the point: the real relation exp= ressed by the lujvo is not just=20 one who commands and has a hand, but=20 commands to command using the hand. The concept of=20 using suggests the gismu=20 pilno, with place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example8" /> p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3 Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly y= ou want to constrain the veljvo) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example10" /> [ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde (hand user) type-of commander [ke] minde xance [ke'e] pilno (commander hand) type-of user or even - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e14d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section14-example11" /> minde ke xance pilno [ke'e] commander type-of (hand user) which lead to the three different lujvo=20 @@ -1812,82 +1812,82 @@ more and=20 most, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can= be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau=20 zmadu,=20 mleca,=20 zenba,=20 jdika, and=20 traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to= make, certain special guidelines are imposed. We will begin with lujvo based on=20 zmadu and=20 mleca, whose place structures are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example1" /> zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantit= y z4 mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantit= y m4 For example, the concept=20 young is expressed by the gismu=20 citno, with place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example2" /> citno: c1 is young The comparative concept=20 younger can be expressed by the lujvo=20 younger citmau(based on the veljvo=20 citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than). - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example3" /> mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six. younger I am six years younger than you. younger The place structure for=20 citmau is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example4" /> z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4 younger Similarly, in Lojban you can say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example5" /> do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six. You are six years less young than me. @@ -1919,21 +1919,21 @@ X goes to Y more than to Z,=20 X goes to Y more than Z does,=20 X goes to Y from Z more than from W, or what? We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considera= tions of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared a= lways fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the diff= erent possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau= , and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get th= e following comparative lujvo place structures: converting former state comparative lujvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example6" /> nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4 selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in am= ount z4 @@ -1977,81 +1977,81 @@ comparison zenba, meaning=20 increase(and=20 jdika, meaning=20 decrease, in place of=20 mleca). The gismu=20 zenba was included in the language precisely in order t= o capture those notions of increase which=20 zmadu can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have= to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in wi= th a value anyway. So we can translate=20 I'm stronger now not as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example7" /> mi ca tsamau I now am-stronger. which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (th= e elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example8" /> mi ca tsaze'a I increase in strength. Finally, lujvo with a tertau of=20 traji are used to build superlatives. The place structu= re of=20 traji is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example9" /> t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (larg= est by default) of set t4 Consider the gismu=20 xamgu, whose place structure is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example10" /> xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3 The comparative form is=20 xagmau, corresponding to English=20 better, with a place structure (by the rules given abov= e) of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example11" /> z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4 We would expect the place structure of=20 xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, g= iven that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting = in: comparatives - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example12" /> xa1=3Dt1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3. The t2 place in=20 traji, normally filled by a property abstraction, is re= placed by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of=20 @@ -2059,21 +2059,21 @@ relationship abstraction property abstraction traji(whether the most or the least, that is) is presum= ed by default to be=20 the most. But the set against which the t1 place of=20 traji is compared is not the t2 place (which would make= the place structure of=20 traji fully parallel to that of=20 zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a spe= cial exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of=20 traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo= . Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section15-example14" /> la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists. @@ -2101,77 +2101,77 @@ Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease place= s: it is a pressure tending to provide the=20 right number of places. If something is part of the= essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the ot= her hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then thi= s pressure will tend to remove the place. Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or d= ecrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantic= ally related to it are likely to have the place also. Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discuss= ion of the pressures operating on them: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example1" /> xekri: xe1 is black Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one inte= rpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standard= s here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 color standards xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color standar= ds can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 color standards ci'u(=20 ci'u in system; see=20 ) or by making a lujvo. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example2" /> jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4<= /jbo> The gismu=20 jbena contains places for time and location, which few = other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done i= s supplied by a tense tag (see=20 ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 le te jbena a simple term for=20 birthday and=20 le ve jbena for=20 birthplace, so these places were provided despite their= lack of metaphysical necessity. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example3" /> rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2 The place structure of=20 rinka does not have a place for the agent, the one who = causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-= effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as sn= ow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding = of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge. melting Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from mo= st gismu except for a few such as=20 gasnu and=20 zukte which are then used as tertau in order to restore= the agent place when needed: see=20 . - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter12-section16-example4" /> cinfo: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2 The c2 place of=20 diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index d726986..46bb671 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,20 +1,20 @@ Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Ind= icators
What are attitudinal indicators? attitudinal indicators This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words tone of voice - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example1" /> John is coming. can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's fee= ling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of= tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with var= ious sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the=20 @@ -27,21 +27,21 @@ Yecch! in the title. These are part of the English lang= uage; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't fin= d any of these words in a dictionary. In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Th= erefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known a= s=20 attitudinal indicators, or just=20 attitudinal indicators attitudinals. This rule seems awkward and clunky to Eng= lish-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doi= ng things. The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them = at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevai= ling attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentio= ned following=20 attitudinal indicators : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section1-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d6" /> @@ -151,21 +151,21 @@ .u'i amusement weariness .uo completion incompleteness .u'o courage timidity cowardice .uu pity cruelty .u'u repentance lack of regret innocence <!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <para>Here are some typical uses of the=20 <quote>u</quote> attitudinals:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-BdxH"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-BdxH"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d5" /> @@ -208,21 +208,21 @@ <quote>I'm sorry</quote>; the difference between these two attitudes f= requently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, lead= ing to responses like=20 <quote>Why are you sorry? It's not your fault!</quote></para> <para>It is important to realize that=20 <quote>.uu</quote>, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used = sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation=20 <quote>Pity!</quote> is just as likely to be ironically intended, but = this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally)= as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps w= orse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than m= isunderstood statements.</para> <para>The following examples display the effects of=20 <quote>nai</quote> and=20 <quote>cu'i</quote> when suffixed to an attitudinal:</para> <!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-CsGG"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-CsGG"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example9" /> .ue la djan. klama @@ -254,60 +254,60 @@ .oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure .o'i caution boldness rashness o'i .o'o patience mere tolerance anger .o'u relaxation composure stress o'u Here are some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example10" /> .oi la djan. klama [Complaint!] John is coming. Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming= . The word=20 .oi is derived from the Yiddish word=20 oy of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yidd= ish origin. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example11" /> .o'onai la djan. klama o'onai [Anger!] John is coming! Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example12" /> .o'i la djan. klama o'i [Beware!] John is coming. Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example14" /> .o'ecu'i la djan. klama o'ecu'i @@ -335,21 +335,21 @@ .ii fear nervousness security=20 .i'i togetherness privacy .io respect disrespect .i'o appreciation envy .iu love no love lost hatred .i'u familiarity mystery Here are some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example17" /> .ii smacu @@ -365,21 +365,21 @@ shows an attitud= e-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by = the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speak= ing toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like=20 observative a lot. and=20 use attitudinals= that follow=20 la djan. rather than being at the beginning of the sent= ence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the= event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. C= ompare: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section2-example18" /> la djan. klama .iu John is-coming [love!] where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the fe= eling. @@ -436,21 +436,21 @@ .a'i effort no real effort repose a'i .a'o hope despair a'o .au desire indifference reluctance .a'u interest no interest repulsion Some examples (of a parental kind): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d5" /> @@ -518,21 +518,21 @@ <!-- ^^ e'e, 303 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm> .ei obligation freedom .e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint .e'o request negative request <!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm> .e'u suggestion no suggestion warning </programlisting> <para>More examples (after a good night's sleep):</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-CzYV"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-CzYV"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d12" /> @@ -569,21 +569,21 @@ <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> .ia belief skepticism disbelief=20 <!-- skip cmavo list automation --> .i'a acceptance blame .ie agreement disagreement .i'e approval non-approval disapproval <!-- ^^ i'e, 304 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> <para>Still more examples (much, much later):</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Furg"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Furg"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example16" /> @@ -613,21 +613,21 @@ illustrates the = use of a propositional attitude indicator,=20 i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the b= ridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to=20 i'e do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapprov= ed of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely= the listener) is approved of. To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not= meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to s= plit the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of=20 which actually cl= aimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section3-example17" /> do sazri le karce .i .e'a e'a You drive the car. [Permission]. You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine. @@ -687,21 +687,21 @@ cai ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and=20 ru'e cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal question=20 cu'i pei(see=20 ) to indicate that the emo= tion is not felt. The following shows the variations resulting from intensity vari= ation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section4-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d5" /> @@ -925,41 +925,41 @@ <quote>.io</quote>. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being belo= w (for=20 <quote>ga'i</quote>) or above (for=20 <!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm> <quote>ga'inai</quote>) the speaker's rank or social position. Note th= at it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked= : in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, = as with=20 <!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm> <quote>doi ga'inai</quote>, which can be appended to a statement addre= ssed to a social superior.</para> <!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-Ercd"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Ercd"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example1" /> ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani ga'inai You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.<= /gloss> I would be honored if you would enter my residence. Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Correspon= ding examples with=20 imperatives ga'icu'i and=20 ga'inai: ga'inai - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example3" /> ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house= . Come on in to my place. @@ -974,21 +974,21 @@ ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the= referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to=20 ga'i mi, unless the speaker is using=20 mi to refer to a group (as in English=20 we), or a past or future version of himself with a diff= erent rank. It is also possible to attach=20 ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the s= peaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to: ga'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example4" /> ga'i le xarju pu citka ga'i [High-rank!] the pig [past] eats The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice). @@ -1027,21 +1027,21 @@ righteous indignation feelings o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lack of gui= lt:=20 .u'unai. The cmavo=20 se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and g= enerosity, for example (in combination with=20 se'i .au): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example6" /> .ause'i [desire] [self] I want it! @@ -1056,21 +1056,21 @@ are pure expressi= ons of attitude. Analogously,=20 .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas=20 .uuse'inai is pity for someone else. uuse'inai The modifier=20 ri'e indicates emotional release versus emotional contr= ol.=20 ri'e I will not let him know how angry I am, you say to your= self before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example7" /> .o'onai ri'enai o'onai [anger] [control] @@ -1094,97 +1094,97 @@ mo'a,=20 mo'a rau, and=20 rau du'e(these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in= =20 du'e ). For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example8" /> .uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!] might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.= large meal Like all modifiers,=20 be'u can be used alone: be'u - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example9" /> le cukta be'u cu zvati ma be'u The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?] Where's the book? - I need it! Lastly, the modifier=20 se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-= sufficiency or with dependence on others. se'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example10" /> .e'ese'a [I can!] [self-sufficient!] I can do it all by myself! is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other han= d, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example11" /> .e'ese'anai [I can!] [dependent] I can do it if you help me. from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss = of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the=20 .e'e in=20 e'e and=20 , leading to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example12" /> .e'enaise'a [I can't!] [self-sufficient] I can't do it if you insist on=20 helping me! and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section7-example13" /> .e'enaise'anai [I can't!] [dependent] I can't do it by myself! @@ -1213,33 +1213,33 @@ .oi) and pleasure (=20 .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. ro'u The cmavo=20 nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language:= it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words u= sed in indicator constructs,=20 nai is the only one with any meaning outside the indica= tor system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo an= d its=20 nai negator, the=20 nai will end up negating the last word of the indicator= . The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section8-example1" /> mi .e .ui nai do I and [Yay!] [Not!] you means=20 I and (unfortunately) you, whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section8-example2" /> mi .e nai .ui do I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 @@ -1279,21 +1279,21 @@ zo quotation, explained in=20 ) where compound cmavo may not be us= ed. At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything followi= ng them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, = and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentence= s. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches = to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is bei= ng expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers. If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a= cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct = pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism= , discussed in=20 , for explicitly marking the range o= f words to which an indicator applies. More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they inte= ract with other specialized cmavo, are given in=20 . It is worth mentioning that real-w= orld interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rul= es. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a mini= mum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional= expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a s= ystematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive leve= l. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator h= as some uncertainty. For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together,= the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to = interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, o= r to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For = example, in multiple indicators - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section9-example1" /> mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi o'onai I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!] @@ -1333,21 +1333,21 @@ plausibility irrelevant ge'e, however, is always in order - you are not require= d to answer emotionally. This is not the same as=20 ge'e .i'inai, which is privacy as the reverse of convivialit= y.) Most often, however, the asker will use=20 pei as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a re= sult,=20 pei is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would= have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference bet= ween UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usag= es in natural languages: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example3" /> .iepei @@ -1356,46 +1356,46 @@ .iare'epei [belief] [spiritual] [question] Are you a Believer? .aipei [intention] [question] Are you going to do it? might appear at = the end of a command, to which the response - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example4" /> .aicai [intention] [maximal] corresponds to=20 Aye! Aye!(hence the choice of cmavo). - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example5" /> .e'apei [permission] [question] Please, Mommy! Can I?? Additionally, when=20 pei is used at the beginning of an indicator construct,= it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respon= dent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example8" /> pei.o'u @@ -1423,36 +1423,36 @@ dai .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you wa= nt to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi cla= im that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use = of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 uuse'inai dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to some= one else - exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use= =20 dai dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someon= e else's emotion as if it were your own: dai - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example9" /> .oiro'odai [Pain!] [physical] [empathy] empathy Ouch, that must have hurt! It is even possible to=20 empathize with a non-living object: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example10" /> le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean= -floor. empathy Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank. @@ -1473,21 +1473,21 @@ bu'o When attached to an attitudinal,=20 bu'o means that you are starting to have that attitude,= =20 bu'o bu'ocu'i that you are continuing to have it, and=20 bu'onai that you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:= bu'onai - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example12" /> .o'onai bu'o o'onai @@ -1497,21 +1497,21 @@ I'm getting angry! .iu bu'onai .uinai bu'onai [Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!] I don't love you any more; I'm sad. Note the difference in effect between=20 and: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section10-example13" /> mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (= I am-sad). I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad. @@ -1597,21 +1597,21 @@ A bridi marked by=20 ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In addition t= o definitions of words,=20 ca'e ca'e is also appropriate in what are called performativ= es, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English ex= ample is=20 ca'e I now pronounce you husband and wife, where the very ac= t of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban= translation might be: husband and wife - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example1" /> ca'e le re do cu simxu speni ca'e [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses. @@ -1634,21 +1634,21 @@ experienced ba'acu'i ba'anai, a past event as remembered by the speaker. It = is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to f= uture. remembered past event ba'anai - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example2" /> ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu ba'acu'i [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain. My leg hurts. @@ -1680,21 +1680,21 @@ su'anai concretely or=20 in particular. A bridi marked by=20 ti'e is relayed information from some source other than= the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was re= layed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally goo= d example of=20 ti'e ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.= ti'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example3" /> ti'e la .uengas cu zergau ti'e [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. I hear that Wenga is a crook. @@ -1722,21 +1722,21 @@ observe is not connected with the Lojban=20 observative, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The= latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclu= sion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view. opinion observative observation aspect - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example4" /> za'a do tatpi za'a [I observe!] You are-tired. I see you are tired. @@ -1751,41 +1751,41 @@ pe'ipei is common, meaning=20 pe'ipei Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be=20 opinion peipe'i, in accordance with the distinction explained i= n Examples 10.6-10.8, but since=20 pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference= between the two orders.) pe'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example5" /> pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo pe'i [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed. In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. opinion A bridi marked by=20 ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is simi= lar to one possible use of=20 ru'a .e'u. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section11-example6" /> ru'a doi livinston. ru'a Dr. Livingstone, I presume? (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) @@ -1862,21 +1862,21 @@ go'i(of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 ), which is a non-discursive version = of=20 ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous= bridi. ditto Lastly,=20 po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, an= d thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 po'o only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example4" /> @@ -2137,59 +2137,59 @@ da'i Supposing that,=20 By hypothesis), whereas=20 da'inai insists on the real-world point of view (=20 In fact,=20 In truth,=20 According to the facts). A common use of=20 da'i is to distinguish between: da'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example5" /> ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno ju'o da'i le du'u ri pazvau If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know= she is pregnant. younger and: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example6" /> ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno ju'o le du'u ri pazvau If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that she is-pregnant. If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is = pregnant. younger It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, = and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese alw= ays leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section12-example7" /> ru is the equivalent of either=20 or=20 @@ -2225,21 +2225,21 @@ bi'u ge'e non-specific indicator ge'e The cmavo=20 ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellaneous ind= icators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what h= as been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is= =20 .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning of a wo= rd or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of = the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 ki'a: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example1" /> mi nelci le ctuca .i le ki'a ctuca I like the teacher Which teacher? @@ -2316,21 +2316,21 @@ rhetorical question paunai . The cmavo=20 pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating = that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:<= /para> pe'a figurative speech - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example2" /> mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani pe'a I see the blue [figurative] house. I see the=20 @@ -2417,21 +2417,21 @@ kau indirect question kau indirect question This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 . It marks the word it is attached t= o as the focus of an indirect question: indirect question - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section13-example3" /> mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. know who @@ -2721,21 +2721,21 @@ ta'apei Will the speaker yield?
A sample dialogue The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 protocol sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sentence. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter13-section15-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d5" /> diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index c6bcc0c..3fdb7b4 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -7,21 +7,21 @@ <para>Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself me= ans=20 <!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm= > <quote>logical language</quote>. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t= here are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the n= otions of a=20 <!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm= > <quote>sentence</quote>(sometimes called a=20 <quote>statement</quote> or=20 <quote>proposition</quote>), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a= small set of=20 <quote>truth functions</quote>, which combine two sentences to create = a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that th= e truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only= on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-mJ6y"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-mJ6y"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section1-example1" /> John is a man or James is a woman. is true if=20 John is a man is true, or if=20 @@ -208,21 +208,21 @@ Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with=20 U. The three other basic truth= functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of= the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some= of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employe= d. truth tables
The six types of logical connectives In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single= logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the g= rammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must= have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for su= mti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result. Consider the English sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section3-example1" /> Mary went to the window and ... window @@ -265,37 +265,37 @@ There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not= logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be i= ntroduced later. joigiks giks
Logical connection of bridi Now we are ready to express=20 in Lojban! The ki= nd of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connec= t them logically is an ijek: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example1" /> la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-a-woman. Here we have two separate Lojban bridi,=20 la djan. nanmu and=20 la djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connected by=20 .ija, the ijek for the truth function=20 A. The=20 .i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing wit= h separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example4" /> la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -312,48 +312,48 @@ , we need to know how to ne= gate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate= them directly by inserting=20 na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to plac= e the negation within the connective itself. To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix=20 na to the JA cmavo but after the=20 .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix=20 -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word= is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being= negated. So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires=20 truth table O with either of the two bridi= negated (not both), we can say either: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example6" /> la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman The meaning of both=20 and=20 is the same as th= at of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example7" /> John is a man or James is a woman, but not both. Here is another example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example8" /> la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman. John is a man if James is a woman. @@ -363,21 +363,21 @@ if does not quite have its English sense.=20 is true so long a= s John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just be= cause James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of=20 if-then is technically known as a=20 material conditional. Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in=20 ), the English sentence=20 John is a man if James is a woman seems to be neither t= rue nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out t= o be most convenient to treat this=20 if as TTFT, which on investigation means that=20 is true.=20 , however, is equa= lly true: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example9" /> la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu John is a woman if James is a woman. This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be= paraphrased as follows:=20 @@ -388,37 +388,37 @@ false statement if must be considered very carefully when translating i= nto Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold. , which uses the = TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT= as=20 only if works naturally only when the right-hand bridi = is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. T= he last gloss of=20 illustrates the = use of=20 if ... then as a more natural substitute for=20 if ... then only if. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example10" /> la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. The following example illustrates the use of=20 se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The norma= l use of=20 se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as ex= plained in=20 . - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section4-example11" /> la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. If both=20 @@ -439,47 +439,47 @@ imperatives bridi connection Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, g= enerally referred to as=20 afterthought and=20 forethought.=20 discussed what is called= =20 afterthought bridi logical connection. The word=20 bridi logical connection afterthought is used because the connective cmavo and t= he second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the= form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a st= atement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been = completed. Thus, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example1" /> la djan. nanmu is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to ma= ke afterthought connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example2" /> la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu John is a man or James is a woman (or both) provides additional information without requiring any change in = the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or prac= tical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the= use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible t= o construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety o= f ways. In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expr= essing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Foreth= ought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The= forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are ge= ks: forethought logical connectives - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example3" /> ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). @@ -494,21 +494,21 @@ giks .i in them. The forethought construct binds up the two = bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned. Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are: forethought bridi connection imperatives bridi connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example5" /> ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -516,21 +516,21 @@ It is worth emphasizing that=20 does not assert t= hat James is (or is not) a woman. The=20 gu which indicates that=20 la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is unfortunately= rather remote from the bridi thus affected. Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expre= ssed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as=20 if ... then ...: if ... then - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example6" /> ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is not a man, or James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. @@ -547,68 +547,68 @@ if ... then .inaja or=20 ganai ... gi; anything with implications of time needs = a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in=20 . Causal sentences like=20 If you feed the pig, then it will grow are not logical = connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using=20 feed rinka as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thu= s: event abstractions - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example7" /> le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (i= t will grow). Causality is discussed in far more detail in=20 . and=20 illustrates a tru= th function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bri= di. We already understand how to negate the first bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example8" /> gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman, Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. How can the second bridi be negated? By adding=20 -nai to the=20 gi. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example9" /> go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman. Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. A compound cmavo based on=20 gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 giks gi itself and=20 ginai. Further examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section5-example11" /> ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman. ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -628,93 +628,93 @@ forethought connection gi [nai]
sumti connection sumti connection Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical co= nnection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to= be logically connected have one or more portions in common: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example1" /> la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market. Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban d= oes not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bri= di can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logic= al connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example2" /> la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci John and Alice go-to the market. means exactly the= same thing as=20 : one may be rigor= ously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. Thi= s rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in= Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see=20 ), can always be transform= ed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same trut= h function. The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, whic= h contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in=20 , the meaning woul= d be changed: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example3" /> la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market. leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all. Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct Eng= lish equivalent: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example4" /> la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does. The second line of=20 is highly stilted= English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is exce= llent Lojban. What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for brid= i connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of foreth= ought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones. sumti connection imperatives bridi connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example5" /> ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo t= hat ijeks do. When=20 na or=20 se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is in= voked, as in the following example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section6-example6" /> la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci John only if Alice goes-to the market. John goes to the market only if Alice does. @@ -725,47 +725,47 @@
More than two propositions So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly = two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojb= an? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions. Of the four primitive truth functions=20 A,=20 E,=20 O, and=20 U, all but=20 O have the same truth values n= o matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example1" /> mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man. means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example2" /> mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man. means that one or more of the component sentences is true. O, however, is different. Work= ing out the truth table for truth table - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example3" /> mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man. @@ -775,66 +775,66 @@ Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I poss= ess either exactly one or else all three. Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safes= t to avoid=20 O with more than two sentences= . Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected tru= th values when used with more than two sentences. In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the= =20 all or none interpretation intended (but not achieved) = by=20 without repeating= one of the bridi. See=20 . There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two = sentences. What is the meaning of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example4" /> mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la m= eris. I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary. Does this mean: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example5" /> I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both. Or is the correct translation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example6" /> Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both= . is the correct tr= anslation of=20 . The reason is th= at Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs = in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forge= t, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives a= re not subject to this problem: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example7" /> ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary. is equivalent in meaning to=20 , whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section7-example8" /> ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary). is not equivalent to=20 @@ -843,55 +843,55 @@
Grouping of afterthought connectives There are several ways in Lojban to render=20 using afterthough= t only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 bo(of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in = Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In p= articular, if=20 bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatical= ly distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Co= nnections marked with=20 bo are interpreted before connections not so marked.=20 is equivalent in = meaning to=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example1" /> mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la= meris. I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary. The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the L= ojban marks far more clearly: the=20 I like Martha and=20 I like Mary sentences are joined by=20 .ija first, before the result is joined to=20 I like John by=20 .ije. Eks can have=20 bo attached in exactly the same way, so that=20 is equivalent in = meaning to Example 8.1: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example2" /> mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris. Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with=20 bo, for every use of forethought connectives clearly in= dicates the intended pattern of grouping. forethought connectives What happens if=20 bo is used on both connectives, giving them the same hi= gh precedence, as in=20 ? - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example3" /> mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris. Does this wind up meaning the same as=20 and=20 @@ -907,115 +907,115 @@ The use of=20 bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of mo= re than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of=20 and=20 , parentheses were= used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivale= nts, two sets of them actually.=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u are used with ijeks, and=20 ke and=20 ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discussed lat= er. (=20 ke and=20 ke'e are also used in other roles in the language, but = always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example4" /> I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. where the semantics tells us that the instances of=20 and are meant to have higher precedence than that of=20 if. If we wish to express=20 in afterthought, = we can say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example5" /> mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo d= o prami mi I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. marking two of the ijeks with=20 bo for high precedence. (The first=20 bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-group= ing rule, and is shown here in brackets.) But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example6" /> tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] ( I kiss you and you kiss me ) if ( I love you and you love me ). where the=20 tu'e ... tu'u pairs set off the structure. The cmavo=20 tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second occurren= ce in=20 is bracketed, bec= ause all terminators may be elided at the end of a text. In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parent= heses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought materia= l may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these t= wo advantages apply to=20 bo grouping. In general, afterthought constructions tra= de generality for simplicity. Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of=20 tu'e ... tu'u parentheses may actually be left off alto= gether, producing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example7" /> mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u] I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me ). What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider sumti connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example8" /> I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and = the office. Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to=20 , would seem to be= the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti m= ay not begin with=20 ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, pr= oducing=20 , which is instead= parallel to=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example9" /> mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke= 'e] I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the off= ice ). If sumti were allowed to begin with=20 ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these. T= he following paraphrase has the correct meaning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section8-example10" /> [tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u] ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ). @@ -1031,34 +1031,34 @@ sumti connection imperatives bridi connection Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed= to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided = as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called=20 compound bridi. Compound bridi result from logically co= nnecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their s= umti. compound bridi The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common p= oint: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example1" /> mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan. I go to the market, and I like John. is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi: compound bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example2" /> mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. As=20 @@ -1066,140 +1066,140 @@ giheks compound bridi gi'e is the gihek corresponding to=20 and. The actual phrases=20 klama le zarci and=20 nelci la djan. that the gihek connects are known as=20 bridi-tails, because they represent (in this use) the= =20 tail end of a bridi, including the selbri and any follo= wing sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example3" /> mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci I am-rich and go-to the market. In=20 , the first bridi-= tail is=20 ricfu, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is=20 klama le zarci, a selbri with one following sumti. Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the t= wo sentences: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example4" /> mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu do I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-yo= u. In=20 , the first and la= st sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are d= ifferent. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to= =20 can be achieved:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example5" /> fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units. where the=20 fi does not have an exact English translation because i= t merely places=20 do in the third place of both=20 lebna and=20 dunda. However, a form that preserves natural sumti ord= er also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow su= mti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-ter= ms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of=20 therefore is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example6" /> mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.<= /en> The=20 vau(of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail f= rom the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable=20 vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it e= ver necessary to express this=20 compound bridi vau. Thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example7" /> mi klama le zarci [vau] I go-to the market. has a single elided=20 vau, and=20 is equivalent to:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example8" /> mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau] where the double=20 vau at the end of=20 terminates both t= he right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms. A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete= sentences, the Lojban observative: observative giheks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example9" /> klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying=20 , this compound br= idi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. O= nly the presence of an explicit x1 (other than=20 compound bridi zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can force the go= er and the walker to be identical. A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of= the following example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example10" /> klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Ro= me. If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi = were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), = the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the = same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York = is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting=20 da, meaning roughly=20 something, into the x1 place cures the problem: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section9-example11" /> da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome. @@ -1211,69 +1211,69 @@ [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.
Multiple compound bridi compound bridi Giheks can be combined with=20 bo in the same way as eks: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example1" /> mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris= . I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ). is equivalent in meaning to=20 and=20 . Likewise,=20 ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after giheks: giheks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example2" /> mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e] I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, or walk-to the school and walk-to the office. is the gihek version of=20 . The same rule ab= out using=20 ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a connective app= lies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 cannot be explic= itly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them. Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can h= ave its own set of tail-terms: giheks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example3" /> mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.<= /jbo> .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the boo= k to John or I take the book from John. is equivalent in meaning to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example4" /> mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau = la djan. [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/f= rom John. The literal English translation in=20 @@ -1282,117 +1282,117 @@ lo rupnu is the x2 of=20 dejni, whereas=20 le cukta is a tail-term shared between=20 dunda and=20 lebna;=20 la djan. is a tail-term shared by=20 dejni and by=20 dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater clarity is pr= obably achieved by moving=20 la djan. to the beginning of the sentence, as in=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example5" /> fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna va= u le cukta To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or = take the book. Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tail= s? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar al= lows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single brid= i-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri= . For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example6" /> mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan. I both go to the market and like John. is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:= giheks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example7" /> mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan. I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like Joh= n. The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole= by prefixing=20 na: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example8" /> mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani [False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house. Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a = bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of= =20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example9" /> mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/f= rom you. Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equi= valent of=20 observatives : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example10" /> ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both= shared and unshared terms before their selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section10-example11" /> mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.= I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).<= /en>
Termset logical connection So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and= require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and per= mit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly = one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connec= tives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not= in the selbri, such as: sumti connection imperatives bridi connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example1" /> I go to the market from the office and to the house from the = school. to the market from the office @@ -1402,106 +1402,106 @@ pu or=20 bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms = together by inserting the cmavo=20 ce'e(of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore= , the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo=20 pe'e(of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combinati= on of=20 pe'e pe'e and a jek as a=20 pe'e pehejek, I suppose.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example2" /> mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je pe'e le zdani ce'e le ckule I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-the house [plus] from-the school. The literal translation uses=20 [plus] to indicate the termset connective, and=20 [joint] to indicate the position of the logical connect= ive joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example3" /> mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from= -the school. which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 pla= ces only. What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal leng= th? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in= which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 = place of one bridi and the x3 place of another: imperatives bridi connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example4" /> mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju pe'e I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office. can be clearly understood by expansion to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example5" /> mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office. So=20 le briju is your origin but my destination, and thus fa= lls in the x2 and x3 places of=20 klama simultaneously! This is legal because even though= there is only one selbri,=20 klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In = addition,=20 mi in=20 is serving as a = termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound = bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bri= di-tails: compound bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example6" /> mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office. means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the= office;=20 to the market from the office le briju is the x3 place of=20 klama and the x2 place of=20 dzukla. Forethought termsets also exist, and use=20 nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and=20 nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal= the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit= side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a= gek, with the gek just after the=20 nu'i, and an extra=20 nu'u just before the gik: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section11-example7" /> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset]. @@ -1516,122 +1516,122 @@ Logical connection within tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical conne= ctive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is po= ssible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru= that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ba= ll, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue= and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within the tanru= . (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were= always prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: pe'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example2" /> ti blanu zdani This is-a-blue type-of house. ti blanu je zdani This is-blue and a-house. But of course=20 and=20 are not necessar= ily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tan= ru that=20 might just as we= ll mean - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example3" /> This is a house for blue inhabitants. and=20 certainly is not= equivalent in meaning to=20 . A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs ra= ther to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in gen= eral. Why? Because although=20 happens to mean = the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example4" /> ti blanu gi'e zdani and therefore as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example5" /> ti blanu .ije ti zdani the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always= work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blu= e houses, then tanru connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example6" /> la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person. tanru groupingeffect of jeks would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher preceden= ce than unmarked tanru grouping, but: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example7" /> la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blu= e team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make s= uch logical manipulations impossible. ambiguity of tanru It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points = about tanru logical connection.=20 tanru logical connection bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rul= es: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example8" /> la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi jabo Terry is rich and ( male or female ). tanru groupingguheks compared with jeks The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 ke both before and after a logical connective: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example9" /> la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi= [ke'e] Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female). where the first=20 @@ -1650,73 +1650,73 @@ guheks [se] GUhA [nai] Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves wha= t would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru= connection: tanru connection guheks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example10" /> la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi Alice is both rich and female. tanru groupingguheks compared with jeks Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are= used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru gr= ouping does: guheks giks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example11" /> la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person. is the forethought version of=20 . A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru wit= hin descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In c= orrectly reducing - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example12" /> mi viska pa nanmu .ije mi viska pa ninmu I see a man, and I see a woman. to - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example13" /> mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu I see a man and a woman. there is a great temptation to reduce further to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section12-example14" /> mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu I see a man and woman. But=20 @@ -1727,36 +1727,36 @@
Truth questions and connective questions connective questions So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. The simplest kind of question is of the type=20 Is it true that ... where some statement follows. This = type is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example1" /> Is it true that Fido is a dog? Is Fido a dog? Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be= formed by prefixing=20 Is is true that to the beginning of a statement; there = is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its = subject.=20 Is Fido a dog? is the truth question corresponding to= =20 Fido is a dog. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is t= o prefix the cmavo=20 xu(of selma'o UI) to the statement: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example2" /> xu la faidon. gerku Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog? @@ -1766,68 +1766,68 @@ yes or=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of= the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 go'i and of saying=20 no is=20 nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explained in=20 nago'i .) In answer to=20 , the possible an= swers are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example3" /> go'i Fido is a dog. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example4" /> nago'i nago'i Fido is not a dog. Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth= questions so far discussed. Consider - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example5" /> Is Fido a dog or a cat? Superficially,=20 seems like a tru= th question with the underlying statement: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example6" /> Fido is a dog or a cat. By translating=20 into Lojban and = prefixing=20 xu to signal a truth question, we get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example7" /> xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)? Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate= answer would be=20 @@ -1877,34 +1877,34 @@ A sumti connective question (This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of t= he other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and G= UhA, make use of the cmavo ending in=20 -i which is not used for a truth function, but=20 gi and=20 .i were not available, and different cmavo had to be ch= osen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective c= mavo assignments.) One correct translation of=20 employs a questi= on gihek: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example8" /> la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu gi'i Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat? Here are some plausible answers: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example12" /> @@ -1920,21 +1920,21 @@ Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which)= . is correct but = uncooperative. As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank = left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore= it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without any= thing for it to connect. The answer=20 gi'e, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impo= ssible in the real world, but for: real world - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example13" /> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function?] a-mass-of tea? Do you want coffee or tea? @@ -1948,50 +1948,50 @@ ge'i and=20 ge'i gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the = start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 gu'i forethought connectives is the forethou= ght version of=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example14" /> do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi ge'i gi loi tcati You desire something-about [truth function?] a-mass-of coffee [or] a-mass-of tea? the answer must be in afterthought form. There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the L= ojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example15" /> ni means=20 Do you walk or run?, and is exactly parallel to the Loj= ban: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example16" /> do cadzu gi'i bajra gi'i You walk [or?] run? @@ -2001,21 +2001,21 @@ imperatives bridi connection yes and false if the answer is=20 no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the = special pro-sumti=20 ko, which means=20 you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the= command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may= be translated thus: Abraham Lincoln - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section13-example17" /> ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me= . If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me = coffee. @@ -2033,62 +2033,62 @@
Non-logical connectives Way back in=20 , the point was made that n= ot every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 if ... then and of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example1" /> John and Alice carried the piano. Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carrie= d one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example2" /> John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano. which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/= herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a=20 mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 joi(of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more compone= nts into a mass: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example3" /> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. carry the piano covers the case = mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that J= ohn did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility ari= ses because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, = which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is la= rge, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed= in=20 supervising . Grammatically,=20 joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or betwee= n two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in t= he form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example4" /> le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. The cmavo=20 @@ -2096,21 +2096,21 @@ le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see= =20 le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru component is= to follow; since the second=20 le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. = No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a= following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are ca= lled joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not gr= ammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails. In tanru,=20 joi has the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: mixed with - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example5" /> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball. This is a blue and red ball. blue and red @@ -2156,39 +2156,39 @@ cross product A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A sepi'u cross product The cmavo=20 se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful= with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example6" /> mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. The x3 place of=20 cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A s= et is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unl= ike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' = properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the r= ats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theo= ry (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional log= ic is quite enough for one chapter! set of all rats In=20 we specify that = set by listing the members with=20 ce joining them. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example7" /> ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan. ce'o This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John. This is a list of you, me, and John. @@ -2205,143 +2205,143 @@ joi,=20 ce, and=20 ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are take= n to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a = sequence respectively. The cmavo=20 ce'o jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the su= mti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals - but in= separably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are bro= thers is: jo'u brothers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example8" /> la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. James is-the-brother-of George. possibly adding a discursive element meaning=20 and vice versa. However,=20 James and George are brothers cannot be correctly trans= lated as: brothers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example9" /> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna James and George is-a-brother. since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brothe= r and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the=20 .e is changed to=20 jo'u, however, the meaning of=20 jo'u is preserved: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example10" /> la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna jo'u James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers. brothers The tanru=20 remei bruna is not strictly necessary in this sentence,= but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are= both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could = turn the tanru around: the x1 place of=20 brothers remei is a mass with two components, leading to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example11" /> la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome. where=20 joi is used to create the necessary mass. Likewise,=20 fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where = order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example12" /> la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas. James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-or= der-with Martha. James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively. Here the information carried by the English adverb=20 respectively, namely that James loves Mary and George l= oves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of=20 fa'u. If both uses of=20 fa'u were to be changed to=20 .e, we would get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example13" /> la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas. James and George love Mary and Martha. which can be transformed to four bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example14" /> la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris. .ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la = martas. James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha. which represents quite a different state of affairs from=20 . The meaning of= =20 can also be con= veyed by a termset: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example15" /> la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas.= prami pe'e James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves. at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make th= e pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is onl= y described rather than enumerated: lists - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section14-example16" /> la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi James and-respectively George love two sisters. which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, = though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which. @@ -2369,21 +2369,21 @@ cross product Cartesian product). The union of two sets is a set cont= aining all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets= is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross produ= ct of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered= pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single ele= ment from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following= examples will help: union intersection cross product Cartesian product - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example2" /> lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda jo'e @@ -2394,115 +2394,115 @@ ku'a The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things i= s small. intersection There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes= =20 and=20 equivalent respe= ctively to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example3" /> lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example4" /> lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small. The following example uses=20 se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example5" /> la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.<= /jbo> pi'u cu prami se remei James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha cross-product are-lover type-of-pairs. means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Mart= ha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning t= o=20 ; however, that = example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa. Joiks may be combined with=20 bo or with=20 ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows groupin= g of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete par= allelism with logical connections: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example6" /> mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass type-of-two-set asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; t= his is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each= side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of=20 non-logical connection casnu is: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example7" /> mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu pe'e ( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss. Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in=20 cannot be mechan= ically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location i= n the bridi. The forethought equivalent of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example8" /> nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la gliban. nu'u casnu Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things= to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI)= tags: forethought termsets - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example9" /> la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u] John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-lan= guage Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George. John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, = respectively. @@ -2512,21 +2512,21 @@ associates speak= ing in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank.= We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyo= ne's compulsion. anyone Joiks may be prefixed with=20 .i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically conn= ect sentences. The ijoik=20 ijoik .ice'o indicates that the event of the second bridi fol= lows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (wh= ich is handled with a tense): ice'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example10" /> mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki syllabaries @@ -2560,40 +2560,40 @@ di'e the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 .ijoi is used to connect sentences that represent the c= omponents of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of= =20 Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned= would join the events=20 Fran hit her head and=20 Fran fell out of the boat with=20 .ijoi. The following=20 nai, if present, does not negate either of the things t= o be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical o= r non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example11" /> mi jo'unai do cu remei I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome The result of=20 mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not a mass, theref= ore=20 jo'u jo'u is not applicable;=20 jo'u joi would be the correct connective. There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoi= ks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question= , as in the following exchange: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section15-example13" /> do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about @@ -2622,99 +2622,99 @@ mi'i bi'i is correct if the endpoints are independent of ord= er, whereas=20 bi'o or=20 sebi'o are used when order matters. sebi'o An example of=20 bi'i in sumti connection: sumti connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example1" /> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. between Dresden and Frankfurt In=20 , it is all the s= ame whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfur= t and Dresden, so=20 between Dresden and Frankfurt bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti= =20 la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into the x2 place o= f=20 sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval sp= ecifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the wh= ole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in = extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example2" /> mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac. I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. In=20 , on the other ha= nd, it is essential that=20 la pacac. comes before=20 la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) in= terval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the who= le interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example3" /> mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac. sebi'o I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First= -hour. English cannot readily express=20 sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by reversing = the two sumti. sebi'o The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a different viewp= oint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For examp= le: mi'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example4" /> le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno mi'i The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose di= stance, or radius, is fifty miles. In=20 , is it possible = that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives o= f selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are inc= luded in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo=20 ga'o and=20 ke'i(of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of = the endpoints:=20 ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 ke'i that it is excluded: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example8" /> @@ -2743,21 +2743,21 @@ ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 ke'i from=20 kalri, which means=20 open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred = to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.) BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, includ= ing in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have= been found for these uses. tanru connection Negated intervals, marked with a=20 -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval tha= t includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to so= me understood scale): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example9" /> do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. e'a You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 You can contact me except from 10 to 12. @@ -2787,40 +2787,40 @@ joigik [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and b= ridi-tails; and also in termsets. in forethought b= ecomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example10" /> joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. carry the piano The first=20 gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 joigik gi is the regular gik that separates the two things bei= ng connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed= in forethought as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section16-example11" /> mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). @@ -2840,104 +2840,104 @@ guheks bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is = no accident. In addition, eks with=20 bo and with=20 ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically connecte= d operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 , and contain many mekso features no= t explained in this chapter. exhibits afterth= ought logical connection between operands: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example1" /> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. is equivalent in= meaning, but uses forethought connection: observatives forethought connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example2" /> vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. Note that the mekso in=20 and=20 are being used a= s quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be= enclosed in=20 vei and=20 ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right p= arenthesis mark,=20 ve'o, is an elidable terminator. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example3" /> li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4. 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. The forethought form of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example4" /> li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4. Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted b= etween operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to con= nect operands with=20 joigiks bi'i to create mathematical intervals: mathematical intervals - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example5" /> li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one zero to one You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: compound subscript ce'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section17-example6" /> xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] ce'o x sub (=20 @@ -2957,50 +2957,50 @@ pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, a= nd the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time = when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses);= preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, = simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generall= y a=20 le nu abstraction; see=20 ). The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connecti= ves are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The form= er are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two c= onnected bridi that differ only in tense: logically connected tenses<= /indexterm> connected tenses - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example1" /> la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor. Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king. can be reduced to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example2" /> la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor. Arthur was and will be king. and=20 are equivalent i= n meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now. Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tense= s: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example3" /> mi pu bi'o ba vasxu I [past] from ... to [future] breathe. breathe I breathe from a past time until a future time. @@ -3009,49 +3009,49 @@ The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals exp= ressible, such as=20 tense system from a medium time ago until a long time from now. No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the g= rammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; th= ese limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can= be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating t= he time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at= least some complications. forethought connections Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more import= ant than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example4" /> I went to the market, and I bought food. The verbatim translation of=20 , namely: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example5" /> mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food. fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 .) However, the tense information - t= hat the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying foo= d - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 bo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example6" /> mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja ijebabo I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of f= ood. @@ -3065,105 +3065,105 @@ tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense bapu applying to the second bridi-tail only. Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is per= mitted only in the following situations: Between an ek (or joik) and=20 bo, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example7" /> la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market. John and Alice go to the market simultaneously. Between an ek (or joik) and=20 ke, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example8" /> mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the schoo= l ). I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the sch= ool. Between a gihek and=20 bo, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example9" /> mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/t= o you. I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) f= rom you. Between a gihek and=20 ke, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example10" /> mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. Between an ijek (or ijoik) and=20 ijoik bo, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example11" /> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu ijebabo I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. Between an ijek (or ijoik) and=20 ijoik tu'e, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example12" /> mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. I see a man, and then I see a woman. And finally, between a jek (or joik) and=20 bo, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example13" /> mi mikce jebabo ricfu I-am-a doctor and [later] rich I am a doctor and future rich person. @@ -3175,35 +3175,35 @@ tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be= connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neithe= r would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always= be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 bo,=20 ke, or=20 tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cma= vo in=20 and=20 through=20 . Non-logical connectives with=20 bo and=20 ke can include tense information in exactly the same wa= y as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted= below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathemat= ical operands and operators can also include tense information in their log= ical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanr= u components respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section18-example14" /> vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room. Three and, later, four students were in the room. is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use= when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail con= nection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tens= e. For example: pu ge I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food I went to the market and bought some food. @@ -3215,51 +3215,51 @@
Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title= > <para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is al= lowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection c= an be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in= abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.=20 <!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth quest= ions in, 353 --> <!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted w= ith Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; = with ko, 146 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm= > <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example1" /> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example2" /> are equivalent i= n meaning:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-C7PL"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-C7PL"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example2" /> le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu = xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Fra= nk's writing is bad. le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. quality and quantity As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to= override the left-grouping rule. Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way a= s well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a= logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi in= to two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example3" /> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .= iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-els= e isn't-at) Jupiter. I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter. is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter14-section19-example4" /> mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at= Jupiter diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index d304d24..dad2551 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -5,77 +5,77 @@ Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. logical language In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subject and=20 predicate. In the statement - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example1" /> John goes to the store John is the subject, and=20 goes to the store is the predicate. Negating=20 to produce - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example2" /> John doesn't go to the store. has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for= the subject.=20 says nothing abou= t whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John go= es to the store. We will call this kind of negation=20 natural language negation. This kind of negation is dif= ficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follo= w the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is t= rue, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be tru= e. Such negation is termed contradictory negation. Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can= violate the rules of contradictory negation. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example4" /> Some animals are not white. Some animals are white. Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the neg= ation of the other. Another example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example6" /> I mustn't go to the dance. I must go to the dance. At first thought,=20 negates=20 . Thinking further= , we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to = go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both= statements are false. Sometimes order is significant: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example8" /> The falling rock didn't kill Sam. Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock. @@ -85,21 +85,21 @@ active voice, we immediately get confused about whether= =20 the falling rock is a suitable subject for the predicat= e=20 did kill Sam.=20 Kill implies volition to us, and rocks do not have voli= tion. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the ar= gument=20 Guns don't kill people; people kill people. Somehow, we don't have the same problem with=20 . The subject is S= am, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he wa= s or wasn't killed by the falling rock. also helps us foc= us on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in t= his sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock k= illed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot. This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of th= e sentence turns out not to exist: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e1d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section1-example10" /> The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner. The King of Mexico did come to dinner. @@ -109,76 +109,76 @@
bridi negation In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical = negation that simply denies the truth of a statement=20 bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the eq= uivalent of=20 I haven't stopped beating my wife without implying that= I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply=20 It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife. Sinc= e Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negat= ion is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level. For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence be= ing negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a neg= ative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradicto= ry, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to negative answer - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example1" /> Did you go to the store? is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example2" /> No, I didn't go to the store. The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo= =20 na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative f= orm of the bridi (but after the=20 cu, if there is one): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example3" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to the store. when negated becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example4" /> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. Note that we have used a special convention to show in the Engli= sh that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word=20 not, because this highlights the naturalness of putting= the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to l= earn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with= =20 na and natural language negation with=20 not. In English, the word=20 not can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an Engl= ish predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,=20 not may indicate either contradictory negation or anoth= er form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi neg= ation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always = a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole br= idi. internal bridi negation Because of the ambiguity of English=20 not, we will use=20 [false] in the translation of Lojban examples to remind= the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more = examples of bridi negation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example7" /> mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci @@ -203,51 +203,51 @@ de, and=20 di of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 ) in the bridi, you can indeed trans= late Lojban=20 na as=20 not(or=20 isn't or=20 doesn't, as appropriate). The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 na. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example8" /> mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the event-of dancing). It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the case that I am going to the dance. I am not happy about not going to the dance. In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstracti= on bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. Fo= r example: abstraction bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example9" /> mi nelci le na melbi I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful). I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful. A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example10" /> mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the Fr= ench-country). I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France. @@ -255,293 +255,293 @@ could apply to a= nyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation with= in the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these = situations in colloquial English. anyone Negation with=20 na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of = a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put=20 na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does = not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs invol= ving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you m= ight want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. Th= is grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separat= e from other forms of negation. connector The grammar of=20 na allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out= , as in normal logic: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example11" /> ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me)= . big person which is the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example12" /> ti barda prenu co melbi mi This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me). When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with= =20 na is permitted in two positions: before or after the t= ag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but th= is is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals = and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains = to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example13" /> mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci ta'e I habitually go to the market. mean the same thing with=20 na before the=20 ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let= future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other= . ta'e A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example14" /> I do not go to the market because the car is broken. as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example15" /> mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu ki'u I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken. It is false that:=20 I go to the market because the car is broken. you end up negating too much. Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compou= nded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation o= f the normal interpretation of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example16" /> lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu lenu le karce cu spofu The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified = by the event-of (the car being broken). My not going to the market is because the car is broken. In=20 , the negation is= clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not ex= tend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by t= wo separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go int= o here). event abstraction The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:<= /para> causals - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example17" /> I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle= the Senator. we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We= must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sente= nces. The event-clause version would look like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section2-example18" /> The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was= aided by my uncle the Senator. It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 -nar- has been reserved for=20 na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that yo= u intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation desc= ribed in=20 , which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.
Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example1" /> The chair is not brown. we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other colo= r. Thus, it is legitimate to respond: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example2" /> It is green. Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that t= he statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret som= e responses. If we hear the following exchange: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example3" /> The chair is not brown. Correct. The chair is wooden. we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't= brown. If we hear the exchange: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example4" /> Is the chair green? No, it is in the kitchen. we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur= . But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can= 't say it is entirely irrelevant! irrelevant What is going on in these statements is something called=20 scalar negation. As the name suggests, scalar negation = presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one= scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be= true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems = reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversa= tion will help): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example5" /> That isn't a blue house. Right! That is a green house. We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct va= lue which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. Whi= le a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example6" /> That isn't a blue house. Right! That is a blue car. Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a= different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.<= /para> Now, if the following exchange occurs: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example7" /> That isn't a blue house. Right! That is a green car. we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two= corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of = context,=20 blue house and=20 green car seem to be reasonably equivalent units that s= hould be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a= clear way in English to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example8" /> That isn't a=20 blue-house. aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecti= ng the pair of words as a single unit. Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the= sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example9" /> John didn't go to Paris from Rome. Might=20 imply that John w= ent to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or= perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe the= re was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any= one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.= In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negatio= n from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use t= he partial word=20 non- as a prefix. But this is not always considered goo= d usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For exam= ple, we can clearly distinguish - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example10" /> That is a non-blue house. from the related sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example11" /> That is a blue non-house. and=20 have the advanta= ge that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positiv= e assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say= what is false. We can't always use=20 non- though, because of the peculiarities of English's = grammar. It would sound strange to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example12" /> John went to non-Paris from Rome. or - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example13" /> John went to Paris from non-Rome. although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circuml= ocution for English scalar negation is=20 other than, which works where=20 non- does not, but is wordier. Finally, we have natural language negations that are called pola= r negations, or opposites: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section3-example15" /> John is moral John is immoral @@ -587,21 +587,21 @@ , we will translate the gen= eral case of scalar negation using the general formula=20 other than when a phrase is scalar-negated, and=20 non- when a single word is scalar-negated.
selbri and tanru negation All the scalar negations illustrated in=20 are expressed in Lojban us= ing the cmavo=20 na'e(of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of=20 na'e is as a prefix to the selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example2" /> mi klama le zarci I go to the market. mi na'e klama le zarci @@ -619,49 +619,49 @@ negation operator is=20 na'e. But what exactly does=20 na'e negate? Does the negation include only the gismu= =20 klama, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does= it include the=20 le zarci as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguousl= y=20 only the gismu. The cmavo=20 na'e always applies only to what follows it. looks as if it we= re parallel to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example3" /> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the market. but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation usin= g=20 na denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri neg= ation with=20 na'e asserts that a relationship exists other than that= stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statem= ent. The grammar allotted to=20 na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar negation= s in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain t= he scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of=20 na'e is determined. In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before com= bining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-= selbri-scope negation, for which we can use=20 na'e as well. The positive sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example4" /> mi cadzu klama le zarci I walking-ly go to the market. can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example6" /> mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market. mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci @@ -680,71 +680,71 @@ na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sentences con= tain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they = also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationshi= p. This is clearer in=20 , which says that = I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In=20 , we have claimed = that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walkin= g, but is not one of=20 going to(perhaps we are walking around the market, or w= alking-in-place while at the market). The=20 scale, or actually the=20 set, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything whic= h plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interp= reted in the same way that answers to a=20 mo question must be plausible - the result must not onl= y have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the = place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) T= his minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while sti= ll communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negati= on is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relat= ionship. We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than= a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as= exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given= twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the=20 na'e): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example7" /> mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market. This negation uses the same=20 ke and=20 ke'e delimiters (the=20 ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that ar= e used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The=20 ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negati= on does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-stru= cture is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves= are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by=20 na'e. Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example8" /> mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market. In=20 , only the=20 sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed = going to the market, but not by walking quickly. Negations made with=20 na'e or=20 na'eke also include within their scope any sumti attach= ed to the brivla or tanru with=20 be or=20 bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of the bri= vla or tanru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example9" /> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.= Note that=20 and=20 do not express t= he same thing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example11" /> mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms. @@ -767,21 +767,21 @@ tanru inversion In short,=20 na'e and=20 na'eke define a type of negation, which is shorter in s= cope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The re= sult of=20 na'e negation remains an assertion of some specific tru= th and not merely a denial of another claim. The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafs= i=20 -nal-, representing=20 na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an e= xact parallel to the English usage of=20 non-. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo = gives: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example12" /> na'e klama becomes nalkla na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla @@ -798,66 +798,66 @@ ke'e meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo. In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate=20 -nal- as=20 non-, to match the English combining forms, except when= the=20 na'e has single word scope and English uses=20 un- or=20 im- to negate that single word. Translation style shoul= d determine the use of=20 other than,=20 non-, or another negator for=20 na'e in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban in= to English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example14" /> mi na'e klama le zarci I am other-than-(going-to) the market. ?I am not going-to the market. mi nalkla le zarci I am-a-non-go-er-to the market. Note that to compare with the English translation form using=20 non-, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were= a noun. Since Lojban=20 klama is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the = difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. Th= e English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly differe= nt English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation. Consider the following highly problematic sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example15" /> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-hair-without. The current King of France is bald. The selbri=20 krecau negates with=20 na'e as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example16" /> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-other-than hair-without. The current King of France is other-than-bald. or, as a lujvo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example17" /> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without. The current King of France is a non-bald-one. @@ -872,21 +872,21 @@ y-hyphen r-hyphen r-hyphen n-hyphen lujvo form Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say tha= t he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him= . Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri ne= gation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbr= i negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is in= variably=20 false, since no affirmative statement about the current= King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce= a truth: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section4-example18" /> lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [f= alse] is-hair-without. It is false that the current King of France is bald. @@ -894,43 +894,43 @@ lo is used in these sentences because negation relates = to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentenc= es carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually a= pplies to the referent. A sentence using=20 le instead of=20 lo can be true even if there is no current king of Fran= ce, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as = the current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 le in=20 .)
Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 , the default is the set of= plausible alternatives. Thus if we say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example1" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre The chair is a non-(red-thing). the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color a= nd not - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example2" /> le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market. However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or con= trary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that w= e are referring to a color by saying: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example3" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre skari The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something u= nder some conditions). We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the= two trailing sumti values explicit (the=20 @@ -939,96 +939,96 @@ xunre). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (= an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinter= pret=20 even with three s= pecific sumti provided. In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita=20 ci'u, which translates roughly as=20 ci'u on a scale of X, where=20 X is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti c= an be bound into the negated selbri with=20 be. To clarify=20 , we might say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example4" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari ci'u The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing. We can alternately use the sumti tcita=20 teci'e, based on=20 ciste, which translates roughly as=20 of a system of components X, for universes of discourse= ; in this case, we would express=20 as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example5" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre be teci'e le skari The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors= )-thing. Other places of=20 ciste can be brought out using the grammar of selma'o B= AI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example6" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'e lo'i skari The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors= )-thing. The cmavo=20 le'a, also in selma'o BAI, can be used to specify a cat= egory: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example7" /> le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colo= rs)-thing. which is minimally different in meaning from=20 . The cmavo=20 na'e is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want= to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo= =20 to'e, which is grammatically equivalent to=20 na'e: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example8" /> le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari ci'u The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-= ness. Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmav= o=20 no'e, also grammatically equivalent to=20 na'e. Here are some parallel examples of=20 na'e,=20 no'e, and=20 to'e: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section5-example12" /> @@ -1072,38 +1072,38 @@
sumti negation There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choi= ce of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator=20 na'ebo before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quant= ification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,= =20 na'ebo na'ebo forms a scalar negation. na'ebo Let us show examples of each. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example1" /> no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the Fr= ench country are-hair-without. No current king of France is bald. Is=20 true? Yes, becaus= e it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there = may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such curre= nt Kings of France. Now let us look at the same sentence using=20 na'ebo negation: na'ebo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example2" /> na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau na'ebo [Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the= French country) is-hair-without. Something other than the current King of France is bald. @@ -1111,21 +1111,21 @@ is true provided = that something reasonably describable as=20 other than a current King of France, such as the King o= f Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald. In place of=20 na'ebo, you may also use=20 na'ebo no'ebo and=20 to'ebo, to be more specific about the sumti which would= be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to com= e by, but here's a valiant try: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section6-example3" /> mi klama to'ebo la bastn. I go to the-opposite-of Boston. I go to Perth. @@ -1142,51 +1142,51 @@ nai, by the way, is almost always written as a compound= into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separ= ate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI. Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be = discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular = construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here. The following are places where=20 nai is used: When attached to tenses and modals (see=20 ), the=20 nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation o= f the tagged bridi. Thus=20 punai as a tense inflection means=20 not-in-the-past, or=20 not-previously, without making any implication about an= y other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section7-example1" /> mi na pu klama le zarci I [false] [past] go-to the store. I didn't go to the store. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section7-example2" /> mi punai klama le zarci I [past-not] go-to the store. I didn't go to the store. mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference = of emphasis. Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical c= onnectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses a= nd modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus=20 punai je ca means the same thing as=20 pu naje ca. As a special case, a=20 -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE= , ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 ) signals a scalar negation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section7-example3" /> mi paroinai dansu le bisli I [once] [not] dance-on the ice means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 @@ -1229,124 +1229,124 @@ A=20 nai attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JO= I or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the= specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical = connectives are discussed in=20 .
Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sente= nce, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example1" /> xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom. Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rom= e.) You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've disc= ussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each a= nswer). The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent = to the expanded sentence with the=20 negative answer na immediately after the=20 cu(and before any tense/modal): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example2" /> na go'i [false] [repeat previous] No. which means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example3" /> la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome. It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome. The respondent can change the tense, putting the=20 na in either before or after the new tense: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example4" /> na ba go'i [false] [future] [repeat previous] meaning - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example5" /> la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome. It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome. or alternatively - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example6" /> ba na go'i [false] [future] [repeat previous] meaning - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example7" /> la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom. John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome. We stated in=20 that sentences like=20 and=20 appear to be sema= ntically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be= found. You can also use a scalar negation with=20 na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a=20 na'eke immediately after any tense: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example8" /> na'e go'i other-than [repeat previous] which means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section8-example9" /> la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom. John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome. @@ -1354,140 +1354,140 @@ He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 ke and=20 ke'e would have been essential if the selbri had been a= tanru.
Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding n= egator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positiv= e in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assumi= ng the same context as in=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example1" /> xu na go'i Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]? or equivalently - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example2" /> xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom. Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to [both] Paris and Rome.] The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative q= uestion is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example3" /> go'i [repeat previous] A plain=20 go'i does not mean=20 Yes it is; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous= statement unmodified, including any negators present; and=20 actually states t= hat it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome. When considering: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example4" /> na go'i [false] [repeat previous] as a response to a negative question like=20 , Lojban designers= had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite = effects. Does=20 create a double n= egative in the sentence by adding a new=20 na to the one already there (forming a double negative = and hence a positive statement), or does the=20 na replace the previous one, leaving the sentence uncha= nged? It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japane= se, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as pos= itive. Navajo The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can= also replace the=20 na in the context, giving: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example5" /> ja'a go'i (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) ja'a can replace=20 na in a similar manner wherever the latter is used: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example6" /> mi ja'a klama le zarci I indeed go to the store. je'a can replace=20 na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negat= ion does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the ab= sence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section9-example7" /> ta je'a melbi that is-indeed beautiful.
Metalinguistic negation forms The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with= negation. Consider the English sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example1" /> I have not stopped beating my wife. If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence i= s neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wro= ng with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of vo= ice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:=20 tone of voice I never have beaten my wife. Negations which follow such a pattern are called=20 metalinguistic negations. In natural languages, the mar= k of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement a= lways, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis ma= y be further used to clarify the error. Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors ar= e inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When s= uch negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims= about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negati= ons which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lo= jban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is p= lausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine. Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would = destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need o= ther means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. W= hen the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express = metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion. tone of voice Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negatio= n with English-language examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d6" /> @@ -1616,67 +1616,67 @@ <para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression.</para> <!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm> <para>Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 <!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm> <quote>xu</quote> question (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter15-section8" />).=20 <quote>na'i</quote> will be used when something about the questioned s= tatement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 <quote>Have you stopped beating your wife?</quote>:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-SfSU"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-SfSU"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example15" /> xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spo= use? Responses could include: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example17" /> na'i go'i The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way. go'i na'i The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way. One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, b= y explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguis= tically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section10-example18" /> go'i ji'una'iku Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 jo'a jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction,= though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage woul= d be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negat= ion. jo'a
Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answere= d? - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter15-section11-example1" /> na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 89bb209..d14f2b4 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,61 +1,61 @@ Chapter 16=20 <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? The following brief dialogue is from=20 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example1" /> Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, hol= ding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example2" /> Nobody, said the Messenger. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example3" /> Quite right, said the King:=20 this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slow= er than you. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example4" /> I do my best, the Messenger said in a sulky tone.= =20 I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do! - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example5" /> He can't do that, said the King,=20 or else he'd have been here first. @@ -81,68 +81,68 @@ logical language Nobody walks slower than the Messenger and=20 Nobody walks faster than the Messenger and both be tell= ing the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, o= r everyone walks at exactly the same speed.) This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the c= orrect and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue.= There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead= , it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speak= ers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic.= However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, = although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions= in Lojban guise. Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature = of it is=20 logical language logical. In particular, the use of=20 le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the = description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you canno= t conclude from my statement that - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section1-example6" /> mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. I see the man/men. that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the abili= ty to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are appli= ed. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclud= e nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.
Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example1" /> Something sees me. There are two plausible Lojban translations of=20 . The simpler one = is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example2" /> [zo'e] viska mi Something-unspecified sees me. The cmavo=20 zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, e= ven=20 zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as explained i= n=20 ) and the listener must fill in the c= orrect value from context. In other words,=20 means=20 =E2=80=98You-know-what' sees me. However,=20 is just as likely= to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correc= t translation is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example3" /> da zo'u da viska mi There-is-an-X such-that X sees me. @@ -159,21 +159,21 @@ da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi ca= n be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti follo= wed by the cmavo=20 zo'u(of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will c= onsist of one or more of the cmavo=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di(of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translation= s as=20 X,=20 Y, and=20 Z respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbol= ic logic, these cmavo are called=20 variables. Here is an example of a prenex with two variables: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example4" /> da de zo'u da prami de There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y. Somebody loves somebody. @@ -181,122 +181,122 @@ , the literal inte= rpretation of the two variables=20 da and=20 de as=20 there-is-an-X and=20 there-is-a-Y tells us that there are two things which s= tand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case tha= t the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself;= nothing in the Lojban version of=20 rules out that in= terpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say=20 Somebody loves somebody else. The things referred to by= different variables may be different or the same. (We use=20 somebody here rather than=20 something for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usua= lly persons, though the Lojban does not say so.) It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than = once in the main bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example5" /> da zo'u da prami da da prami da There-is-an-X such that X loves X Somebody loves himself/herself. What=20 claims is fundame= ntally different from what=20 claims, because= =20 da prami da is not structurally the same as=20 da prami da da prami de. However, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example6" /> de zo'u de prami de There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y means exactly the same thing as=20 ; it does not matt= er which variable is used as long as they are used consistently. It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bri= di directly: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example7" /> da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me Somebody's dog sees me is perfectly correct even though the=20 da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessi= ves are explained in=20 .) It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, f= or the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section2-example8" /> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. Ralph has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of= the following bridi is completely unspecified.
Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everything for=20 something in=20 ? We get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example1" /> Everything sees me. Of course, this example is false, because there are many things = which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful exampl= es of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bea= r with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal cla= ims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.) universal claims The Lojban translation of=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example2" /> ro da zo'u da viska mi For-every X : X sees me. When the variable cmavo=20 da is preceded by=20 ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 will bring them within a c= ommon viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 ro da for=20 everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example3" /> ro da ro de zo'u da prami de For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y. Everything loves everything. @@ -306,21 +306,21 @@ everyone or=20 everybody in the translation. Note that=20 ro appears before both=20 da and=20 de. If=20 ro is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed cl= aim, partly existential like those of=20 existential , partly universal. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section3-example5" /> ro da de zo'u da viska de For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y. Everything sees something. @@ -356,33 +356,33 @@ -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature o= f Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges. In Lojban, a variable=20 da,=20 de, or=20 di may be followed by a=20 poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of t= hings that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail= in=20 , but the kind we will need at presen= t consist of=20 poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminate= d with=20 ku'o or=20 vau(which can usually be elided). Consider the differen= ce between - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example1" /> da zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X : X sees Jim. Something sees Jim. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example2" /> da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim. Someone sees Jim. @@ -392,33 +392,33 @@ ,=20 da is restricted by the=20 poi prenu relative clause to persons only, and so=20 da poi prenu translates as=20 someone.(The difference between=20 someone and=20 somebody is a matter of English style, with no real cou= nterpart in Lojban.) If=20 is true, then=20 must be true, but= not necessarily vice versa. Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relativ= e clauses. Consider - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example3" /> ro da zo'u da vasxu For-every X : X breathes Everything breathes and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example4" /> ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Every dog breathes. dog breathes @@ -436,94 +436,94 @@ ). Note the various colloquial trans= lations=20 every dog,=20 each dog, and=20 all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, si= nce what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.=20 All dogs is treated as an English plural and the others= as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction. plural If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a univers= al one, we get: existential - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section4-example5" /> da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Some dog breathes. dog breathes
Dropping the prenex It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving varia= bles to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've see= n so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simp= le: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did = in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 ro or=20 poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the = first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 becomes just: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example1" /> da viska mi There-is-an-X-which sees me. Something sees me. and=20 becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example2" /> ro da poi gerku cu vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes. Every dog breathes. dog breathes You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is = to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi = order, and that would be correct. Consider - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example3" /> ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y = bites X. The prenex of=20 is like that of= =20 (but with relative= clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with r= espect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main = bridi part, the=20 de appears before the=20 da. Therefore, the true translation is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example4" /> Every person is bitten by some dog (or other). If we tried to omit the prenex and move the=20 ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we wou= ld get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example5" /> de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person Some dog bites everyone. @@ -537,21 +537,21 @@ universal claims pro-sumti for we English we Everyone says or that=20 Everybody does or that=20 Everything is when in fact there are obvious counterexa= mples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such= statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such= as tense) which implicitly restricts them. How can we express=20 in Lojban without= a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we= can say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example6" /> ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.<= /en> using the conversion operator=20 @@ -564,35 +564,35 @@ uses the correspo= nding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in = strained=20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 existential variable existential se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the va= riables. If a variable occurs more than once, then any=20 ro or=20 poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence = of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example7" /> di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for= -use-against-Z by-Z This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself. (in which=20 di is used rather than=20 da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section5-example8" /> ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-perso= n by-Z. As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes = for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban= is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose= one), provided the rules are observed. @@ -609,85 +609,85 @@ all persons, just as=20 all persons re prenu means=20 two persons. In fact, unadorned=20 da is also taken to have an implicit number in front of= it, namely=20 su'o, which means=20 at least one. Why is this? Consider=20 again, this time = with an explicit=20 su'o: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example1" /> su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. Something sees me. From this version of=20 , we understand th= e speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one= of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,=20 , says that of all= the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker. can see Any other number can be used instead of=20 ro or=20 su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example2" /> re da zo'u da viska mi For-two-Xes : X sees me. Two things see me. This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the spe= aker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take=20 Two things see me to mean that at least two things see = the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would h= ave to be made as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example3" /> su'ore da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me. which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the spea= ker, but not otherwise. We note the=20 su'o here meaning=20 at least;=20 su'o by itself is short for=20 su'opa where=20 pa means=20 one, as is explained in=20 . The prenex may be removed from=20 and=20 as from the other= s, leading to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example4" /> re da viska mi Two Xes see me. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section6-example5" /> su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 @@ -708,126 +708,126 @@ order of variables - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section7-example4" /> re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bite= s Y for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly tw= o, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The d= istinction is called a=20 scope distinction: in=20 ,=20 ci gerku is said to have wider scope than=20 re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In= =20 the reverse is tr= ue. The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms eith= er joined by=20 ce'e(of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrou= nded by=20 nu'i(of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 nu'u(of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are eit= her sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a= termset are understood to have equal scope: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section7-example5" /> ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci Three dogs [plus] two men, bite. @@ -835,49 +835,49 @@ nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be= freely elided. What about descriptors, like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in termsets, bu= t usually need not be, except for the=20 lo case which functions like the case without a descrip= tor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 le nanmu means=20 ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 . Two sumti with=20 ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section7-example6" /> [ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men. means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 le other than=20 ro, the problems of this section reappear.
The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example1" /> Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation = might be - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example2" /> ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field. Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field. @@ -892,122 +892,122 @@ existential claims existential , on the other han= d, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simpl= y states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he = or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the tr= ue Lojban translation of=20 anyone who goes anyone : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example3" /> ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on= the field. Although=20 is a universal cl= aim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some s= ort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is condition= al, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walk= ers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other. There is another use of=20 any in English that is not universal but existential. C= onsider existential - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example4" /> I need any box that is bigger than this one. need any box any box does not at all m= ean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I requ= ire only one box. But the naive translation - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example5" /> mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one does not work either, because it asserts that there really is su= ch a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example6" /> da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need = X. What to do? Well, the x2 place of=20 nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an object,= and in fact=20 can also be parap= hrased as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example7" /> mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau ti I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-tha= n this-one. Rewritten using variables,=20 becomes - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example8" /> mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that : X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thin= g. So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is withi= n a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in th= e prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, an= d its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be= placed in an outer prenex explicitly: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example9" /> da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : I need the event-of my possessing X. But what are the implications of=20 and=20 ? The main differe= nce is that in=20 , the=20 da is said to exist in the real world of the outer brid= i; but in=20 real world , the existence is= only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessari= ly come to pass. So=20 means - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section8-example10" /> There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need which is what=20 says, whereas=20 @@ -1021,21 +1021,21 @@ through=20 , are in effect a continua= tion of=20 , introducing features of Lojban neg= ation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examp= les below,=20 there is a Y and the like must be understood as=20 there is a Y there is at least one Y, possibly more. As explained in=20 , the negation of a bridi is usually= accomplished by inserting=20 na at the beginning of the selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example1" /> mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. I don't go to the store. @@ -1053,102 +1053,102 @@ external bridi negation, as opposed to=20 internal bridi negation external bridi negation internal bridi negation using=20 internal bridi negation na. The prenex version of=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example2" /> naku zo'u la djan. klama It is not the case that: John comes. It is false that: John comes. However,=20 naku can appear at other points in the prenex as well. = Compare - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example3" /> naku de zo'u de zutse It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits. It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits. It is false that something sits. Nothing sits. with - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example4" /> su'ode naku zo'u de zutse For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits. There is something that doesn't sit. The relative position of negation and quantification terms withi= n a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we= can have: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example5" /> roda su'ode zo'u da prami de For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y. there is a Y Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the = same thing). or: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example6" /> su'ode roda zo'u da prami de There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y. There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everyb= ody. The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where th= e negation term is at the beginning of the prenex: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example7" /> naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X l= oves Y. there is a Y It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing. (At least) someone doesn't love anything. the negation of=20 , and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example8" /> naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X love= s Y. there is a Y It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved= by everybody. @@ -1156,91 +1156,91 @@ the negation of=20 . The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation bound= ary within a prenex, you must=20 invert any quantifier that the negation boundary passes= across. Inverting a quantifier means that any=20 ro(all) is changed to=20 su'o(at least one) and vice versa. Thus,=20 and=20 can be restated a= s, respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example9" /> su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X lov= es Y. there is a Y There is somebody who doesn't love anything. and: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example10" /> rode naku roda zo'u da prami de For every Y, it is false that: for every X, X loves Y. For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it. Another movement of the negation boundary produces: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example11" /> su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de There is an X such that, for every Y, it is false that X lo= ves Y. There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.= and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example12" /> rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X l= oves Y. For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it. Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preser= ves the meanings of=20 and=20 . The quantifier=20 no(meaning=20 zero of) also involves a negation boundary. To transfor= m a bridi containing a variable quantified with=20 no, we must first expand it. Consider - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example13" /> noda rode zo'u da prami de noda There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y. Nobody loves everything. which is negated by: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example14" /> naku noda rode zo'u da prami de noda It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves = Y. It is false that there is nobody who loves everything. @@ -1252,36 +1252,36 @@ for no x means the same thing as=20 it is false for some x, and the corresponding Lojban=20 noda can be replaced by=20 noda naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we get: noda naku su'oda - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example15" /> naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de noda naku su'oda It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X lo= ves Y. Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropp= ed, so this means the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section9-example16" /> su'oda rode zo'u da prami de There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y. At least one person loves everything. @@ -1346,87 +1346,87 @@ .i and=20 je or=20 ja; likewise, one may place=20 nai at the end of a connective. Both=20 na and=20 nai have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being c= onnected. Specifically,=20 na negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and= =20 nai negates the second or right-hand one. Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentenc= e can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and join= ing the sentences by a logical connective beginning with=20 .i. Thus the following sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example1" /> mi .e do klama ti I and you come here. can be expanded to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example2" /> mi klama ti .ije do klama ti I come here, and, you come here. The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical conn= ective, with any valid combination of=20 na or=20 nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a = transformation. Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence= forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does= negation mean between sentences? The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression= is identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed = at the beginning of the prenex. Thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example3" /> mi .enai do prami roda I, and not you, love everything. expands to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example4" /> mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda I love everything, and-not, you love everything. and then into prenex form as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example5" /> roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the = same) it. By the rules of predicate logic, the=20 ro quantifier on=20 da has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've = picked a value for=20 da for the first sentence, it stays the same for both s= entences. (The=20 da continues with the same fixed value until a new para= graph or a new prenex resets the meaning.) continues Thus the following example has the indicated translation: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section10-example6" /> su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false = that: you love that (same) thing. There is something that I love that you don't. @@ -1442,80 +1442,80 @@ A=20 na before the selbri is always transformed into a= =20 naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice v= ersa.
Using=20 <quote>naku</quote> outside a prenex Let us consider the English sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example1" /> Some children do not go to school. We cannot express this directly with=20 na; the apparently obvious translation - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example2" /> su'oda poi verba na klama su'ode poi ckule At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-one= Y which-are school(s). when converted to the external negation form produces: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example3" /> naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is false that some which are children go-to some which a= re schools. All children don't go to some school (not just some children).= Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natu= ral language negation. This involves putting=20 naku before the selbri, instead of a=20 na.=20 naku is clearly a contradictory negation, given its par= allel with prenex bridi negation. Using=20 naku,=20 can be expressed= as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example4" /> su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.= Some children don't go to a school. Although it is not technically a sumti,=20 naku can be used in most of the places where a sumti ma= y appear. We'll see what this means in a moment. When you use=20 naku within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a nega= tion boundary. As explained in=20 , when a prenex negation bo= undary expressed by=20 naku moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be = inverted. The same is true for=20 naku in the bridi proper. We can move=20 naku to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go,= inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the fo= llowing are equivalent to=20 (no good English = translations exist): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example7" /> su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku @@ -1527,39 +1527,39 @@ In=20 , we moved the ne= gation boundary rightward across the quantifier of=20 de, forcing us to invert it. In=20 we moved the neg= ation boundary across the quantifier of=20 da, forcing us to invert it instead.=20 merely switched = the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers. The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the q= uantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the s= elbri of=20 and rearrange th= e sumti to produce - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example8" /> su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child. or rather,=20 means something = completely different from=20 . Conversion with= =20 se under=20 naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treat= ed identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, in= ternal negation with=20 naku is considered an advanced technique, used to achie= ve stylistic compatibility with natural languages. It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverte= d in a sentence.=20 is identical in = meaning to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example9" /> su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule Some children don't go-to some school. but in=20 @@ -1570,78 +1570,78 @@ internal bridi negation na to the prenex, as we saw in=20 ; you just move it to the l= eft end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 comparison naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rule= s for exporting=20 naku require that you export all of the quantified vari= ables (implicit or explicit) along with=20 naku, and you must export them from left to right, in t= he same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus=20 goes into prenex= form as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example10" /> su'oda poi verba ku'o naku su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de For some X which is a child, it is not the case that there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. there is a Y We can now move the=20 naku to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradic= tory negation that can be expressed with=20 na: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example11" /> naku roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y. there is a Y from which we can restore the quantified variables to the senten= ce, giving: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example12" /> naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is not the case that all children go to some school. or more briefly - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example13" /> ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule All children [false] go-to some school(s). As noted in=20 , a sentence with two diffe= rent quantified variables, such as=20 , cannot always = be converted with=20 se without first exporting the quantified variables. Wh= en the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, = but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example14" /> roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X. @@ -1656,21 +1656,21 @@ naku negation instead of=20 na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as= difficult as in natural languages. In=20 , for example, we'll discu= ss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical conne= ction is moved across a negation boundary. Since=20 naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be placed almos= t anywhere a sumti can go, including=20 be and=20 bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we rec= ommend avoiding such constructs. You can put multiple=20 naku s in a sentence, each forming a separate negation = boundary. Two adjacent=20 naku s in a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section11-example15" /> mi naku naku le zarci cu klama Other expressions using two=20 naku s may or may not cancel out. If there is no quanti= fied variable between them, then the=20 @@ -1727,40 +1727,40 @@ na and=20 naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and external bridi= negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remain= s at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation betw= een external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's La= w to be applied.=20 internal bridi negation internal bridi negation external bridi negation and=20 are exactly equi= valent: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example2" /> la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom. John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome. naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom. It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome. It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator f= rom the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,=20 and related exam= ples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically conne= cted sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For in= stance,=20 logically connected sentences expands to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example3" /> ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and John, to-Rome, [false] goes. @@ -1769,21 +1769,21 @@ ga and=20 gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 ge and=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving b= ridi-tail logical connection (explained in=20 bridi-tail logical connection ): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example5" /> la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs. la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla @@ -1792,76 +1792,76 @@ (Placing=20 le zarci before the selbri makes sure that it is proper= ly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise, it is e= asy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.) It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one = from=20 to=20 , that you become= familiar with expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transfo= rming the sentences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the trans= formation correct by the following steps. By moving its=20 na to the beginning of the prenex as a=20 naku,=20 becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example6" /> naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs). And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into t= wo bridi, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example7" /> naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks) and (Jane to-the market runs). is the result. At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute th= e negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example8" /> ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla Either Jane to-the market [false] walks, or Jane to-the market [false] runs. which is the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example9" /> ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false] runs. If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run. which then condenses down to=20 . DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal=20 naku negations: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section12-example11" /> ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la djan. (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John. la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom. @@ -1891,21 +1891,21 @@ existential bu'i bu'a,=20 bu'e and=20 bu'e bu'i with F, G, and H respectively. bu'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section13-example1" /> su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. There's some relationship between Jim and John. some relationship @@ -1920,33 +1920,33 @@ bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only sumti ca= n appear in the prenex, and=20 su'o bu'a is technically a sumti - in fact, it is an in= definite description like=20 brothers is palpably fals= e, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, th= en they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossi= ble. brothers
A few notes on variables A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even thou= gh it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous ap= pearance, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14-example1" /> ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. What does=20 @@ -1998,21 +1998,21 @@ bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 bu'e bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particu= lar problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each= possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts = as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in=20 bu'i , but in general consist of the cmav= o=20 xi(of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more ler= fu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression encl= osed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter16-section14-example2" /> ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them. diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index f4d3b1d..7cdbd6f 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -2,21 +2,21 @@ Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its U= ses
What's a letteral, anyway? James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the= word=20 Brown letteral(by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 z. A typical example of its use might be - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section1-example1" /> There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 e in this sentence. (Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word=20 @@ -116,21 +116,21 @@ .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are com= pound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 bu(which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vo= wel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sepa= rator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 sentence separator irrelevant hesitation bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example2" /> ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu t @@ -154,36 +154,36 @@ eff or=20 vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them - an= d even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vail nor=20 fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the = spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling = out words does exist in Lojban. spelling out words Note that the lerfu words ending in=20 y were written (in=20 and=20 ) with pauses afte= r them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but f= ailure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example3" /> mi cy. claxu I lerfu-=20 c without I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter=20 c. without a pause after=20 cy would be interpreted as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2-example4" /> micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor. @@ -193,21 +193,21 @@
Upper and lower cases Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (ca= pital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin wi= th an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used= in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus: upper-case letters upper-case lower-case - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example1" /> .iVAN. the name=20 Ivan in Russian/Slavic pronunciation. @@ -229,21 +229,21 @@ ga'e to'a causes the interpretation to revert to lower case.= Thus,=20 to'a ga'e .abu means not=20 ga'e a but=20 A, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example2" /> .ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a to'a ga'e @@ -261,21 +261,21 @@ upper-case lower-case single-letter shift letter shift chemical elements - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section3-example4" /> tau sy. [single shift] S S (chemical symbol for sulfur) @@ -308,21 +308,21 @@ la'o,=20 lo'u,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su, and=20 fa'o may not have=20 fa'o bu attached, because they are interpreted before=20 bu detection is done; in particular, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section4-example1" /> zo bu the word=20 bu @@ -401,21 +401,21 @@ bu attached. The following assignments have been made:<= /para> .y'y.bu h ky.bu q vy.bu w As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: quack - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example1" /> ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. q u a @@ -473,21 +473,21 @@ Arabic alphabet ru'o Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillic alphabet The cmavo=20 zai(of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to st= ill other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typi= cally be a name representing the alphabet with=20 zai bu suffixed: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example4" /> zai .devanagar. bu @@ -528,21 +528,21 @@ . characters marking leading and following pauses.) In addition, there may be multiple visible representations withi= n a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. = print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 handwriting font and face distinctions are also represented by shif= t words, indicated with the cmavo=20 font ce'a(of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: ce'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section5-example7" /> ce'a .xelveticas. bu @@ -608,21 +608,21 @@ umlaut a). accent marks e lerfu, could be spelled as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section6-example1" /> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi (=20 e acute )=20 t( acute=20 e) @@ -739,21 +739,21 @@ First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet re= presentations, known as=20 pinyin for Chinese and=20 pinyin romaji for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the w= ord=20 romaji han=20 4 zi=20 4 is conventionally written with tw= o characters, but it may be spelled out as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8-example1" /> .y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo h a n 4=20 @@ -766,21 +766,21 @@ 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 accent marks . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: romaji Mitsubishi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section8-example2" /> my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu m i t @@ -807,118 +807,118 @@
lerfu words as pro-sumti So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spell= ing out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words with= in Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. = Therefore, the term=20 spelling out words lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers = to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example1" /> .abu prami by. A loves B A loves B In=20 ,=20 .abu and=20 by. represent specific sumti, but which sumti they repr= esent must be inferred from context. Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by=20 goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: pro-sumti assignment - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example2" /> le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house. There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more = advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be foun= d for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to= refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban = with that lerfu. So=20 can be rephrased:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example3" /> le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani The dog is black. G goes to the house. (A less literal English translation would use=20 D for=20 dog instead.) Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example4" /> la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. Steven Mark Jones Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban. Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 ru'o.abupyky instead. What about - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example5" /> .abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 A gives B to C by. cy. is a single lerfu string, although written as t= wo words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is tha= t A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to intr= oduce the elidable terminator=20 A gives BC boi(of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate le= rfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these = appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 boi is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthes= is, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example6" /> .abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] A gives B to C A gives B to C where the two occurrences of=20 boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurre= nce is not. Likewise: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section9-example7" /> xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. all persons X loves everybody. @@ -928,48 +928,48 @@ boi to separate the lerfu string=20 xy. from the digit string=20 digit string ro.
References to lerfu The rules of=20 make it impossible to use = unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example1" /> .abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. the hearer would try to find what previous sumti=20 .abu refers to. The solution to this problem makes use = of the cmavo=20 me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example2" /> me'o .abu cu lerfu The-expression=20 a is-a-letteral. Now we can translate=20 into Lojban: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example3" /> dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-expression=20 e. @@ -978,47 +978,47 @@ Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a = literal one - but=20 is a Lojban trut= h just as=20 is an English tru= th. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! The reader might be tempted to use quotation with=20 lu ... li'u instead of=20 me'o, producing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example4" /> lu .abu li'u cu lerfu [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. (The single-word quote=20 zo cannot be used, because=20 .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, becaus= e it says: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example5" /> The word=20 .abu is a letteral which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word= =20 .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section10-example6" /> la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu la'e lu The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. @@ -1027,40 +1027,40 @@
Mathematical uses of lerfu strings This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained= in=20 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu = strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. A lerfu string as mathematical variable: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example1" /> li .abu du li by. su'i cy. the-number a equals the-number b plus c a =3D b + c A lerfu string as function name (preceded by=20 function name ma'o of selma'o MAhO): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example2" /> li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x function f of x y =3D f(x) @@ -1068,75 +1068,75 @@ Note the=20 boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 fy and=20 xy. A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI= ): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example3" /> le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats This rat is my Nth rat. Nth rat A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of = selma'o MAI): utterance ordinal - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example4" /> ny.mai Nthly Nthly A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by=20 xi of selma'o XI): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example5" /> xy. xi ky. x sub k A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in=20 vei ... ve'o parentheses): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section11-example6" /> vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu (=20 n) persons @@ -1188,21 +1188,21 @@ acronyms SQL may be=20 SQL ess cue ell or=20 sequel. In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends= in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize ac= ronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using=20 acronym ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are i= llegal in names) and adding a final consonant: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example1" /> la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. @@ -1220,21 +1220,21 @@ IBM There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. = In=20 , the last conson= ant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position. Some compression can be done by leaving out=20 bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is= moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introduci= ng an involuntary (and illegal) pause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example2" /> la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. DNA. NATO. @@ -1256,21 +1256,21 @@ In=20 , the final conso= nant=20 m stands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.= acronyms Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is= compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a=20 ' character, is to use the consonant=20 z instead of=20 ': - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example3" /> la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. DNA. NATO. @@ -1286,36 +1286,36 @@ NYC IBM One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu = string itself prefixed with=20 me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: sumti into selbri - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example4" /> la me dy ny. .abu that-named what-pertains-to=20 d n a This works because=20 la, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as su= mti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is = a (meaningful) name: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12-example5" /> la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bear writes. Bear is a writer. @@ -1340,21 +1340,21 @@ character codes characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 Unicode punctuation marks se'e(of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally follo= wed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the w= hole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set= : se'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section13-example1" /> me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII ASCII @@ -1374,21 +1374,21 @@ depends on knowi= ng the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of= the=20 ASCII $ character. Therefore, the=20 se'e convention is only intelligible to those who know = the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular charact= er, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural n= eutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to d= escriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. se'e As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO= 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident i= n a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanis= t may say: Unicode - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section13-example2" /> me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-a= t-peace When a=20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index e53ec8f..9c065fc 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -20,21 +20,21 @@ Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notati= on such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision f= or all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used. reverse Polish notation Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, = so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from eith= er side at many points. Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is cu= lturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the = world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However,= international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For e= xample, the expression operator precedence mathematical notation - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section1-example1" /> 3x + 2y contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other p= ossible interpretations for the strings=20 @@ -97,47 +97,47 @@ PA 9 no PA 0 The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compo= und cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers g= reater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example1" /> pa re ci one two three 123 ignore one hundred and twenty three hundred - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example2" /> pa no one zero 10 ten - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section2-example3" /> pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero 1234567890 one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. @@ -189,73 +189,73 @@ percent ce'i ki'o PA comma between digits ki'o A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs as dist= inct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example1" /> ni'u pa negative-sign 1 -1 Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they ar= e attached. It is also possible to use=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these num= bers is explained in=20 . Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cm= avo, as illustrated in the following examples: punctuation marks - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example2" /> ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five 3.1415 (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the sy= mbolic version of=20 ;=20 pi is still the Lojban representation for the decimal p= oint.) decimal point - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example3" /> re fi'u ze fi'u two fraction seven 2/7 is the name of th= e number two-sevenths; it is not the same as=20 the result of 2 divided by 7 in Lojban, although numeri= cally these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present bu= t the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the= reciprocal of the following number: reciprocal - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example5" /> fi'u ze fi'u @@ -266,21 +266,21 @@ ra'e point three five repeating one four two eight five seven .35142857142857... Note that the=20 ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating portion=20 ra'e 142857 begins. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example7" /> ci mu ce'i ce'i @@ -297,41 +297,41 @@ (In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representatio= n of=20 ;=20 ki'o is still the Lojban representation.) ki'o It is also possible to have less than three digits between succe= ssive=20 ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been el= ided: ki'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example8" /> pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo ki'o one comma two three comma four 1,023,004 In the same way,=20 ki'o can be used after=20 ki'o pi to divide fractions into groups of three: fractions - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3-example10" /> pi ki'o re re ki'o @@ -406,21 +406,21 @@ 4.4) pai pi,=20 =CF=80 4.5) te'o e However, many combinations are as yet undefined: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section4-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section4-example7" /> pa pi re pi ci 1.2.3 pa ni'u re @@ -448,21 +448,21 @@ pi'i VUhU times te'a VUhU raised to the power te'a ny. BY letter=20 n vei VEI left parenthesis ve'o VEhO right parenthesis Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojba= n, that sentence translates to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example1" /> li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two. 1 + 1 =3D 2 @@ -472,88 +472,88 @@ x1 is mathematically equal to x2. It is a cmavo for con= ciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathe= matical contexts,=20 du means=20 x1 is identical with x2 or=20 x1 is the same object as x2. The cmavo=20 li is the number article. It is required whenever a sen= tence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quanti= fy things. For example: number article article - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example2" /> le ci prenu the three persons requires no=20 li article, because the=20 article ci is being used to specify the number of=20 prenu. However, the sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example3" /> levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. This fly has a mass of 3 grams. requires=20 li because=20 ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way = in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of= length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first= place and a number as the second place. Using=20 measurements li for=20 le in=20 would produce - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example4" /> li ci prenu The-number 3 is-a-person. which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. The cmavo=20 su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of math= ematical operators, and means=20 mathematical operators addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 ma'u which means the positive sign as an indication of = a positive number: positive sign - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example5" /> li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. +1 + -1 =3D 0 Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of=20 du: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example6" /> li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three= . 5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3 @@ -568,39 +568,39 @@ By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathema= tics: there is no notion of=20 calculator mathematics operator precedence. Consider the following example, wh= ere=20 operator precedence pi'i means=20 times, the multiplication operator: multiplication - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example7" /> li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 Is the Lojban version of=20 true? No!=20 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 is indeed 23, because the usual conventi= ons of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition= ; that is, the multiplication=20 multiplication 4 =C3=97 5 is done first, giving 20, and only then the = addition=20 3 + 20. But VUhU operators by default are done left to = right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example8" /> li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu The-number three plus four times five equals the-number thr= ee-five. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35 @@ -609,21 +609,21 @@ li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, because the no= tion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingra= ined to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. T= his convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one = area. multiplication (Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done = in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many o= perators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according = to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its= list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just= not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden = in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are diff= erent.) The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the prec= edence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will b= e explained in=20 . The third solution is simple but not very general. When an opera= tor is prefixed with the cmavo=20 bi'e(of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of high= er precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, bi'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example9" /> li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci bi'e The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 @@ -634,21 +634,21 @@ bi'e bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allowed. bi'e In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses= =20 vei and=20 ve'o, which can be used just like their written equival= ents=20 ( and=20 ) to group expressions in any way desired: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section5-example10" /> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa te'a @@ -706,21 +706,21 @@ x zy. BY letter=20 z ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator fy. BY letter=20 f The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes,= but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators ha= ve exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from c= ontext or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.<= /para> But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or = which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression = in such cases is the use of=20 forethought operators, also known as Polish notation. I= n this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the opera= nds afterwards: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example1" /> li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.<= /gloss> sum(1,2,3) =3D 6 @@ -728,21 +728,21 @@ boi is required after=20 pa and=20 re because otherwise the reading would be=20 pareci=3D 123. It is not required after=20 ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sake of sym= metry. The only time=20 boi is required is, as in=20 , when there are t= wo consecutive numbers or lerfu strings. Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in=20 , three. How do we= know how many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Loj= ban solution is employed: an elidable terminator, namely=20 ku'e. Here is an example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example2" /> li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 p plus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 z equals the-number=20 @@ -776,21 +776,21 @@ su'i zy would be swallowed up by the=20 va'a forethought operator, which would then appear to h= ave two operands,=20 ny and=20 su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethought expres= sion. Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functiona= l notation. How do we represent=20 functional notation z =3D f(x)? The answer is: z =3D f - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example3" /> li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy. The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x. z =3D f(x) z =3D f @@ -814,21 +814,21 @@ pe'o and=20 pe'o ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 to=20 , respectively, wi= th explicit=20 pe'o and=20 pe'o ku'e: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section6-example6" /> li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa @@ -847,21 +847,21 @@ infix expressions vei and=20 ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief be= cause I forgot this rule.
Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example1" /> li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5. Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: @@ -890,21 +890,21 @@ Note the difference between=20 dunli and=20 dunli du;=20 dunli has a third place that specifies the kind of equa= lity that is meant.=20 dunli du refers to actual identity, and can have any number o= f places: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example2" /> py. du xy.boi zy. p is-identical-to=20 x z @@ -912,21 +912,21 @@ p =3D x =3D z Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the=20 du is not repeated. Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with=20 na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that = the relation is false: negation cmavo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section7-example3" /> li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5 @@ -1010,21 +1010,21 @@ too few Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathemati= cal sense. For example, the cmavo=20 ro means=20 all or=20 each. This number does not have a definite value in the= abstract:=20 li ro is undefined. But when used to count or quantify = something, the parallel between=20 ro and=20 pa is clearer: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example2" /> mi catlu pa prenu I look-at one person mi catlu ro prenu @@ -1052,21 +1052,21 @@ so'o so'u represent a set of indefinite numbers less than=20 so'u indefinite numbers ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude = decreases: magnitude - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d7" /> @@ -1110,21 +1110,21 @@ <quote>most</quote> in the sense of=20 <quote>a majority</quote> or=20 <quote>more than half</quote>.</para> <para>Each of these numbers, plus=20 <quote>ro</quote>, may be prefixed with=20 <quote>pi</quote>(the decimal point) in order to make a fractional for= m which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality.= =20 <!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of differen= t notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm> <quote>piro</quote> therefore means=20 <quote>the whole of</quote>:</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-dwJI"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-dwJI"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example8" /> mi citka piro lei nanba I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread Similarly,=20 @@ -1139,40 +1139,40 @@ no'o the typical value, and=20 typical value pino'o, meaning=20 the typical portion: Sometimes=20 no'o can be translated=20 no'o the average value, but the average in question is not, = in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appro= priately represented by operators. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example10" /> mi catlu no'o prenu no'o I look-at a-typical-number-of persons mi citka pino'o lei nanba I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread. da'a is a related cmavo meaning=20 all but: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example12" /> mi catlu da'a re prenu I look-at all-but two persons mi catlu da'a so'u prenu @@ -1183,21 +1183,21 @@ is similar in me= aning to=20 . If no number follows=20 da'a, then=20 pa is assumed;=20 da'a by itself means=20 all but one, or in ordinal contexts=20 all but the last: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example13" /> ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu ka'e All rats can eat all-but-one rats. All rats can eat all other rats. @@ -1209,21 +1209,21 @@ eat themselves itself is, indeed, the=20 other rat.) As mentioned in=20 ,=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive number and=20 some negative number respectively. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example16" /> li ci vu'u re du li ma'u @@ -1243,21 +1243,21 @@ indefinite values rau(enough),=20 rau du'e(too many), and=20 du'e mo'a(too few) are then appropriate: mo'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example17" /> mi ponse rau rupnu rau I possess enough currency-units. @@ -1276,21 +1276,21 @@ du'e mo'a can be preceded by=20 mo'a pi; for example,=20 pirau means=20 a sufficient part of. Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite= numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of num= bers have the same value in the given context: indefinite numbers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section8-example19" /> mi viska le rore gerku I saw the all-of/two dogs. I saw both dogs. @@ -1321,55 +1321,55 @@ me'i za'u PA more than za'u The cmavo=20 ji'i(of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate= approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number= , the whole number is approximate: rounded numbers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example1" /> ji'i vo no approximation four zero approximately 40 approximately 40 If=20 ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits = following it are approximate: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example2" /> vo no ji'i mu no four zero approximation five zero roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousand is exact, but the=20 fifty is approximate) If=20 ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicates that = the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign= cmavo (=20 ma'u or=20 ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or ne= gative infinity respectively. infinity - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example5" /> re pi ze re ji'i @@ -1399,21 +1399,21 @@ su'e,=20 su'e su'o,=20 me'i, and=20 me'i za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with = upper or lower bounds: za'u - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example9" /> @@ -1440,21 +1440,21 @@ refers to zero, o= ne, or two;=20 to zero or one. (= Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers= ,=20 me'i re can be any number less than 2, and likewise wit= h the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 me'i exactly 2, neither more nor less is just=20 re. Note that=20 su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plural= s. If no number follows one of these cmavo,=20 pa is understood: therefore, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9-example10" /> mi catlu su'o prenu I look-at at-least [one] person is a meaningful claim. @@ -1518,34 +1518,34 @@ compound base point compound base base point In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expresse= d in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and m= ay be appropriate in particular circumstances. To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator=20 ju'u is suitable: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example1" /> li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10. Here, the final=20 pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is the bas= e specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a metalinguis= tic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been worked out.)= Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is= a base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to= use the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten th= rough fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example3" /> li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748. @@ -1555,21 +1555,21 @@ Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 au,=20 ei,=20 ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A t= o D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E = and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough available= cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in= alphabetical order. The base point=20 base point pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example4" /> li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. F.8 base 16 @@ -1578,33 +1578,33 @@ ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical = to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undef= ined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for makin= g=20 ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which = is not a constant. There are some numerical values that require a=20 base that varies from digit to digit. For example, time= s represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 hours digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 compound base pi'e is used: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example5" /> ci pi'e rere pi'e vono 3:22:40 Each digit sequence separated by instances of=20 pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the number a= s a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by special ru= les: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example6" /> li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'= e rexa pi'e paci The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13. 3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13 @@ -1613,71 +1613,71 @@ is hours, the se= cond minutes, and the third seconds. hours The same mechanism using=20 pi'e can be used to express numbers which have a base l= arger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from= =20 Mayan mathematics no to=20 paso, each separated by=20 pi'e: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example7" /> li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443 Carefully note the difference between: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example8" /> pano ju'u reno the-digit-10 base 20 which is equal to ten, and: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example9" /> pa pi'e no ju'u reno 1;0 base 20 which is equal to twenty. Both=20 pi and=20 pi'e can be used to express large-base fractions: fractions - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example10" /> li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35. pi'e is also used where the base of each digit is vague= , as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section10-example11" /> dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. This is Sentence 10.11. @@ -1745,39 +1745,39 @@ mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure = is: cardinal selbri x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh= ich is/are x3 A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of memb= ers, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set = up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logic= al necessity. cardinal selbri Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example1" /> lei mi ratcu cu cimei Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome. My rats are three. I have three rats. three rats Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that= is, I have three rats. three rats Another example, with one element this time: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example2" /> mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. In=20 @@ -1785,41 +1785,41 @@ mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind expl= ained in=20 , a slightly different plac= e structure is required: x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of whic= h is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4. An example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example3" /> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. fewsome The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. In=20 , the x2 and x3 p= laces are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by=20 lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers are explicitl= y given) means=20 the whole of the set of all those things which are rats= , or simply=20 the set of all rats. set of all rats - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example4" /> le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. manysome There are many rats in the park. @@ -1834,21 +1834,21 @@ More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . The cmavo=20 moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is: ordinal selbri x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example7" /> ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu @@ -1873,42 +1873,42 @@ The cmavo=20 si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is: si'e portion selbri x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example8" /> levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. This meal is one-third of my daily food. The cmavo=20 cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is= : probability selbri cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example9" /> le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.= probability .5 @@ -1919,21 +1919,21 @@ va'e scale selbri x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like=20 continuous cifi'uxa(3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the= same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not= the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an exa= mple: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example10" /> le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness. scale of redness @@ -1944,21 +1944,21 @@ rau,=20 rau du'e, or=20 du'e mo'a(enough, too many, too few) then an additional plac= e is added for=20 mo'a by standard. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example11" /> lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-stan= dard me. There are too many rats in the park for me. too many rats @@ -1972,36 +1972,36 @@ ma'i enough. This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjec= tive numbers directly as a number. Therefore,=20 du'e ratcu means=20 du'e too many rats without specifying any standard. too many rats It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example12" /> ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. That is my nth rat. More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, du= e to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial = form of expression is required. The cmavo=20 me(of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti in= to a selbri. A whole=20 me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example13" /> ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats. That is my (n+1)-th rat. @@ -2009,21 +2009,21 @@ ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with=20 me and=20 me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 pa and the=20 moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them i= nto the compound=20 pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical. It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after=20 me and before a member of MOI, producing strange result= s indeed: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section11-example14" /> le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o cu'o The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler @@ -2053,21 +2053,21 @@ xo PA number question The cmavo=20 xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions wh= ose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blan= k where the answer should go. (See=20 xo for more on Lojban questions.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example2" /> li re su'i re du li xo xo @@ -2077,21 +2077,21 @@ The what-number-th person hit you? Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? police lineup xo can also be combined with other digits to ask questi= ons whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very = useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge: xo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section12-example3" /> li remu pi'i xa du li paxono The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 to which the correct reply would be=20 @@ -2104,37 +2104,37 @@ Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section: xi XI subscript Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso= ; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammaticall= y a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of= course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example1" /> li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> x-sub-3 x Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 xi(of selma'o XI).=20 xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a ge= neral mekso expression in parentheses: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example4" /> xy.boixino @@ -2145,21 +2145,21 @@ x Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables= ) generally need a=20 boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which = subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an o= therwise elidable terminator. There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than th= ose used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before t= he main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'= o XI for these purposes. superscripts The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general nu= mber or lerfu string, namely=20 boi. By convention, a subscript following another subsc= ript is taken to be a sub-subscript: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section13-example5" /> xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo x See=20 @@ -2206,21 +2206,21 @@ ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few oper= ands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to= express the numerical negation operator=20 subtraction operator subtraction operator negative sign negation operator va'a in infix form. We would use: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example1" /> li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny. tu'o va'a tu'o @@ -2231,53 +2231,53 @@ The=20 tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left op= erand for the infix use of=20 tu'o va'a, even though semantically none is needed or wanted= . Finding a suitable example of=20 ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternar= y operators are not common. The operator=20 gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a= binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also ca= lled=20 exponential) notation. The first operand of=20 gei is the exponent, and the second operand is the mant= issa or fraction: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example2" /> li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number eight scientific three. 300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10 Why are the arguments to=20 gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic not= ation? So that=20 gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specificat= ion of a large (or small) imprecise number: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example3" /> gei reno (scientific) two-zero 10 Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common = exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default val= ue. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (T= his has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integ= ers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating = point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here= is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: IBM - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section14-example4" /> papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 .1010 @@ -2310,21 +2310,21 @@ VUhU matrix column combiner A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical m= atrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out o= f vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands. jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector ind= icator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very= high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full e= xpressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of componen= ts;=20 vector indicator te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example1" /> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) @@ -2347,34 +2347,34 @@ Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix magic square 8 1 6 3 5 7 4 9 2 can be represented either as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example2" /> jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re pi'a the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (= 4 9 2) or as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section15-example3" /> jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi = zeboi re sa'i the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vecto= r (6 7 2) @@ -2412,38 +2412,38 @@ So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly fam= iliar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may= have seemed odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 f they appear as the usual functional notation. Now com= es a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complet= ely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses= of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation= of some programming languages.) functional notation In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notat= ion, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethou= ght mekso of the kind explained in=20 .) The number of operands p= er operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In L= ojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no te= rminator. Here is a simple example: fu'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example1" /> li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu fu'a the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five. The operands are=20 re and=20 ci; the operator is=20 su'i. Here is a more complex example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example2" /> li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa fu'a the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plu= s equals the-number two-six @@ -2480,21 +2480,21 @@ tu'o tu'o provides the second operand, which is semantically= ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version o= f=20 tu'o gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 ge'a gei, where the=20 ge'a gei ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a= single operand. Here are some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section16-example4" /> li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du fu'a @@ -2536,89 +2536,89 @@ lo'o As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for= logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on lo= gical and non-logical connectives are provided in=20 logical language . Operands are connected in aftertho= ught with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Op= erators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought wi= th selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no acciden= t. In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping l= ogically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterth= ought logical connection between operands: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example1" /> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. is equivalent in= meaning, but uses forethought connection: observatives forethought connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example2" /> vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban r= equires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parenthese= s when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exi= st when using=20 li. By the way,=20 li has an elidable terminator,=20 lo'o, which is needed when a=20 bi'e fe'a and=20 ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in= the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfect= ly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would = dispense with most of the=20 bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules b= e understood. bi'e Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted betwe= en operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect= operands with=20 bi'o to create intervals: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example7" /> li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one [0,1) the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one zero to one Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning = and end points can be expressed by=20 mi'i: mi'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example8" /> li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu mi'i the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5 which expresses the same interval as=20 . Note that the= =20 ga'o and=20 ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are n= ow implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example9" /> li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5] Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces= another interval centered on the number. As=20 shows, non-logic= al (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso= operator. connection of operands You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: compound subscript ce'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section17-example10" /> xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] ce'o x sub (=20 @@ -2797,21 +2797,21 @@ na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used = in forethought The cmavo=20 ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of th= e selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 ni'e ni abstraction, since=20 ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A = common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: ni'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example2" /> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu @@ -2823,41 +2823,41 @@ The cmavo=20 mo'e operates similarly to=20 mo'e ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an = operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensi= oned numbers: ni'e dimensioned numbers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example3" /> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu mo'e The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called=20 folk quantifiers, such as=20 folk quantifiers a pride of lions: pride of lions - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section18-example4" /> mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo mo'e I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. I see a pride of lions. @@ -2904,33 +2904,33 @@ So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with=20 li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI a= nd ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.<= /para> The cmavo=20 me'o has the same grammatical use as=20 li but slightly different semantics.=20 li means=20 the number which is the value of the mekso ..., whereas= =20 me'o just means=20 the mekso ... So it is true that: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example1" /> li re su'i re du li vo The-number two plus two equals the-number four. 2 + 2 =3D 4 but false that: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example2" /> me'o re su'i re du me'o vo The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four. 2 + 2=3D=20 4 @@ -2944,39 +2944,39 @@ la djan., the person named John, and=20 zo .djan., the name=20 John The cmavo=20 nu'a is the inverse of=20 na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a norma= l selbri, with the place structure: x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ... for as many places as may be required. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example3" /> li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5. uses=20 nu'a to make the operator=20 va'a into a two-place bridi Used together,=20 nu'a and=20 na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso oper= ators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor= is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 , to which=20 is one correct a= nswer: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example5" /> li re na'u mo re du li vo The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four. 2 ? 2 =3D 4 @@ -2987,42 +2987,42 @@ In=20 ,=20 na'u mo is an operator question, because=20 mo is the selbri question cmavo and=20 na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 makes the true a= nswer=20 su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with th= e inverse cmavo=20 nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 into=20 produces: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example6" /> li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-n= umber four. where the=20 na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 free modifiers firstly,=20 firstly secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: digit string - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section19-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11" /> @@ -3088,34 +3088,34 @@ <quote>commonly assumed precedences</quote> built into it (selectable = by a special=20 <quote>ti'o</quote> declaration) that would match mathematical intuiti= on: times higher than plus, and so on.</para> <!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21"> <title>Miscellany A few other points: se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a s= elbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example1" /> li ci se vu'u vo du li pa The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one= . 3 subtracted from 4 equals 1. The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators= with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probabl= y unintelligible) operators as needed. Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce= a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would= apply to make the bridi true: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example3" /> li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12. li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu @@ -3124,50 +3124,50 @@ opposite-of-minus The sense in which=20 plus is the opposite of=20 minus is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one= ; negated operators are defined only loosely. la'e and=20 lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics t= o get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of sel= ma'o NAhE followed by=20 bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that so= me other operand would make the bridi true: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example4" /> li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu na'ebo The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5. 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making l= ujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or toge= ther as names: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example5" /> la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named=20 Seven who attack that-named=20 Thebes [past] are-men. The Seven Against Thebes were men. Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative= which cannot be misconstrued is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section21-example6" /> la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men. Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi:=20 @@ -3243,50 +3243,50 @@ Gettysburg Address Abraham Lincoln Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 Four score and seven four score and seven. (A=20 score, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it = is analogous to a=20 dozen for 12.) The trivial way: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example1" /> li bize eight seven 87 is mathematicall= y correct, but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are intend= ed to be complex and formal. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example2" /> li vo pi'i reno su'i ze four times twenty plus seven 4 =C3=97 20 + 7 is also mathemat= ically correct, but still misses something.=20 Score is not a word for 20 in the same way that=20 ten is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20= objects. The original may be taken as short for=20 Four score years and seven years ago. Thinking of a sco= re as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example3" /> li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze mo'e the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven @@ -3301,21 +3301,21 @@ su'i. Another approach is to think of=20 score as setting a representation base. There are remna= nts of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is= =20 base-20 arithmetic quatre-vingt-sept, literally=20 four-twenties-seven. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Ad= dress hard to translate into French!) If=20 Gettysburg Address score is the representation base, then we have: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section22-example4" /> li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno four ; seven base 20 47 diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 3391b2d..00879ad 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -14,21 +14,21 @@ I sentence separator sentence separator Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a s= poken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of t= he following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spok= en English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or som= etimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo=20 audio-visually isomorphic .i(of selma'o I): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section2-example1" /> mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice. The word=20 @@ -156,172 +156,172 @@ Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section: zo'u ZOhU topic/comment separator The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the norm= al English sentence which has a subject and a predicate: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I went to the market In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is st= ated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a t= opic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distingu= ish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example2" /> zhe The wide space in the first two versions of=20 separate the topi= c (=20 this news) from the comment (=20 news I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 zo'u(of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from = comment (a bridi): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example3" /> le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno The news : I [perfective] know. news is the literal Lo= jban translation of=20 . Of course, the t= opic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:= topic-comment - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example4" /> mi ba'o djuno le nuzba I [perfective] know the news. news means the same as= =20 , and it is simple= r. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the s= elbri within the comment is vague: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example5" /> le finpe zo'u citka the fish : eat Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The= Chinese equivalent of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example6" /> yu which is vague in exactly the same way. Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before= =20 zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sent= ences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 topic-comment sentences topic-comment zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi co= ntaining quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quanti= fier logic in Lojban (see=20 ), but an example would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example7" /> roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. Every person has a father. The string of sumti before=20 zo'u(called the=20 prenex: see=20 ) may contain both a topic and bound= variables: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example8" /> loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. As for fathers, every person has one. To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap th= e sentences in=20 tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topic and the=20 zo'u directly in front. This is the exception to the ru= le that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example9" /> loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u] The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want ) Money: if you have it, you want it. Note: In Lojban, you do not=20 want money; you=20 want to have money or something of the sort, as the x2 = place of=20 djica demands an event. As a result, the straightforwar= d rendering of=20 without a topic i= s not: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example10" /> do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence. where=20 ri means=20 loi jdini and is interpreted as=20 the mere existence of money, but rather: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section4-example11" /> do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri You possess money only-if you desire something-about it. namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 @@ -420,113 +420,113 @@ pau pau UI question premarker Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There ar= e two basic types: truth questions, of the form=20 Is it true that ..., and fill-in-the-blank questions. T= ruth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of = it specifically questioned, with the cmavo=20 xu(of selma'o UI): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example1" /> xu do klama le zarci [True or false?] You go to the store Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store? (Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation mi= ght be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in=20 . Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojba= n word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answer= er is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'= o which provide different kinds of blanks. Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with=20 ma(of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example2" /> ma klama le zarci [What sumti?] goes-to the store Who is going to the store? Of course, the=20 ma need not be in the x1 place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example3" /> do klama ma You go-to [what sumti?] Where are you going? The answer is a simple sumti: simple sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example4" /> le zarci The store. A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by its= elf constitute a bridi =E2=80=93 it does not claim anything, but merely com= pletes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi. There can be two=20 ma cmavo in a single question: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example5" /> ma klama ma Who goes where? and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in th= e two=20 ma cmavo in order: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example6" /> mi le zarci I, to the store. An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical conne= ctive=20 fa'u(of selma'o JOI), which is like the English=20 and ... respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example7" /> ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma Who and who goes where and where, respectively? An answer might be - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example8" /> la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju John, Marsha, the store, the office. Marsha John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.<= /en> @@ -536,54 +536,54 @@ (Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungra= mmatical result, because=20 * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: t= he first=20 le zarci has to be closed with its proper terminator=20 ku, for reasons explained in=20 . This effect is not important: Lojb= an behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question= and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is gr= ammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with=20 mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example9" /> la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] What is Lojban? Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of L= ojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range o= f possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might b= e a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provid= ed by the questioner. To limit the range of a=20 predicate answers mo question, make it part of a tanru. Questions about numbers are expressed with=20 xo of selma'o PA: xo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example10" /> do viska xo prenu xo You saw [what number?] persons. How many people did you see? The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi u= tterance: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section5-example11" /> vomu Forty-five. Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 @@ -684,97 +684,97 @@ xi XI subscript The cmavo=20 xi(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number,= a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attac= hed to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (o= r its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either= to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refine= d distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this = section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. Lojban gismu have at most five places: at most - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example1" /> mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.<= /en> Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change t= he order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags fo= r individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. C= onversion of=20 place number , using=20 xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example2" /> le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house= via-the road for-me. And reordering of the place structures might produce: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example3" /> fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klam= a Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car,= go. to=20 all mean the same= thing. But consider the lujvo=20 nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction operator=20 nu to=20 klama: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example4" /> la'edi'u cu nunkla la'edi'u mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.= shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the event itsel= f. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 requires an addit= ional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is= to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (see Chapter 19): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example5" /> le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u la'edi'u The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-se= ntence. Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of= FA with a subscript: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example6" /> fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u la'edi'u fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, @@ -785,104 +785,104 @@ to=20 also all mean the= same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, = despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other = member of SE or FA could be substituted into=20 sexixa and=20 faxixa without change of meaning:=20 vexixa means the same thing as=20 sexixa. Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma= 'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified su= mti to which they have been bound using=20 goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentiall= y or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more f= ully in=20 .) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo a= nd 3 da-series cmavo available. If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-ser= ies can be subscripted: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example7" /> daxivo X sub 4 is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, = and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example8" /> ko'ixipaso something-3 sub 18 is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series= . This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequence= s of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that=20 daxivo and=20 dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti, unlike = the situation with=20 sexixa and=20 vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to= the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi=20 broda,=20 brode,=20 brodi,=20 brodo, and=20 brodu. Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical = way to extend the number of variables: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example9" /> li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3 x-sub-3 x and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since= lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantic= ally equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In=20 , note the require= d terminator=20 boi after each=20 xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be a= ttached without ambiguity.) Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted t= o distinguish two individuals with the same name: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example10" /> la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire mi'enai John Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or p= lace that is described by the same general cmavo. For example,=20 puxipa could refer to one point in the past, and=20 puxire a second point (earlier or later). You can place a subscript on the word=20 ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express s= o-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whos= e truth value is not merely=20 true or=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 jei: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example11" /> li pimu jei mi ganra The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad. However, by convention we can attach a subscript to=20 ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to=20 na if we change the amount): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section6-example12" /> mi ja'a xipimu ganra I truly-sub-.5 am-broad Finally, as mentioned in=20 @@ -914,21 +914,21 @@ Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 free modifiers firstly,=20 firstly secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 mai or=20 mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here= are some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section7-example1" /> mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. firstly @@ -979,21 +979,21 @@ Lojban has a complex system of=20 attitudinals, words which indicate the speaker's attitu= de to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, i= ntensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and = evidentials (which indicate=20 indisputable bridi evidentials how the speaker knows). Most of these words belong to s= elma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reaso= ns, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo o= f UI and CAI are discussed in=20 ; only the rules for applying them i= n discourse are presented here. Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. How= ever, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a wh= ole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudin= al: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example4" /> @@ -1007,21 +1007,21 @@ mi viska le .ia blanu zdani [ku] I see the [belief] blue house I see what I believe to be a blue house. mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia I see (the blue house) [belief] I see what I believe to be a blue house. An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached t= o the preceding=20 .i, expressed or understood: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example5" /> [.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani [belief] I see the blue house. I believe I see a blue house. @@ -1036,21 +1036,21 @@ fu'e fu'o(of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. P= lacing=20 fu'o fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from wha= t precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words unti= l further notice. The notice is given by=20 fu'e fu'o, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-forc= e attitudinals. For example: fu'o - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section8-example6" /> mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse fu'o fu'e @@ -1086,21 +1086,21 @@ begin error quotation le'u LEhU end error quotation Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them= are sumti, and they all mean something like=20 the piece of text here quoted: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example1" /> mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u] I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote] I said,=20 I'm John. @@ -1114,36 +1114,36 @@ li'u(of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. Th= e text between=20 lu and=20 li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quo= tation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo=20 li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's al= most never possible to elide it except at the end of text. The cmavo=20 lo'u(of selma'o LOhU) and=20 le'u(of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation = that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist = of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 ), so that the=20 le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be = meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quota= tion with=20 lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for t= eaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to= mark such errors: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example2" /> lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-st= ructure in Lojban. is grammatical ev= en though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 embedded quotation lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which them= selves do not constitute grammatical utterances: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example3" /> lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. In the sentence=20 @@ -1156,39 +1156,39 @@ topic-comment ) and the indicator applyin= g to the selbri only (=20 ). Neither=20 viska le nor=20 viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require= =20 lo'u quotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 lo'u ... le'u is used: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example4" /> la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u .iku'i ri jmive Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. Charlie says=20 The woman is dead, but she is alive. In=20 ,=20 ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previ= ous sumti, namely=20 le ninmu. Compare: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section9-example5" /> la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u .iku'i ri jmive Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. Charlie says=20 @@ -1243,42 +1243,42 @@ la'o ZOI non-Lojban name The cmavo=20 zo(of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the si= ngle following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other u= ses,=20 strong quotation zo allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced withou= t having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically= legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo = are not permitted. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example1" /> zo si cu lojbo valsi si is a Lojbanic word. Since=20 zo acts on a single word only, there is no correspondin= g terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 zo, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation = are rarely or never elidable. The cmavo=20 zoi(of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non= -Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 non-Lojban text zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (called the de= limiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which= is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, b= ut not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to= the Lojban name of the language being quoted: phoneme stream - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example2" /> zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra John is a man is an English sentence. @@ -1292,21 +1292,21 @@ isomorphism isomorphism audio-visual isomorphism isomorphism is fine in speec= h but ungrammatical as written, whereas=20 is correct when = written but ungrammatical in speech. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example4" /> ?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy. I know about the word which-is=20 gyrations. @@ -1316,21 +1316,21 @@ The text=20 gy appears in the written word=20 gyrations, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by= =20 jai appears in the spoken word=20 gyrations. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a= matter of good style. It should be noted particularly that=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifica= lly CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote things which are= not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectivel= y, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example5" /> zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku sku is a rafsi of=20 cusku. @@ -1340,58 +1340,58 @@ zoi: The text between=20 lo'u and=20 le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-= Lojban material in the form of a=20 zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the word=20 le'u is used either as the delimiting word for the=20 zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, the oute= r=20 lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefor= e,=20 le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word in any=20 zoi quotation.) Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the name= s of things: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example6" /> zo .bab. cmene la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob. In=20 ,=20 zo .bab. is the word, whereas=20 la bab. is the thing named by the word. The cmavo=20 la'e and=20 lu'e(of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between re= ferences and their referents: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example8" /> zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word=20 Bob. lu'e la bab. cmene la bab. A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob. through=20 all mean approxi= mately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis.=20 is different: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example9" /> la bab. cmene la bab. Bob is the name of Bob. and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlik= ely situation. People are not names. @@ -1411,21 +1411,21 @@ la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Li= nnaean binomial names (such as=20 Linnaean Homo sapiens) which are the internationally standardize= d names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names whic= h can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such= as=20 plants Goethe, can also appear in Lojban text with=20 Goethe la'o: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section10-example10" /> la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly. Goethe Goethe is a Homo sapiens. @@ -1450,108 +1450,108 @@ za'e za'e BAhE next word is nonce English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for = contrastive emphasis, thus - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example1" /> I saw George. is quite different from - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example2" /> I saw The heavy stress on=20 George (represented in writing by=20 italics) indicates that I saw George rather than = someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only t= o help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate = syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that= many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word = order is rearranged, producing something like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example3" /> It was George whom I saw. In Lojban, the cmavo=20 ba'e(of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is t= o be emphasized: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example4" /> mi viska la ba'e .djordj. I saw the-one-named [emphasis]=20 George. I saw Note the pause before the name=20 djordj., which serves to separate it unambiguously from= the=20 ba'e. Alternatively, the=20 ba'e can be moved to a position before the=20 la, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct=20 la djordj.: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example5" /> mi viska ba'e la djordj. I saw [emphasis] the-one-named=20 George. I saw Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's g= rammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis mar= king: emphasis marking - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example7" /> ba'e mi viska la djordj. I, no one else, saw George. mi ba'e viska la djordj. I saw (not heard or smelled) George. Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi c= an also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker= 's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri whe= n moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree. For completeness, the cmavo=20 za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It mark= s a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occ= asion): za'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section11-example8" /> mi klama la za'e. .albeinias za'e I go-to so-called Albania @@ -1592,21 +1592,21 @@ sei SEI metalinguistic bridi marker The cmavo=20 to and=20 toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for = inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the pare= ntheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, re= fer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have bee= n assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, = but the reverse is not true. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example1" /> doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska= le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!)= you see the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. @@ -1615,21 +1615,21 @@ do within the parentheses: the listener is changed by= =20 doi frank. When the context sentence resumes, however, = the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored. There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:=20 to'i. The difference between=20 to and=20 to'i is the difference between parentheses and square b= rackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 square brackets to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, wh= ereas remarks within=20 to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an= editor: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example2" /> la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi l= i'u Frank expresses=20 I love you [you =3D Jane] @@ -1652,51 +1652,51 @@ The cmavo=20 sei(of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi= . Comments added with=20 embedded discursive sei are called=20 metalinguistic, because they are comments about the dis= course itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This s= ense of the term=20 metalinguistic is used throughout this chapter, and is = not to be confused with the sense=20 language for expressing other languages. When marked with=20 sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in anot= her utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have c= mavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example3" /> la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein. Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane. Using the happiness attitudinal,=20 happiness .ui, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, t= he speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elid= e the one who is happy, and say: happiness - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example4" /> la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. The grammar of the bridi following=20 sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either pr= ecede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 be and=20 bei: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example5" /> la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein. Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane. Susan @@ -1706,54 +1706,54 @@ Since a discursive utterance is working at a=20 higher level of abstraction than a non-discursive utter= ance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Sp= ecifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs= in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at=20 reciprocal higher metalinguistic levels in determining their refer= ent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguis= tic levels. For example, the English=20 metalinguistic levels he said in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this p= urpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level tha= n the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of = the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be = at a higher level than the context. Lojban works differently from English in that the=20 he said can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojb= an, you can say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example6" /> la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u John expresses=20 I go to-the store. which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the= central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversatio= n, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a= conversation, you don't want the=20 he said or=20 she said to be considered part of the conversation. If = unmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use: anaphora - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example7" /> lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei li'u I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence) I go to the store, said John. said John And of course other orders are possible: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section12-example9" /> lu seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei mi klama le zarci John said,=20 I go to the store. @@ -1792,67 +1792,67 @@ erase phrase su SU erase discourse The cmavo=20 si(of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that era= ses the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example1" /> ti gerku si mlatu This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat. means the same thing as=20 ti mlatu. Multiple=20 si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of = words: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example2" /> ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house. In order to erase the word=20 zo, it is necessary to use three=20 si cmavo in a row: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example3" /> zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the word=20 si, er, er, Bob. The first use of=20 si does not erase anything, but completes the=20 zo quotation. Two more=20 si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first=20 si and the=20 zo. Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with=20 si: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example4" /> mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton. I talk in-language that-named=20 and speranto, er, er, Esperanto. @@ -1861,21 +1861,21 @@ .esperanto breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban mo= rphology rules (see=20 ) into two Lojban words, the cmavo=20 .e and the undefined fu'ivla=20 speranto. Therefore, two=20 si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,=20 .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 la, but recognition of=20 si is done before grammatical analysis. Even more messy is the result of an incorrect=20 zoi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example5" /> mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan I express [foreign] [quote]=20 gy [unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 John. @@ -1892,21 +1892,21 @@ lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation and then= erasing it all with three=20 si cmavo. What if less than the entire=20 zo or=20 zoi construct is erased? The result is something which = has a loose=20 zo or=20 zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and which is i= ncurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the=20 zo as well: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example6" /> mi se cmene zo .djan. si si zo .djordj. I am-named-by the-word=20 John, er, er, the-word=20 George. @@ -1922,48 +1922,48 @@ precise erasures si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the c= mavo=20 sa(of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one= word. The cmavo following=20 sa should be the starting marker of some grammatical co= nstruct. The effect of the=20 starting marker sa is to erase back to and including the last starting = marker of the same kind. For example: starting marker - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example7" /> mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan. I see the ... I say the-word=20 John. Since the word following=20 sa is=20 .i, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the = preceding sentence. So=20 sentence separator is equivalent to= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example8" /> mi cusku zo .djan. Another example, erasing a partial description rather than a par= tial sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13-example9" /> mi viska le blanu zdan. sa le xekri zdani I see the blue hou ... the black house. In=20 diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 9f13b65..ec98681 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -1,20 +1,20 @@ Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams
The concept of the bridi This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence = structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successi= ve variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are man= y more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in l= ater chapters, so this chapter is a=20 quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: John and Sam - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example3" /> John is the father of Sam. @@ -57,43 +57,43 @@ John is the father of Sam| | | sumti selbri sumti (argument) In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being r= elated. In English, for example,=20 give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example4" /> John gives Sam the book. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example5" /> Sam gives John the book. mean two different things because the relative positions of=20 John and=20 Sam have been switched. Further, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section1-example6" /> The book gives John Sam. seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 give has not changed. @@ -249,50 +249,50 @@ Like the table in=20 , this table is far from com= plete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new word= s to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the = existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference betw= een Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and Englis= h; in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 explains how to make new words, and= =20 explains how to give them appropria= te meanings.
Some simple Lojban bridi Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the = gismu=20 tavla is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example1" /> x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 where the=20 x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example2" /> John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. engineering has=20 John in the x1 place,=20 Sam in the x2 place,=20 engineering in the x3 place, and=20 engineering Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section5-example3" /> Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering @@ -542,91 +542,91 @@ It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 .i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxi= mum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be a= dding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translati= on for=20 .i is the=20 and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....
tanru When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, = and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such comb= inations of gismu are called=20 tanru. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example1" /> sutra tavla has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example2" /> x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the se= cond, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meani= ng modifies the fourth, and so on. For example - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example3" /> sutra tavla cutci has the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example4" /> s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. fast talker Note especially the use of=20 type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example5" /> bajra cutci runner shoe runner shoe most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be= interpreted in some imaginative instances as=20 shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, t= he meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its component= s, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example6" /> sutra tavla fast-talker would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike th= e English idiom, and a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section9-example7" /> jikca toldi social butterfly social butterfly @@ -714,21 +714,21 @@ For example, 10.1) =20 mi tavla do le tavla ku means the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section10-example2" /> I talk to you about the talker where=20 the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. @@ -939,21 +939,21 @@ my arm doesn't mean=20 some arm I own but rather=20 the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.
Vocatives and commands commands You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addres= sing them by using=20 doi followed by their name. The sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example1" /> doi djan. means=20 Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of= setting the value of=20 @@ -966,21 +966,21 @@ vocative phrase Other cmavo can be used instead of=20 doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance= . For example, the cmavo=20 vocative phrase coi means=20 hello and=20 co'o means=20 good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow = one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phr= ases with=20 doi do not need a pause before the name.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section14-example3" /> coi. djan. Hello, John. co'o. djan. @@ -1139,32 +1139,32 @@ Clearly,=20 mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and th= e respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If contex= t doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the quest= ion more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (se= e=20 ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also s= pecified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered=20 Yes or=20 No, such as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section15-example8" /> Are you talking to me? Like all yes-or-no questions in English,=20 may be reformulat= ed as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section15-example9" /> Is it true that you are talking to me? In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in pr= ecisely the same way. The cmavo=20 xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that = bridi is true as stated. So @@ -1348,31 +1348,31 @@ za'a do [cu]=20 melbi I directly observe! You are beautiful.
Tenses In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category ca= lled tense: past, present, or future. The sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example1" /> John went to the store necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter2-section17-example2" /> John is going to the store is necessarily happening right now. The Lojban sentence diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index ce6bb88..8c77cbd 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -365,21 +365,21 @@ 3.2) .i,ai,i,ai,on. =20 [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94] The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use o= f pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, = but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation. glottal stop However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous i= nterpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphtho= ngs, producing something like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section3-example3" /> .i,iai,ii,iai,ion. which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent w= ith Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their nati= ve counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non= -Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the a= bility of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will = not affect the recognition of word boundaries. Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. The= refore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are no= t attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection,= in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack re= asonable Lojbanic counterparts.) @@ -552,35 +552,35 @@ u'u y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in= cmavo (structure words), but only=20 structure words .y'y. is so used - it is the Lojban name of the apostro= phe letter (see=20 ). When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal p= ronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanize= d name: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section5-example1" /> meiin. mei,in. contains the dipht= hong=20 ei followed by the vowel=20 i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma= must always be used, leading to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section5-example2" /> me,iin. which contains the vowel=20 e followed by the diphthong=20 @@ -871,72 +871,72 @@ It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. = For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names w= ith consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to i= ndicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication. syllabication doubled consonants consonant clusters Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication: syllabication - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example1" /> pujenaicajeba pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified be= fore each medial consonant. consonant pairs - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example2" /> ninmu nin,mu This word is split at a consonant pair. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example3" /> fitpri fit,pri This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two = consonants of the triple. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example4" /> sairgoi sair,goi sai,r,goi sai This word contains the consonant pair=20 rg; the=20 r may be pronounced syllabically or not. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example5" /> klezba klez,ba kle,zba @@ -972,35 +972,35 @@ y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. syllabic consonant buffer vowel Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban= content words (called=20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllab= le, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable = (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural w= ords (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis us= ed for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primar= y stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically w= ill follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary str= ess can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress = can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker m= ust not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolu= tion could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example6" /> dikyjvo DI,ky,jvo (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 ky is not counted in determining stress. The vowel=20 y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example7" /> .armstrong. .ARM,strong. This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 @@ -1030,82 +1030,82 @@ [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] or=20 [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] or even=20 [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 Armstrong could be Lojbanized as: Armstrong - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example10" /> .ARMstron. since Lojban=20 n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal=20 [=C5=8B]. Here is another example showing the use of=20 y: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example11" /> bisydja BI,sy,dja BI,syd,ja This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 bis and=20 dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant p= air results:=20 sd. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, = explained in=20 , a=20 y is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant p= air; the=20 y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress d= etermination. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example12" /> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener - t= he association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in rec= ognizing the word. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example13" /> e'u bridi e'u BRI,di E'u BRI,di e'U.BRI,di In=20 ,=20 e'u is a cmavo and=20 bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciatio= ns is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that - since the following word is a brivla - the two words = must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter3-section9-example15" /> le re nobli prenu le re NObli PREnu le re no bliprenu diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index e07696f..af80a45 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -275,21 +275,21 @@ 2) They end in a vowel. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example3" /> .iseci'i @@ -302,108 +302,108 @@ ki'e ki'e .u'e ki'e The cmavo=20 .u'e begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning = with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by=20 .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply becau= se the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example4" /> ki'e'u'e ki'e is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has fou= r vowels. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example5" /> cy.ibu.abu cy. .ibu .abu Again the pauses are required (see=20 ); the pause after=20 cy. merges with the pause before=20 .ibu. There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compoun= ds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmav= o, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example i= s - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example6" /> .e'o ko ko kurji e'o .E'o ko ko KURji This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, = since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthet= ically pleasing. If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syl= lable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop= between the two stressed syllables. Thus glottal stop - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example7" /> le re nanmu can be optionally pronounced - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example8" /> le RE. NANmu since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first t= wo words; the stress on=20 re, though, demands that a pause separate=20 re from the following syllable=20 nan to ensure that the stress on=20 nan is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alter= native pronunciation stressed vowel stressed syllable - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example9" /> LE re NANmu is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purpo= ses of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to=20 le, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phra= se=20 THE two men. In=20 , the secondary str= ess on=20 re would be similar to that in the English phrase=20 the TWO men. Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section2-example10" /> le re NANmu This would probably be the most common usage.
@@ -508,21 +508,21 @@ kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 gizmu, and=20 gisnu cannot be. Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words dra= wn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Rus= sian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given= concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were writt= en in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recogniza= bility of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting th= e inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speaker= s of that language. See=20 inclusion for a full explanation of = the algorithm. Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents= (not definitions): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section4-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d5" /> @@ -557,41 +557,41 @@ <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section15" /> for a list.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5"> <title>lujvo When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or,= more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), = a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban ta= nru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the = broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or sp= ecific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English ad= verbs or adjectives. For example, adverbs adjectives - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example1" /> skami pilno is the tanru which expresses the concept of=20 computer user. The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas.= Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and com= bine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recom= bined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more com= plex or more specific ideas, and so on. The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:=20 skami pilno could refer to a computer that is a user, o= r to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier com= ponent can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use= cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of me= aning. Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a scie= nce. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is= unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defin= ing the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devisi= ng a new tanru is dealt with in detail in=20 . To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu togeth= er. Thus the binary metaphor=20 big boat becomes the tanru big boat - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example2" /> barda bloti representing roughly the same concept as the English word=20 ship. @@ -599,80 +599,80 @@ father mother can refer to a paternal grandmother (=20 paternal grandmother father mother a father-ly type of mother), while=20 mother father can refer to a maternal grandfather (=20 mother father a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become th= e tanru - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example3" /> patfu mamta and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example4" /> mamta patfu respectively. The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the = last case. To interpret=20 , the listener must= determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred = to. In an appropriate context,=20 mamta patfu could mean not=20 grandfather but simply=20 father with some motherly attributes, depending on the = culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and= explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detai= l is usually not needed. When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequen= tly expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of th= e tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For=20 , we would probably= choose=20 user of computers, and form the new word - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example5" /> sampli Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its componen= t words, is called a=20 lujvo. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of= =20 , would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example6" /> bralo'i big-boat ship The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units represe= nting the component gismu. These units are called=20 rafsi in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. = The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occ= asionally inserting so-called=20 hyphen letters to ensure that the pieces stick together= as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu= , or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accuratel= y recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spo= ken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique = source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning. word forms The lujvo that can be built from the tanru=20 mamta patfu in=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example7" /> mampa'u which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 @@ -697,21 +697,21 @@ A=20 y(which is ignored in determining stress or consonant c= lusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the wor= d together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word= is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these condition= s, detailed in=20 doubled consonants consonant clusters . An=20 r(in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the be= ginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For ex= ample, in the lujvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example8" /> soirsai sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations @@ -743,21 +743,21 @@ rafsi form long rafsi, they are called=20 long rafsi unreduced lujvo. unreduced lujvo Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are: unreduced lujvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d5" /> @@ -925,21 +925,21 @@ <quote>ma'a</quote> as possible rafsi: in fact, only=20 <!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm> <quote>mam</quote> is assigned to it.</para> <para>Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For exa= mple, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each ha= ve a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo t= hat have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see= =20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter12" />).</para> <para>The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is=20 <quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully re= duced lujvo:</para> <!-- ^^ fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary></indext= erm> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-QIgb"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-QIgb"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example9" /> @@ -964,21 +964,21 @@ sniju'o from=20 sinxa djuno sign know In addition, some of the unreduced forms in the previous example= may be fully reduced to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example11" /> mampa'u from=20 mamta patfu @@ -1041,34 +1041,34 @@ r. For example, the tanru=20 rokci renro(=20 rock throw) cannot be expressed as=20 ro'ire'o(which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be= =20 ro'irre'o(which has an impermissible double consonant);= the=20 n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphe= nated lujvo is=20 ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be expressed witho= ut hyphenation as=20 rokre'o. There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phras= es which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can ma= ke a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with th= e special cmavo=20 zei. Thus, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example12" /> bridi zei valsi is the exact equivalent of=20 brivla(but not necessarily the same as the underlying t= anru=20 bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) Using=20 zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a c= mene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example16" /> @@ -1103,21 +1103,21 @@ tank is particularly n= oteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 zei s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is= not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two componen= ts, but by adding a=20 zei between=20 by. and=20 livgyterbilma to produce - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section6-example17" /> na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis hepatitis @@ -1149,38 +1149,38 @@ integral iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for= concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The= vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific= terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowe= d (actually=20 plants copied) into Lojban from the original language. There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become mo= re and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of= a foreign name quoted with the cmavo=20 borrowing la'o(explained in full in=20 ): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example1" /> me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. spaghetti is a predicate with the place structure=20 x1 is a quantity of spaghetti. spaghetti Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name,= as explained in=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example2" /> me la spagetis. One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need = a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you= do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are ta= lking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.) @@ -1256,42 +1256,42 @@ Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can= be used instead of the long rafsi. long rafsi Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exampl= es, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not b= e pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example3" /> spaghetti (from English or Italian) spaghetti spageti (Lojbanize) cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi) long rafsi dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi) where=20 cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with the short= rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any e= vent, it means the same thing. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example4" /> Acer (the scientific name of maple trees) maple trees Acer @@ -1306,75 +1306,75 @@ ric- are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 maple sugar saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tanru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely= be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example5" /> brie (from French) brie bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi) where=20 cirl- represents=20 cirla(=20 cheese). - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example6" /> cobra cobra kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi) where=20 sinc- represents=20 since(=20 snake). - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example7" /> quark quark kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi) where=20 sask- represents=20 saske(=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong=20 ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appe= ar in fu'ivla. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example8" /> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) Korean djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) @@ -1416,21 +1416,21 @@ integral might be conveyed with=20 integral djinrnintegrale or=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinju and=20 tarmi mean=20 building and=20 form respectively. Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, = shown with more than one rafsi prefix: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section7-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d13" /> @@ -1470,21 +1470,21 @@ <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm> <quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8"> <title>cmene Lojbanized names, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. direct address Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban a= ttempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modific= ation. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analy= zable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they a= re Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban= equivalents: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d5" /> @@ -1516,52 +1516,52 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>(Note that syllabic=20 <quote>r</quote> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so= =20 <!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 --> <!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexter= m> <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example6" /> is stressed on the= =20 <quote>ka</quote>.)</para> - <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"random-id-TX1F"> + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-TX1F"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example8" /> katis. Cathy Cathy keit. Kate Kate Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, a= nd are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual= stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each= ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a sin= gle word with no pause. For example, capitalization - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example9" /> djan. djonz. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example10" /> djandjonz. are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Jones. @@ -1611,21 +1611,21 @@ They are always followed in speech by a pause after the fina= l consonant, written as=20 .. They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is no= t the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names n= or words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the onl= y use of capital letters. capital letters Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from na= mes in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a = gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section8-example14" /> @@ -2136,21 +2136,21 @@ The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. No= te that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short = words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words wit= h fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjectiv= e), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle = is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possi= ble that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it = is ten times better than the alternative. hyphens Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowes= t scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section12-example4" /> @@ -2613,47 +2613,47 @@
rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controvers= ial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section16-example1" /> tci'ile Chilean is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a S= tage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if = they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but = does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section16-example2" /> tci'ile ke canre tutra Chilean type-of (sand territory) Chilean desert Chilean desert could be represented by the lujvo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section16-example3" /> tci'ilykemcantutra which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo u= nder this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigne= d to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo= . The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called= =20 diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index c7dc375..515f441 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -8,118 +8,118 @@ do mamta mi You are-a-mother-of me You are my mother and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example2" /> do patfu mi You are-a-father-of me. You are my father. lies in the different selbri. The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a b= rivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built= into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations o= f the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified f= orm) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo= that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in=20 , and discussed in full in= =20 . For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike.= For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example3" /> ta bloti That is-a-boat. That is a boat. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example4" /> ta brablo That is-a-large-boat. That is a ship. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example5" /> schoonerex= ample ta blotrskunri That is-a-(boat)-schooner. That is a schooner. illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla = respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word who= se meaning can be learned independent of its origins. The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example b= rivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind tha= t wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivl= a.
-
+
Simple tanru nounsbrivla = as Lojban equivalents verbsbrivla = as Lojban equivalents adjectivesbr= ivla as Lojban equivalents adverbsbrivl= a as Lojban equivalents Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla pla= ced together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla,= it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The neares= t analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as=20 lemon tree. There is no way to tell just by looking at = the phrase=20 lemon tree exactly what it refers to, even if you know = the meanings of=20 lemon and=20 tree by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply= know that it refers to=20 a tree which bears lemons as fruits. A person who didn'= t know English very well might think of it as analogous to=20 brown tree and wonder,=20 What kind of tree is lemon-colored? In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English = adjective-noun combinations like=20 big boy and adverb-verb combinations like=20 quickly run. This is a consequence of Lojban not having= any such categories as=20 noun,=20 verb,=20 adjective, or=20 adverb. English words belonging to any of these categor= ies are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of ta= nru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example1" /> lemon tree= example tu pelnimre tricu That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree). That is a lemon tree. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example2" /> la djan. barda nanla That-named John is-a-big boy. John is a big boy. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example3" /> quick runnerexample mi sutra bajra I quick run I quickly run./I run quickly. @@ -128,21 +128,21 @@ pelnimre is a lujvo for=20 lemon; it is derived from the gismu=20 pelxu, yellow, and=20 nimre, citrus. Note also that=20 sutra can mean=20 fast/quick or=20 quickly depending on its use: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example4" /> mi sutra I am-fast/quick shows=20 @@ -150,169 +150,169 @@ it is translating = an adverb. (Another correct translation of=20 , however, would be= =20 I am a quick runner.) There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru= , derived from the place structure of the word=20 tanru. The first component is called the=20 seltau, and the second component is called the= =20 tertau. The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that th= e tertau carries the primary meaning. A=20 pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and only se= condarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alte= rnative translation of=20 would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example5" /> That is a lemon type of tree. This=20 type of relationship between the components of a tanru = is fundamental to the tanru concept. We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tert= au: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example6" /> That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to t= rees) would be another possible translation of=20 . In the same way, = a more explicit translation of=20 might be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example7" /> John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big. This=20 way that boys are big would be quite different from the= way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant. All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example8" /> ta klama jubme That is-a-goer type-of-table. include: That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps= ). That is a table owned by one who goes. That is a table used by those who go (a sports docto= r's table?). That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chai= r?). In each case the object referred to is a=20 goer type of table, but the ambiguous=20 type of relationship can mean one of many things. A spe= aker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of= being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and = expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can re= quire too much effort. No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exi= sts; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviousl= y do exist: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example9" /> do barda prenu You are-a-large person. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section2-example10" /> do cmalu prenu You are-a-small person. are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between= =20 barda and=20 prenu is the same as that between=20 cmalu and=20 prenu.=20 and=20 contain a partial listing = of some types of tanru, with examples.
-
+
Three-part tanru grouping with=20 <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> tanru groupingthree-part The following cmavo is discussed in this section: bo BO closest scope grouping Consider the English sentence: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example1" /> That's a little girls' school. What does it mean? Two possible readings are: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example2" /> That's a little school for girls. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example3" /> That's a school for little girls. This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguit= y described in=20 - . We understand that=20 + . We understand that=20 girls' school means=20 a school where girls are the students, and not=20 a school where girls are the teachers or=20 a school which is a girl(!). Likewise, we understand th= at=20 little girl means=20 girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 girls' school to be taken as a unit, with=20 little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type = of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or=20 speech rhythmfor grouping in English exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented. tanru groupingwith bo Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit word= s are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 bo(which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed b= etween the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban tran= slation of=20 would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example4" /> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small girl [] school. might be translate= d: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example5" /> ta cmalu bo nixli ckule That is-a-small [] girl school. The=20 @@ -329,21 +329,21 @@ nixli as the seltau and=20 ckule as the tertau. In=20 , on the other hand= , the seltau is=20 cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the te= rtau is=20 ckule.=20 tanru nested within tanru This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all th= e more complex types of selbri that will be explained below. What about=20 ? What does it mean= ? - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example6" /> ta cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-small girl school. The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the= rules of English do with=20 @@ -351,93 +351,93 @@ means the same as= =20 . This is true no m= atter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped togeth= er. This rule is called the=20 left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common - though not universal - in other contexts = in Lojban. Another way to express the English meaning of=20 and=20 , using parentheses= to mark grouping, is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example7" /> ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example8" /> ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school. Because=20 type-of is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no= Lojban equivalent. Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert=20 bo into a simple tanru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example9" /> ta klama bo jubme That is-a-goer [] table. is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 , and is ambiguous = in exactly the same ways. The cmavo=20 bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: i= t says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.
Complex tanru grouping tanru groupingcomplex If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both ele= ments? - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example1" /> do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). You are a very large dog-catcher. In=20 , the selbri is a t= anru with seltau=20 mutce bo barda and tertau=20 gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once again that= this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: t= he sense in which the=20 dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the r= amifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 pretty little girls' school= - to four brivla. (Although this e= xample has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning - it = first appeared in Quine's book=20 + to four brivla. (Althoug= h this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginni= ng - it first appeared in Quine's book=20 Word and Object(1960) - it is actually a mediocre= example because of the ambiguity of English=20 pretty; it can mean=20 beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 very. Lojban=20 melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example5" /> @@ -459,21 +459,21 @@ uses a constructio= n which has not been seen before:=20 cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive uses of= =20 bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 right-grouping rule bo in the language. Therefore, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section4-example6" /> ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). means the same as=20 @@ -506,21 +506,21 @@ There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed wi= th the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grou= ping parentheses cmavo,=20 pretty little girls' school= grouping parentheses ke and=20 ke'e(belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). An= y portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a s= ingle tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 can be rewritten i= n any of the following ways: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example3" /> ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule @@ -528,53 +528,53 @@ ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school. ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ). Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num= ber of=20 ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a wa= ste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the fo= llowing is equivalent to=20 and may be easier = to understand: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example4" /> ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of s= chool. Likewise, a=20 ke and=20 ke'e version of=20 would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example5" /> ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ). The final=20 ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that = it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 square brackets ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example6" /> ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). That is a beautiful school for small girls. @@ -582,32 +582,32 @@ is distinctly diff= erent in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the= =20 ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-grouping rule is appl= ied to=20 cmalu nixli ckule. tanru groupingwith ke and bo It is perfectly all right to mix=20 bo and=20 ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For instance,=20 , which in pure=20 ke ... ke'e form is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example7" /> ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ). can equivalently be expressed as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section5-example8" /> ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ). and in many other different forms as well. @@ -627,109 +627,109 @@ gi GI forethought connection separator observatives forethought connection Consider the English phrase=20 big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: big red dog - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example1" /> barda xunre gerku (big type-of red) type-of dog will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever= way redness might be described as=20 big. Nor is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example2" /> barda xunre bo gerku big type-of (red type-of dog) much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the= English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not mer= ely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are i= ndependent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjecti= ve ordering prevent us from saying=20 adjective ordering red big dog. The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: big red dog - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example3" /> barda je xunre gerku (big and red) type-of dog Of course, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example4" /> xunre je barda gerku (red and big) type-of dog is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examp= les indicate, joining two brivla with=20 je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, expli= cit grouping with=20 bo or=20 ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closely than=20 je does: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example5" /> barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog big yellowish-red dog With no grouping indicators, we get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example6" /> barda je pelxu xunre gerku ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog biggish- and yellowish-red dog which again raises the question of=20 : what does=20 biggish-red mean? Unlike=20 bo and=20 ke ... ke'e,=20 je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanr= u. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example7" /> ta blanu je zdani that is-blue and is-a-house definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 @@ -738,80 +738,80 @@ blanu je zdani has no such implication - the blueness o= f a=20 blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness. With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 pretty little girls' school= for a complete list. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special eluc= idation. There are at least two possible interpretations of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example8" /> ta melbi je nixli ckule That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. It can be understood as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example9" /> That is a girls' school and a beautiful school. or as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example10" /> That is a school for things which are both girls and beautifu= l. The interpretation specified by=20 treats the tanru a= s a sort of abbreviation for: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example11" /> ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of scho= ol ) whereas the interpretation specified by=20 does not. This is= a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resol= ution. The way in which the school is said to be of type=20 beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a b= eautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, th= at the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Sti= ll another interpretation is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example12" /> That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the = formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives= that exist outside tanru; see=20 for further details. The logical connective=20 je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example16" /> @@ -838,21 +838,21 @@ naja means=20 only if in=20 ,=20 jo means=20 if and only if in=20 , and=20 ju means=20 whether or not in=20 . Now consider the following example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example17" /> ricfu je blanu jabo crino jabo rich and (blue or green) @@ -864,75 +864,75 @@ jabo is to=20 jabo ja as plain=20 bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 ja and=20 jabo group less closely than=20 jabo bo does: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example18" /> ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu jabo rich and (blue or green =E2=80=93 blue) rich and (blue or greenish-blue) An alternative form of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example19" /> ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] rich and (blue or green) In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety= of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. = The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 joi, which is the kind of=20 and that denotes a mixture: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example20" /> ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue and red) ball. blue and red The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 is distinct from:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example21" /> ti blanu xunre bolci This is a bluish-red ball which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example22" /> ti blanu je xunre bolci This is a (blue and red) ball blue and red @@ -940,42 +940,42 @@ is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. blue and red Finally, just as English=20 and has the variant form=20 both ... and, so=20 je between tanru components has the variant form=20 gu'e ... gi, where=20 gu'e is placed before the components and=20 gi between them: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example23" /> gu'e barda gi xunre gerku (both big and red) type-of dog is equivalent in meaning to=20 . For each logical = connective related to=20 je, there is a corresponding connective related to=20 gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. The portion of a=20 gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri reso= urces including=20 je logical connections. After the=20 gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same scope as=20 bo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section6-example24" /> gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu (both (big and red) and dog) or cat something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat @@ -1019,55 +1019,55 @@ mamta. What about more complex selbri? For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structu= re of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place = structure of=20 blanu zdani is that of=20 zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. What about the places of=20 blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 blanu with=20 xamgu, we get: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example1" /> ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. good house This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. Since=20 xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 necessarily omits = information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made= , however! - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example2" /> ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. This is a house that is good for you by my standards. Here, the gismu=20 xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 be(of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti= follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, bu= t fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If = there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 bei(of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminate= d by the elidable terminator=20 be'o(of selma'o BEhO). Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion = plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a f= ully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places f= illed in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example3" /> ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci le mela nu,IORK. prenu @@ -1088,43 +1088,43 @@ Brooklyn to the New York community and operated by the state. Here the three places of=20 cmalu, the three of=20 nixli, and the four of=20 ckule are fully specified. Since the places of=20 ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was no= t necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example4" /> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] I go (to-the market from-the house). means the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example5" /> mi klama le zarci le zdani I go to-the market from-the house. No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dicta= tes the place structure: the place structure of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example6" /> melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) a school for girls which is both beautiful and small @@ -1133,108 +1133,108 @@ .) It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure or= dering tags=20 linked sumti fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu(of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly specify = the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following t= he=20 be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example7" /> ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. which is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Note that the ord= er of=20 be,=20 bei, and=20 be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 fi tells us that=20 mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted= =20 fe tells us that=20 do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example8" /> ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. This is a good house by my standards. good house Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted = into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi: linked sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example9" /> ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house. That is a blue, as I see it, house. The meaning of=20 is slightly differ= ent from: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example10" /> ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. That is a blue house, as I see it. See discussions in=20 of modals and in=20 of tenses for more explanations. The terminator=20 be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 linked sumti be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example12" /> le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house. le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house (Relative clauses are explained in=20 .) In other cases, however,=20 be'o cannot be elided if=20 ku has also been elided: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section7-example13" /> le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani the good (for the teacher) house requires either=20 @@ -1257,21 +1257,21 @@ tanru inversion The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precede= s what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of=20 blue houses, not of=20 houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the s= ame thing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example2" /> ta blanu zdani That is-a-blue type-of-house. That is a blue house. @@ -1290,21 +1290,21 @@ co(=20 blanu) in=20 ) is the seltau. The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a ta= nru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of=20 zdani co blanu is still that of=20 zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 , we saw how to fill interio= r places with=20 be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 and=20 have the same mean= ing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example4" /> mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. I try to go to the market from the house. @@ -1333,136 +1333,136 @@ troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 le zarci and=20 le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite appearanc= es. As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 ) for referring to individual sumti o= f a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 , because they are = not really=20 sumti of the bridi at all. When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it= only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversi= on of=20 , for instance, is:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example5" /> ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. That's a girls' school which is small. tanru groupingeffect of tanru inversion on Note that the=20 bo of=20 is optional in=20 , because=20 co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a=20 co: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example6" /> ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. That's a small school for girls which is beautiful. In=20 , the=20 ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 co from any selbri: change=20 A co B to=20 ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti following the= selbri must be transformed into=20 be ... bei ... be'o form and attached following B.) The= refore, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example7" /> ckule co melbi nixli school of-type pretty girl school for beautiful girls means the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example8" /> ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule (pretty girl) school Multiple=20 co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multipl= e inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 right-grouping rule bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example9" /> ckule co nixli co cmalu school of-type (girl of-type little) becomes formally - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example10" /> ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ( (little) girl ) school which by the left-grouping rule is simply - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example11" /> cmalu nixli ckule little girl school school for little girls As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example12" /> mi klama co sutra I am-a-goer of-type quick I go quickly cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section8-example13" /> mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. I go to the store quickly. @@ -1512,45 +1512,45 @@ KEI terminator for NU So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from bri= vla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Loj= ban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either d= irectly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple= selbri are discussed at length in=20 ,=20 , and=20 ; but for completeness these types a= re mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in s= elbri. The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-brid= i, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a = fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example1" /> la djan. klama le zarci John goes-to the market. you may retort: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example2" /> la djan. go'i troci John [repeat last] are-a-tryer John tries to. is short for: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example3" /> la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier. because the whole bridi of=20 @@ -1567,49 +1567,49 @@ Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into= selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 mathematical expressions su'i, meaning=20 plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 nu'a(of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is= : x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, = x3, etc. for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example4" /> li vo nu'a su'i li re li re The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. A possible tanru example might be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example5" /> mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. I understand addition problems. addition problems More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expressi= on with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. D= etails are available in=20 numerical selbri . Here are a few tanru: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example7" /> la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. @@ -1622,34 +1622,34 @@ Anyi and Asun are two brothers. two brothers brothers Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivl= a is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of se= lma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator=20 kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 . A few examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example8" /> ti nu zdile kei kumfa This is-an-event-of amusement room. This is an amusement room. is quite distinct = in meaning from: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section9-example9" /> ti zdile kumfa This is-an-amuser room. which suggests the meaning=20 @@ -1665,100 +1665,100 @@ me A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with=20 me(of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable te= rminator=20 me'u(of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pla= ce structure x1 is one of the referents of=20 [the sumti] which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example1" /> le ci nolraitru the three noblest-governors the three kings If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradi= tion, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: Three Kings - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example2" /> la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of=20 the three kings. Balthazar is one of the three kings. and likewise - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example3" /> la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru Caspar is one of the three kings. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example4" /> la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru Melchior is one of the three kings. If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of=20 me is much like that of=20 du: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example5" /> do du la djan. You are-identical-with the-one-called=20 John. You are John. means the same as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example6" /> do me la djan. You are-the-referent-of=20 the-one-called =E2=80=98John'. You are John. It is common to use=20 me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 la, as seltau. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section10-example7" /> ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called =E2=80=98Chrysler') car. Chrysler @@ -1776,21 +1776,21 @@ indefinite description ), and if the indefinite description = is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 Three Kings @@ -1840,226 +1840,226 @@ me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 be'o in=20 ) the=20 me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.
Conversion of simple selbri Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its place= s appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti w= ith the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in=20 , and then rearranging the o= rder in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the se= lbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places= . In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example1" /> mi prami do I love you. is equivalent in meaning to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example2" /> do se prami mi You [swap x1 and x2] love me. You are loved by me. Conversion is fully explained in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, t= he important point about conversion is that it applies only to the followin= g simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary= to be careful! Consider=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example3" /> la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. Alice walks to the market. To convert this sentence so that=20 le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example4" /> le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice. The=20 ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to be conve= rted by the=20 se, which would otherwise convert only=20 cadzu, leading to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example5" /> le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice. whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 cadzu klama is that of=20 klama alone, is to convert only the latter: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example6" /> le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice. But the tanru in=20 may or may not ha= ve the same meaning as that in=20 ; in particular, b= ecause=20 cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that alth= ough Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as= x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section11-example7" /> la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo=20 jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 .
Scalar negation of selbri Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in th= is chapter; see=20 . In brief, there are two main types= of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example1" /> la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something oth= er than that of walking there. But if the=20 ke were omitted, the result would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example2" /> la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. Alice doesn't walk to the market. meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 negates both=20 cadzu and=20 klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 may be used in place of bri= vla in any of these examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example3" /> la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku Jones is non-1st speaker Jones is not the first speaker. Since only=20 pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he i= s some other kind of speaker. Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the inter= action of scalar negation with=20 bo grouping,=20 ke and=20 ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 be and=20 bei: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example4" /> mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.<= /en> In=20 ,=20 na'e negates only=20 sutra. Contrast=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example5" /> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.<= /en> Now consider=20 and=20 , which are equiva= lent in meaning, but use=20 ke grouping and=20 bo grouping respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example7" /> mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci I (quickly =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. However, if we place a=20 na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 and=20 , we get different= results: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example9" /> mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci I ( (non- quickly) =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and s= lowly) go-to the market. I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quic= kly, and also slowly. @@ -2073,36 +2073,36 @@ negates the whole= construction from=20 ke to=20 ke'e, whereas in=20 it negates=20 sutra alone. Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the= explicit=20 omitting terminators ke'e is left out in=20 , it is transforme= d into: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example10" /> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking using my arms and slowly going to the market. And if both=20 ke'e and=20 be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section12-example11" /> mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, = both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. @@ -2118,93 +2118,93 @@ linked sumti le zarci following the selbri falls into the nonexisten= t x4 place of=20 cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) Finally, it is also possible to place=20 na'e before a=20 gu'e ... gi logically connected tanru construction. The= meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.
Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example1" /> mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. I went to the market. the cmavo=20 pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are altern= ative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are expla= ined in=20 , behave in the same way as tenses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 na(of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selb= ri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without say= ing anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar = negation of=20 . For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example2" /> la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. Jones isn't the first speaker. Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 doesn't say. Ther= e are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explain= ed fully in=20 . Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permi= tted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in = meaning: negation cmavo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example3" /> mi na pu klama le zarci mi pu na klama le zarci It is false that I went to the market. I didn't go to the market. It is also possible to have more than one=20 na, in which case pairs of=20 na cmavo cancel out: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example4" /> mi na na klama le zarci It is false that it is false that I go to the market. I go to the market. It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple= =20 na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 tense in scope of sticky tense multiple tenses compound tense . - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section13-example5" /> mi na pu na ca klama le zarci I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. @@ -2654,21 +2654,21 @@ The logical connective=20 je is associative: that is,=20 A and (B and C) is the same as=20 (A and B) and C. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16= .40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connect= ed and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted = in the examples themselves. However, if=20 irrelevant je were replaced by=20 naja or=20 jo or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct. It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent onl= y one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section16-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d5" /> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 8fd6614..02762bb 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6"> <title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti
The five kinds of simple sumti simple sumti If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti i= s by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of = simple Lojban sentences like: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example1" /> mi klama le zarci I go-to the market In=20 @@ -63,51 +63,51 @@ 5) pure numbers, which usually begin with=20 li. Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example2" /> e'osai ko sarji la lojban. Please support Lojban! exhibits=20 ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 la lojban., a name. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example3" /> mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu I express=20 Please! to-the reader. exhibits=20 mi, a pro-sumti;=20 lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 le tcidu, a description. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section1-example4" /> ti mitre li ci This measures-in-meters the-number three. This is three meters long. @@ -143,21 +143,21 @@ ku KU elidable terminator for LE, LA The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it = can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in = particular, are discussed in=20 . However, most descriptions have jus= t two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri.= (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until= =20 .) Furthermore, the selbri = is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example1" /> le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market the market @@ -166,40 +166,40 @@ too long le is quite close in meaning to English=20 the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 the does not have. The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti whic= h might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. T= hus=20 le zarci conveys something which might be found in the = x1 place of=20 zarci, namely a market. The specific purpose of=20 le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example2" /> le zarci cu barda One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as=20 markets is/are-big. The market is big. The markets are big. Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to mar= kets is to just one (=20 the market) or to more than one (=20 the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 are valid. Only th= e context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban = has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechani= sm is explained in=20 .) Now consider the following strange-looking example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example3" /> le nanmu cu ninmu One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as=20 men are women. The man is a woman. The men are women. @@ -216,39 +216,39 @@ observation In all descriptions with=20 le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 would then be perf= ectly intelligible, since=20 le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at the sup= posed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same = direction. The second descriptor dealt with in this section is=20 lo. Unlike=20 le,=20 lo is nonspecific: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example4" /> lo zarci one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets a market some markets Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect= of using=20 lo in=20 is to refer genera= lly to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 le zarci,=20 lo zarci must refer to something which actually is a ma= rket (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose s= elbri is=20 zarci). Thus - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example5" /> lo nanmu cu ninmu Some man is a woman. Some men are women. @@ -256,21 +256,21 @@ real world true, because thos= e specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In g= eneral,=20 lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= The last descriptor of this section is=20 la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 le descriptions,=20 la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 .) For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example6" /> la cribe pu finti le lisri The-one-named=20 bear [past] creates the story. Bear wrote the story. @@ -279,49 +279,49 @@ ,=20 la cribe refers to someone whose naming predicate is=20 naming predicate cribe, i.e.=20 Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 Frank coincides with the English word=20 frank, meaning=20 honest, and so one way of translating=20 Frank ate some cheese into Lojban would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example7" /> la stace pu citka lo cirla The-one-called=20 Honest/Frank [past] eats some cheese. English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be m= ore attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the mean= ing (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may fee= l differently. (In point of fact,=20 Frank originally meant=20 the free one rather than=20 the honest one.) It is important to note the differences between=20 and the following:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example8" /> le cribe pu finti le lisri One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [pas= t] creates the story. The bear(s) wrote the story. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example9" /> lo cribe pu finti le lisri One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] cre= ates the story. A bear wrote the story. Some bears wrote the story. @@ -339,21 +339,21 @@ le may communicate better than=20 lo.) So while=20 could easily be tr= ue (there is a real writer named=20 Greg Bear), and=20 could be true if t= he speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,= =20 is certainly false= . Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 and=20 respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section2-example11" /> le remna pu finti le lisri The human being(s) wrote the story. lo remna pu finti le lisri @@ -397,21 +397,21 @@ the mass of those named All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of = three types of objects, known as=20 individuals,=20 masses, and=20 sets. The term=20 individual is misleading when used to refer to more tha= n one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the des= criptions in=20 and=20 refer to individuals, wheth= er one or more than one. Consider the following example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example1" /> le prenu cu bevri le pipno One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= carry the piano The person(s) carry the piano. @@ -420,21 +420,21 @@ (Of course the second=20 le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 le, the one preceding=20 prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) Suppose the context of=20 is such that you c= an determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I a= m claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can= be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in= a variety of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must= be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 ca= rried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example2" /> lei prenu cu bevri le pipno The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry t= he piano. carry the piano @@ -446,62 +446,62 @@ piano-moving lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appl= icable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarit= ies may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the com= ponent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say tha= t a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of = the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. The descriptors=20 loi and=20 lai are analogous to=20 lo and=20 la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 loi) or by name (=20 lai). A classic example of=20 loi use is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example3" /> loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa. The difference between=20 lei and=20 loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individuals whic= h the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of all those = individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 to be true even th= ough some lions do not dwell in Africa - they live in various zoos around t= he world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually s= ay that most lions live in Africa: equally true is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example4" /> loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons<= /gloss> dwell in-the African-land. The English dwell in Africa. since there is at least one English person living there.=20 explains another method of = saying what is usually meant by=20 The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living i= n Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by E= nglish plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when = the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes = by singulars with no article: articles article - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example5" /> loi matne cu ranti matne Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. Butter is soft. @@ -517,21 +517,21 @@ x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butter is translated as something like=20 a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) The mass name descriptor=20 name descriptor mass name lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 , - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3-example6" /> lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear [past] creates the nearby book. The Bears wrote this book. @@ -574,21 +574,21 @@ cardinality le'i,=20 lo'i and=20 la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 loi, and=20 lo'i: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section4-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section4-example3" /> lo ratcu cu bunre @@ -608,21 +608,21 @@ set of rats Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing th= e set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set= sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of=20 fadni is: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members= of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section4-example4" /> mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. typical Lojban user @@ -652,53 +652,53 @@ stereotypical As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for di= scriminating between=20 the lion who lives in Africa and=20 the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 lo'e means=20 the typical, as in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example1" /> lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. What is this=20 typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example2" /> lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England= . The relationship between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical lion is a= n imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There= is a similar relationship between=20 le'e and=20 le'i: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example3" /> le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. stereotypical Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. @@ -708,21 +708,21 @@ Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans= , but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by o= ne (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 stereotypical le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 le'e cinfo may be very fine. Furthermore, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section5-example4" /> le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. stereotypical @@ -766,21 +766,21 @@ two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the partic= ular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later= in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 piro and=20 pisu'o, are explained in=20 pisu'o .) Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example2" /> do cadzu le bisli You walk-on the ice. re do cadzu le bisli @@ -790,41 +790,41 @@ The difference between=20 and=20 is the presence of= the explicit quantifier=20 re in the latter example. Although=20 re by itself means=20 two, when used as a quantifier it means=20 two-of. Out of the group of listeners (the number of wh= ich isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be=20 walkers on the ice. Implicitly, the others (if any) are= not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say=20 I own three shoes if in fact you own four shoes. Number= s need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.<= /para> (This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a numbe= r which is vague. The sentence - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example3" /> mi ponse su'o ci cutci I possess at-least three shoes. is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger nu= mber. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematica= l expressions in=20 vague numbers mathematical expressions .) Now consider=20 again. How many of= the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: = all of them, however many that is. So=20 and=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example4" /> ro do cadzu le bisli All-of you walk-on the ice. turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy= , because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice,= I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And = in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as=20 @@ -834,74 +834,74 @@ mi'o and=20 ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti h= ave a so-called=20 personal pro-sumti implicit quantifier of=20 ro(all). This just means that if no quantifier is given= explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been= used. no quantifier Not all sumti have=20 ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the qu= otation in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example5" /> mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. I say,=20 You walk on the ice. What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation=20 lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 ro. If=20 ro were supplied explicitly, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example6" /> mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. the meaning would be something like=20 I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 means that I expre= ss exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unsp= ecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it= at least once. The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 at least is=20 su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 su'o means=20 at least once. (See=20 for the use of=20 su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitl= y quantified version of=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example7" /> mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unqu= ote]. I say one or more instances of=20 You walk on the ice. I say=20 You walk on the ice. If an explicit ordinary number such as=20 re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact exp= ression, so - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section6-example8" /> mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss. @@ -911,53 +911,53 @@ The following cmavo are discussed in this section: piro PA the whole of Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantif= ier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing = before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those = referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular b= ridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exa= ctly two of them are white as follows: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example1" /> re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. Two of the dogs are white. When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called= an=20 outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= For example, the context of=20 supposedly told us= that=20 le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. This ass= umption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example2" /> re le ci gerku cu blabi Two-of the three dogs are-white. Two of the three dogs are white. (As explained in the discussion of=20 , simple numbers li= ke those in=20 must be exact: it = therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.) You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the = outer quantifier implicit: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example3" /> le ci gerku cu blabi The three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white. @@ -1092,34 +1092,34 @@ la, and the typical descriptors=20 le'e and=20 lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as i= t is appropriate for=20 do. Reference to non-specific individuals with=20 lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects w= hich can be correctly described, and so=20 su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as fo= r quotations. From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in struc= ture between the following example using=20 le: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example4" /> [ro] le ci gerku cu blabi [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white. and the corresponding form with=20 lo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example5" /> ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. Three dogs are white. @@ -1128,21 +1128,21 @@ and as an outer qu= antifier in=20 ? The number of dog= s is the same in either case. The answer is that the=20 ci in=20 is part of the spe= cification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the spe= aker has in mind. In=20 , however, the dogs= referred to by=20 ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the outer qua= ntifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. Th= e implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little:= in the case of=20 le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group i= s white; in the case of=20 lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptio= ns is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exis= t which really fit the description. So examples like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section7-example6" /> [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi so'o [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white @@ -1156,21 +1156,21 @@ le ci nanmu means=20 what I describe as three men, not=20 three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rathe= r than the objective way things are.
Indefinite descriptions By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descript= or=20 lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 ; namely, one which= has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The fol= lowing example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section8-example1" /> ci gerku [ku] cu blabi Three dogs are white. is equivalent in meaning to=20 @@ -1188,21 +1188,21 @@ re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 23 dogs are white). Note:=20 also contains an i= ndefinite description, namely=20 sumti-based description A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would nor= mally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An = outer quantifier is permitted but not required. sumti-based description A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example2" /> re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men. le re do cu nanmu @@ -1237,21 +1237,21 @@ , which has the sum= ti-based description=20 sumti-based description le re do, says that of the two listeners, all (the impl= icit outer quantifier=20 ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 re gives the number of individuals which the inner sumt= i=20 inner sumti do refers to. Here is another group of examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example5" /> re le ci cribe cu bunre @@ -1342,58 +1342,58 @@ lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) lu'u Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain = common special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 Red Pony The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: Red Pony - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example1" /> mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. But=20 doesn't work: it = says that you see a piece of text=20 The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 Red Pony The Red Pony are presumably written. (More precisely, w= here the words=20 Red Pony le xunre cmaxirma are written =E2=80=93 but we may supp= ose the book has been translated into Lojban.) What you really want to say is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example2" /> mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [un= quote]. The x2 place of=20 selsinxa(the x1 place of=20 sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of=20 selsinxa(the x2 place of=20 sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 allows us to use = a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol= of (namely the book itself). This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's use= ful to be able to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example3" /> mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] lu'u la'e lu @@ -1403,33 +1403,33 @@ So when=20 la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it p= roduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jarg= on,=20 jargon la'e dereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too close= ly resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having = to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most = of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. The sumti qualifier=20 lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example4" /> mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. I said the title of this book. The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example5" /> mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. which is equivalent to=20 @@ -1442,38 +1442,38 @@ lu'a lu'i, and=20 lu'i lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 lu'o vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: vu'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example6" /> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. I try (to open) the door. might mean that I= try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vagu= e. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 . - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example9" /> lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu @@ -1504,39 +1504,39 @@ The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE a= nd=20 bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negatio= n sumti qualifiers: negation sumti qualifiers - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example10" /> mi viska na'ebo le gerku na'ebo I see something-other-than the dog. This compound,=20 na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation sumti q= ualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, = with modifications, something already referred to: negation sumti qualifiers na'ebo - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section10-example11" /> mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. @@ -1561,21 +1561,21 @@ vocative phrase free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 free modifiers . They can be placed after many, but= not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable term= inator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and en= ds of sentences, and in many other places. The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being add= ressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening.= A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which = are explained in more detail in=20 vocative phrase . Sometimes that is all there is to = the phrase: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example2" /> coi [greetings] Hello. @@ -1583,96 +1583,96 @@ je'e [acknowledgement] Uh-huh. Roger! In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the c= ontext. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI,= possibly followed by=20 doi, or else just=20 doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds = of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most c= ommon case is a name: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example3" /> coi. djan. Hello, John. A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 doi instead of a pause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example4" /> coi doi djan. Hello, John. means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using= =20 doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to att= ract his or her attention: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example5" /> doi djan. John! In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descri= ptor, which is understood to be=20 le: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example6" /> coi xunre pastu nixli Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. Hello, girl with the red dress! The listener need not really be a=20 xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands herself c= orrectly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; ex= plicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit = quantifiers=20 su'o le ro are in effect.) Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example7" /> co'o la bab. .e la noras. Goodbye, Bob and Nora. is thus the same = as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example8" /> coi le xunre pastu nixli Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl! and=20 is the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example9" /> doi la djan. The-one-named John! Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 @@ -1685,21 +1685,21 @@ free modifiers - metalinguistic comments - see=20 - or reciprocals - see=20 ) which must be properly separated.<= /para> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is no= t affected by its position in the sentence: thus=20 vocative phrase and=20 mean the same th= ing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section11-example11" /> doi djan. ko klama mi John, come to me! ko klama mi doi djan. @@ -1708,41 +1708,41 @@ As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 , make for more possibilities.
Lojban names Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually ca= lled=20 names when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates = of=20 are just ordinary predicate= s which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a = class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be reco= gnized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some e= xamples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example1" /> djan. meris. djein. .alis. John. Mary. Jane. Alice. (Note that=20 .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, because all= Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See=20 for more information.) Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a= vocative phrase (see=20 vocative phrase ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example3" /> la djonz. klama le zarci Jones goes to-the store. The Joneses go to-the store. @@ -1769,21 +1769,21 @@ There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojba= n. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequen= ces)=20 name-words la,=20 lai, or=20 doi unless a consonant immediately precedes within the = name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 la,=20 lai,=20 la'i, or=20 doi must be preceded by a pause instead: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example5" /> coi .djan. Hello, John. zo .djan. cmene mi @@ -1791,21 +1791,21 @@ John is-the-name-of me. My name is John. In=20 and=20 ,=20 .djan. appears with a pause before it as well as after = it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These = rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream. Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that=20 zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example6" /> doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. Newport News @@ -1855,21 +1855,21 @@ Lottie *latis LYtis. or lotis. Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitraril= y. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end wit= h a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj- for=20 logji(logical) and=20 ban- for=20 bangu(language) unite to form the name of this language= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section12-example7" /> lojban. Lojban When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel,= or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, = the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but= not required) to use the consonants=20 @@ -1899,21 +1899,21 @@ mi'a,=20 mi'a ma'a,=20 ma'a do'o,=20 do'o ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example1" /> mi prami do I love you. The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either r= epresenting individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 @@ -1941,35 +1941,35 @@ ko'u,=20 fo'a,=20 fo'a fo'e,=20 fo'i,=20 fo'o,=20 fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 goi(of selma'o GOI), which means=20 defined-as. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example2" /> le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 da,=20 de,=20 di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example3" /> ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. All persons love a fish (each his/her own). @@ -1979,74 +1979,74 @@ quantificational pro-sumti<= /indexterm> . Roughly speaking, the quantifier i= s=20 su'o(at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, an= d=20 ro(all) thereafter. Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 vo'a,=20 vo'e,=20 vo'i,=20 vo'o,=20 vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example4" /> le cribe cu batci vo'a The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. The bear bites itself. Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 ri,=20 ra,=20 ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example5" /> mi klama la frankfurt. ri I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route). Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 zo'e,=20 zu'i,=20 zu'i zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example6" /> mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-un= specified. The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indef= inite. It might be=20 indefinite pro-sumti ro(all) or=20 su'o(at least one) or conceivably even=20 no(none), though=20 no would require a very odd context indeed. Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 ti,=20 ta,=20 tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example7" /> ko muvgau ti ta tu You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-plac= e. Move this from there to over there! @@ -2064,21 +2064,21 @@ di'e de'e,=20 de'e da'e,=20 da'e dei,=20 do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example8" /> li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true. @@ -2086,38 +2086,38 @@ The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 metalinguistic pro-sumti su'o(at least one), because they are considered analogo= us to=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances. The relative pro-sumti (=20 relative pro-sumti ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 for a discussion of relative clauses= ) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example9" /> mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. I see the cat(s) made of plastic. The question pro-sumti (=20 question pro-sumti ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section13-example10" /> do klama ma You go to-what-sumti? Where are you going? @@ -2141,84 +2141,84 @@ word quotation single-word quotation word quotation non-Lojban quotation . Text quotations are preceded by=20 lu and followed by=20 li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example1" /> mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. I say=20 I'm John. Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The= words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so th= at the end of the quotation can be discerned. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example2" /> mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u I say the-words [quote]=20 li mi [unquote]. I say=20 li mi. Note that the translation of=20 does not translat= e the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in f= act, they are ungrammatical). Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmav= o are not allowed. word quotation - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example3" /> mi cusku zo .ai I say the-word=20 .ai. Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non= -speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word= which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to = set it off from the surrounding Lojban text. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section14-example4" /> mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot I say=20 I'm John. The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o(at least one), because quotations are analogous to= =20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words.
Number summary The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li(of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso= , or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up = to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and s= o on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increas= ing complexity: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example3" /> li vo @@ -2231,35 +2231,35 @@ the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c ax An alternative to=20 li is=20 me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning = with=20 me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 and=20 above have the sa= me meaning, the number four, whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example4" /> me'o vo the-expression four 4 and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section15-example5" /> me'o re su'i re the-expression two plus two 2+2 diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 8a35add..dd237c4 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,47 +1,47 @@ Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-brid= i
What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require me= chanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to= express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what = we have to say. In English, we have words called=20 pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: nouns - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example1" /> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talk= ing. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independe= nt of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: pronouns in English - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example2" /> John picked up a stick and shook it. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example3" /> John picked up a stick and shook a stick. does not imply tha= t the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas=20 @@ -52,21 +52,21 @@ pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be=20 sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging t= o selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belon= ging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be cal= led=20 pro-bridi or=20 bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of all the = members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known = as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the k= o'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumt= i is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is = explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analog= ues, however. A few technical terms: The term=20 technical terms referent means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by exten= sion, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the = referent of the word=20 I is James. On the other hand, the term=20 antecedent refers to a piece of language which a pro-su= mti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section1-example4" /> John loves himself the antecedent of=20 himself is=20 @@ -100,21 +100,21 @@ foreman of a jury mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. The referents of=20 mi and=20 do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 . The vocative=20 mi'e assigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 do. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example1" /> mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 I run. @@ -164,78 +164,78 @@ mi'a or even=20 mi'a ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they ca= nnot easily distinguish=20 ma'a mi'o from=20 mi'a: mi'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example2" /> We're going to the store. Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure= . Finally, the cmavo=20 ko is logically equivalent to=20 do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alte= rs an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make t= he assertion true: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example3" /> do klama le zarci You go to-the store. becomes: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example4" /> ko klama le zarci You [imperative] go to-the store. Make=20 you go to the store true! Go to the store! In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, = the word=20 ko must be used. However,=20 ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example5" /> mi viska ko I see you [imperative] Make=20 I see you true! Be seen by me! In=20 , it is necessary t= o make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of=20 ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section2-example6" /> mi viska le prenu poi prami ko I see the person that loves you [imperative] Make=20 I see the person that loves you true! Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! @@ -280,55 +280,55 @@ do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; f= or example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, = the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken= as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as= =20 near and=20 far away is relative to the current situation. It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun=20 this and the English adjective=20 this as in=20 this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 this boat ti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example1" /> le ti bloti the this boat this boat does not mean=20 this boat but rather=20 this boat this one's boat,=20 the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 . A correct Lojban translation of=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example2" /> le vi bloti the here boat the nearby boat using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 .) Another correct translation would= be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section3-example3" /> ti noi bloti ti noi this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat @@ -356,35 +356,35 @@ da'e KOhA di'u-series a much later utterance da'e dei KOhA di'u-series this very utterance do'i KOhA di'u-series some utterance The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that= have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use=20 this and=20 that for this (indeed, the immediately preceding=20 this is an example of such a usage): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example1" /> You don't like cats. That is untrue. Here=20 that does not refer to something that can be pointed to= , but to the preceding sentence=20 You don't like cats. In Lojban, therefore,=20 is rendered: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example2" /> do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-= false-sentence. Using=20 @@ -404,21 +404,21 @@ Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been= said), so=20 di'e,=20 di'e de'e, and=20 de'e da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, the= y are frequently handy: da'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example3" /> la saimn. cusku di'e di'e Simon expresses the-following-utterance. Simon says: @@ -428,21 +428,21 @@ would typically be= followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of= something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would= appear after=20 , and so=20 di'e is appropriate. di'e The remaining two cmavo,=20 dei and=20 do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example5" /> dei jetnu jufra This-utterance is-a-true-sentence. What I am saying (at this moment) is true. @@ -455,42 +455,42 @@ The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 utterance is used rather than=20 sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. Note one very common construction with=20 di'u and the cmavo=20 la'e(of selma'o LAhE; see=20 ) which precedes a sumti and means=20 the thing referred to by (the sumti): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example6" /> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= I love Jane, and I like that. The effect of=20 la'e di'u in=20 is that the speake= r likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referre= d to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound = is often written as a single word:=20 la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up=20 la'edi'u di'u and=20 la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result: la'edi'u - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section4-example7" /> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. @@ -537,99 +537,99 @@ you but also=20 he,=20 she,=20 it, and=20 they. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group= : in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organiz= ed and used very differently. There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned= freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word=20 he can refer only to males,=20 she only to females (and ships and a few other things),= =20 it only to inanimate things, and=20 they only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have= no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from t= he context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used free= ly: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example1" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. The English gloss=20 it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 real world ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its ante= cedent is=20 le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in which cas= e=20 means that Alice, = not the store, is blue. To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the = cmavo=20 goi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example2" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue. Syntactically,=20 goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative phrases ar= e explained in=20 ). Semantically, it says that=20 ko'a and=20 la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furthermore that= this is true because=20 ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 la .alis.. It is equally correct to say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example3" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue. in other words,=20 goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 ge'u(of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable.= The details are in=20 . The afterthought form of=20 goi shown in=20 and=20 is probably most c= ommon in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance = that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first = mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 goi is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example4" /> la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. Again,=20 ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entirely acceptable = in=20 . This last form is= reminiscent of legal jargon:=20 legal jargon jargon The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, .... hereafter known as Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a s= umti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not wan= t to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a sel= bri or even a whole bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example5" /> ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda negation cmavo Another use of=20 broda and its relatives, without assignment, is as=20 sample gismu: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example7" /> broda ke brode brodi a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3) represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) @@ -693,42 +693,42 @@ Lojban letters ti-series pro-sumti ri-series pro-sumti lerfu as pro-sumti ko'a-series pro-sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example8" /> mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf. I see the dog. D expresses the-word=20 Arf!. The Lojban word=20 gerku begins with=20 g, so the antecedent of=20 gy., the cmavo for the letter=20 g, must be=20 le gerku. In the English translation, we use the same p= rinciple to refer to the dog as=20 D. Of course, in case of ambiguity,=20 goi can be used to make an explicit assignment. Furthermore,=20 goi can even be used to assign a name: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section5-example9" /> le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store. The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store. @@ -783,92 +783,92 @@ go'a, and=20 go'a go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the = ti-series, but the=20 go'u distances referred to are not physical distances, but d= istances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent. The cmavo=20 ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent a= s the last complete sumti appearing before the=20 ri: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example1" /> la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room. Alice sleeps in her room. The=20 ri in=20 is equivalent to r= epeating the last sumti, which is=20 la .alis., so=20 is equivalent to:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example2" /> la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room. Alice sleeps in Alice's room. Note that=20 ri does not repeat=20 le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not yet complete whe= n=20 ri appears. This prevents=20 ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-referenc= e. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within= other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in = the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like=20 la alis. in=20 is considered to b= e more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it. Certain sumti are ignored by=20 ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and = the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simple= r just to repeat these directly: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example3" /> mi prami mi I love me. I love myself. However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by=20 ri, because you might have changed what you are pointin= g at, so repeating=20 ti may not be effective. Likewise,=20 ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by= a later=20 ri; in fact, a string of=20 ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all rep= eat the same sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example4" /> la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. Here the second=20 ri has as antecedent the first=20 ri, which has as antecedent=20 le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a tree. To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in=20 ): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example5" /> lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pilno riximu A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last]. @@ -893,21 +893,21 @@ ra and=20 ru forces the listener to guess at the referent, but ma= kes life easier for the speaker. Can=20 ra refer to the last sumti, like=20 ri? The answer is no if=20 ri has also been used. If=20 ri has not been used, then=20 ra might be the last sumti. Likewise, if=20 ra has been used, then any use of=20 ru would repeat a sumti earlier than the one=20 ra is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example 6= .5, but one that depends more on context, is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example6" /> lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra .i la .alis. pilno ru A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing]. Alice uses [some more remote thing]. @@ -921,21 +921,21 @@ lo forca, and=20 lo smuci is the obvious candidate. The meaning of=20 ri must be determined every time it is used. Since=20 ra and=20 ru are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the s= ame meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To= make a permanent reference to something repeated by=20 ri,=20 ra, or=20 ru, use=20 goi and a ko'a-series cmavo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example7" /> la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 = is-blue. allows the store to be referred to henceforth as=20 @@ -948,21 +948,21 @@ go'a, and=20 go'a go'u follow exactly the same rules as=20 go'u ri,=20 ra, and=20 ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti - specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are = embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are = not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-seri= es copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affi= rmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example9" /> xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i [True-false?] The-word=20 John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. @@ -980,21 +980,21 @@ cei ri goi ko'a in=20 . The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for con= venience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo=20 go'e means the same as=20 go'e go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is us= eful in conversation: go'ixire - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example10" /> A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'e go'e @@ -1008,21 +1008,21 @@ Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n Chapter 11):=20 le si'o mi go'i means=20 le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the word=20 mi explicitly to replace the x1 of=20 mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like=20 mi is replacing=20 mi? Because B's=20 mi refers to B, whereas A's=20 mi refers to A. If B said: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example11" /> mi nelci le si'o go'i that would mean: @@ -1031,21 +1031,21 @@ The repetition signalled by=20 go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finall= y, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 do, meaning B. Note that in=20 , the tense=20 ba(future time) is carried along by both=20 go'i and=20 go'e. go'e Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example12" /> le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli The black cat goes-to the store. black cat @@ -1068,21 +1068,21 @@ go'o nei, and=20 nei no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respecti= vely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the = current bridi (=20 no'a no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: no'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example13" /> mi nupre le nu mi go'o go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu @@ -1097,21 +1097,21 @@ (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that i= t is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make = the fact explicit, use=20 le bersa/tixnu be mi.) For good examples of=20 nei and=20 nei no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: no'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example15" /> mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte @@ -1123,43 +1123,43 @@ mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a no'a I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] I will go when you do. Finally,=20 ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series= cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pr= o-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpre= ted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the anteceden= t of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example16" /> mi ba lumci lemi karce I will wash my car. you might reply either: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d17" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example17" /> mi go'i I will wash your car. or: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example18" /> mi go'i ra'o go'i ra'o I will wash my car. @@ -1175,21 +1175,21 @@ go'e . The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotation= s, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, sin= ce speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.= anaphoric pro-sumti However, a=20 ri-series or=20 go'a-series reference within a quotation can refer to s= omething mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closel= y related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by n= arrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's = an example: go'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section6-example19" /> la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. John says,=20 @@ -1242,21 +1242,21 @@ elliptical sumti ellipsis whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, = or figure out how to express. The cmavo=20 zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value f= or this place of this bridi: zu'i typical value - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example1" /> mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i zu'i I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the hou= se @@ -1287,52 +1287,52 @@ irrelevant zbasu is zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 Consider the sentence Living things are made from cells. This cannot be correctly expressed as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example2" /> loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass= -of cells because the=20 zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 indicates that the= re is still a=20 maker in this relationship. We do not generally suppose= , however, that someone=20 makes living things from cells. The best answer is prob= ably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a=20 living things maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use=20 zi'o to eliminate the maker place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example3" /> loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mas= s-of cells. Note: The use of=20 zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri act= ually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the f= ollowing examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example7" /> @@ -1357,21 +1357,21 @@ must be true also.= However,=20 does not correspon= d to any sentence with three regular (non-=20 zi'o) sumti. The pro-bridi=20 co'e(which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of sel= ma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow = the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti= may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use o= f=20 co'e co'e as a selbri place-holder: co'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section7-example8" /> mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme co'e I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. I try the door. @@ -1413,21 +1413,21 @@ vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocity =20 se'u SEhU soi terminator The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those = of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the ot= her places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places.= The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some = examples: anaphora - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example2" /> mi lumci vo'a I wash myself mi klama le zarci vo'e @@ -1437,21 +1437,21 @@ To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like=20 le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2nd place = of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 . The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with=20 soi(of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, w= hich in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocity vice versa: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example3" /> mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. vo'a-series pro-sumti @@ -1460,58 +1460,58 @@ I and=20 you). The significance of=20 soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true even if t= he x1 (specified by=20 vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 soi is understood to be one of those involved: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example4" /> mi prami do soi vo'a I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi]. vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocity again involves the x1 and x2 places. Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be = used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reaso= nably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi pro= per. Here are several examples that mean the same thing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example5" /> mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from = this). The elidable terminator for=20 soi is=20 se'u(selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if th= ere is just one sumti after the=20 soi, and the=20 soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constr= uctions using=20 soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywh= ere. Here is an example where=20 free modifiers se'u is required: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section8-example6" /> mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that vo'a-series pro-sumti @@ -1537,94 +1537,94 @@ mo GOhA bridi question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 , but=20 ma and=20 mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example1" /> do klama ma You go to-what-destination? Where are you going? The cmavo=20 mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes th= e question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of= the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as t= he go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example2" /> do mo What predicate is true as applied to you? How are you? What are you doing? What are you? is a truly pregnan= t question that will have several meanings depending on context. (One thing it probably does not mean is=20 Who are you? in the sense=20 What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed = by: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example3" /> ma cmene do What sumti is-the-name-of you? What is your name? or even - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example4" /> doi ma O [what sumti?] which uses the vocative=20 doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the= someone is.) and simultaneously A further example of=20 mo: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example5" /> lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. Which person hit you? The big one. When=20 ma or=20 mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simu= ltaneously: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section9-example6" /> ma djuno ma [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? Who knows what? @@ -1637,37 +1637,37 @@ ke'a KOhA relativized sumti relativized sumti This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 ) to indicate how the sumti being rel= ativized fits within the clause. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section10-example1" /> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of pla= stic. I see a cat made of plastic. If=20 ke'a were omitted from=20 , it might be conf= used with: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section10-example2" /> mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic I see a cat that makes plastic. @@ -1705,36 +1705,36 @@ abstraction bridi ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 . In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one= of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 relationship abstraction property abstraction ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section11-example1" /> le ka ce'u gleki the property-of (X being-happy) the property of being happy happiness happiness and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section11-example2" /> le ka gleki ce'u the property-of (being-happy about-X) the property of being that which someone is happy about @@ -1752,21 +1752,21 @@ bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2 bu'e bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3 bu'i Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, an= d are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in=20 . It is worth mentioning that the Lo= jban translation of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section12-example1" /> la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. John picked up a stick and shook it. @@ -1827,32 +1827,32 @@ The cmavo=20 du has the place structure: du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is no= t a pro-bridi.=20 du serves as mathematical=20 =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 . The main difference between - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section14-example1" /> ko'a du le nanmu It-1 is-identical-to the man and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section14-example2" /> ko'a mintu le nanmu mintu It-1 is-the-same-as the man @@ -1879,60 +1879,60 @@
lujvo based on pro-sumti There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but = they are rarely used. (See=20 for a complete list.) The = obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate pla= ce of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually = stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo. Thus=20 donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 you-talk tavla be do, and would have the place structure - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example1" /> t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be=20 do. On the other hand, the lujvo=20 donma'o, literally=20 you-cmavo, which means=20 you-cmavo a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example2" /> c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place= (the meaning) are obvious from the context=20 do. An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 anticipated fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expresse= d in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are = formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:<= /para> too long rafsi form fo'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter7-section15-example3" /> fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga fo'a x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 4255072..1cdc443 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -23,21 +23,21 @@ KUhO relative clause terminator Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 ti if it is nearby, or=20 ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full i= n=20 .) However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or point= ing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often = hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is p= ointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), a= nd says: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example1" /> ti cu barda This-one is-big. What is the referent of=20 @@ -52,21 +52,21 @@ ku'o(of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,=20 noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will d= iscuss the cmavo=20 poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. In between the=20 poi and the=20 ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any = other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti= =20 ke'a(of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for th= e sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: relativized sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example4" /> ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda @@ -84,21 +84,21 @@ In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word=20 IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 through=20 , the cmavo=20 ti) to which the relative clause is attached. Of course, there is no reason why=20 ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example6" /> tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a= -rat. That thing which the cat dragged is a rat. @@ -107,79 +107,79 @@ That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. That thing that I want to own is a boat. In=20 ,=20 ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 ) within a relative clause. Like any sumti,=20 ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example7" /> ti poi nazbi cu barda This-thing which is-a-nose is-big. almost certainly means the same thing as=20 . However,=20 ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that= it belongs in some place other than x1: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example8" /> tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat is equivalent to=20 . As stated before,=20 ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almos= t always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless = it is absolutely required: thus,=20 can be written: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example9" /> ti poi prenu cu barda That which is-a-person is-big. That person is big. without any change in meaning. Note that=20 poi is translated=20 which rather than=20 such-that when=20 ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative= clause bridi. The word=20 which is used in English to introduce English relative = clauses: other words that can be used are=20 who and=20 that, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example10" /> I saw a man who was going to the store. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section1-example11" /> The building that the school was located in is large. In=20 the relative clau= se is=20 @@ -207,21 +207,21 @@ restrictive relative clauses poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 are restrictive relative cl= auses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identificatio= n. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)= restrictive relative clauses incidental relative clause<= /indexterm> Consider the following examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example2" /> le gerku poi blanu cu barda The dog which is-blue is-large. The dog which is blue is large. @@ -241,69 +241,69 @@ tone of voice restrictive relative clauses that as well as=20 which and=20 who, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin w= ith=20 that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo=20 poi and=20 noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the d= istinction. Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example3" /> mi noi jdice cu zvati I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place]. I, a judge, am present. In this example,=20 mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the addition= al information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener'= s edification. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example4" /> xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. Do you see my car, which is white? In=20 , the speaker is pr= esumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that i= t is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since= =20 le karce can be plural, in which case the incidental in= formation is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 plural with a restrictive= relative clause: restrictive relative clause= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example5" /> xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi [True?] You see my car which is-white. Do you see my car that is white? Do you see my white car? Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting t= he referent of the sumti=20 le mi karce(and thereby the listener's attention) to th= e white one only.=20 means much the sam= e as=20 , which does not us= e a relative clause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section2-example6" /> xu do viska le mi blabi karce [True?] You see my white car. Do you see my car, the white one? @@ -365,41 +365,41 @@ ge'u GEhU relative phrase terminator There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain = selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a= shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmav= o of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti. Here is an example of=20 pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example2" /> le stizu pe mi cu blanu The chair associated-with me is-blue. My chair is blue. le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue. In=20 and=20 , the link between = the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind. Here is an example of=20 po: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example4" /> le stizu po mi cu xunre The chair specific-to me is red. le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre @@ -419,21 +419,21 @@ po is usually called=20 possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (=20 specificity steci in Lojban). Here is an example of=20 po'e, as well as another example of=20 po'e po: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example7" /> le birka po'e mi cu spofu @@ -463,42 +463,42 @@ intrinsic possession By contrast, the bottle of=20 can be given away,= or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alie= nably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is cultur= ally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the=20 extrinsic possession inalienable rights of men, but just what those rights a= re, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to= culture. inalienable Note that=20 can also be expres= sed without a relative clause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example8" /> le birka be mi cu spofu The arm of-body me is broken reflecting the fact that the gismu=20 birka has an x2 place representing the body to which th= e arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus= covered without using=20 po'e intrinsic possession po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate plac= e of the description selbri. po'e Here is an example of=20 po'u: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example10" /> le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi The dog which-is my friend kisses me. le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi @@ -507,51 +507,51 @@ The cmavo=20 po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather i= dentity. (Note that it means=20 poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the relations= hip.) In=20 , the use of=20 po'u tells us that=20 le gerku and=20 le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider the cont= rast between=20 and: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example11" /> le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi My friend which-is the dog kisses me. The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge= about the situation may not be. In=20 , the listener is p= resumed not to understand which dog is meant by=20 le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarify= ing that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend. , however, assumes= that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred= to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is take= n to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d13" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example13" /> le tcadu po'u la nu,iork The city of New York [not another city] la nu,iork po'u le tcadu New York the city (not the state or some other New York) The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change pl= aces applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd ef= fects: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example14" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d15" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section3-example15" /> le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu The cup associated-with my friend is small. My friend's cup is small @@ -572,76 +572,76 @@ cup's friend Finally, the cmavo=20 ne and=20 no'u stand to=20 my chair illustrates that m= ore than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily connected= with me, and=20 po do, implying that the chair has a more permanent ass= ociation with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the c= hair would naturally be your property.) Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section4-example5" /> mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi I [future] eat the beans associated-with me @@ -769,47 +769,47 @@ There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 voi are restrictive, like those introduced by=20 poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between= =20 poi and=20 voi relative clauses. A=20 poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the sam= e sense that a description using=20 lo or=20 loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the = bridi actually be true. For example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section5-example1" /> le gerku poi blabi cu klama The dog which is-white goes. it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence = constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, an= d the speaker uses=20 le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, then the = listener will not understand correctly. However, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section5-example2" /> le gerku voi blabi cu klama The dog which-I-describe-as white goes. puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not act= ually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only th= e speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,=20 voi is like=20 le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning. As a result, the following two sentences - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section5-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section5-example4" /> le nanmu cu ninmu That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. The=20 @@ -827,42 +827,42 @@ Relative clauses and descriptors So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 le,=20 lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 ku), and after the=20 ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out wi= th all elidable terminators, would appear as: elidable terminators - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example1" /> le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. The dog which is white is going. Here=20 ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 poi and=20 ku with=20 le, and=20 vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. When a simple descriptor using=20 le, like=20 le gerku, has a relative clause attached, it is purely = a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefo= re, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example3" /> le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes. le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama @@ -874,40 +874,40 @@ , on the other hand= , may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relativ= e clause first. Note that in=20 , the elidable term= inator=20 ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause = (=20 blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description (= =20 gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The pur= pose of the form appearing in=20 will be apparent s= hortly. As is explained in detail in=20 , two different numbers (known as the= =20 inner quantifier and the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example4" /> re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. five people mu is the inner quantifier and=20 re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attach= ing a relative clause to the sumti=20 re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause is=20 poi ninmu(meaning=20 who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example7" /> re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci @@ -937,21 +937,21 @@ ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes befor= e the inner quantifier. When=20 le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no e= xplicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be=20 ro(meaning=20 all), as is explained in=20 . Thus=20 le gerku is taken to mean=20 all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 lo, the difference is quite important: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example9" /> lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the marke= t. Some people, who are white, go to the market. @@ -977,34 +977,34 @@ all persons The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 ku when attaching a=20 noi relative clause to a=20 lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too= much. When the descriptor is=20 la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 ku is not. Therefore, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example10" /> mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] I see that-named (=20 man which fears the of-IT horse). I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who = does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example11" /> mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma. I see that-named(=20 Man) which fears the of-IT horse. I see the person named=20 Man who is afraid of his horse. @@ -1014,21 +1014,21 @@ Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 sumti with lo indefinite sumti re karce, which means almost the same as=20 re lo karce(which in turn means the same as=20 re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses attached; th= ese are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 ku variety. Here is an example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section6-example12" /> mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri I possess two cars which-are black. The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being = affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to= try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before= an explicitly expressed terminating=20 @@ -1042,43 +1042,43 @@ lo instead.
Possessive sumti In=20 through=20 , the sumti=20 le mi karce appears, glossed as=20 my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 pe relative phrase. So - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example1" /> le mi karce cu xunre My car is-red. and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example2" /> le pe mi karce cu xunre The (associated-with me) car is-red. mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no spe= cial considerations of quantifiers here, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example3" /> le karce pe mi cu xunre The car associated-with me is-red. means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in=20 @@ -1104,66 +1104,66 @@ possessive sumti Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledge= d relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without= a=20 simple sumti pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. Al= l these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 . Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> possessive sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example4" /> le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. The man's car is blue. Note the explicit=20 ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents th= e selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main de= scription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. personal pro-sumti And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example5" /> le li mu jdice se bende The of-the-number-five judging team-member Juror number 5 which is not quite the same as=20 the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attach= ed to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following speci= al rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is und= erstood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example: possessive sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example6" /> le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going. means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of=20 noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. If I want= ed to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section7-example7" /> le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama The of-me car which sleeps isn't going. Note that=20 @@ -1181,58 +1181,58 @@ vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: simple sumti - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example1" /> li pai noi na'e frinu namcu The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= The irrational number pi irrational number And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotatio= n: incidental relative clause<= /indexterm> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example2" /> lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence. I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. simple sumti In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAh= E or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in=20 NAhE+BO ) can have a relative clause appearin= g after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example3" /> la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 @@ -1249,21 +1249,21 @@ Red Pony la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 would claim that a= certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obvious= ly a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to th= e words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Ste= inbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative = clause.=20 restrictive relative clause= Red Pony means exactly the = same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example4" /> la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u lu'u la'e lu @@ -1273,42 +1273,42 @@ and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note= the required=20 lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause fro= m attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quot= ation! lu'u Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause ap= ply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non= -logical connection (explained in=20 non-logical connection ). For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example5" /> la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. The incidental claim in=20 is not that Frank = and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental r= elative clause attaches only to=20 incidental relative clause<= /indexterm> la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sumti. simple sumti To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically = connected sumti in=20 , a new cmavo is ne= eded,=20 vu'o(of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti a= nd the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relativ= e clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or n= on-logical connectives there may be. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example6" /> la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.<= /gloss> Frank and George, who are men, go to the house. @@ -1325,21 +1325,21 @@ verbs plural nanmu can mean=20 is a man or=20 are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 nanmu(meaning=20 is-a-man) were replaced with=20 pu bajra(=20 ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section8-example8" /> la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house. Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. @@ -1350,21 +1350,21 @@ In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. tone of voice
Relative clauses in vocative phrases Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in=20 . Briefly, they are a method of indic= ating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inten= ded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from = selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example3" /> coi. frank. @@ -1379,54 +1379,54 @@ Note that=20 says farewell to s= omething which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speake= r simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, = for example) who is named=20 Horse. In a sense,=20 is ambiguous betwe= en=20 co'o le xirma and=20 co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, si= nce names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges= . Similarly,=20 can be thought of = as an abbreviation of: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example4" /> coi la frank. Hello, the-one-named=20 Frank. Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and= can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or en= d of some complete construct; or, as in=20 to=20 , as sentences by t= hemselves. As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that = of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses = in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vo= cative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example5" /> coi. frank. poi xunre se bende Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member Hello, Frank from the Red Team! The restrictive relative clause in=20 restrictive relative clause= suggests that ther= e is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the= one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished. A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses = either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here a= re some examples: vocative phrase - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section9-example7" /> co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse Goodbye, horse where I am! @@ -1434,34 +1434,34 @@ Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it). and=20 mean the same thin= g. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.
Relative clauses within relative clauses For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: = a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a= relative clause: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example1" /> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow. However, an ambiguity can exist if=20 ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative cla= use: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer= relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter= . To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 ke'a: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example2" /> le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. The person who is in the room which he built is slow. room which he built @@ -1469,21 +1469,21 @@ Here, the meaning of=20 IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 ke'axipa(IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 ke'axipa ke'a. Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in=20 ), which is syntactically a series o= f sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter8-section10-example3" /> le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 4bed1a4..89f618e 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -28,21 +28,21 @@ cu CU prefixed selbri separator selbri separator The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as= =20 klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place th= e sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumt= i in order after the selbri, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example1" /> mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows: @@ -54,53 +54,53 @@ x5 means le karce (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will tur= n out to have the same meaning as=20 ; this fact will no= t be reiterated.) This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other= places in natural order after the selbri, is called=20 standard bridi form, and is found in the bulk of Lojban= bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, = many other forms are possible, such as: subordinate clauses standard bridi form - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example2" /> mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go. Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before i= t. However, the same order is maintained. Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the se= lbri and others after it: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example3" /> mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. All of the variant forms in this section and following sections = can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved ou= t of their standard places. Thus,=20 places emphasis on= the selbri (because it is at the end);=20 emphasizes=20 la bastn., because it has been moved before the selbri.= Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, = but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reorderi= ng. In all these examples, the cmavo=20 cu(belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the sel= bri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use=20 cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener = to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex s= umti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminat= ors, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary. elidable terminators The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in= the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (a= nd it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumt= i is taken to have been omitted: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example4" /> klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car= ! @@ -115,56 +115,56 @@ Go at the beginning of an English sentence would sugges= t a command:=20 Go to Boston!.=20 is not a command, = simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphas= is to fall on the selbri=20 klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an=20 observative, because it usually calls on the listener t= o observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. = The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is = the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe. observative (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put= the selbri first in the bridi: see=20 .) Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 pl= ace? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth say= ing.) Places at the end may simply be dropped: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example5" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using a= n unspecified means). unspecified route has empty x4 and x= 5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport.= However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around = it are to be specified: in - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example6" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore=20 means: I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. go to Boston from Atlanta Boston from Atlanta This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section2-example7" /> mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-th= e car. Here the sumti cmavo=20 @@ -209,21 +209,21 @@ place structure question In sentences like=20 , it is easy to get= lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti = are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure= tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five = cmavo=20 fa,=20 fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x= 5 places respectively: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example1" /> fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. go to Boston from Atlanta @@ -235,21 +235,21 @@ , the tag=20 fu before=20 le karce clarifies that=20 le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 klama. The use of=20 fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the= x5 place; it simply says that=20 le karce occupies it. In=20 , the tags are over= kill; they serve only to make=20 even longer than i= t is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification= : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example2" /> fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IOR= K. x1=3D I go x2=3D (the house of me) which is-rural x3=3D New Yo= rk. In=20 @@ -259,101 +259,101 @@ x1 agent mi x2 destination le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau x3 origin la nu,IORK. x4 route (empty) x5 means (empty) The=20 fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is= in the x3 place of=20 klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying t= he x2 place, it's easy to get lost. Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which t= hey are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places= . Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desi= red, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example3" /> klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le d= argu go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D t= he road. Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road. Note that no=20 cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 , because=20 cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and= =20 has no such sumti.= - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example4" /> fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I. exhibits the rever= se of the standard bridi form seen in=20 standard bridi form and=20 , but still means e= xactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example5" /> le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the rout= e, using me as a means of transport. the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical. Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder t= he places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for=20 zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example6" /> klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car. A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car. Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged = with=20 fa or=20 fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse= order. What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is t= hat after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numer= ically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place i= s skipped: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example7" /> klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. Boston from Atlanta In=20 , the=20 fa causes=20 mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untag= ged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism b= y which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for= the x1 place. Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example8" /> mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car. I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car. @@ -364,40 +364,40 @@ virtue fi, and=20 le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of following= =20 la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 la bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its tag=20 fe, and=20 le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 plac= es to land in the x5 place. Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except = when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-lan= guage) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standa= rd interpretation is possible. It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with th= e same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example9" /> [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to x2=3D the movie x2=3D the hous= e x2=3D the office may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the= house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, = it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logic= al connectives (explained in=20 ), to say such things in Lojban. In = fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can on= ly be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso abo= ve, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be = forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tag= ging it. The cmavo=20 fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 fi'a fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: fi'a - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section3-example10" /> fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu fi'a [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? @@ -481,21 +481,21 @@ x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 and=20 xe klama: x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5 Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to b= e listed in the usual order, x1 to x5. Consider the following pair of examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example2" /> la bastn. cu se klama mi Boston is-the-destination of-me. Boston is my destination. @@ -514,49 +514,49 @@ la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 se klama, and uses standard bridi order;=20 has=20 mi in the x1 place and=20 la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri=20 klama, and uses a non-standard order. The most important use of conversion is in the construction of d= escriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o = LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selb= ri. We have already seen the descriptions=20 le dargu and=20 le karce. To this we could add: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example3" /> le klama the go-er, the one who goes the go-er In every case, the description is about something which fits int= o the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destinatio= n (that is, something fitting the x2 place of=20 klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The result i= s - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example4" /> le se klama the destination gone to by someone the destination Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example7" /> le te klama @@ -587,21 +587,21 @@ le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom it is= =20 ve klama le ve klama be fo da(the route taken in an actual journ= ey by someone [da]). ve klama When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivl= a, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the foll= owing brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it = is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 converting ke ... ke'e brackets: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example8" /> mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing The place structure of=20 @@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 viska, whose place structure is: viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking = to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 viska such as=20 with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section5-example1" /> mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing I see you with the left eye. @@ -722,21 +722,21 @@ seltcita sumti Consider=20 again. Another way= to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a t= ool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 pilno, whose place structure is pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 and we can rewrite=20 as - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section5-example2" /> mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. I see you using my left eye. @@ -769,21 +769,21 @@ sepi'o Here=20 se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 pi'o fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag based on= =20 se pilno rather than=20 pilno- the tool, not the tool user - the grammar allows= a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be r= ewritten as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example1" /> mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla sepi'o I see you with-tool: the left eye I see you using my left eye. @@ -810,41 +810,41 @@ ka'a with-goer ka'a seka'a with-destination teka'a with-origin veka'a with-route xeka'a with-means-of-transport Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example2" /> la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi ka'a Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. Avon I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. Avon (=20 may seem a bit str= ained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example6" /> @@ -884,21 +884,21 @@ prepositions English prepositions prepositions All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, = where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two V= s are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in=20 shows the exceptions. There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gis= mu:=20 do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place: do'e - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example7" /> lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu do'e Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. A man of the north came to the city. @@ -976,21 +976,21 @@ ri'a,=20 ki'u,=20 ki'u mu'i, and=20 mu'i ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: ni'i - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example4" /> @@ -1025,55 +1025,55 @@ because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 , and explore some = variations on it. As written,=20 claims that the pl= ant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction br= idi (abstractions are explained in=20 abstraction bridi ) without actually making a claim. I= f I express=20 , I have said that = the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, me= rely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This= is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was= being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then = we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: abstraction bridi - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example5" /> do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> You water the plant; therefore, it grows. with the=20 ri'a changed to=20 seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example6" /> le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu banro The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event-of (the plant grows). Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows. does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relatio= nship between them. So in=20 , I am not saying t= hat the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloq= uial translation shows a form of=20 if-then in English quite distinct from the logical conn= ective=20 if-then explained in=20 . Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example8" /> le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati iri'abo @@ -1087,21 +1087,21 @@ The compound cmavo=20 .iri'abo and=20 iri'abo .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the initial= =20 .i indicates. The final=20 bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 taking over the following sumti. If the=20 bo were omitted from=20 we would have: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7-example9" /> le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.<= /en> @@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@ and=20 . However, it makes= little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstrac= tions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connectiv= e=20 .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to ima= gine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes= an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.
Other modal connections Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 for a more detailed discussion of L= ojban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthoug= ht modal connection, illustrated here by: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example1" /> mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri iri'abo I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. @@ -1150,35 +1150,35 @@ and in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one). observatives forethought connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place = the modal plus=20 gi before the first bridi, and=20 gi between the two. No=20 .i is used within the construct. The forethought equiva= lent of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example2" /> ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of wa= ter. Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water. Note that the cause, the x1 of=20 rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the= original order of=20 , we could say: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example3" /> seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cu= p. In English, the sentence=20 @@ -1186,118 +1186,118 @@ therefore is not grammatically equivalent to=20 because. In Lojban,=20 seri'agi can be used just like=20 ri'agi. When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more= elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed = forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both= bridi completely stated. modal sentence connection When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Exa= mples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed: sumti modal connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example4" /> mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. means exactly the = same as=20 through=20 , but there is no i= diomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them. If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti,= then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 , but are essentially a mechanism fo= r creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example5" /> mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me. means the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example6" /> nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'= u dunda [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me= [end] gives. Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which= differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal = connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in=20 bridi-tail modal connection= , but essentially it consists of a s= elbri with optional sumti following it.=20 is suitable for br= idi-tail connection, and could be shortened to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example7" /> mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta I, because saw the book, took the book. Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even= possible to shorten=20 further to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example8" /> mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book. where=20 le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails - see=20 for more explanations. Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointi= ng out that=20 can be further rea= rranged to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example9" /> mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. which doesn't require the extra=20 vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are = shared. Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example10" /> li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re the number can be reduced to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d11" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section8-example11" /> li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo the-number =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4. @@ -1311,21 +1311,21 @@ Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is= not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 modal connectives fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined mod= als of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 and=20 .
Modal selbri Consider the example: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example1" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. under compulsion @@ -1333,107 +1333,107 @@ has two modal sumt= i, using the modals=20 seltcita sumti modal sumti bau and=20 bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example2" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku]. I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion. In=20 , the elidable term= inator=20 ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normall= y follow=20 bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compel= s but keep the language vague: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example3" /> mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank= . We are also free to move the modal-plus-=20 ku around the bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example4" /> bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. An alternative to using=20 ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri,= following the=20 modal cmavo cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, = the=20 cu is almost never necessary. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example5" /> mi bai tavla bau la lojban. I compelledly speak in-language Lojban. In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, al= though grammatically it is quite distinct.=20 is very similar in= meaning to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example6" /> mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban. I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban. The=20 se conversion is needed because=20 bapli tavla would be a=20 compeller type of speaker rather than a=20 compelled (by someone) type of speaker, which is what a= =20 bai tavla is. If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using=20 fi'o, then=20 fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the mod= al selbri from colliding: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example7" /> mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do I with-eye see you. I see you with my eye(s). There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a= pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-log= ical, or modal connection (see=20 for more on logical and non-logical= connections): - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example8" /> mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] bai ke I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.= @@ -1442,21 +1442,21 @@ Here the=20 bai is spread over both=20 klama le zarci and=20 cadzu le bisli, and the=20 ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 both-and between the two. Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that ha= ve been combined with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 : - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section9-example9" /> bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice= [end]. means the same thing as=20 @@ -1488,21 +1488,21 @@ me'a me'a BAI mleca modal Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 . However, there is a construction wh= ich combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapt= er. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example2" /> la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-li= ked-by me. @@ -1527,21 +1527,21 @@ Beethoven noi(also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natur= e of this relationship. The cmavo=20 pe and=20 ne(of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to=20 poi and=20 noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than= full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 and=20 to: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example4" /> la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. @@ -1565,21 +1565,21 @@ cusku and=20 finti have BAI cmavo, namely=20 cu'u and=20 cu'u fi'e. We can recast=20 fi'e and=20 as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example6" /> la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi cu'u @@ -1608,40 +1608,40 @@ me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 me'a zmadu(more than) and=20 mleca(less than) respectively. The place structures are= : zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4 mleca: x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4 Here are some examples: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example7" /> la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. requires that Fra= nk likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds = his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 semau because the x2 place of=20 zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. comparison basis - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example8" /> la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. @@ -1669,36 +1669,36 @@ ne were omitted in=20 and=20 , the modal sumti = (=20 seltcita sumti modal sumti la meiris. and=20 la betis. respectively) would become attached to the br= idi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 would become: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example9" /> la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense= . Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information b= ut says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he= may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently,= as: comparison - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section10-example10" /> le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelci la meiris. The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary. @@ -1722,45 +1722,45 @@ du'i as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicabl= e both to BAI modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.
Mixed modal connection It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 ) with modal connection, in a way th= at simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship= . Consider the sentences: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example1" /> mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein. I like you. And I like Jane. which is a logical connection, and - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example2" /> mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein. I like you. Justified-by I like Jane. The meanings of=20 and=20 can be simultaneo= usly expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example3" /> mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein. I like you. And justified-by I like Jane. Here the two sentences=20 @@ -1769,47 +1769,47 @@ je comes before the modal=20 ki'u in all such mixed connections. ki'u Since=20 mi nelci do and=20 mi nelci la djein. differ only in the final sumti, we c= an transform=20 into a mixed sumt= i connection: sumti connection - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example4" /> mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. I like you and/because Jane. Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connecti= ves are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical= or modal. forethought connectives There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical co= nnectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example,= a bridi-tail connected version of=20 would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d5" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example5" /> mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein. I like you and/because like Jane. The following three complex examples all mean the same thing. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example7" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d8" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section11-example8" /> mi bevri le dakli @@ -1857,21 +1857,21 @@ modal conversion fai FA modal place structure tag So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addi= tion of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. H= owever, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than = exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place= . For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example1" /> mi cusku bau la lojban. I express [something] in-language Lojban. has an explicit x1 place occupied by=20 @@ -1879,21 +1879,21 @@ bau place occupied by=20 la lojban. To exchange these two, we use a modal conver= sion operator consisting of=20 modal conversion jai(of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, = the modal conversion of=20 modal conversion modal cmavo is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example2" /> la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me. In=20 @@ -1908,21 +1908,21 @@ fi'a Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient i= n descriptions. We may refer to=20 the language of an expression as=20 le jai bau cusku, for example. In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 jai without a following modal. This usage is not relate= d to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 . The following two examples mean th= e same thing: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d4" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section12-example4" /> le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. @@ -1941,35 +1941,35 @@
Modal negation Negation is explained in detail in=20 . There are two forms of negation in= Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresse= s what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what= has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 John didn't go to Paris(contradictory negation) and=20 John went to (somewhere) other than Paris(scalar negati= on). Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appen= ding=20 -nai(of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals= with=20 -nai is to deny a causal relationship: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section13-example1" /> mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi I like you, but not because you like me. denies that the r= elationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (w= hich is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether y= ou like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivati= on for my liking you. Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing=20 na'e(of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAh= E, to the BAI cmavo. - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section13-example2" /> le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you water-give to the plant. @@ -1989,34 +1989,34 @@ ki KI stickiness flag Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in whi= ch they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this=20 stickiness is to make the modal, along with its followi= ng sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is pu= t into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the= cmavo=20 ki of selma'o KI. For example, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14-example1" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban. I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English. means the same as: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14-example2" /> mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English @@ -2025,59 +2025,59 @@ In=20 ,=20 bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made a= pplicable to every following bridi.=20 bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from br= idi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can= safely be made about its value. To cancel stickiness, use the form=20 BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the specifie= d BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all mod= als simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (=20 ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section14-example3" /> mi ki tavla I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). Note: Modals made with=20 fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.
Logical and non-logical connection of modals non-logical connection Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in= =20 . For the purposes of this chapter, = it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between= two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi wi= th a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thi= ng: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example2" /> la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a l= e zdani Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-= origin the house. Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house. la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house. Frank runs to and from the house. Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of ru= nning is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of ru= nning, you can use the form: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section15-example3" /> la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin = the-house. The cmavo=20 diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 90e8647..1682811 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -210,20 +210,23 @@ if you need it. =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D - Need some sort of structure for the per-section cmavo lists. - also need to wrap the lojban words there in a way that does indexing, and ideally auto-generation of the cmavo-per-selmaho lists we want for chapter 20 - lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"), others?... should each have their own index - cll_chapter5-section1 should be content-words-brivla or so ; those IDs should not change when things are moved around - list the members of each selma'o in chapter 20 +- change aaaaaaaallllll the example xrefs to point at the actual + example ids +- finish the testing mods to merge.sh =20 =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Display =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D - links to examples should *say* "example N"; easy to test from the index - links to sections should say the number of section and chapter - examples should be 5.2.1 rather than 5.6 for the first example in section 2 of chatpre 5 - print: Add a header or footer to the left or the right page that commit 241e74cefe3c57ef488925fa4765b715e0eae3e7 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Tue Dec 21 07:21:49 2010 -0800 Various script tweaks, 1 space addition, and some id changes. Work in progress, but I need to check in so I can process the diffs on the next step. diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index ef96ff2..a3d3dea 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -134,21 +134,21 @@ were originally written by Bob LeChe= valier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 was originally written (in much lon= ger form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 was contributed by Nora Tansky LeCh= evalier;=20 and parts of=20 were originally by Bob LeChevalier;= and the YACC grammar in=20 YACC grammar is the work of several hands, but i= s primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is a= lso in=20 , was originally written by me, then= rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. The research into natural languages from which parts of=20 - draw their material was performed by Ivan = Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his r= esearch. + draw their material was performed = by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits = of his research. LLG The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier,= except for the picture appearing in=20 pictures , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.= The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. I would like to thank the following people for their detailed re= views, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors= in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoul= son, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Pa= ulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Der= zhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (als= o known as=20 pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index c0c312d..9f13b65 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -504,21 +504,21 @@ Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. The cmavo=20 ve and=20 xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fi= rst and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of pla= ces are known as=20 conversions, and the=20 se,=20 te,=20 ve, and=20 xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 - for details. + for details. The effect is similar to what in English is called the=20 passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 passive voice converted selbri le selbri [ku](see=20 ).
@@ -1487,21 +1487,21 @@ sumti: argument; words identifying something which stands in a sp= ecified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. = See=20 . selbri: logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words = specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. S= ee=20 - . + . cmavo: one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structu= ral word; a word used for its grammatical function. parts of speech @@ -1542,21 +1542,21 @@ rafsi: a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu= ; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid w= ord by itself. See=20 . tanru: a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cm= avo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first pa= rt modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). S= ee=20 - . + . selma'o: a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can a= ppear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but= differ in meaning or other usage. See=20 . diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 1b22c13..e07696f 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -188,21 +188,21 @@ punctuation marks prepositions hundred conjunctions articles selma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical= usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 - to=20 + to=20 and summarized in=20 . Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structu= re. Here are some examples of the various forms: V-form .a .e .i .o .u @@ -572,21 +572,21 @@ skami pilno is the tanru which expresses the concept of=20 computer user. The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas.= Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and com= bine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recom= bined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more com= plex or more specific ideas, and so on. The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:=20 skami pilno could refer to a computer that is a user, o= r to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier com= ponent can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use= cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of me= aning. Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a scie= nce. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is= unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defin= ing the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devisi= ng a new tanru is dealt with in detail in=20 - . + . To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu togeth= er. Thus the binary metaphor=20 big boat becomes the tanru big boat <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d2" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter4-section5-example2" /> @@ -1943,21 +1943,21 @@ Zipf's Law basis This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given luj= vo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more = than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning f= or the tanru was already competing for the=20 right to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has t= o use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the other= s. If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is li= kely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more= of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter= form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorte= r lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a= more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be sh= orter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more compl= ex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term. anticipated And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an u= nknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no s= ense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the = grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate g= roupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible.= (The grouping of tanru is explained in=20 - ; abstraction is explained in=20 + ; abstraction is explained in=20 .) Plausibility is the key to learni= ng new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.
The lujvo-making algorithm The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban luj= vo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafs= i. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown = for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assis= tance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original=20 Brown tosmabru test. tosmabru test diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 658f1ed..c7dc375 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojb= an selbri -
+
Lojban content words: brivla At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban b= ridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a = relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is ref= erred to. The difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section1-example1" /> do mamta mi You are-a-mother-of me @@ -322,21 +322,21 @@ big-dog catcher(presumably someone who catches only big= dogs). Analysis of=20 and=20 reveals a tanru ne= sted within a tanru. In=20 , the main tanru ha= s a seltau of=20 cmalu and a tertau of=20 nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru wi= th=20 nixli as the seltau and=20 ckule as the tertau. In=20 , on the other hand= , the seltau is=20 - cmalu bo nixli(itself a tanru), whereas the ter= tau is=20 + cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the te= rtau is=20 ckule.=20 tanru nested within tanru This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all th= e more complex types of selbri that will be explained below. What about=20 ? What does it mean= ? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter5-section3-example6" /> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 7922a37..8fd6614 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1204,21 +1204,21 @@ <jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo> <gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</glo= ss> <en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9"> <title>sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consist = of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always= been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be emplo= yed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in= =20 - .) In the intervening sections, inner and o= uter quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a= description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description. + .) In the intervening sections, inn= er and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to d= iscuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descrip= tion. sumti-based description A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would nor= mally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An = outer quantifier is permitted but not required. sumti-based description A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1" /> <anchor xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section9-example1" /> diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 60cbe53..4bed1a4 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -616,21 +616,21 @@ <quote>se ke blanu zdani [ke'e]</quote> is therefore:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 </programlisting> <para>Consequently,=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section4-example8" /> means:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. </programlisting> <para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"selbri" />.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-selbri" />.</para> <para>It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; la= ter (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For exampl= e, the place structure of=20 <quote>se te klama</quote> is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 pla= ce of=20 <!-- ^^ se te, 194 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm> <quote>te klama</quote>, producing:</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using= x5 <!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 --> <indexterm type=3D"general"><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm> </programlisting> @@ -904,21 +904,21 @@ <en>A man of the north came to the city.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here=20 <quote>le berti</quote> is provided as a modal place of the selbri=20 <quote>nanmu</quote>, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 <quote>of</quote>.=20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter9-section6-example7" /> also illustrates a= modal place bound into a selbri with=20 <quote>be</quote>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 <quote>be</quote> are more fully explained in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"selbri" />.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-selbri" />.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter9-section7"> <title>Modal sentence connection: the causals causals The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ri'a BAI diff --git a/todocbook/Makefile b/todocbook/Makefile index 6bfadf5..b9f6d09 100644 --- a/todocbook/Makefile +++ b/todocbook/Makefile @@ -1,30 +1,12 @@ =20 web: html/index.html cp docbook2html.css html/ rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test =20 html/index.html: cll.xml - xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_pro= cessed.xml - xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html cll_processed.xml 2>&1 | g= rep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".' + xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml >= cll_processed.xml + xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ xhtml cll_processed.xml 2>&1 | = grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".' =20 cll.xml: 1.xml 2.xml 3.xml 4.xml 5.xml 6.xml 7.xml 8.xml 9.xml 10.xml 11.x= ml 12.xml 13.xml 14.xml 15.xml 16.xml 17.xml 18.xml 19.xml 20.xml 21.xml - merge.sh - -webt: webt.touch - cp docbook2html.css html/ - rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test - cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test - touch webt.touch - -webt.touch: testing.xml - xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl testing.xml > tes= ting2.xml - xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html testing2.xml - -me: testing.xml - xsltproc --path . --novalid make_examples.xsl testing.xml | \ - sed -e 's/\(\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \ - sed -e 's/\(\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \ - sed -e 's/\(\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \ - perl -ple 'my $$rand=3Dqx{makepasswd --chars=3D4}; chomp($$rand); s/RAN= DOM/$$rand/g;' | \ - cat > testing2.xml + merge.sh [0-9]*.xml diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index b4a46ce..90e8647 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -27,38 +27,42 @@ becomes: =20 <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lo= jban selbri =20 Make sure the bits look right (which is why the columns are so spaced out). =20 ------ =20 Fix IDs/tags. A command like the following should do the trick: =20 - sed -i 's/"cll_chapter5"/"selbri"/g' [0-9]*.xml + sed -i 's/"cll_chapter5"/"chapter-selbri"/g' [0-9]*.xml =20 BUT FIRST: check that it doesn't already exist: =20 - grep '"selbri"' [0-9]*.xml + grep '"chapter-selbri"' [0-9]*.xml =20 because duplicates would really suck. =20 Please run "git diff" afterwards to make sure it did what you expected. Check in as often as you like (to make the diffs manageable). =20 We want short and meaningful; these are used to make file names and so on. If multi-word, please make a slug (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug_%28web_publishing%29 ); we are using - based slugs rather than _ based, so drop all special characters, lowercase, replace space with -. =20 +Make sure that the ids for chapters have "chapter-" at the start, +"section-" for the sections, and "example-" for the examples; we +might need them for auto-processing. + Do this for all sections. Feel free to do it for examples too if an example has an obvious title, but it's much less important there, so not worth spending time on for the first pass. =20 The important thing here is that *NOTHING* mentions a fixed number! *NOWHERE* in the docbook should *ANYTHING* be aware that it is in chapter 20 or section 7 or anything like that. This is to give us the freedom to move things around later. =20 Numeric-based stuff will all be autogenerated during processing, diff --git a/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh b/todocbook/generate_glossary.s= h index 876d8cc..e085966 100755 --- a/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh +++ b/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh @@ -9,21 +9,21 @@ definitions. These definitions are here simply as a quic= k reference. =20 =20 EOF =20 IFS=3D' ' initial=3D'' indiv=3D'' -for line in $(xsltproc --path . --novalid generate_glossary.xsl cll_preglo= ssary.xml | grep -P '\t' | sort | uniq) +for line in $(xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid generate_glossary.xsl cl= l_preglossary.xml | grep -P '\t' | sort | uniq) do slug=3D$(echo $line | awk -F'\t' '{ print $1 }') word=3D$(echo $line | awk -F'\t' '{ print $2 }') # echo "$slug--$word" newinitial=3D$(echo $word | cut -c 1) =20 if [ "$initial" !=3D "$newinitial" ] then if [ "$indiv" ] then diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh index 2d03de2..4588085 100755 --- a/todocbook/merge.sh +++ b/todocbook/merge.sh @@ -3,23 +3,29 @@ echo ' =20 =20 =20 ' >cll.xml =20 -for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e = 's;.*/;;') +if [ "$1" =3D=3D "-t" ] +then + echo "Entering testing mode: will replace all external xrefs in each cha= pter." +fi + + +for file in $@ do - cat $dir.xml >>cll.xml + cat $file >>cll.xml done =20 cp cll.xml cll_preglossary.xml =20 echo '' >>cll_preglossary.xml =20 generate_glossary.sh >>cll.xml =20 rm cll_preglossary.xml =20 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.