The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

s and a variablelist to orderedlist. diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 348dc8e..30a227d 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,21 +1,15 @@ The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

Orthography - orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as=20 - =20 - =20 - audio-visual isomorphism. - =20 - =20 - =20 + orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as audio-visual isomorphism. =20 alphabetLojban Lojban alphabet Latin alphabet Lojban uses a= variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters= and symbols: ' , . a b c d @@ -351,34 +345,34 @@ r (discussed later). Commas a= re never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presenc= e or placement of a comma. periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> .i.ai.i.ai.o - [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA= =94o] + [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o] Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh! However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compa= red to the English. Furthermore, although=20 is a string of meaningful L= ojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of per= iods embedded within the written word.) commaexample of If commas were used instead of = periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending= in a consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d2"/> .i,ai,i,ai,on. - [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94]<= /ipa> + [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94] commavariant of The commas represent new syllab= le breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciatio= n shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English= pronunciation. =20 However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous i= nterpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphtho= ngs, producing something like <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d3"/> @@ -388,21 +382,21 @@ which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent w= ith Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their nati= ve counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non= -Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the a= bility of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will = not affect the recognition of word boundaries. apostropheas preferable over comma in names Sti= ll, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the ap= ostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting t= o simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event,= is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojba= nic counterparts.) If apostrophes were used instead of commas in=20 , it would appear as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d4"/> .i'ai'i'ai'on. - [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94]<= /ipa> + [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94] apostropheexample of which preserves the rhythm= and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.

Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants diphthongsdefinition of There exist 16 diphthon= gs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of tw= o elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA=20 [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. vowels<= secondary>contrasted with consonants consonantscontrasted = with vowels For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a= relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consona= nt sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel s= ound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end o= f a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cl= uster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct = syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables. @@ -546,23 +540,23 @@ l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r that is not syllabic, it ma= y not be clear which is which: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e4d1"/> brlgan. - [br=CC=A9l gan] + [br=CC=A9l gan] or - [brl=CC=A9 gan] + [brl=CC=A9 gan] is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. Earlexample syllab= ic consonantsfinal in word Syl= labic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the stan= dpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally req= uired to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. = An example is=20 =20 rl., which is an approximation of the English n= ame=20 Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. =20 =20 syllabic consonan= tseffect on stress stresseffect of sy= llabic consonants on Syllables with syllabic conson= ants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syll= ables to stress (see=20 @@ -767,21 +761,21 @@ yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 y can be inserted to break up= the pair: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> djeimyz. - [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94]= + [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 djeimz., which contains a forbi= dden consonant pair.

Initial Consonant Pairs @@ -1019,127 +1013,127 @@ [=C9=A8],=20 [=CA=8A], or even=20 [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 [=C9=AA] in this chapter) are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d1"/> vrusi - [=CB=88vru si] + [=CB=88vru si] or - [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] + [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d2"/> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> .AMsterdam. =20 - [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] + [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] or - [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r= =C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA=94] + [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA= =94] stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer voweland stre= ss When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buff= ered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are = never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in eff= ect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ig= nored. =20 Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d3"/> klama =20 - [=CB=88kla ma] - [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] + [=CB=88kla ma] + [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d4"/> xapcke =20 - [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] - [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] - [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B]<= /phrase> + [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] + [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] + [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B] In=20 , we see that buffering vowe= ls can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the s= econd pronunciation buffers the=20 pc consonan= t pair but not the=20 ck. The third pronunciation= buffers both. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> ponyni'u - [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] + [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> bongynanba - [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba]= + [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 bone bread (note the use of=20 =20 [=C5=8B] as a representative of=20 n before=20 g) and <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d7"/> bongnanba - [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] + [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings ca= n only take a limited form). If=20 =20 =20 were pronounced with buffer= ing, as <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d8"/> - [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba]= + [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba] it would be very similar to=20 . Only a clear distinction b= etween=20 y and any buffering vowel wou= ld keep the two words distinct. buffer vowelshortening of vowelslength of<= /indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order= to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not = mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer= vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, a= nd as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use= buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoi= d confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have tr= ouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By th= is guideline,=20 =20 would be pronounced <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d9"/> - [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n = ba=CB=90] + [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] with lengthened vowels.

Syllabication And Stress syllabicationdefinition of A Lojban word has on= e syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (ref= erred to simply as=20 =20 vowels for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication= rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to th= e preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are convent= ional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are sylla= bified in any language are always very complex. syllabicationrules for A single consonant alway= s belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided betw= een the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consona= nt pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonan= t triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes an= d commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants us= ually appear alone in their syllables. @@ -1253,43 +1247,43 @@ This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 Armstrong. The final=20 =20 g must be explicitly pronounc= ed. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d8"/> - [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t= =C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g=C9=AA=CA=94] + [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g= =C9=AA=CA=94] However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible p= lace just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also ac= ceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on = the first syllable. -ngLojban contrasted with English The English p= ronunciation of=20 Armstrong, as spelled in English, is not correct by Loj= ban standards; the letters=20 =20 ng in English represent a velar nasal (IPA=20 [=C5=8B]) which is a single consonant. I= n Lojban,=20 ng represents two separate = consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use=20 [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban=20 ng, although=20 [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable. English speaker= s are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the f= ollowing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d9"/> - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] or - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA= =94] + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] or even - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 Armstrong could be Lojbanized as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10"/> @@ -1879,21 +1873,21 @@

English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs diphthongsEnglish analogues of Here is a list o= f English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diph= thongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it i= s intended as a help to English-speakers. - + Lojban English ai = =20 pie diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 0c79316..7c1a208 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -14,64 +14,49 @@ pro-sumticontrasted with description In=20 ,=20 mi and=20 le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that = these two sumti are not of the same kind:=20 mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pro= noun) referring to the speaker, whereas=20 le zarci is a description which refers to somet= hing described as being a market. sumtikinds of There are five kinds of simple su= mti provided by Lojban: =20 - - - 1) - - le gadridefinition sumtidescriptions as descriptions like=20 - le zarci, which usually begin with a desc= riptor (called a=20 - gadri in Lojban) such as=20 - =20 - le; - - - - 2) - - mi sumtipro-sumti as pro-sumti, such as=20 - mi; - - - - 3) - - la sumtinames as names, such as=20 - la lojban., which usually begin with=20 - la; - - - - 4) - - zoi zo le'u= l= u sumt= iquotations as quotations, whi= ch begin with=20 - lu,=20 - le'u,=20 - zo, or=20 - zoi; - - - - 5) - - li sumtinumbers as pure numbers, which usua= lly begin with=20 - li. - - - + + + le gadridefinition sumtidescriptions as<= /indexterm> descriptions like=20 + le zarci, which usually begin with a descri= ptor (called a=20 + gadri in Lojban) such as=20 + =20 + le; + + + mi sumtipro-sumti as pro-sumti, such as=20 + mi; + + + la sumtinames as names, such as=20 + la lojban., which usually begin with=20 + la; + + + zoi zo le'u lu<= /primary> sumti<= /primary>quotations as quotations, which= begin with=20 + lu,=20 + le'u,=20 + zo, or=20 + zoi; + + + li sumtinumbers as pure numbers, which usuall= y begin with=20 + li. + + Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/>

e'osai ko sarji la lojban. Please support Lojban!

@@ -147,30 +132,30 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1"/>

le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market the market

lecompared with English the The long gloss for= =20 - le is of course far too long to use most of the time, a= nd in fact=20 + le is of course far too long to use most of the= time, and in fact=20 =20 - le is quite close in meaning to English=20 + le is quite close in meaning to English=20 the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 the does not have. descriptionsimportance of selbri first place in= descriptorspurpose of The general purpose of all descript= ors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri be= longing to the description. Thus=20 le zarci conveys something which might be found= in the x1 place of=20 zarci, namely a market. leand truth of selbri leand specificity leimplications of The specific purpose of=20 - le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. + le is twofold. First, it indicates that the spe= aker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener = knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is m= erely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being= committed to the truth of that description. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2"/>

le zarci cu barda One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as=20 markets is/are-big. The market is big. The markets are big. @@ -195,63 +180,63 @@ =20

lein false-to-fact descriptions=20 is not self-contradictory i= n Lojban, because=20 le nanmu merely means something or other which,= for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it = really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to b= e a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observati= on.=20 =20 is what I would say to poin= t out my observation to you. =20 descriptionsspecific specific descriptions In all des= criptions with=20 - le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 + le, the listener is presumed to either know wha= t I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will giv= e more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at th= e supposed man or men:=20 would then be perfectly int= elligible, since=20 le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at= the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in t= he same direction. lo<= /indexterm> loimplications of descriptionsnon-specific non-specific d= escriptions The second descriptor dealt with in this = section is=20 - lo. Unlike=20 - le,=20 - lo is nonspecific: + lo. Unlike=20 + le,=20 + lo is nonspecific: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4"/>

lo zarci one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets a market some markets

loand truth of selbri locontrasted with le in truth re= quirement lecontrasted with lo in truth requirement lecontrasted with lo in specificity locontraste= d with le in specificity Again, there are two collo= quial English translations. The effect of using=20 - lo in=20 + lo in=20 is to refer generally to on= e or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 le zarci,=20 lo zarci must refer to something which actually= is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi= whose selbri is=20 zarci). Thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5"/>

lo nanmu cu ninmu Some man is a woman. Some men are women.

must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 =20 true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 - lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= + lo refers to whatever individuals meet its desc= ription. la<= /indexterm> lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lacompare= d with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 - la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 - le descriptions,=20 - la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 - la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 + la, which indicates that the selbri which follo= ws it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a n= ame. Like=20 + le descriptions,=20 + la descriptions are implicitly restricted to th= ose I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 + la with its use before regular Lojbanized names= , which is discussed in=20 .) For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/>

la cribe pu finti le lisri The-one-named=20 bear [past] creates the story. Bear wrote the story. @@ -306,22 +291,22 @@

lacontrasted with lo in implications=20 is about a specific bear or= bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or m= etaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 is about one or more of the= really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each o= f them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one = bear (or=20 bear) is meant. descriptions with= loteddy bear contrasted with real bear (The notion of a=20 really existing, objectively defined bear raises certai= n difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 real bear? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 =20 - le may communicate better than=20 - lo.) + le may communicate better than=20 + lo.) So while=20 could easily be true (there= is a real writer named=20 Greg Bear), and=20 could be true if the speake= r is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,=20 is certainly false. Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 and=20 respectively: @@ -341,25 +326,25 @@ <gloss>A human being wrote the story.</gloss> <en>Some human beings wrote the story.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><seco= ndary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with= lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 <jbophrase>le remna</jbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to = that person.=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author= is human.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary><= /indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><sec= ondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported= "><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><seco= ndary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as el= idable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable ter= minator for all descriptions is=20 - <quote>ku</quote>. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 + <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>. It can almost always be omitted with no dan= ger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative claus= es, which are discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses"/>, and in the case of a des= cription immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an ex= plicit=20 - <quote>cu</quote> before the selbri makes the=20 - <quote>ku</quote> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 - <quote>ku</quote>: in the compound negator=20 + <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> before the selbri makes the=20 + <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses= of=20 + <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>: in the compound negator=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> (discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation"/>) and to terminate place-structure= , tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses"/>).</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter6-section3"> <title>Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -391,64 +376,64 @@ le prenu cu bevri le pipno One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= =20 The person(s) carry the piano. =20

(Of course the second=20 - le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 - le, the one preceding=20 + le should really get the same translation as th= e first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 + le, the one preceding=20 prenu. I will assume that there is only one pia= no under discussion.) individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2"/>

lei prenu cu bevri le pipno The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry t= he piano. =20

lei= piano-movingexample mass objectand logical reasoning= mas= s objectproperties of multiple individual objectscontrasted with mass object mass objectcontras= ted with multiple individual objects Here the same = three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called=20 mass entity, or just=20 mass. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 =20 - lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appl= icable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarit= ies may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the com= ponent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say tha= t a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of = the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. + lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is = not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other pe= culiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only= the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to= say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because = some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. lai= loi lai= as mass counterpart of lai loias mass counterpa= rt of lo The descriptors=20 - loi and=20 - lai are analogous to=20 - lo and=20 - la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 - loi) or by name (=20 - lai). A classic example of=20 - loi use is: + loi and=20 + lai are analogous to=20 + lo and=20 + la respectively, but refer to masses either by = property (=20 + loi) or by name (=20 + lai). A classic example of=20 + loi use is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/>

loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa.

lions in Africaexample loicontrasted with lei in speci= ficity leicontrasted with loi in specificity The difference between=20 - lei and=20 - loi is that=20 + lei and=20 + loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individu= als which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of al= l those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa - they live in various zoos around the world.= On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/>

@@ -471,48 +456,48 @@ loi matne cu ranti =20 Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. Butter is soft.

matne butter is sof= texample mass objectas dependent on i= ntention Of course, some butter is hard (for exampl= e, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 part-of implication of=20 - loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanis= m works is that the English words like=20 + loi becomes once again useful. The reason this = mechanism works is that the English words like=20 butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 matne is=20 =20 x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butter is translated as something like=20 a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) mass nameuse of The mass name descriptor=20 =20 =20 - lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 + lai is used in circumstances where we wish to t= alk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of t= hem. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thu= s the mass version of=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/>

lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear [past] creates the nearby book. The Bears wrote this book.

Bears wrote book<= /primary>example laicontrasted with la in impli= cations lacontrasted with lai in implications<= /indexterm> in a context where=20 la cribe would be understood as plural, would m= ean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have wr= itten the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators= . Using=20 =20 - la instead of=20 - lai in=20 + la instead of=20 + lai in=20 would give the implication = that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.

Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le'i LE the set described as @@ -526,29 +511,29 @@ la'i LA the set of those named

masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. la'i lo'i le'i la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set coun= terpart of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei setsproperties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets<= /secondary> incl= usionproperty of sets Sets hav= e properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (t= he relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the rel= ationship between two sets, one of which - the superset =E2=80=93 contains = all the elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors=20 =20 =20 =20 - le'i,=20 - lo'i and=20 - la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 - lei,=20 - loi, and=20 - lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 - lo,=20 - loi, and=20 - lo'i: + le'i,=20 + lo'i and=20 + la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors= =20 + lei,=20 + loi, and=20 + lai except that normally we talk of the whole o= f a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 + lo,=20 + loi, and=20 + lo'i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/> lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. Some rats are brown. =20 @@ -590,22 +575,22 @@

mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20

Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 - lo'i were changed to=20 - lo in=20 + lo'i were changed to=20 + lo in=20 , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.

Descriptors for typical objects =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lo'e @@ -616,21 +601,21 @@ le'e LE the stereotypical =20

lo'e As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for dis= criminating between=20 the lion who lives in Africa and=20 the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 - lo'e means=20 + lo'e means=20 the typical, as in <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/> lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. The lion dwells in Africa. @@ -646,57 +631,57 @@ lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England= . typical Englishma= nexample le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to= lo'e lo'erelationship to lo'i The= relationship between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical l= ion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lion= s. There is a similar relationship between=20 - le'e and=20 - le'i: + le'e and=20 + le'i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/>

le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. =20 Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. =20

le'e stereotypical<= /primary>compared with typical typicalcompared = with stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojba= n Gr= eek-Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we= are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set= of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imagin= ary) who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 =20 - le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 + le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simpl= y suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather = than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may= disagree about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 le'e cinfo may be very fine. Furthermore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/>

le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. =20 =20

Hollywoodexample is probably true to an America= n, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Ru= ssia. typical Smithexample name equivalent for "typical"rationale for lack of Note that there is no n= aming equivalent of=20 - lo'e and=20 - le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 + lo'e and=20 + le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for = a=20 typical George or a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. =20

Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro @@ -982,35 +967,35 @@ all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as lo'e: su'o lo'e ro at least one of the types of all those that really are l= e-series cmavoas encompassing le-series and la-series = descriptors for quantification discussion le-series cmavod= efinition la-series descriptorscompared with le-series in = implicit quantification le-series descriptorscompared with= la-series in implicit quantification When examined= for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there = are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, t= he descriptors=20 - la,=20 - lai, and=20 - la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors=20 - le,=20 - lei,=20 - le'i, and=20 - le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, s= o we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this dis= cussion:=20 + la,=20 + lai, and=20 + la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descripto= rs=20 + le,=20 + lei,=20 + le'i, and=20 + le'e) always have corresponding implicit quanti= fiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of = this discussion:=20 le-series cmavo will refer to both the le-series proper= and to the la-series. =20 le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 =20 - lo,=20 - loi,=20 - lo'i, and=20 - lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 + lo,=20 + loi,=20 + lo'i, and=20 + lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of= =20 ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an imp= licit inner quantifier of=20 =20 su'o. le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one. piro massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule f= or implicit outer quantifier Understanding the impl= icit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of ma= ss and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mas= s is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is= implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently si= ngular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with th= e same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, t= he largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass= description is=20 piro, the whole of it. plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) pi<= /indexterm> pisu'o= explanation of meaning piroexplanation of mean= ing Why=20 pi-? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just= as=20 @@ -1019,123 +1004,123 @@ .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion c= onsisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness= =E2=80=93 the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,=20 pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at lea= st one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. =20 portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 =20 pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 half of the men; saying=20 pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 - lu'a in=20 + lu'a in=20 =20 ). loimplicit outer quantifier for leimplicit outer quant= ifier for individual descriptorsdifferent implicit outer q= uantifiers among outer quantifiersrationale for difference= s in implicit quantifier on descriptors The case of= outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including=20 - le,=20 - lo,=20 - la, and the typical descriptors=20 - le'e and=20 - lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 - le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 + le,=20 + lo,=20 + la, and the typical descriptors=20 + le'e and=20 + lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific ind= ividuals with=20 + le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in= mind, so=20 ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, j= ust as it is appropriate for=20 do. Reference to non-specific individuals with= =20 - lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects w= hich can be correctly described, and so=20 + lo, however, is typically to only some of the o= bjects which can be correctly described, and so=20 su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, ju= st as for quotations. locontrasted with le in implicit quantification= lecont= rasted with lo in implicit quantification From the = English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the fol= lowing example using=20 - le: + le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4"/>

[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white.

and the corresponding form with=20 - lo: + lo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5"/>

ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. Three dogs are white.

looks very peculiar. Why is the number=20 ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 and as an outer quantifier = in=20 ? The number of dogs is the = same in either case. The answer is that the=20 ci in=20 is part of the specificatio= n: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has = in mind. In=20 , however, the dogs referred= to by=20 - ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the outer qua= ntifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. Th= e implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little:= in the case of=20 - le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 + ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the o= uter quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot = tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too= little: in the case of=20 + le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted= group is white; in the case of=20 - lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. + lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says t= hat three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.= lo-series descrip= tioncaution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-serie= s descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many= things exist which really fit the description. So examples like <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6"/>

[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi =20 [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white

are semantically anomalous;=20 claims that some dog (or do= gs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe! Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 - lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasion= ally be useful. + lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may = occasionally be useful. Note that the inner quantifier of=20 - le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 + le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 le ci nanmu means=20 what I describe as three men, not=20 three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 - le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rathe= r than the objective way things are. + le description represents the speaker's viewpoi= nt rather than the objective way things are.

Indefinite descriptions descriptorsomission of loomission of By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor= =20 - lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 + lo, but never any other descriptor, from a desc= ription like that of=20 ; namely, one which has an e= xplicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1"/>

ci gerku [ku] cu blabi Three dogs are white.

indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 - ku may still be used. The name=20 + ku may still be used. The name=20 indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 =20 =20 - lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. + lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced int= o the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural = languages. inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatical), or which has an expl= icit inner quantifier (thus=20 *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is also ungrammatical -=20 re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 23 dogs are white). Note:=20 also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 =20 =20 su'o ci cutci; another version of that example = using an explicit=20 - lo would be: + lo would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d2"/>

mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes I own three (or more) shoes.

@@ -1281,23 +1266,23 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: =20 LUhU elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO =20 Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? lu'u BO selma'o= lu'u<= /primary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti<= /indexterm> sumti qualifiers= elidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinte= rnal syntax of NAhE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and co= mpound cmavo are called the=20 sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 =20 - bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti= qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to = add the elidable terminator=20 + bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix= a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may = need to add the elidable terminator=20 =20 - lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) + lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) =20 sumti qualifiers<= /primary>as short forms for common special cases Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 =20 The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: =20 Red Ponyexample unqualified sumticontrasted with qualified= sumti qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1"/> @@ -1336,28 +1321,28 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3"/>

mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] =20 =20 I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].

la'e referentreferring to with la'e la'eeffect of on mea= ning dereferencing a pointerwith la'e la'eas short for "le selsinxa be" So when=20 - la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it p= roduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jarg= on,=20 + la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symb= ol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In compu= ter jargon,=20 =20 - la'e dereferences a pointer.) + la'e dereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. lu'e symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meani= ng The sumti qualifier=20 - lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, + lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be= prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring t= o a sign or symbol for the thing. For example, title of bookexample lu'eas short for "le sinxa be&qu= ot; FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/> mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. I said the title of this book. @@ -1368,29 +1353,29 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing:

mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.

which is equivalent to=20 , but longer. vu'i lu'o lu'i lu'a= t= u'a se= quencecontrasted with set vu'iuse for= creating sequence tu'ause for forming abstractions vu'ieffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meani= ng l= u'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of= on meaning <= primary>tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 - tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained = more fully in=20 + tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is ex= plained more fully in=20 . The triplet=20 - lu'a,=20 + lu'a,=20 =20 - lu'i, and=20 + lu'i, and=20 =20 - lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 + lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and mas= ses;=20 =20 - vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: + vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates= a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set o= f John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequ= ences are different.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6"/> mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. I try (to open) the door. @@ -1438,36 +1423,36 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. set of ratsexample (Yes, I know these examples = are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical ex= amples are as yet hard to come by.) negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 - bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 + bo are all concerned with negation, which is di= scussed in detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: =20 na'ebo<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10"/>

mi viska na'ebo le gerku =20 I see something-other-than the dog.

This compound,=20 - na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation sumti q= ualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, = with modifications, something already referred to: + na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation= sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of rep= eating, with modifications, something already referred to: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/>

mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra @@ -1548,34 +1533,34 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/>

doi djan. John!

vocative phraseimplicit descriptor on vocative phrasew= ith sumti without descriptor vocative phraseforms of In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking it= s descriptor, which is understood to be=20 - le: + le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6"/>

coi xunre pastu nixli Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. Hello, girl with the red dress!

vocative phraseexplicit quantifiers prohibited on vocative phrase= implicit quantifiers on The listener nee= d not really be a=20 xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands h= erself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can ap= pear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the i= mplicit quantifiers=20 - su'o le ro are in effect.) + su'o le ro are in effect.) Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7"/>

co'o la bab. .e la noras. Goodbye, Bob and Nora.

@@ -1595,21 +1580,21 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9"/>

doi la djan. The-one-named John!

DOhU selma'o<= /primary> do= 'u voc= ative phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, th= e elidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 - do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except w= hen a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may= also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relativ= e clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 + do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed = except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi= . It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its= relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 =20 free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls - see=20 =20 =20 - metalinguistic comments - see=20 - or reciprocals - see=20 ) which must be properly separate= d. vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 and=20 @@ -1649,23 +1634,23 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: djan. meris. djein. .alis. John. Mary. Jane. Alice.

(Note that=20 .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, bec= ause all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. S= ee=20 for more information.) nameswith LA descriptor namesin vocative phrase namesuses of Names of this kind have two= basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see=20 =20 ) they indicate who the list= ener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + la'i, they form sumti which refer to the person= s or things known by the name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/>

la djonz. klama le zarci Jones goes to-the store. The Joneses go to-the store.

@@ -1682,33 +1667,33 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: In=20 , the significance is that a= ll the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name=20 djonz. are going to the store. In=20 , the Joneses are massified,= and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person = need not use the name=20 djonz. at all. LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 and=20 operate exactly like the si= milar uses of=20 - la and=20 - lai in=20 + la and=20 + lai in=20 and=20 respectively. The only diff= erence is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in = fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) a= nd of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be foll= owed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot. =20 la'i lai la LA selm= a'o doi = doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma= 'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word name-word= spause requirements before name-words= limitations on There are certain limitations on the= form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the lette= r-sequences (or sound-sequences)=20 =20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 doi unless a consonant immediately precedes wit= hin the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i, or=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i, or=20 doi must be preceded by a pause instead: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4"/>

coi .djan. Hello, John.

@@ -1721,45 +1706,45 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: The-word=20 John is-the-name-of me. My name is John. In=20 and=20 ,=20 .djan. appears with a pause before it as well a= s after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases= . These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stre= am. namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 - zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: + zo is always followed by a single word, which i= s quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each w= ith its terminating pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/>

doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. =20 =20

John Paul Jonesexample Newport Newsexample= name-wordspermissible consonant combinations = A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban = words generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 ). Thus=20 - djeimz. is not a valid version of=20 - James (because=20 - mz is invalid):=20 + djeimz. is not a valid version = of=20 + James (because=20 + mz is inval= id):=20 djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 - la may be replaced by=20 + la may be replaced by=20 ly,=20 - lai by=20 - ly'i,=20 + lai by=20 + ly'i,=20 doi by=20 do'i or=20 dai. Here are a few examples: =20

Doyle =20 *doi,l do'il or dai,l @@ -1787,27 +1772,27 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/>

lojban. Lojban

names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 =20 - s or=20 - n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. + s or=20 + n when borrowing vowel-final nam= es from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonan= t endings. =20 names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 - la followed by a name is=20 + la followed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 - la followed by a selbri. + la followed by a selbri.

Pro-sumti summary pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. ro<= /indexterm> pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following= examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the= implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer = to other sumti, the=20 ro signifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. personal pro-sumt= i Personal pro-sumti (=20 @@ -1847,21 +1832,21 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: ko'e,=20 ko'i,=20 ko'o,=20 ko'u,=20 fo'a,=20 =20 fo'e,=20 fo'i,=20 fo'o,=20 fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explici= tly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 - goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 + goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 defined-as. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2"/>

le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.

@@ -1972,21 +1957,21 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true. metalinguistic pr= o-sumtiimplicit quantifier for= The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 =20 su'o (at least one), because they are considere= d analogous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances. + lo descriptions: they refer to things which rea= lly are previous, current, or following utterances. relative pro-sumt= i The relative pro-sumti (=20 =20 ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 for a discussion of relat= ive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.= <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9"/>

mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a @@ -2020,44 +2005,44 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: quotationfour kinds There are four kinds of quo= tation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, n= on-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 . li'u lu text quotatio= nas internally grammatical text quotationsyntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 lu and followed by=20 - li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. + li'u, and are an essential part of the surround= ing text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/>

mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. I say=20 I'm John.

word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. le'u lo'u= FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/>

mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u I say the-words [quote]=20 - li mi [unquote]. + li mi [unquote]. I say=20 - li mi. + li mi.

Note that the translation of=20 does not translate the Lojb= an words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they = are ungrammatical). single-word quota= tion Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban wor= d. Compound cmavo are not allowed. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3"/> @@ -2073,26 +2058,26 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing:

mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot I say=20 I'm John.

quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o (at least one), because quotations are ana= logous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words. + lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are words or sequences of words.

Number summary li<= /indexterm> number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of= The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 - li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 + li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Loj= ban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple n= umber up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operato= rs, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/> li vo the-number four 4 @@ -2111,23 +2096,23 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3"/>

li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy. the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c ax

number sumtiwith li contrasted with me'o number sumtiw= ith me'o contrasted with li LI selma'o me'o number sumtiwith me'o An alternative to=20 - li is=20 - me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning = with=20 - me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 + li is=20 + me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions be= ginning with=20 + me'o refer to the actual expression, rather tha= n its value. Thus=20 and=20 above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4"/>

me'o vo the-expression four @@ -2145,15 +2130,15 @@ FIXME: the NAhE+BO entries are missing: the-expression two plus two 2+2

refer to different pieces of text. mathematical expr= essionsimplicit quantifier for= numbersimplicit quantifier for The implicit quantifier fo= r numbers and mathematical expressions is=20 =20 su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 - li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 + li), this is a distinction without a difference= , as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears.

diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 99c859b..1e3cc75 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,21 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 -Zort: 3, 5 +Zort: 3, 4, 5 (they still contain FIXMEs though) =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so: =20 commit bbf5da6a5b61b4365dc055215f9fa1b411a10c4c Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Wed Jan 5 10:38:03 2011 -0500 Chapter 4: variablelists to orderedlists, example classification, inven= ted for lojbanization examples. diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 18f29f6..bc4fef7 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -215,35 +215,28 @@ .uo .uu In addition, cmavo can have the form=20 Cy, a consonant followed by= the letter=20 y. These cmavo represent lett= ers of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in=20 =20 . compound cmavocompared with sequence of simple cmavo compound cmavodefinition cmavocompound Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a singl= e written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in gram= matical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is comp= osed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space,= and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo ar= e acting together. compound cmavorecognition of Compound cmavo, wh= ile not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by = two characteristics: - - - 1) + They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and - =20 - - - 2) They end in a vowel. - - + For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d1"/>

.iseci'i .i se ci'i

@@ -589,55 +582,55 @@ respectively. tanruambiguity in The possibility of semantic a= mbiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret=20 , the listener must determin= e what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an= appropriate context,=20 mamta patfu could mean not=20 grandfather but simply=20 father with some motherly attributes, depending on the = culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and= explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detai= l is usually not needed. tanruto lujvo lujvofrom tanru = brivlaf= rom tanru When a concept expressed in a tanru prove= s useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the = possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For=20 , we would probably choose= =20 user of computers, and form the new word - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d5"/> - + sampli - + Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its componen= t words, is called a=20 lujvo. Another example, corresponding to the ta= nru of=20 , would be: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d6"/> - + bralo'i big-boat ship - + lujvoconstruction of rafsidefinition lujvounambiguous decomposition of The lujvo represe= nting a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. T= hese units are called=20 rafsi in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one= gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the ta= nru, occasionally inserting so-called=20 hyphen letters to ensure that the pieces stick together= as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu= , or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accuratel= y recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spo= ken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique = source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning. =20 The lujvo that can be built from the tanru=20 mamta patfu in=20 is - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d7"/> - + mampa'u - + which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 mampa'u by the rafsi=20 mam- and=20 -pa'u, respectively; these two r= afsi are then concatenated together to form=20 mampa'u. long rafsi formcompared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning short ra= fsi formcompared with long form in effect on lujvo mea= ning rafsi formeffect of choice on meaning of lujvo lujvomultiple forms of lujvomeaning of Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is f= ormally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition wi= ll be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms.= (See=20 for how this has been done.) Unlike = gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diffe= rence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used t= o build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments= , in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even = though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 =20 @@ -651,32 +644,31 @@ y and=20 '), and the lujvo must end in= a vowel. glue in lujvoy-hyphen as y-hyphenand stress determinat= ion = y-hyphenuse of A=20 y (which is ignored in determ= ining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the conson= ant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either = not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules= describing these conditions, detailed in=20 =20 =20 . glue in lujvon-hyphen as n-hyphenuse of glue in lujvor-hyphen as r-hyphenuse of An=20 r (in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-for= m rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no= consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8"/> - + soirsai - sonci sanmi + sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations - =20 - + cmavo= contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning the raf= si=20 soi- and=20 -sai are joined, with the additi= onal=20 =20 r making up the=20 rs consonant pair needed to= make the word a brivla. Without the=20 r, the word would break up in= to=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no r= elation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in= this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. =20 @@ -995,91 +987,91 @@ r. For example, the tanru=20 rokci renro (=20 rock throw) cannot be expressed as=20 ro'ire'o (which breaks up into = two cmavo), nor can it be=20 ro'irre'o (which has an impermi= ssible double consonant); the=20 n-hyphen is required, and the= correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is=20 ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be express= ed without hyphenation as=20 rokre'o. ZEI selma'olujvowith zei There is also a different way of building lujvo, or = rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo= . You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of = them with the special cmavo=20 zei. Thus, - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d12"/> - + bridi zei valsi - + cmavo without raf= simethod of including in lujvo= fu'ivlamethod of including in lujvo cmenemethod of including in = lujvo rafsilack ofeffect on forming = lujvo lujvofrom cmavo with no rafsi= is the exact equivalent of=20 brivla (but not necessarily the same as the und= erlying tanru=20 bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) = Using=20 zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a ra= fsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13"/> - + xy. zei kantu X ray - + - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Persian rug</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rug</primary><second= ary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d14"/> - + kulnr,farsi zei lolgai Farsi floor-cover Persian rug - + - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d15"/> - + na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma non-A, non-B liver-disease non-A, non-B hepatitis - + - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sherman tank</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>tank</primary><secon= dary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d16"/> - + .cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank - + is particularly notew= orthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in = fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two c= omponents, but by adding a=20 zei between=20 by. and=20 livgyterbilma to produce - + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17"/> - + na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis - + the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because = its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo w= ithout a brivla must be constructed ad hoc. cmavocontrasted with rafsi in usage rafsicontrasted wi= th cmavo in usage rafsicontrasted with words Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV ra= fsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion betw= een the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate= words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing s= eparate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only a= s parts of lujvo.

fu'ivla lujvounsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon food= use of fu'ivla for specific animalsuse of fu'iv= la for specific plantsuse of fu'ivla for specific jargonuse of fu'ivla for specific termsuse of fu= 'ivla for concrete termsuse of fu'ivla for fu'ivlause of The use of tanru or lujvo is not al= ways appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.=20 @@ -1966,150 +1958,103 @@ ; abstraction is explained in=20 .) Plausibility is the key to = learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.

The lujvo-making algorithm lujvoalgorithm for The following is the current= algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete l= ist of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob Le= Chevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It= was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected= a flaw in the original=20 =20 tosmabru test. =20 Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo: - - - 1) - - Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu = and cmavo in the tanru except the last. - - - - 2) - - Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi= for the final gismu in the tanru. - - - - 3) - - Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyph= ens. - =20 - - - - 4) - - hyphens in = lujvoproscribed where not required Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a= place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are reco= mmended, for reasons discussed below.=20 - - - 4a) - - If there are more than two words in the tanru, put a= n=20 - r-hyphen (or an= =20 - n-hyphen) after t= he first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put = an=20 - r-hyphen (or an= =20 - n-hyphen) between= the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is C= CV-form (for example,=20 - saicli requires no hyphen). Use an= =20 - r-hyphen unless t= he letter after the hyphen is=20 - r, in which case = use an=20 - n-hyphen. Never u= se an=20 - n-hyphen unless i= t is required. - - - - 4b) - - Put a=20 - y-hyphen between = the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear= between rafsi. - - - - 4c) - - tosma= bru test Put a=20 - y-hyphen after an= y 4-letter rafsi form. - =20 - - - - - - - 5) - - Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - w= ith the pattern=20 - CVC ... CVC + X - for=20 - tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCC= V long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consona= nt cluster, or is something which has caused a=20 - y-hyphen to be installe= d between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules. - The test is as follows: - - - 5a) - - Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first = y-hyphen, or up to the end of the = word in case there are no y-hyphen= s. - These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. - - - - 5b) - - If all of those joints are permissible initials, the= n the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, t= he word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. - - - - 5c) - - Install a y= -hyphen at the first such joint. - - - - - - + + + Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cm= avo in the tanru except the last. + + + Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for t= he final gismu in the tanru. + + + Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens. + + + hyphens in lujvo<= /primary>proscribed where not required A= dd hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place= that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommende= d, for reasons discussed below. + + + If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an=20 + r-hyphen (or an=20 + n-hyphen) after the first= rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an=20 + r-hyphen (or an=20 + n-hyphen) between the two= rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form = (for example,=20 + saicli requires no hyphen). Use an=20 + r-hyphen unless the lette= r after the hyphen is=20 + r, in which case use an= =20 + n-hyphen. Never use an=20 + n-hyphen unless it is req= uired. + + + Put a=20 + y-hyphen between the cons= onants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between= rafsi. + + + tosmabru test= Put a=20 + y-hyphen after any 4-lett= er rafsi form. + + + + + Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - with th= e pattern=20 + CVC ... CVC + X - for=20 + tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long= rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant clu= ster, or is something which has caused a=20 + y-hyphen to be installed betw= een the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules. + The test is as follows: + + + Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in = case there are no y-hyphens. + These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. + + + If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the tr= ial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word = will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. + + + Install a y-hyphen = at the first such joint. + + + + lujvoselection of best form of lujvoscoring of Note that the=20 tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more e= fficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to l= eft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be= completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. =20 =20

The lujvo scoring algorithm This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. = It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that p= eople find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowe= st-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In pr= evious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.) - - - 1) + Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 - =20 - L. + L. - - - 2) Count the number of apostrophes; call it=20 - A. + A. - - - 3) Count the number of=20 y-,=20 r-, and=20 n-hyphens; call it=20 =20 - H. + H. - - - 4) For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 - R:=20 + R:=20 CVC/CV (final) (-sarji-) 1 @@ -2147,30 +2092,26 @@ CVV with no apostrophe (-sai-) 8 - - - 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 - V. + V. - - + lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10= * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there is no p= reference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes= a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes= as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing= rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels ar= e chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it = have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might d= ominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.= =20 doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/>

@@ -2458,220 +2399,193 @@ cinse ctuca (which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 ke required for grouping need not be expressed.=

The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: - - - 1) - - gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chi= nese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the propos= ed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: co= nsonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were = simplified to just the fricative (=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - tc became=20 - c,=20 - dj became=20 - j) and non-Lojban vowel= s were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dro= pped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake= of consistency. - - - - 2) - - All possible gismu forms were matched against the six sour= ce-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 - - - 2a) - - If three or more letters were the same in the propos= ed gismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the = score was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening le= tters, if any, did not matter. - - - - 2b) - - If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed= gismu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consec= utive in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, th= e score was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score. - - - - 2c) - - gismu= creationconsiderations for selec= tion after scoring Otherwise, the score was 0. - - - - - - - 3) - - gismucreationproscribed gismu pairs gismutoo-similar The scores were divided b= y the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then m= ultiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the pr= oportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the lan= guage. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers= .) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores w= as the total score for the proposed gismu form. - - - - 4) - - Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were r= emoved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a con= flict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gism= u except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gism= u would have identical 4-letter rafsi. - gismucreationand transcription blunders More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an = existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too si= milar=E2=80=9D based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was re= jected. - - - - - - - proposed gismu - existing gismu - - - - - b - p, v - - - c - j, s - - - d - t - - - f - p, v - - - g - k, x - - - j - c, z - - - k - g, x - - - l - r - - - m - n - - - n - m - - - p - b, f - - - r - l - - - s - c, z - - - t - d - - - v - b, f - - - x - g, k - - - z - j, s - - - - - gismusource-language weights for See for an example. - - - - 5) - - The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 - gismu should have been=20 - gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).<= /para> - The language weights used to make most of the gismu were a= s follows: - - - - - - - Chinese0.36 - - - English0.21 - - - Hindi0.16 - - - Spanish0.11 - - - Russian0.09 - - - Arabic0.07 - - - - - reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were = made much later using updated weights: - - - - - - - Chinese0.347 - - - Hindi0.196 - - - English0.160 - - - Spanish0.123 - - - Russian0.089 - - - Arabic0.085 - - - - - gismucoined gismuexceptions to gismu creation by= algorithm (English and Hindi switched places due t= o demographic changes.) - - - + + + gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chine= se, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed= gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: cons= onant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were si= mplified to just the fricative ( + tc became=20 + c,=20 + dj became=20 + j) and non-Lojban vowels = were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropp= ed. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake o= f consistency. + + + All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source= -language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 + + + If three or more letters were the same in the proposed g= ismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the scor= e was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letter= s, if any, did not matter. + + + If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gis= mu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutiv= e in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the sc= ore was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score. + + + gismucreationconsiderations for selection= after scoring Otherwise, the score was 0. + + + + + gismucreationproscribed gismu pairs gismutoo-similar The scores were divided by = the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then mul= tiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the prop= ortional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the langu= age. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers.)= The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was= the total score for the proposed gismu form. + + + Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were rem= oved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a confl= ict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu = except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu = would have identical 4-letter rafsi. + gismucreationand transcription blunders More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an ex= isting gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too simi= lar=E2=80=9D based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was reje= cted. + + + + + + + proposed gismu + existing gismu + + + + + b + p, v + + + c + j, s + + + d + t + + + f + p, v + + + g + k, x + + + j + c, z + + + k + g, x + + + l + r + + + m + n + + + n + m + + + p + b, f + + + r + l + + + s + c, z + + + t + d + + + v + b, f + + + x + g, k + + + z + j, s + + + + + gismusource-language weights for See for an example. + + + The gismu form with the highest score usually became the act= ual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafs= i. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders = (for example, the gismu=20 + gismu should have been=20 + gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now). + The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as = follows: + + + + + + + Chinese0.36 + + + English0.21 + + + Hindi0.16 + + + Spanish0.11 + + + Russian0.09 + + + Arabic0.07 + + + + + reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were ma= de much later using updated weights: + + + + + + + Chinese0.347 + + + Hindi0.196 + + + English0.160 + + + Spanish0.123 + + + Russian0.089 + + + Arabic0.085 + + + + + gismucoined gismuexceptions to gismu creation by a= lgorithm (English and Hindi switched places due to = demographic changes.) + + gismuLojban-specific Note that the stressed vow= el of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gi= smu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,=20 =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu @@ -2731,88 +2645,88 @@ centi .01/centi milti .001/milli mikri - 1E-6/micro + 10-6/micro nanvi - 1E-9/nano + 10-9/nano picti - 1E-12/pico + 10-12/pico femti - 1E-15/femto + 10-15/femto xatsi - 1E-18/atto + 10-18/atto zepti - 1E-21/zepto + 10-21/zepto gocti - 1E-24/yocto + 10-24/yocto Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1): dekto 10/deka xecto 100/hecto kilto 1000/kilo megdo - 1E6/mega + 106/mega gigdo - 1E9/giga + 109/giga terto - 1E12/tera + 1012/tera petso - 1E15/peta + 1015/peta xexso - 1E18/exa + 1018/exa zetro - 1E21/zetta + 1021/zetta gotro - 1E24/yotta + 1024/yotta gismucultural Other scientific or mathematical = terms: delno candela kelvo @@ -3177,21 +3091,21 @@ must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/>

- tci'ile + tci'ile Chilean

is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a= Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist i= f they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, bu= t does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2"/>

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