<anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/>

Masses and sets The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -502,78 +509,79 @@ LE the set of those which really are

la'i LA the set of those named

masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. - la'i lo'i le'i la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set coun= terpart of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei setsproperties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets<= /secondary> incl= usionproperty of sets Sets hav= e properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (t= he relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the rel= ationship between two sets, one of which - the superset =96 contains all th= e elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors=20 + la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which - the superset =96 contains all the elemen= ts of the other - the subset). The set descriptors=20 =20 =20 =20 le'i,=20 lo'i and=20 la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors= =20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 lai except that normally we talk of the whole o= f a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 loi, and=20 lo'i: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/>

lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. Some rats are brown. =20

loi ratcu cu cmalu Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.<= /gloss> Rats are small.

- rats are brownexample lo'icontrasted with lo and loi loicontrasted with lo and lo'i locontrasted wi= th loi and lo'i FIXME: TAG SPOT +lo'icontrasted with lo and loi loicontrasted with lo and lo= 'i l= ocontrasted with loi and lo'i = FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. There are a lot of rats.

The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge - it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some= of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats b= rown - brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess. =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 fadni is: x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members= of set x3 Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense fo= r an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typic= al of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place mu= st be filled with a set: - typical Lojban userexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/>

mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20

Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 @@ -592,87 +600,90 @@ LE the typical le'e LE the stereotypical =20 - lo'e As promised in=20 + As promised in=20 , Lojban has a method for discrimina= ting between=20 the lion who lives in Africa and=20 the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 lo'e means=20 the typical, as in + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/>

lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. The lion dwells in Africa.

- lion in Africaexample typical objectsand instantiation= typ= ical objectsdetermining characteristics of= What is this=20 + typical objectsand instantiation typical objectsdetermi= ning characteristics of What is this=20 typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2"/>

lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England= .

- typical Englishma= nexample le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to= lo'e lo'erelationship to lo'i The= relationship between=20 + le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical l= ion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lion= s. There is a similar relationship between=20 le'e and=20 le'i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/>

le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. =20 Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. =20

- le'e stereotypical<= /primary>compared with typical typicalcompared = with stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojba= n Gr= eek-Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we= are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set= of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imagin= ary) who owns a restaurant. The word=20 + stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 =20 le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simpl= y suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather = than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may= disagree about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 le'e cinfo may be very fine. Furthermore, + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/>

le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. =20 =20

- Hollywoodexample is probably true to an America= n, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Ru= ssia. - typical Smithexample name equivalent for typicalrationale for lack of Note that there is n= o naming equivalent of=20 + is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. + typical Smithexample name e= quivalent for typicalrationale for lack= of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 lo'e and=20 le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for = a=20 typical George or a=20 typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. =20

Quantified sumti The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -791,21 +802,21 @@

mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

the meaning would be something like=20 I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 means that I express exactl= y one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, = as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least= once. - su'o The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 + The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 at least is=20 su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 su'o means=20 at least once. (See=20 for the use of=20 su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the e= xplicitly quantified version of=20 is implicit quantifierfor quotations quotationsimplicit quan= tifier for su'oas implicit quantifier for quotations FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -840,29 +851,30 @@ <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>piro</cmavo> <selmaho>PA</selmaho> <description>the whole of</description> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>quantification</p= rimary><secondary>before description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti</secondary></indexterm> Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> refers to three dogs. Then we can say = that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-WtUh"> <title> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/>

re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. Two of the dogs are white.

- two dogs are whit= eexample inner quantifiereffect of on= meaning outer quantifiereffect of on meaning<= /indexterm> inner quantifier= contrasted with outer quantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier inner quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an= =20 + inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= For example, the context of=20 supposedly told us that=20 le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. = This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quant= ifier: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2"/>

@@ -978,29 +990,29 @@ le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 =20 lo,=20 loi,=20 lo'i, and=20 lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of= =20 ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an imp= licit inner quantifier of=20 =20 su'o. le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one. - piro massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule f= or implicit outer quantifier Understanding the impl= icit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of ma= ss and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mas= s is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is= implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently si= ngular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with th= e same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, t= he largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass= description is=20 + massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 piro, the whole of it. plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) - pi<= /indexterm> pisu'o= explanation of meaning piroexplanation of mean= ing Why=20 - pi-? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just= as=20 + pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 + pi? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal poin= t. Just as=20 =20 pimu means=20 - .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion c= onsisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 + .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five= tenths of a thing,=20 piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness= =96 the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,=20 pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at lea= st one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. =20 portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 =20 pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 half of the men; saying=20 pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 lu'a in=20 @@ -1120,49 +1132,51 @@

sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. =20 sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it ca= nnot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required. =20 A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: - + <title>  + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>the two of you</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/>

re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men.

le re do cu nanmu The two-of you are men.

- the two of youexample=20 + simply specifies that of th= e group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.=20 , which has the sumti-based = description=20 =20 le re do, says that of the two listeners, all (= the implicit outer quantifier=20 ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier= =20 re gives the number of individuals which the in= ner sumti=20 =20 do refers to. Here is another group of examples: - + <title>  + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3"/>

re le ci cribe cu bunre Two-of the three bears are-brown. =20

@@ -1177,21 +1191,21 @@ <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qLBq" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5"/>

pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown. =20

- three bearsexample sumti-based descriptions with leas = increasing restricting to in-mind In each case,=20 + sumti-based descri= ptions with leas increasing restricting to in-mind In each case,=20 le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bea= rs) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.= =20 says that two of them (whic= h two is not stated) are brown.=20 says that a specific pair o= f them are brown.=20 says that of a specific pai= r chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.

sumti qualifiers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: sumti qualifiers<= /primary>list of FIXME: TAG SPOT

@@ -1250,35 +1264,36 @@ NAhE+BO that which indeed is =20 lu'u LUhU elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO

Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? - lu'u BO selma'o= lu'u<= /primary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti<= /indexterm> sumti qualifiers= elidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinte= rnal syntax of NAhE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and co= mpound cmavo are called the=20 + BO selma'o lu'uas elidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifierselidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinterna= l syntax of <= primary>NAhE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and compo= und cmavo are called the=20 sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 =20 bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix= a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may = need to add the elidable terminator=20 =20 lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) =20 sumti qualifiers<= /primary>as short forms for common special cases Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 =20 The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: =20 - Red Ponyexample unqualified sumticontrasted with qualified= sumti qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti FIXME: TAG SPOT +unqualified sumticontrasted with qualified sumti qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti FIXME: TAG S= POT - + <title>  + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1"/>

mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].

But=20 doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 @@ -1307,53 +1322,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3"/> mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] =20 =20 I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]= . - la'e referentreferring to with la'e la'eeffect of on mea= ning dereferencing a pointerwith la'e la'eas short for le selsinxa be= So when=20 + referent= referring to with la'e la'eeffect of on meanin= g de= referencing a pointerwith la'e= la'eas= short for le selsinxa be So= when=20 la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symb= ol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In compu= ter jargon,=20 =20 la'e dereferences a pointer.) By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. - lu'e symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meani= ng The sumti qualifier=20 + symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meaning The sumti qualifier=20 lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be= prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring t= o a sign or symbol for the thing. For example, - title of bookexample lu'eas short for le sinxa = be FIXME: TAG SPOT +lu'eas short for le sinxa be = FIXME: TAG SPOT - + <title> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>title of book</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/>

mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. I said the title of this book.

The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d5"/>

mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.

which is equivalent to=20 , but longer. - vu'i lu'o lu'i lu'a= t= u'a se= quencecontrasted with set vu'iuse for= creating sequence tu'ause for forming abstractions vu'ieffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meani= ng l= u'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of= on meaning <= primary>tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 + sequence= contrasted with set vu'iuse for creating sequen= ce t= u'ause for forming abstractions vu'ie= ffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meaning lu'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of on meaning tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sum= ti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is ex= plained more fully in=20 . The triplet=20 lu'a,=20 =20 lu'i, and=20 =20 lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and mas= ses;=20 =20 vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates= a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set o= f John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequ= ences are different.) Here are some examples: =20 @@ -1367,21 +1383,22 @@ I try (to open) the door. tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means= =20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 . - + <title>  + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu =20 The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small. =20

@@ -1400,52 +1417,53 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d9"/>

mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentione= d is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a ma= ss. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.

- set of ratsexample (Yes, I know these examples = are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical ex= amples are as yet hard to come by.) + (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 bo are all concerned with negation, which is di= scussed in detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: =20 - na'ebo<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT + na'ebo FIXME: T= AG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10"/>

mi viska na'ebo le gerku =20 I see something-other-than the dog.

This compound,=20 na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation= sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of rep= eating, with modifications, something already referred to: =20 =20 + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/>

mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewa= rm food. =20

- lukewarm foodexample (In=20 + (In=20 , the sumti=20 ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti ot= her than that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 ri here, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sumti ava= ilable to=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 .)

The syntax of vocative phrases @@ -1475,42 +1493,42 @@ je'e =20 [acknowledgement] Uh-huh. Roger! vocative wordphrase following In these cases, t= he person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative = word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by=20 doi, or else just=20 doi by itself) can be followed by one of severa= l kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. Th= e most common case is a name: - coi FIXME: TAG SPOT + coi FIXME: TAG = SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3"/>

coi. djan. Hello, John.

A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 doi instead of a pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4"/>

coi doi djan. Hello, John.

- doi= means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Usi= ng=20 + doi means e= xactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using=20 doi by itself is like just saying someone's nam= e to attract his or her attention: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/>

doi djan. John!

@@ -1554,21 +1572,21 @@ is the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9"/>

doi la djan. The-one-named John!

- DOhU selma'o<= /primary> do= 'u voc= ative phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, th= e elidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 + DOhU selma'o<= /primary> vocati= ve phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the e= lidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed = except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi= . It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its= relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 =20 free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls - see=20 =20 =20 - metalinguistic comments - see=20 - or reciprocals - see=20 ) which must be properly separate= d. vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 @@ -1622,21 +1640,20 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/>

la djonz. klama le zarci Jones goes to-the store. The Joneses go to-the store.

- lai la FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d3"/>

lai djonz. klama le zarci The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store. The Joneses go to the store.

@@ -1647,21 +1664,21 @@ djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person = need not use the name=20 djonz. at all. LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 and=20 operate exactly like the si= milar uses of=20 la and=20 lai in=20 and=20 respectively. The only diff= erence is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in = fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) a= nd of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be foll= owed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot. =20 - la'i lai la LA selm= a'o doi = doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma= 'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word name-word= spause requirements before name-words= limitations on There are certain limitations on the= form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the lette= r-sequences (or sound-sequences)=20 + LA selma'o doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word name-wordspause requirements before name-wordslimitatio= ns on There are certain limitations on the form of = name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequenc= es (or sound-sequences)=20 =20 la,=20 lai, or=20 doi unless a consonant immediately precedes wit= hin the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 la,=20 lai,=20 la'i, or=20 doi must be preceded by a pause instead: @@ -1683,30 +1700,32 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>In=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qLiB"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qLIJ"/>,=20 <jbophrase>.djan.</jbophrase> appears with a pause before it as well a= s after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases= . These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stre= am.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>names</primary><s= econdary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 <jbophrase>zo</jbophrase> is always followed by a single word, which i= s quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each w= ith its terminating pause:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-cw3p"> <title> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/>

doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. =20 =20

- John Paul Jonesexample Newport Newsexample= name-wordspermissible consonant combinations = A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban = words generally: the=20 + name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 ). Thus=20 djeimz. is not a valid version = of=20 James (because=20 mz is inval= id):=20 djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 la may be replaced by=20 ly,=20 @@ -1727,21 +1746,21 @@ Lyra *lairas ly'iras Lottie *latis LYtis. or lotis. - Doyleexample Lyraexample Lottieexampl= e na= mesusing rafsi Names may be bo= rrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice= is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a n= ame: thus the rafsi=20 + Doyleexample Lyraexample Lottieexample= namesu= sing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other languag= es or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more ra= fsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 loj- for=20 logji (logical) and=20 ban- for=20 bangu (language) unite to form the name of this= language: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/>

lojban. @@ -1755,21 +1774,21 @@ =20 names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 la followed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 la followed by a selbri.

Pro-sumti summary pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. - ro<= /indexterm> pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following= examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the= implicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 + pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following e= xamples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the i= mplicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer = to other sumti, the=20 ro signifies=20 all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. personal pro-sumt= i Personal pro-sumti (=20 mi,=20 do,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 =20 ma'a,=20 @@ -1961,35 +1980,35 @@ question pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The i= mplicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 =20 su'o (at least one), because the listener is on= ly being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. definable pro-sum= tisequences of lerfu words as = In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) c= an also be used as definable pro-sumti. =20

Quotation summary quotationfour kinds There are four kinds of quo= tation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, n= on-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in . - li'u lu text quotatio= nas internally grammatical text quotationsyntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 + text quotationas internally grammatical text quotations= yntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 lu and followed by=20 li'u, and are an essential part of the surround= ing text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/>

mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. I say I'm John.

word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. - le'u lo'u= FIXME: TAG SPOT + le'u lo'u FIXM= E: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/>

mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquo= te]. I say li mi.

@@ -2017,21 +2036,21 @@ I say=20 I'm John. quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o (at least one), because quotations are ana= logous to=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are words or sequences of words.

Number summary - li<= /indexterm> number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of= The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 + number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Loj= ban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple n= umber up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operato= rs, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/>

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