+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/>

@@ -757,25 +758,26 @@ The specific pairs=20 cx,=20 kx,=20 xc,=20 xk, and= =20 mz are = forbidden. - Jamesexample yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pair= s These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Loj= banized names. If a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair,= a=20 + yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 y can be inserted to break up= the pair: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> djeimyz. [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94]= James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 @@ -874,21 +876,21 @@ zb zd zg zm zv Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoi= ced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in lear= ning: - + @@ -1023,36 +1025,37 @@ [=CA=8A], or even=20 [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 [=C9=AA] in this chapter) are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d1"/> vrusi [=CB=88vru si] - or + or [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d2"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> .AMsterdam. =20 [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] - or + or [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r= =C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA=94] - Amsterdamexample stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer vo= weland stress When a buffer vo= wel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. Howev= er, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in dete= rmining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban liste= ner, and thus their impact is ignored. + stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer voweland stre= ss When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buff= ered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are = never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in eff= ect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ig= nored. =20 Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d3"/> klama =20 [=CB=88kla ma] [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] @@ -1075,26 +1078,27 @@ ck. The third pronunciation= buffers both. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> ponyni'u [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] - bone breadexample y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer<= /secondary> vowe= l buffercontrasted with y sound=20 + y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> bongynanba [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba]= an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 bone bread (note the use of=20 =20 @@ -1228,36 +1232,37 @@ =20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress - primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level,= so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables= containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a= buffer vowel. =20 =20 namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on an= y syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the s= yllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban stru= ctural words (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none = at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just precedin= g a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run t= ogether. stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. - Armstrongexample The following are Lojban words= with stress explicitly shown: + The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> dikyjvo DI,ky,jvo (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 ky is not counted in determining stress. The vo= wel=20 y is never stressed in a norm= al Lojban context. + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Armstrong</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> .armstrong. .ARM,strong. This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 Armstrong. The final=20 =20 @@ -1279,23 +1284,23 @@ ng represents two separate = consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use=20 [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban=20 ng, although=20 [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable. English speaker= s are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the f= ollowing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d9"/> [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] - or + or [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA= =94] - or even + or even [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 Armstrong could be Lojbanized as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10"/> @@ -1328,23 +1333,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja - syllabicationvariants ofexample These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener - the as= sociation of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recogniz= ing the word. + These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener -= the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in r= ecognizing the word. + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>syllabication</prima= ry><secondary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexter= m> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13"/> e'u bridi e'u BRI,di E'u BRI,di e'U.BRI,di In=20 @@ -1778,21 +1784,21 @@ ashen, or=20 dish. [=CA=82] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 s. Not an English sound= . The Hindi retroflex=20 s with dot below, or Klingon=20 - S. + S. [t] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 t. As in English=20 tea,=20 later, or=20 not. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pro= nouncing the=20 @@ -2071,124 +2077,148 @@ =D0=BD,=20 =D0=BE,=20 =D0=BF,=20 =D1=80,=20 =D1=81,=20 =D1=82,=20 =D1=83,=20 =D1=84,=20 =D1=85, and=20 =D1=88 in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 - y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 + y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and per= iod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman r= epresentation. =20 =20 Tolkien= and non-standard Lojban orthography non-standard orthographiesTengwar Finally, an orthography usin= g the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. = Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to=20 =20 =20 The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojba= n. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, wi= ll be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, th= e tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conventional ways; the = calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the quesset=C3=A9ma repre= sents velar consonants. =20 - ttinco + t + tinco - -calma =20 + - + calma = =20 - dando + d + ando - -anga =20 + - + anga = =20 - -thule =20 + - + thule = =20 - charma + c + harma - -anto =20 + - + anto = =20 - janca + j + anca - nnumen + n + numen - -noldo =20 + - + noldo = =20 - rore + r + ore - ianna + i + anna - pparma + p + parma - kquesse + k + quesse - bumbar + b + umbar - gungwe + g + ungwe - fformen + f + formen - xhwesta + x + hwesta - vampa + v + ampa - -unque + - + unque - mmalta + m + malta - -nwalme + - + nwalme - uvala + u + vala - -vilya + - + vilya The letters=20 - vala and=20 - anna are used for=20 + vala and=20 + anna are used for=20 u and=20 i only when those letters are= used to represent glides. Of the additional letters,=20 r,=20 l,=20 s, and=20 z are written with=20 - r=C3=B3men,=20 - lambe,=20 - silme, and=20 - =C3=A1re/=20 - esse respectively; the inverted forms are used as free = variants. + r=C3=B3men,=20 + lambe,=20 + silme, and=20 + =C3=A1re/=20 + esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for=20 y. The Lojban apostrophe is r= epresented by=20 - halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or pe= riod. + halla. There is no equivalent of the L= ojban comma or period.