The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology

Introductory word formsin Lojban (see also morphology) morphologyde= finition morphologysimplicity of M= orphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban'= s morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because L= ojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has o= nly a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but = it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 =20 boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. =20 @@ -154,21 +154,21 @@ the and=20 to; brivla are the content words, corresponding= to English words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 doctor, and=20 freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 James,=20 Afghanistan, and=20 Pope John Paul II.

cmavo punctuation marks= cmavo as Lojban equivalents <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">numberscm= avo as Lojban equivalents prepositionscmavo as Lojban equi= valents conjunctionscmavo as Lojban equivalents articlescmavo as Lojban equivalents structure words selma'odefinition = cmavodefinition The f= irst group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They ar= e the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often ha= ve no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics = of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of E= nglish articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks= . There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 selma'o, each having a specifically defined gra= mmatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout=20 to=20 @@ -206,21 +206,21 @@ =20 ku'a'e,=20 =20 sau'e, and=20 bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter=20 x are also reserved for experimental use. In general, t= hough, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatica= l use. experimental cmav= odefinition cmavoexperimental=20 Experimental use means that the language designers will= not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usa= ges coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for = the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for a= dding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for= which was not foreseen. cmavodiphthongs in The cmavo of VV-form include= not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in=20 =20 - , but also the followin= g ten additional diphthongs: + , but also the following ten a= dditional diphthongs:

.ia .ie .ii .io .iu

.ua .ue .ui =20 .uo @@ -296,21 +296,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d5"/>

cy.ibu.abu cy. .ibu .abu

Again the pauses are required (see=20 - ); the pause after=20 + ); the pause after=20 cy. merges with the pause before=20 .ibu. stress<= secondary>on cmavo cmavostress on = There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some co= nventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for exam= ple, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d6"/>

.e'o ko ko kurji =20 @@ -362,42 +362,42 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d10"/>

le re NANmu

This would probably be the most common usage.

brivla adverbs= brivla as Lojban equivalents verbsbrivla as Loj= ban equivalents adjectivesbrivla as Lojban equivalents nounsbrivla as Lojban equivalents brivladefi= nition Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry m= ost of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivale= nt of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part o= f speech. =20 =20 =20 =20 subtypes of words= types= and subtypes of words Every brivla belongs to one of= three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morpholog= y, of the word - all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sig= ht or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Kno= wing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significa= nt clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never = heard the word before. =20 flexible vocabula= ry The same principle allows you, when speaking or wr= iting, to invent new brivla for new concepts=20 on the fly; yet it offers people that you are trying to= communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lo= jban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely. =20 brivla<= secondary>properties of All brivla have the followi= ng properties: always end in a vowel; always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, w= here=20 y and apostrophe are not counted as letters= for this purpose. (See=20 - .) + .) always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) sy= llable; this implies that they have two or more syllables. cmene formcontrasted with brivla form cmavo formcontra= sted with brivla form brivla formcontrasted with cmene for= m br= ivla formcontrasted with cmavo form brivlarecognition of The presence of a consonant pai= r distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel dist= inguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus=20 da'amei must be a compound cmavo because it lac= ks a consonant pair;=20 lojban. must be a name because it lacks a final= vowel. consonant pairsletter y within yletterbetween letters of consonant pair consonant pairsin b= rivla brivlaconsonant pairs in Thu= s,=20 bisycla has the consonant pair=20 @@ -415,33 +415,33 @@ compound of g= ismulujvo as lujvoas a subtype of br= ivla lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and= borrowing fro= m other languagefu'ivla as fu'ivlaas = a subtype of brivla fu'ivla (literally=20 copy-word), the specialized words that are not Lojb= an primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other l= anguages.

gismu gismurationale for choice of gismudefinition The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla represen= ting concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various= reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some re= present concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were add= ed because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some b= ecause they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like=20 cmavo and=20 gismu themselves). gismuas partitioning semantic space gismuselection of<= /secondary> The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic p= artitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for= historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years= and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu bla= nket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range o= f human concerns. learning Lojbanmagnitude of task cmavo and gismumajor<= /secondary> gism= uand cmavomajor There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to lea= rn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as=20 =20 =20 rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and = you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound= like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for= similar communications in other languages. gismurules for All gismu have very strong form = restrictions. Using the conventions defined in=20 - , all gismu are of the = forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in=20 - ; furthermore, they: + , all gismu are of the forms C= VC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in=20 + ; furthermore, they: always have five letters; always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel; always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permis= sible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwis= e only has to be a permissible pair (C/C); @@ -458,21 +458,21 @@ brodo, and=20 brodu, no two gismu differ only in the final vo= wel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the = likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, = because=20 gismu is in the set of gismu,=20 kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 gizmu, and=20 gisnu cannot be. gismusource of Almost all Lojban gismu are cons= tructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chine= se, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoke= n natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that r= epresent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was se= lected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of t= he six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each l= anguage by the number of speakers of that language. See=20 =20 - for a full explanatio= n of the algorithm. + for a full explanation of the= algorithm. gismuexamples of Here are a few examples of gis= mu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d1"/>

creka shirt

@@ -533,75 +533,78 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e4d8"/>

ninmu woman

A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 - for a list. + for a list.

lujvo modifying brivla = (see also seltau) seltaucompared with English adverb seltaucompared with English adjective tanruexpla= nation of When specifying a concept that is not fou= nd among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems to= o general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concep= t as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the = broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or sp= ecific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English ad= verbs or adjectives. For example, =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1"/>

skami pilno

is the tanru which expresses the concept of=20 computer user. tanrucombination of The simplest Lojban tanru a= re pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas tha= t can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex i= dea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or wi= th individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on= . tanruambiguity of The meaning of a tanru is usu= ally at least partly ambiguous:=20 skami pilno could refer to a computer that is a= user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modi= fier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possibl= e to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguitie= s) of meaning. tanruand creativity Making tanru is essentially= a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the g= rouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantic= ally ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gism= u are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail= in=20 . - mother fatherexample father motherexample<= /indexterm> big boatexample tanruexpression of To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. T= hus the binary metaphor=20 + tanruexpression of To express a simple tanru, si= mply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor=20 big boat becomes the tanru =20 + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big boat</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d2"/>

barda bloti

representing roughly the same concept as the English word=20 ship. paternal grandmot= herexample The binary metaphor= =20 father mother can refer to a paternal grandmother (=20 =20 =20 a father-ly type of mother), while=20 mother father can refer to a maternal grandfather (=20 =20 a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become th= e tanru + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>father mother</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d3"/>

patfu mamta

and + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>mother father</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d4"/>

mamta patfu

respectively. tanruambiguity in The possibility of semantic a= mbiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret=20 , the listener must determin= e what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an= appropriate context,=20 mamta patfu could mean not=20 @@ -661,52 +664,53 @@ brivalsi,=20 bridyvla, and=20 bridyvalsi, each of which uses a different comb= ination of rafsi. apostropheand consonant cluster determination in lujvo ' symboland consonant cluster determination in lujvo y-hyphenand consonant cluster determination rafsirules for com= bining to form lujvo lujvorules for formation of When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for val= id brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first fiv= e letters (excluding=20 y and=20 '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel. glue in lujvoy-hyphen as y-hyphenand stress determinat= ion = y-hyphenuse of A=20 y (which is ignored in determining stress or co= nsonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glu= e the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or= the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these = conditions, detailed in=20 =20 =20 - . + . glue in lujvon-hyphen as n-hyphenuse of glue in lujvor-hyphen as r-hyphenuse of An=20 r (in some cases, an=20 n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the be= ginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For ex= ample, in the lujvo + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8"/>

soirsai sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations =20

- field rationsexample cmavocontrasted with same-form ra= fsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in mea= ning the rafsi=20 + cmavo= contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning the raf= si=20 soi- and=20 -sai are joined, with the additional=20 =20 r making up the=20 rs consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Wit= hout the=20 r, the word would break up into=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation = to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this ca= se), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. =20 Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . lujvoinvention of Most important, it is possibl= e to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new = or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban wo= rd. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is = a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.

rafsi rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever th= e reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most plea= sing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm w= hich is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms w= ill be the standard dictionary form (see=20 - ). + ). unreduced lujvodefinition long rafsidefinition 4-letter ra= fsidefinition 5-letter rafsidefinitio= n gi= smubasic rafsi for lujvounreduced rafsilong rafsiforms of Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself= (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final = vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are re= presented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 =20 long rafsi, they are called=20 =20 unreduced lujvo. =20 Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are: =20 @@ -759,33 +763,34 @@ prunyplipe from=20 pruni plipe elastic (springy) leap or=20 spring (the verb) + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>supper</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d5"/>

vancysanmi from=20 vanci sanmi evening meal or=20 supper =20

- supper<= secondary>example short rafsi rafsishort= In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional= short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC= , CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu= depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo,= when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi. + short rafsi rafsishort In addition to these two for= ms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters l= ong. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total numb= er of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gi= smu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu= that could be assigned the rafsi. -eruse of zmadu in forming comparativesuse of zmadu in= forming For example,=20 zmadu (=20 more than) has the two short rafsi=20 zma and=20 mau (in addition to its unreduced rafsi=20 =20 zmad and=20 zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have bee= n created based on=20 zmadu, corresponding in general to English comp= arative adjectives ending in=20 =20 @@ -879,21 +884,21 @@ -bla- rafsi assignments= non-reassignability of (In fac= t,=20 blaci has none of these short rafsi; they are a= ll assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of= the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were= chosen in the first place.) rafsiconsiderations restricting construction of= There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe canno= t exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, or=20 au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if th= e two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see=20 - ). Thus=20 + ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 mam,=20 mat, and=20 ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact, only=20 =20 mam is assigned to it. numbers= rafsi for rafsi for numbers Some cmavo also ha= ve associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerica= l digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by= adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used = in composing tanru (for a complete list, see=20 ). fully reduced luj= vodefinition lujvofully reduced The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is= =20 @@ -1038,89 +1043,95 @@ bridi zei valsi cmavo without raf= simethod of including in lujvo= fu'ivlamethod of including in lujvo cmenemethod of including in = lujvo rafsilack ofeffect on forming = lujvo lujvofrom cmavo with no rafsi= is the exact equivalent of=20 brivla (but not necessarily the same as the und= erlying tanru=20 bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) = Using=20 zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a c= mene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13"/>

xy. zei kantu X ray

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Persian rug</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rug</primary><second= ary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d14"/>

kulnr,farsi zei lolgai Farsi floor-cover Persian rug =20 =20 =20 =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d15"/>

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma non-A, non-B liver-disease non-A, non-B hepatitis =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sherman tank</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>tank</primary><secon= dary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d16"/>

.cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank =20 =20 =20 =20

- tankShermanexample Sherman tankex= ample hepatitisexample rugPersianexample Persian rugexample X-rayexample=20 - is particularly noteworthy = because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 + is particularly notew= orthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 zei s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is= not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two componen= ts, but by adding a=20 zei between=20 by. and=20 livgyterbilma to produce + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17"/>

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis =20

the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because = its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo w= ithout a brivla must be constructed ad hoc. cmavocontrasted with rafsi in usage rafsicontrasted wi= th cmavo in usage rafsicontrasted with words Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look= like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the = two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words o= r in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate = but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts = of lujvo.

fu'ivla lujvounsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon food= use of fu'ivla for specific animalsuse of fu'iv= la for specific plantsuse of fu'ivla for specific jargonuse of fu'ivla for specific termsuse of fu= 'ivla for concrete termsuse of fu'ivla for fu'ivlause of The use of tanru or lujvo is not al= ways appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.=20 =20 brie or=20 =20 cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow fie= ld (e.g.=20 =20 =20 quark,=20 =20 @@ -1139,58 +1150,58 @@ me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. =20 spaghetti is a predicate with the place structure=20 x1 is a quantity of spaghetti. =20 borrowingsStage 2 borrowingsusing lojbanized name Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbani= zed name, as explained in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d2"/>

me la spagetis.

One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need = a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you= do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are ta= lking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.) =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 3 borrowings borrowingsStage 3 borrowing= sfu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowe= d must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then u= sually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to = ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart. borrowingsmost common form for fu'ivlauniqueness of me= aning in rafsias fu'ivla categorizer fu'ivla categorizer The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla= ; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other langua= ges would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assig= ned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to = have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common = kind of fu'ivla. =20 =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 4 borrowings borrowingsStage 4 borrowing= sfu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 - for a proposal concer= ning Stage 4 fu'ivla.) + for a proposal concerning St= age 4 fu'ivla.) fu'ivla= form of fu'ivlaconstruction of The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu= and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word = from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojban= ized - the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and mo= difications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'i= vla-form word. All fu'ivla: fu'ivlainitial consonant cluster in fu'ivlarules f= or formation of must contain a consonant cluster in= the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the be= ginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longe= r cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a pe= rmissible initial consonant pair:=20 spraile is acceptable, but not=20 ktraile or=20 trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; slinku'i test= definition must not be gismu o= r lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'i= vla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a l= ujvo (the so-called=20 slinku'i test, not discussed further in this book);= =20 - syllabic pron= unciations of consonantsin fu'ivlaexample yletterprohibition from fu'= ivla cannot contain=20 + syllabic pronunciations of consonantsin fu'ivlaexample y= letterprohibition from fu'ivla= cannot contain=20 y, although they may contain syllabic pronu= nciations of Lojban consonants; fu'ivlastress in like other brivla, are str= essed on the penultimate syllable. fu'ivla= consonant clusters in Note that consonan= t triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can= be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There i= s no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except = at the beginning. =20 =20 borrowingsStage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction fu'ivlacategorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of con= struction This is a fairly liberal definition and a= llows quite a lot of possibilities within=20 @@ -1220,98 +1231,105 @@ n (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and = the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" wo= uld result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an=20 l-hyphen. (This is the only use of=20 l-hyphen in Lojban.) Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can= be used instead of the long rafsi. =20 Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. - syllabic pronunci= ations of consonantsin fu'ivla category attachmentexample In this section, the hyphe= n is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required= in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.<= /para> + In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exam= ples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not= be pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>spaghetti</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>syllabic pronunciati= ons of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secon= dary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>  <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d3"/>

spaghetti (from English or Italian) =20 spageti (Lojbanize) cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi) =20 dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)

- spaghettiexample where=20 + where=20 cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with t= he short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: = in any event, it means the same thing. + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/>

Acer (the scientific name of maple trees) =20 =20 acer (Lojbanize) xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel) tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi) ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi)

- maple sugarexample Acerexample= maple treesexample where=20 + where=20 tric- and=20 ric- are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tan= ru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they woul= d surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>brie</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/>

brie (from French) =20 bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)

- brieexample where=20 + where=20 cirl- represents=20 cirla (=20 cheese). + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/>

cobra =20 kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)

- cobraexample where=20 + where=20 sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). - quarkexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/>

quark =20 kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)

@@ -1346,21 +1364,21 @@ fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not c= onvey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with= an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 integral- has various other specialized meanings in oth= er fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 integrale almost certainly would eventually come to mea= n the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates w= ith=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 - integralarchitectural conceptexample integralmathematical conceptexample The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 + <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 i of=20 integrale is removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to= the beginning;=20 cmac- is the rafsi for=20 cmaci (=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integral might be conveyed with=20 =20 djinrnintegrale or=20 @@ -1385,159 +1403,172 @@

kuln,r,blgaria Bulgarian (in culture) =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d11"/>

gugd,r,blgaria Bulgaria (the country)

bang,r,kore,a Korean (the language) =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Korean</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d13"/>

kuln,r,kore,a Korean (the culture) =20

- Navajo<= secondary>example Koreanexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">Bulgarian= example fu'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivla<= /primary>with invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 + Navajoexample fu= 'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin= fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some f= orm of the native name=20 Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 Navajo is far more widely known than=20 =20 Dine'e.

cmene names in Lojban (= see also cmene) cmenedefinition namespurpos= e of cmenepurpose of Lojbanized na= mes, called=20 cmene, are very much like their counterparts in= other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand fo= r them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in the= mselves, but do not necessarily do so. =20 namesrationale for lojbanizing cmenerationale for lojb= anizing cmeneand analyzability of speech stream namesexamples of cmeneexamples of Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attem= pts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modificatio= n. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzabl= e, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are L= ojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equ= ivalents: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1"/>

djim. Jim

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jane</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2"/>

djein. Jane

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Arnold</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d3"/>

.arnold. Arnold =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Pete</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d4"/>

pit. Pete =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Katrina</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d5"/>

katrinas. Katrina =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d6"/>

kat,r,in. Catherine =20

- Catherineexample Katrinaexample Petee= xample Arnoldexample Janeexample Jimexample syllabic consonanteffect on stress det= ermination (Note that syllabic=20 + syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so= =20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 ka.) + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/>

katis. Cathy =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Kate</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d8"/>

keit. Kate =20

- Kateexample Cathyexample namesunusual= stress in cmeneunusual stress in = namesst= ress in cmenestress in namesrules for for= mation cmenerules for formation Na= mes may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are follow= ed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is ma= rked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with = a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with= no pause. For example, + namesunusual stress in cmeneunusual stress in namesstress in cmenestress in namesrules for formation cmenerules for formation= Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant,= and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusu= al stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, ea= ch ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a s= ingle word with no pause. For example, =20 +  + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Jones</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jones</primary><seco= ndary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d9"/>

djan. djonz.

- JonesJohnexample John Jonesexampl= e and + and <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d10"/>

djandjonz.

are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Jones. @@ -1548,21 +1579,21 @@ maris.,=20 meiris.,=20 merix., or even=20 marys.. The last alternative is not pronounced = much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who value= s spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an=20 s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the= end. namesrestrictions on form of cmenerestrictions on fo= rm of Names are not permitted to have the sequences= =20 la,=20 lai, or=20 doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is im= mediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the = fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by = one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cme= ne might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. Howe= ver, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply tha= t the word before the=20 la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, wh= ich is impossible. - Nederlandsexample Laplaceexample For example, the invalid name=20 + <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">Nederlandsexample Laplaceexample For exampl= e, the invalid name=20 laplas. would look like the Lojban words=20 la plas., and=20 ilanas. would be misunderstood as=20 .i la nas.. However,=20 NEderlants. cannot be misheard as=20 NEder lants., because=20 NEder with no following pause is not a possible Lojban = word. namesalternatives for restricted sequences in = cmenealt= ernatives for restricted sequences in There are clo= se alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizin= g names, such as=20 ly,=20 lei, and=20 @@ -1585,75 +1616,80 @@ .. capitalizatio= nuse of capitalizationfor unusual str= ess in names = capitalizationuse in names namesstress in cmenestress in They = may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate on= e, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin = sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital let= ters. =20 namesfrom Lojban words cmenefrom Lojban words Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized fr= om names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmav= o, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are: + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>One</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11"/>

pav. the One from the cmavo=20 pa, with rafsi=20 pav, meaning=20 one

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/>

sol. the Sun =20 from the gismu=20 solri, meaning=20 solar, or actually=20 pertaining to the Sun =20

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13"/>

ralj. Chief (as a title) =20 from the gismu=20 ralju, meaning=20 principal.

+ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/>

nol. Lord/Lady =20 =20 from the gismu=20 nobli, with rafsi=20 nol, meaning=20 noble.

- Ladyexample Lordexample Chiefexample<= /secondary> Sun<= /primary>theexample= Onethe= example cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from = the various natural languages, apply the following rules: + cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. Add a final=20 s or=20 n (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the= name ends in a vowel. @@ -1828,21 +1864,21 @@ or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes. Chinese=20 Mao Zedong maudzydyn. =20 Japanese=20 Fujiko fudjikos. =20 or fujikos.

Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 - . + . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 - is used to choose the= standard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dic= tionary.) + is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary= .) linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at= least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning= . Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the se= mantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is th= e most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguis= tic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that s= eems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'e za'e= use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeani= ng drift of You must also be aware of the possibili= ty of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for = posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that= is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a = different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessaril= y bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a= meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the= dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 za'e (explained in=20 =20 ) before a newly coined lujvo to = indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. @@ -1895,21 +1931,21 @@ =20 =20 lujvobased on multiple tanru This doesn't lead = to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one mean= ing and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing f= or the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already comp= eting for the=20 right to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has t= o use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the other= s. lujvoshorter for more general concepts lujvoconsiderat= ions for retaining elements of If the lujvo made by= a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another m= eaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones = that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or a= nticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more= general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both wo= rds are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cm= avo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a go= od alternate tanru for the simpler term. =20 lujvoand plausibility lujvoand the listener And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing a= n unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes n= o sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that t= he grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternat= e groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausib= le. (The grouping of tanru is explained in=20 ; abstraction is explained in=20 .) Plausibility is the key to = learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.

The lujvo-making algorithm lujvoalgorithm for The following is the current= algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete l= ist of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob Le= Chevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It= was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected= a flaw in the original=20 =20 tosmabru test. =20 Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo: 1) @@ -1997,21 +2033,21 @@ lujvoselection of best form of lujvoscoring of Note that the=20 tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more e= fficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to l= eft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be= completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. =20 =20

The lujvo scoring algorithm This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. = It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that p= eople find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowe= st-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In pr= evious versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.) 1) Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 =20 L. @@ -2093,21 +2129,21 @@ V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there = is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially = encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apos= trophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more p= leasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vo= wels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones bef= ore it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle = might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alter= native. =20 - doghouseexample lujvoexamples of making Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest= scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): + doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/>

zbasai zba + sai =20 (1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 =3D 5847 @@ -2143,29 +2179,29 @@

zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976

lujvo-making examples This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 gerku zdani (=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 =20 =20 doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 - , using every possible= rafsi. + , using every possible rafsi.= The rafsi for=20 gerku are: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 zdani are: -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. @@ -2197,21 +2233,21 @@ The fourth form,=20 ge'u-zdani, however, requires an=20 r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of t= he lujvo is=20 ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are= =20 =20 gerkyzda and=20 gerkyzdani respectively. - boat classexample The scoring algorithm is heav= ily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 + boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score= is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a fin= al score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, an= d 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the= dictionary in the form=20 gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 bloti klesi (=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. =20 =20 The rafsi for=20 bloti are=20 -lot-,=20 @@ -2274,21 +2310,21 @@ logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu =20 lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. - sexual teachermaleexample = male sexual teacherexample The only fully reduced lujvo fo= rms are=20 + <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 =20 lojbangri and=20 lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 girzu, producing=20 lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 =20 ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 @@ -2306,21 +2342,21 @@ gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 cinse ctuca (which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 ke required for grouping need not be expressed.

The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: 1) gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chi= nese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the propos= ed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: co= nsonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were = simplified to just the fricative (=20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -2380,21 +2416,21 @@ m n n m p b, f r l s c, z t d v b, f x g, k z j, s - gismusource-language weights for See for an example. + gismusource-language weights for See for an example. 5) The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 gismu should have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).<= /para> The language weights used to make most of the gismu were a= s follows: @@ -2419,21 +2455,21 @@ gismuLojban-specific Note that the stressed vow= el of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gi= smu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,=20 =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 - , is unavoidably contr= oversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 + , is unavoidably controversi= al. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 - . For example, + . For example, + <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/>

tci'ile Chilean

- Chilean desertexample is of the appropriate for= m, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of th= is form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowe= l; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or t= o lujvo. + is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a= Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist i= f they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, bu= t does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2"/>

tci'ile ke canre tutra Chilean type-of (sand territory) Chilean desert =20 diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index cf205ce..2455093 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,21 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 -Zort: Chapter 3 except index work and examples +Zort: 3.*, 5.* =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so: =20 commit b4eeb2f6a9118c3c1957199ea69b4f3fd498eaed Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 2 16:49:12 2011 -0500 Literally just fixing the indentation in chapter 4. diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index ebb480f..ced2bca 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -26,58 +26,58 @@ i,=20 o, or=20 u. 2) VV stringas a symbol for a double vowel V= V represents either a diphthong, one of the following:=20 - ai ei oi au - or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separati= ng the vowels, one of the following:=20 - - - a'a a'e a'i - =20 - =20 - a'o - =20 - a'u - - - e'a e'e e'i - =20 - =20 - e'o - =20 - e'u - - - i'a i'e i'i - =20 - i'o - i'u - - - o'a o'e o'i - =20 - o'o - o'u - =20 - - - u'a u'e u'i - u'o - u'u - =20 - + ai ei oi au + or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostro= phe separating the vowels, one of the following:=20 + + + a'a a'e a'i + =20 + =20 + a'o + =20 + a'u + + + e'a e'e e'i + =20 + =20 + e'o + =20 + e'u + + + i'a i'e i'i + =20 + i'o + i'u + + + o'a o'e o'i + =20 + o'o + o'u + =20 + + + u'a u'e u'i + u'o + u'u + =20 + 3) apostrophe<= /primary>as not a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic r= as a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic nas a consonant for morphological discussions<= /indexterm> syllabic mas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic lconsidered as a consonant for morphological discussions C stringas a symbol for a single consonant C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one= of=20 b,=20 c,=20 d,=20 @@ -101,35 +101,35 @@ r always count as consonants for the purposes of = this chapter. 4) CC stringas a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which = constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:=20 =20 =20 - bl br - cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct - dj dr dz - fl fr - gl gr - jb jd jg jm jv - kl kr - ml mr - pl pr - sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st - tc tr ts - vl vr - xl xr - zb zd zg zm zv - + bl br + cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct + dj dr dz + fl fr + gl gr + jb jd jg jm jv + kl kr + ml mr + pl pr + sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st + tc tr ts + vl vr + xl xr + zb zd zg zm zv + 5) C/C string<= /primary>as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one o= f the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial co= nsonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in=20 =20 . In brief, any consonant p= air is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both= a voiced (excluding=20 r,=20 l,=20 @@ -712,75 +712,75 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d1"/>

mamtypatfu from=20 mamta patfu - mother father or=20 - =20 + mother father or=20 + =20 maternal grandfather

lerfyliste from=20 lerfu liste - letter list or a=20 + letter list or a=20 list of letters (letters of the alphabet)

nancyprali from=20 nanca prali - year profit or=20 + year profit or=20 annual profit

prunyplipe from=20 pruni plipe - elastic (springy) leap or=20 + elastic (springy) leap or=20 spring (the verb)

vancysanmi from=20 vanci sanmi - evening meal or=20 + evening meal or=20 supper =20

supper<= secondary>example short rafsi rafsishort= In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional= short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC= , CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu= depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo,= when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi. -eruse of zmadu in forming comparativesuse of zmadu in= forming For example,=20 zmadu (=20 more than) has the two short rafsi=20 zma and=20 mau (in addition to its unreduced rafsi=20 @@ -954,35 +954,35 @@ In addition, some of the unreduced forms in the previous example= may be fully reduced to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d10"/>

mampa'u from=20 mamta patfu - mother father or=20 - =20 + mother father or=20 + =20 maternal grandfather

lerste from=20 lerfu liste - letter list or a=20 + letter list or a=20 list of letters

lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cm= avo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or = more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused= with gismu. lujvo formrequirements for hyphen insertion in = hyphen letterdefinition hyphensuse of Whe= n attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen lett= er. In Lojban, the term=20 =20 hyphen always refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 y or one of the consonants=20 r and=20 n. (The letter=20 @@ -1295,21 +1295,21 @@ cobra =20 kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)

cobraexample where=20 sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). - quarkexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + quarkexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/>

quark =20 kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi) @@ -1735,112 +1735,112 @@ Change final=20 ie and=20 ii to=20 i. Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:=20 - aa a - ae e - ch k - ee i - eigh ei - ew u - igh ai - oo u - ou u - ow au - ph f - q k - sc sk - w u - y i - However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done = if the two vowels are in two different syllables. + aa a + ae e + ch k + ee i + eigh ei + ew u + igh ai + oo u + ou u + ow au + ph f + q k + sc sk + w u + y i + However, the diphthong substitutions should not = be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables. Change=20 h between two vowels to=20 ', but otherwise remove it completely. If preservat= ion of the=20 h seems essential, change it to=20 x instead. Place=20 ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do not for= m Lojban diphthongs. =20 Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: - English=20 -Mary meris. - or meiris. - English=20 -Smith smit. - English=20 -Jones djonz. - English=20 -John djan. or jan. (American) - or djon. or jon. (British) - English=20 -Alice .alis. - English=20 -Elise .eLIS. - English=20 -Johnson djansn. + English=20 + Mary meris. + or meiris. + English=20 + Smith smit. + English=20 + Jones djonz. + English=20 + John djan. or jan. (American) + or djon. or jon. (British) + English=20 + Alice .alis. + English=20 + Elise .eLIS. + English=20 + Johnson djansn. =20 - English=20 -William .uiliam. + English=20 + William .uiliam. =20 - or .uil,iam. - English=20 -Brown braun. + or .uil,iam. + English=20 + Brown braun. =20 - English=20 -Charles tcarlz. - French=20 -Charles carl. - French=20 -De Gaulle dyGOL. + English=20 + Charles tcarlz. + French=20 + Charles carl. + French=20 + De Gaulle dyGOL. =20 - German=20 -Heinrich xainrix. - Spanish=20 -Joaquin xuaKIN. - Russian=20 -Svetlana sfietlanys. + German=20 + Heinrich xainrix. + Spanish=20 + Joaquin xuaKIN. + Russian=20 + Svetlana sfietlanys. =20 - Russian=20 -Khrushchev xrucTCOF. + Russian=20 + Khrushchev xrucTCOF. =20 - Hindi=20 -Krishna kricnas. + Hindi=20 + Krishna kricnas. =20 - Polish=20 -Lech Walesa lex. va,uensas. + Polish=20 + Lech Walesa lex. va,uensas. =20 - Spanish=20 -Don Quixote don. kicotes. + Spanish=20 + Don Quixote don. kicotes. =20 or modern Spanish: don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes. - Chinese=20 -Mao Zedong maudzydyn. + Chinese=20 + Mao Zedong maudzydyn. =20 - Japanese=20 -Fujiko fudjikos. + Japanese=20 + Fujiko fudjikos. =20 - or fujikos. - + or fujikos. +

Rules for inserting pauses pauses<= secondary>rules for Summarized in one place, here a= re the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words: pausebetween words pauseproscribed within words Any two words may have a pause between them; it is al= ways illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the w= ord into two words. pauseand consonant-final words consonant-final wordsnecessity for pause after Every word ending in a = consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmen= e. @@ -1967,21 +1967,21 @@ 5) Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - w= ith the pattern=20 CVC ... CVC + X- for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCC= V long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consona= nt cluster, or is something which has caused a=20 y-hyphen to be installed between the prev= ious CVC and itself by one of the above rules. - The test is as follows: + The test is as follows: 5a) Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first = y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there= are no y-hyphens. These consonant pairs are called "joints=94. 5b) @@ -2090,21 +2090,21 @@ Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V - + lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there = is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially = encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apos= trophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more p= leasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vo= wels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones bef= ore it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle = might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alter= native. =20 doghouseexample lujvoexamples of making Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest= scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/>

zbasai zba + sai @@ -2155,43 +2155,43 @@ This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 gerku zdani (=20 dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 =20 =20 doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 , using every possible= rafsi. The rafsi for=20 gerku are: - -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku - + -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku + The rafsi for=20 zdani are: - -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. - + -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. + Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 -ger-,=20 -ge'u- and=20 -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 -zda- and=20 -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then: - ger-zda - ger-zdani - ge'u-zda - ge'u-zdani - gerk-zda - gerk-zdani - + ger-zda + ger-zdani + ge'u-zda + ge'u-zdani + gerk-zda + gerk-zdani + We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 =20 ge cannot fall off the front, because the following wor= d would begin with=20 rz, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. = So the lujvo forms are=20 gerzda and=20 gerzdani. The third form,=20 ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though the firs= t rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in t= he first five letters. So=20 ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. The fourth form,=20 @@ -2215,102 +2215,102 @@ The rafsi for=20 bloti are=20 -lot-,=20 -blo-, and=20 -lo'i-; for=20 klesi they are=20 -kle- and=20 -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru: lotkle blokle lo'ikle=20 - - lotlei blolei lo'irlei - + + lotlei blolei lo'irlei + Only=20 lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusi= on with the cmavo sequence=20 lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujv= o, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algo= rithm produces the following results: =20 - lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 - - lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 - + lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 + + lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 + Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen. Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 logji bangu girzu, or=20 logical-language group in English. (=20 The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) The available rafsi are=20 -loj- and=20 -logj-;=20 -ban-,=20 -bau-, and=20 -bang-; and=20 -gri- and=20 -girzu, and (for name purposes only)=20 -gir- and=20 -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are: - loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri=20 - - logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri - loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu - logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu - + loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri=20 + + logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri + loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu + logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu + and the 12 name possibilities are: - loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.=20 - - logj-ban-gir. logj-bau-gir. logj-bang-gir. - loj-ban-girz. loj-bau-girz. loj-bang-girz. - logj-ban-girz. logj-bau-girz. logj-bang-girz. - + loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.=20 + + logj-ban-gir. logj-bau-gir. logj-bang-gir. + loj-ban-girz. loj-bau-girz. loj-bang-girz. + logj-ban-girz. logj-bau-girz. logj-bang-girz. + After hyphenation, we have: - lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri=20 - - logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri - lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu - logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu + lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri=20 + + logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri + lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu + logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu =20 - lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. - logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. - lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. - logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. - + lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir. + logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir. + lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz. + logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz. + sexual teachermaleexample = male sexual teacherexample The only fully reduced lujvo fo= rms are=20 =20 lojbangri and=20 lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 girzu, producing=20 lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 =20 ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: - nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu - nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca - nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu - nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca - nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu - nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca - nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu - nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca - + nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu + nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca + nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu + nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca + nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu + nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca + nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu + nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca + gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 cinse ctuca (which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 ke required for grouping need not be expressed.

@@ -2361,256 +2361,256 @@ gismucreationproscribed gismu pairs gismutoo-similar The scores were divided b= y the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then m= ultiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the pr= oportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the lan= guage. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers= .) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores w= as the total score for the proposed gismu form. 4) Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were r= emoved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a con= flict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gism= u except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gism= u would have identical 4-letter rafsi. gismucreationand transcription blunders More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an = existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too si= milar=94 based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was rejected= . - proposed gismu existing gismu - b p, v - c j, s - d t - f p, v - g k, x - j c, z - k g, x - l r - m n - n m - p b, f - r l - s c, z - t d - v b, f - x g, k - z j, s - - gismusource-language weights for See = for an example. + proposed gismu existing gismu + b p, v + c j, s + d t + f p, v + g k, x + j c, z + k g, x + l r + m n + n m + p b, f + r l + s c, z + t d + v b, f + x g, k + z j, s + + gismusource-language weights for See for an example. 5) The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 gismu should have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).<= /para> The language weights used to make most of the gismu were a= s follows: - - Chinese 0.36 - English 0.21 - Hindi 0.16 - Spanish 0.11 - Russian 0.09 - Arabic 0.07 - -reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were made much = later using updated weights: - - Chinese 0.347 - Hindi 0.196 - English 0.160 - Spanish 0.123 - Russian 0.089 - Arabic 0.085 - - gismucoined <= primary>gismuexceptions to gismu creation by algorithm= (English and Hindi switched places due to demograp= hic changes.) + + Chinese 0.36 + English 0.21 + Hindi 0.16 + Spanish 0.11 + Russian 0.09 + Arabic 0.07 + + reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were = made much later using updated weights: + + Chinese 0.347 + Hindi 0.196 + English 0.160 + Spanish 0.123 + Russian 0.089 + Arabic 0.085 + + gismucoined gismuexceptions to gismu creation by= algorithm (English and Hindi switched places due t= o demographic changes.) gismuLojban-specific Note that the stressed vow= el of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gi= smu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,=20 =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the letter=20 o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. - broda 1st assignable predicate - brode 2nd assignable predicate - brodi 3rd assignable predicate - brodo 4th assignable predicate - brodu 5th assignable predicate - cmavo structure word (from=20 -cmalu valsi) - lojbo Lojbanic (from=20 -logji bangu) - lujvo compound word (from=20 -pluja valsi) - mekso Mathematical EXpression - + broda 1st assignable predicate + brode 2nd assignable predicate + brodi 3rd assignable predicate + brodo 4th assignable predicate + brodu 5th assignable predicate + cmavo structure word (from=20 + cmalu valsi) + lojbo Lojbanic (from=20 + logji bangu) + lujvo compound word (from=20 + pluja valsi) + mekso Mathematical EXpression + It is important to understand that even though=20 cmavo,=20 lojbo, and=20 lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, t= hey are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gi= smu, both in grammar and in word formation. The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn fro= m the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for = concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recogniz= ed internationally. Small metric prefixes (values less than 1): - decti .1/deci - centi .01/centi - milti .001/milli - mikri 1E-6/micro - nanvi 1E-9/nano - picti 1E-12/pico - femti 1E-15/femto - xatsi 1E-18/atto - zepti 1E-21/zepto - gocti 1E-24/yocto - + decti .1/deci + centi .01/centi + milti .001/milli + mikri 1E-6/micro + nanvi 1E-9/nano + picti 1E-12/pico + femti 1E-15/femto + xatsi 1E-18/atto + zepti 1E-21/zepto + gocti 1E-24/yocto + Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1): - dekto 10/deka - xecto 100/hecto - kilto 1000/kilo - megdo 1E6/mega - gigdo 1E9/giga - terto 1E12/tera - petso 1E15/peta - xexso 1E18/exa - zetro 1E21/zetta - gotro 1E24/yotta - + dekto 10/deka + xecto 100/hecto + kilto 1000/kilo + megdo 1E6/mega + gigdo 1E9/giga + terto 1E12/tera + petso 1E15/peta + xexso 1E18/exa + zetro 1E21/zetta + gotro 1E24/yotta + gismucultural Other scientific or mathematical = terms: - delno candela - kelvo kelvin - molro mole - radno radian - sinso sine - stero steradian - tanjo tangent - xampo ampere - + delno candela + kelvo kelvin + molro mole + radno radian + sinso sine + stero steradian + tanjo tangent + xampo ampere + gismufor Lojban source languages gismufor languages The gismu=20 sinso and=20 tanjo were only made non-algorithmically becaus= e they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all th= e dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are uni= ts in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were mad= e by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).<= /para> Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, = but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the = multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words t= hat have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or langua= ges may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from it= s home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, w= hich uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of = usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be= based on the six major languages. The six Lojban source languages: =20 - jungo Chinese (from=20 -Zhong -1 guo -2) - glico English - xindo Hindi - spano Spanish - rusko Russian - xrabo Arabic - + jungo Chinese (from=20 + Zhong + 1 guo + 2) + glico English + xindo Hindi + spano Spanish + rusko Russian + xrabo Arabic + gismufor countries Seven other widely spoken la= nguages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't u= sed: - bengo Bengali - porto Portuguese - baxso Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia - ponjo Japanese (from=20 -Nippon) - dotco German (from=20 -Deutsch) - fraso French (from=20 -Fran=E7ais) - xurdo Urdu - + bengo Bengali + porto Portuguese + baxso Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia + ponjo Japanese (from=20 + Nippon) + dotco German (from=20 + Deutsch) + fraso French (from=20 + Fran=E7ais) + xurdo Urdu + continentsgismu for gismugeographical (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing s= ystems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed voc= abulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights = were assigned for gismu-making purposes.) gismuethnic Countries with a large number of sp= eakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of=20 large is dependent on the specific language): - English: + English: =20 - merko American - brito British - skoto Scottish - sralo Australian - kadno Canadian + merko American + brito British + skoto Scottish + sralo Australian + kadno Canadian =20 - Spanish: + Spanish: =20 - gento Argentinian - mexno Mexican + gento Argentinian + mexno Mexican =20 - Russian: + Russian: =20 - softo Soviet/USSR - vukro Ukrainian + softo Soviet/USSR + vukro Ukrainian =20 - Arabic: + Arabic: =20 - filso Palestinian - jerxo Algerian - jordo Jordanian - libjo Libyan - lubno Lebanese - misro Egyptian (from=20 -Mizraim) - morko Moroccan - rakso Iraqi - sadjo Saudi - sirxo Syrian + filso Palestinian + jerxo Algerian + jordo Jordanian + libjo Libyan + lubno Lebanese + misro Egyptian (from=20 + Mizraim) + morko Moroccan + rakso Iraqi + sadjo Saudi + sirxo Syrian =20 - Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia: + Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia: =20 - bindo Indonesian - meljo Malaysian + bindo Indonesian + meljo Malaysian =20 - Portuguese: + Portuguese: =20 - brazo Brazilian + brazo Brazilian =20 - Urdu: + Urdu: =20 - kisto Pakistani - =20 - + kisto Pakistani + =20 + gismureligious The continents (and oceanic regi= ons) of the Earth: =20 - bemro North American (from=20 -berti merko) - dzipo Antarctican (from=20 -cadzu cipni) - ketco South American (from=20 -Quechua) - friko African - polno Polynesian/Oceanic - ropno European - xazdo Asiatic - + bemro North American (from=20 + berti merko) + dzipo Antarctican (from=20 + cadzu cipni) + ketco South American (from=20 + Quechua) + friko African + polno Polynesian/Oceanic + ropno European + xazdo Asiatic + A few smaller but historically important cultures: - latmo Latin/Roman - srito Sanskrit - xebro Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish - xelso Greek (from=20 -Hellas) - + latmo Latin/Roman + srito Sanskrit + xebro Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish + xelso Greek (from=20 + Hellas) + cultural wordsrafsi fu'ivla proposal for rafsi fu'ivla Major world religions: - budjo Buddhist - dadjo Taoist - muslo Islamic/Moslem - xriso Christian - + budjo Buddhist + dadjo Taoist + muslo Islamic/Moslem + xriso Christian + fu'ivla= form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal CCVVCV fu'ivlaa= nd rafsi fu'ivla proposal A few terms that cover mu= ltiple groups of the above: - jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) - semto Semitic - slovo Slavic - xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish) - + jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) + semto Semitic + slovo Slavic + xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish) +

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably contr= oversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, commit ddc1332254c74ec6707af35828eb347ea68609c8 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 2 16:41:35 2011 -0500 Fixed chapter 5 examples and example links. =20 * Some s were actually , some s were actually s. * One very long example had gotten broken up into many small s, s, and s. * One place refered to examples by number; the numbers were replaced with s (hopefully I made no mistakes with the random IDs, but...). * Some examples had s which were actually commentary about the example. diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 30b9d7f..7fb00f2 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -453,21 +453,21 @@ bo is present at all: the last two are grouped = together. Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 =20 bo in the language. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6"/>

ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). + That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).

means the same as=20 , not=20 . This rule may seem peculia= r at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 bo is never necessary between the first two ele= ments of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 through=20 could have=20 bo inserted between=20 melbi and=20 @@ -498,65 +498,65 @@ =20 ke and=20 ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respecti= vely). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken = to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Th= us,=20 can be rewritten in any of = the following ways: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1"/>

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule - That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. + That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule - That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school. + That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.

ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e - That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ). + That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).

Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a = like number of=20 ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these = are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However= , the following is equivalent to=20 and may be easier to unders= tand: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4"/>

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule - That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of s= chool. + That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-o= f school.

Likewise, a=20 ke and=20 ke'e version of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5"/>

ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ). + That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).<= /gloss>

The final=20 ke'e is given in square brackets here to indica= te that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 =20 ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is @@ -578,31 +578,31 @@ bo and=20 ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For instance,= =20 , which in pure=20 ke ... ke'e form is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7"/>

ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] - That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ). + That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ).

can equivalently be expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d8"/>

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of schoo= l ) ). + That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ).

and in many other different forms as well.

=20

Logical connection within tanru The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -634,194 +634,194 @@ Consider the English phrase=20 big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>big red dog</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1"/>

barda xunre gerku - (big type-of red) type-of dog + (big type-of red) type-of dog

will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever= way redness might be described as=20 big. Nor is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d2"/>

barda xunre bo gerku - big type-of (red type-of dog) + big type-of (red type-of dog)

adjective orderin= g much better. After all, the straightforward underst= anding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other = dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and = redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of En= glish adjective ordering prevent us from saying=20 =20 red big dog. je<= /indexterm> logical connecti= vesin tanru The Lojban approac= h to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 je, which is one of the many equivalents of Eng= lish=20 and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3"/>

barda je xunre gerku - (big and red) type-of dog + (big and red) type-of dog

Of course, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4"/>

xunre je barda gerku - (red and big) type-of dog + (red and big) type-of dog

logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on tanru grouping is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples i= ndicate, joining two brivla with=20 je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. Howeve= r, explicit grouping with=20 bo or=20 ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closely than= =20 je does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5"/>

barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku - barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku + barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog - big yellowish-red dog + big yellowish-red dog

With no grouping indicators, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d6"/>

barda je pelxu xunre gerku ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog - biggish- and yellowish-red dog + biggish- and yellowish-red dog

which again raises the question of=20 : what does=20 biggish-red mean? logical connectiv= es in tanruusefulness of Unlik= e=20 bo and=20 ke ... ke'e,=20 je is useful as well as merely legal within sim= ple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7"/>

ta blanu je zdani - that is-blue and is-a-house + that is-blue and is-a-house

definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 blanu je zdani has no such implication - the bl= ueness of a=20 blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 =20 for a complete lis= t. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8"/>

ta melbi je nixli ckule - That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. + That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.

It can be understood as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d9"/>

- That is a girls' school and a beautiful school. + That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.

or as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d10"/>

- That is a school for things which are both girls and beautifu= l. + That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful= .

logical connectiv= es in tanruambiguity of The in= terpretation specified by=20 treats the tanru as a sort = of abbreviation for: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d11"/>

ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of scho= ol ) + That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of s= chool )

whereas the interpretation specified by=20 does not. This is a kind of= semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The= way in which the school is said to be of type=20 beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a b= eautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, th= at the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Sti= ll another interpretation is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12"/>

- That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. + That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.

so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 for further details. JA selma'o The logical connective=20 je is only one of the fourteen logical connecti= ves that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/>

le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga - the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). + the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).

blanu naja lenku skapi (blue only-if cold) skin skin which is blue only if it is cold

- xamgu jo cortu nuntavla + xamgu jo tordu nuntavla (good if-and-only-if short) speech speech which is good if (and only if) it is short

vajni ju pluka nuntavla @@ -844,68 +844,66 @@ ju means=20 whether or not in=20 .

multiple logical = connectiveswithin tanru Now co= nsider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17"/>

ricfu je blanu jabo crino - =20 - rich and (blue or green) + rich and (blue or green)

jabo tanru grouping= with JA+BOeffect on tanru grouping which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 ja and=20 bo between tanru components. The two cmavo comb= ine to form a compound whose meaning is that of=20 ja but which groups more closely;=20 jabo is to=20 =20 ja as plain=20 bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 ja and=20 jabo group less closely than= =20 =20 bo does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18"/>

ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu - =20 rich and (blue or green =96 blue) - rich and (blue or greenish-blue) + rich and (blue or greenish-blue)

An alternative form of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19"/>

ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] - rich and (blue or green) + rich and (blue or green)

non-logical conne= ctiveswithin tanru In addition= to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connec= tives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a we= ll-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 joi, which is the kind of=20 and that denotes a mixture: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20"/>

ti blanu joi xunre bolci - This is-a-(blue and red) ball. + This is-a-(blue and red) ball. =20

The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 is distinct from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21"/>

@@ -914,40 +912,40 @@

which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 xunre is the more important of the two componen= ts. On the other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22"/>

ti blanu je xunre bolci - This is a (blue and red) ball + This is a (blue and red) ball =20

is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. =20 gi<= /indexterm> gu'e forethought l= ogical connectiveswithin tanru= Finally, just as English=20 and has the variant form=20 both ... and, so=20 je between tanru components has the variant for= m=20 gu'e ... gi, where=20 gu'e is placed before the components and=20 gi between them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23"/>

gu'e barda gi xunre gerku - (both big and red) type-of dog + (both big and red) type-of dog

is equivalent in meaning to=20 . For each logical connectiv= e related to=20 je, there is a corresponding connective related= to=20 gu'e ... gi in a systematic way. forethought logic= al connectives in tanrueffect on tanru grouping The portion of a=20 gu'e ... gi construction before the=20 gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the sel= bri resources including=20 je logical connections. After the=20 @@ -1040,63 +1038,48 @@ bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is = terminated by the elidable terminator=20 be'o (of selma'o BEhO). linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in:= <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/>

- ti cmalu be le ka canlu - bei lo'e ckule be'o - nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo - ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci - le mela nu,IORK. prenu - le jecta - This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume - =20 - by-standard the-typical school) - (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-t= hing) - school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems - =20 - for-audience New-York persons - with-operator the state. - This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical s= chool, pertaining - to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn= , teaching poetry - =20 - to the New York community and operated by the state. + ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o nixli be li mu be= i lo merko be'o bo ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci le mela nu,IORK. prenu le je= cta + This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some = American-thing) school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems for-audience New-Yor= k persons with-operator the state. + This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical scho= ol, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,= teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.

Here the three places of=20 cmalu, the three of=20 nixli, and the four of=20 ckule are fully specified. Since the places of= =20 ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, i= t was not necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 ckule. It would have been legal to do so, howev= er: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4"/>

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] - I go (to-the market from-the house). + I go (to-the market from-the house).

means the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d5"/>

mi klama le zarci le zdani - I go to-the market from-the house. + I go to-the market from-the house.

tanruplace structures of No matter how complex = a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the plac= e structure of <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/>

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) @@ -1113,21 +1096,21 @@ fo, and=20 fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 ), which serve to explicitly sp= ecify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place follo= wing the=20 be is the x2 place and the other places follow = in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be ac= complished as follows:

ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani - This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. + This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.

which is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Note that the order of=20 be,=20 bei, and=20 be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 fi tells us that=20 mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the in= serted=20 fe tells us that=20 @@ -1174,44 +1157,44 @@ be'oeffect of relative clauses on elidability of relative clauses= effect on elidability of be'o be'oelidability o= f el= idability of be'o The terminator=20 be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the= selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will = attach to the last linked sumti unless=20 =20 be'o is used, in which case it will attach to t= he outer description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11"/>

le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani - The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house. + The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.

le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani - The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house + The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house

(Relative clauses are explained in=20 .) be'oeffect of ku on elidability of kueffect on elidabi= lity of be'o In other cases, however,=20 be'o cannot be elided if=20 ku has also been elided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13"/>

le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani - the good (for the teacher) house + the good (for the teacher) house

requires either=20 ku or=20 be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of= =20 be, the=20 be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing= which occurrence of=20 le the=20 ku terminates (in fact the second one is correc= t).

@@ -1361,45 +1344,45 @@ school for beautiful girls means the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8"/>

ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule - (pretty girl) school + (pretty girl) school

multiple tanru in= versioneffect on grouping tanru inversionmultiple Multiple=20 co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating= multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 =20 bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret = such selbri, but all=20 co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9"/>

ckule co nixli co cmalu - school of-type (girl of-type little) + school of-type (girl of-type little)

becomes formally <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d10"/>

ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule - ( (little) girl ) school + ( (little) girl ) school

which by the left-grouping rule is simply <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d11"/>

cmalu nixli ckule little girl school @@ -1480,21 +1463,21 @@ , and=20 ; but for completeness these types ar= e mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in se= lbri. GOhA selma'o<= /primary> tanru<= /primary>with GOhA selbriwith GOhA<= /indexterm> GOhA selma'oas component in tanru GOhA selma'oas selb= ri The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) s= erve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; non= e of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is pro= bably=20 go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the prev= ious bridi, or part of it. If I say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1"/>

la djan. klama le zarci - John goes-to the market. + John goes-to the market.

go'i you may retort: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d2"/>

la djan. go'i troci John [repeat last] are-a-tryer @@ -1502,21 +1485,21 @@

is short for: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3"/>

la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci - John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier. + John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.

because the whole bridi of=20 has been packaged up into t= he single word=20 go'i and inserted into=20 . duas an exception within GOhA selma'o The excep= tional member of GOhA is=20 du, which represents the relation of identity. = Its place structure is: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... @@ -1529,21 +1512,21 @@ nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place str= ucture is: x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3,= etc. for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4"/>

li vo nu'a su'i li re li re - The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. + The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.

A possible tanru example might be: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>addition problems</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5"/>

mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi @@ -1594,21 +1577,21 @@

abstraction bridi= contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in mea= ning=20 is quite distinct in meanin= g from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d9"/>

ti zdile kumfa - This is-an-amuser room. + This is-an-amuser room.

which suggests the meaning=20 a room that amuses someone.

=20

selbri based on sumti: <jbophrase>me</jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1675,22 +1658,21 @@ ducompared with me in effect mecompared with du in e= ffect me/du equivalence If the sumti refers to a single o= bject, then the effect of=20 me is much like that of=20 du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5"/>

do du la djan. - You are-identical-with the-one-called=20 - John. + You are-identical-with the-one-called John.<= /gloss> You are John.

means the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d6"/>

do me la djan. @@ -1829,60 +1811,60 @@

To convert this sentence so that=20 le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4"/>

le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. - The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice. + The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.

kefor conversion of tanru conversion with `ke' The=20 ke ... ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to = be converted by the=20 se, which would otherwise convert only=20 cadzu, leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5"/>

le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . - The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice. + The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.

whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 cadzu klama is that of=20 klama alone, is to convert only the latter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6"/>

le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. - The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice. + The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.

But the tanru in=20 may or may not have the sam= e meaning as that in=20 ; in particular, because=20 cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion t= hat although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different = sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sens= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7"/>

la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis - John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice + John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. tense conversion<= /primary>with jai jaifor modal conversion There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cm= avo=20 jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a mod= al or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly= like conversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 .

=20

Scalar negation of selbri @@ -2037,22 +2019,21 @@ And if both=20 ke'e and=20 be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11"/>

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. - I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, = both arm-type - and slow, relative-to the market. + I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, bot= h arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.

In=20 , everything after=20 be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is= that of=20 =20 cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upo= n. It is less than clear what an=20 arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 =20 le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 @@ -2129,22 +2110,21 @@ =20 =20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5"/>

mi na pu na ca klama le zarci I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market - It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I - went to the market. + It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. I went to the market.

negation cmavoposition relative to selbri modal cmavop= osition relative to selbri tense cmavoposition relative to= selbri Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear= only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. =20

=20

Some types of asymmetrical tanru @@ -3736,27 +3716,30 @@

<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pretty little gir= ls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The follo= wing examples show every possible grouping arrangement of=20 <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> for grouping and=20 <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">jebo</jbophrase> for logical connection.= Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English = phrase=20 <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para> - =20 - <para>Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Exampl= es 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. The seven examples fol= lowing each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the pre= sence or absence of=20 + <para>Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linke= nd=3D"example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjog"/>= , <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend=3D"example-= random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-ra= ndom-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend= =3D"example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKmg"/>, = and <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively. +  + The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping= pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of=20 <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> at each possible site. Some of the examples = have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in groupi= ng mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> <para>The logical connective=20 <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> is associative: that is,=20 <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as=20 - <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16= .40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connect= ed and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted = in the examples themselves. However, if=20 + <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-i= d-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend=3D"exa= mple-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xr= ef linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. +  + Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 =20 <jbophrase>je</jbophrase> were replaced by=20 <jbophrase>naja</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase>jo</jbophrase> or most of the other logical connectives, th= e meanings would become distinct.</para> <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent onl= y one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjzw" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/>

@@ -3887,35 +3870,35 @@ a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a s= chool

melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule (pretty type-of little) and (girl and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl - Note: same as 16.6 + thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl

+ Note: same as 16.6 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d15"/>

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule (pretty and little) and (girl type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school - Note: same as 16.30 + thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school

+ Note: same as 16.30 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d16"/>

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule (pretty and little) and (girl and school) thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

@@ -3948,47 +3931,47 @@ (pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school school for things which are beautiful and are small girls <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d20"/>

ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule - melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule + melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule (pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls - Note: same as 16.5 + school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls

+ Note: same as 16.5 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d22"/>

melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule (pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school - thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school - Note: same as 16.38 + thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school

+ Note: same as 16.38 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d23"/>

ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule (pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a scho= ol

@@ -4001,21 +3984,21 @@ (pretty and (little and girl)) and school thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d25"/>

melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] + melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)) small school for girls which is beautiful

melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] @@ -4032,50 +4015,50 @@ pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school)) thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is b= eautiful

melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] - melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] + melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] + melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school)) thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school

melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of (little and (girl and school)) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a b= eautiful school - Note: same as 16.37 + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beau= tiful school

+ Note: same as 16.37 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d30"/>

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule - melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e] + melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e] pretty and (little and (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school - Note: same as 16.15 + thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school

+ Note: same as 16.15 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d31"/>

melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and (little type-of (girl and school)) beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school

@@ -4129,35 +4112,35 @@ thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d37"/>

melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a b= eautiful school - Note: same as 16.29 + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beau= tiful school

+ Note: same as 16.29 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d38"/>

melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school) - thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school - Note: same as 16.22 + thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school

+ Note: same as 16.22 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d39"/>

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school) thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' sc= hool

--=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.