<anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d4"/>

They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and =20 @@ -275,21 +275,21 @@ ki'e.u'e =20 ki'e .u'e =20 pauses<= secondary>before vowels The cmavo=20 .u'e begins with a vowel, and like all words be= ginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by=20 - .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply becau= se the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand, + .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simp= ly because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other ha= nd, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d4"/>

ki'e'u'e =20

is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has fou= r vowels. @@ -333,34 +333,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d8"/>

le RE. NANmu

since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first t= wo words; the stress on=20 re, though, demands that a pause separate=20 re from the following syllable=20 - nan to ensure that the stress on=20 - nan is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alter= native pronunciation + nan to ensure that the stress on=20 + nan is properly heard as a stressed syllable. T= he alternative pronunciation =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d9"/>

LE re NANmu

is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purpo= ses of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to=20 - le, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phra= se=20 + le, comparable in rhythmical effect to the Engl= ish phrase=20 THE two men. In=20 , the secondary stress on=20 re would be similar to that in the English phra= se=20 the TWO men. Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e2d10"/>

@@ -382,38 +382,38 @@ flexible vocabula= ry The same principle allows you, when speaking or wr= iting, to invent new brivla for new concepts=20 on the fly; yet it offers people that you are trying to= communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lo= jban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely. =20 brivla<= secondary>properties of All brivla have the followi= ng properties: always end in a vowel; always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, w= here=20 - y and apostrophe are not counted as letters= for this purpose. (See=20 + y and apostrophe are not = counted as letters for this purpose. (See=20 .) always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) sy= llable; this implies that they have two or more syllables. cmene formcontrasted with brivla form cmavo formcontra= sted with brivla form brivla formcontrasted with cmene for= m br= ivla formcontrasted with cmavo form brivlarecognition of The presence of a consonant pai= r distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel dist= inguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus=20 da'amei must be a compound cmavo because it lac= ks a consonant pair;=20 lojban. must be a name because it lacks a final= vowel. consonant pairsletter y within yletterbetween letters of consonant pair consonant pairsin b= rivla brivlaconsonant pairs in Thu= s,=20 bisycla has the consonant pair=20 - sc in the first five non-=20 - y letters even though the=20 - sc actually appears in the form of=20 - syc. Similarly, the word=20 + sc in the first five non-= =20 + y letters even though the=20 + sc actually appears in the = form of=20 + syc. Similarly, the word=20 ro'inre'o contains=20 - nr in the first five letters because the apostrophes ar= e not counted for this purpose. + nr in the first five letter= s because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose. brivla<= secondary>subtypes of The three subtypes of brivla = are: gismuas a subtype of brivla primitive rootsgismu a= s gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all = other brivla are built; =20 compound of g= ismulujvo as lujvoas a subtype of br= ivla lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and= @@ -443,21 +443,21 @@ always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel; always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permis= sible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwis= e only has to be a permissible pair (C/C); are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is pen= ultimate). gismulength of The five letter length distingui= shes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains=20 - '. + '. gismuconflicts between gismuspecial With the exception of five special brivla variables,=20 broda,=20 brode,=20 brodi,=20 brodo, and=20 brodu, no two gismu differ only in the final vo= wel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the = likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, = because=20 gismu is in the set of gismu,=20 kismu,=20 xismu,=20 gicmu,=20 @@ -645,64 +645,64 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d7"/>

mampa'u

which refers specifically to the concept=20 maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the= tanru are represented in=20 mampa'u by the rafsi=20 - mam- and=20 - -pa'u, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatena= ted together to form=20 + mam- and=20 + -pa'u, respectively; these two r= afsi are then concatenated together to form=20 mampa'u. long rafsi formcompared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning short ra= fsi formcompared with long form in effect on lujvo mea= ning rafsi formeffect of choice on meaning of lujvo lujvomultiple forms of lujvomeaning of Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is f= ormally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition wi= ll be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms.= (See=20 for how this has been done.) Unlike = gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no diffe= rence in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used t= o build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments= , in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even = though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word=20 =20 =20 brivla, built from the tanru=20 bridi valsi, is the same lujvo as=20 brivalsi,=20 bridyvla, and=20 bridyvalsi, each of which uses a different comb= ination of rafsi. apostropheand consonant cluster determination in lujvo ' symboland consonant cluster determination in lujvo y-hyphenand consonant cluster determination rafsirules for com= bining to form lujvo lujvorules for formation of When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for val= id brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first fiv= e letters (excluding=20 - y and=20 - '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel. + y and=20 + '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel. glue in lujvoy-hyphen as y-hyphenand stress determinat= ion = y-hyphenuse of A=20 - y (which is ignored in determining stress or co= nsonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glu= e the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or= the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these = conditions, detailed in=20 + y (which is ignored in determ= ining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the conson= ant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either = not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules= describing these conditions, detailed in=20 =20 =20 . glue in lujvon-hyphen as n-hyphenuse of glue in lujvor-hyphen as r-hyphenuse of An=20 - r (in some cases, an=20 - n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the be= ginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For ex= ample, in the lujvo + r (in some cases, an=20 + n) is inserted when a CVV-for= m rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no= consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>field rations</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d8"/>

soirsai sonci sanmi soldier meal field rations =20

cmavo= contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning rafsicontrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning the raf= si=20 - soi- and=20 - -sai are joined, with the additional=20 + soi- and=20 + -sai are joined, with the additi= onal=20 =20 - r making up the=20 - rs consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Wit= hout the=20 - r, the word would break up into=20 - soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation = to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this ca= se), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. + r making up the=20 + rs consonant pair needed to= make the word a brivla. Without the=20 + r, the word would break up in= to=20 + soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no r= elation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in= this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. =20 Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . lujvoinvention of Most important, it is possibl= e to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new = or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban wo= rd. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is = a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.

rafsi rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever th= e reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most plea= sing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm w= hich is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms w= ill be the standard dictionary form (see=20 ). unreduced lujvodefinition long rafsidefinition 4-letter ra= fsidefinition 5-letter rafsidefinitio= n gi= smubasic rafsi for lujvounreduced rafsilong rafsiforms of Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself= (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final = vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are re= presented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 @@ -780,24 +780,24 @@ evening meal or=20 supper =20 short rafsi rafsishort In addition to these two for= ms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters l= ong. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total numb= er of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gi= smu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu= that could be assigned the rafsi. -eruse of zmadu in forming comparativesuse of zmadu in= forming For example,=20 zmadu (=20 more than) has the two short rafsi=20 - zma and=20 - mau (in addition to its unreduced rafsi=20 + zma and=20 + mau (in addition to its unreduce= d rafsi=20 =20 - zmad and=20 + zmad and=20 zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have bee= n created based on=20 zmadu, corresponding in general to English comp= arative adjectives ending in=20 =20 -er such as=20 whiter (Lojban=20 labmau). On the other hand,=20 bakri (=20 chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo. There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form r= afsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form = and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of shor= t rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fa= irly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-for= m rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at th= e end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assi= gnment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu. =20 @@ -837,21 +837,21 @@ -kli-

CCV 132 -ska-

(The only actual short rafsi for=20 sakli is=20 - -sal-.) + -sal-.) For gismu of the form CCVCV, like=20 blaci, the only short rafsi forms that can exis= t are:

CVC 134 -bac-

CVC @@ -880,32 +880,32 @@

CCV 123 -bla-

rafsi assignments= non-reassignability of (In fac= t,=20 blaci has none of these short rafsi; they are a= ll assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of= the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were= chosen in the first place.) rafsiconsiderations restricting construction of= There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe canno= t exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, or=20 - au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if th= e two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, or=20 + au; and a CCV-form rafsi is = possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pa= ir (see=20 ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 - mam,=20 - mat, and=20 - ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact, only=20 + mam,=20 + mat, and=20 + ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact,= only=20 =20 - mam is assigned to it. + mam is assigned to it. numbers= rafsi for rafsi for numbers Some cmavo also ha= ve associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerica= l digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by= adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used = in composing tanru (for a complete list, see=20 ). fully reduced luj= vodefinition lujvofully reduced The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is= =20 fully reduced lujvo. Here are some examples of fully re= duced lujvo: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d6"/>

@@ -981,80 +981,80 @@ lerfu liste letter list or a=20 list of letters

lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cm= avo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or = more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused= with gismu. lujvo formrequirements for hyphen insertion in = hyphen letterdefinition hyphensuse of Whe= n attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen lett= er. In Lojban, the term=20 =20 hyphen always refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 - y or one of the consonants=20 - r and=20 - n. (The letter=20 - l can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo= .) + y or one of the consonants=20 + r and=20 + n. (The letter=20 + l can also be a hyphen, but i= s not used as one in lujvo.) lujvo formrequirements for y-hyphen insertion in The=20 - y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when jo= ining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonan= t pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words= (either cmavo or gismu). + y-hyphen is used after a CVC-= form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impe= rmissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into= two or more words (either cmavo or gismu). lujvoand consonant pairs Thus, the tanru=20 pante tavla (=20 protest talk) cannot produce the lujvo=20 - patta'a, because=20 - tt is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must = be=20 + patta'a, because=20 + tt is not a= permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be=20 patyta'a. Similarly, the tanru=20 mudri siclu (=20 wooden whistle) cannot form the lujvo=20 - mudsiclu; instead,=20 + mudsiclu; instead,=20 mudysiclu must be used. (Remember that=20 - y is not counted in determining whether the fir= st five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.) + y is not counted in determini= ng whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: = this is why.) rafsifour-letterrequirement for y-hyphen The=20 - y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafs= i, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (= This procedure was shown, but not explained, in=20 + y-hyphen is also used to atta= ch a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the = following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in=20 to=20 .) The lujvo forms=20 zunlyjamfu,=20 zunlyjma,=20 zuljamfu, and=20 zuljma are all legitimate and equivalent forms = made from the tanru=20 zunle jamfu (=20 left foot). Of these,=20 zuljma is the preferred one since it is the sho= rtest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary. lujvo formrequirements for n-hyphen insertion in lujvo formrequirements for r-hyphen insertion in r-hyphenuse of= The=20 - r-hyphen and its close relative, the=20 - n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. = A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since = otherwise there would be no consonant cluster. + r-hyphen and its close relati= ve, the=20 + n-hyphen, are used in lujvo o= nly after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo o= f the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster. An=20 - r- hyphen or=20 - n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of a= ny lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall = apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two pa= rts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a = hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broke= n into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would b= e interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo th= at is one rafsi shorter. + r- hyphen or=20 + n-hyphen is also required aft= er the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV sinc= e it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any l= ujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position mus= t always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the sup= posed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because = the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of th= e word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter. r-hyphencontrasted with "n"-hyphen in requirements for use n-hyph= encontrasted with "r"-hyphen in requirements= for use n-hyphenuse of An=20 - n-hyphen is only used in place of an=20 - r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with=20 - r. For example, the tanru=20 + n-hyphen is only used in plac= e of an=20 + r-hyphen when the following r= afsi begins with=20 + r. For example, the tanru=20 rokci renro (=20 rock throw) cannot be expressed as=20 - ro'ire'o (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor = can it be=20 - ro'irre'o (which has an impermissible double consonant)= ; the=20 - n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphe= nated lujvo is=20 + ro'ire'o (which breaks up into = two cmavo), nor can it be=20 + ro'irre'o (which has an impermi= ssible double consonant); the=20 + n-hyphen is required, and the= correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is=20 ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be express= ed without hyphenation as=20 rokre'o. ZEI selma'o zei= lujvo= with zei There is also a diffe= rent way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and s= emantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desir= ed words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo=20 - zei. Thus, + zei. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d12"/>

bridi zei valsi

cmavo without raf= simethod of including in lujvo= fu'ivlamethod of including in lujvo cmenemethod of including in = lujvo rafsilack ofeffect on forming = lujvo lujvofrom cmavo with no rafsi= is the exact equivalent of=20 brivla (but not necessarily the same as the und= erlying tanru=20 bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) = Using=20 - zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a c= mene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: + zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a ra= fsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d13"/>

xy. zei kantu X ray

@@ -1096,60 +1096,60 @@ .cerman. zei jamkarce Sherman war-car Sherman tank =20 =20 =20 =20 is particularly notew= orthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the=20 - zei s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is= not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two componen= ts, but by adding a=20 - zei between=20 + zei s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in= fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two = components, but by adding a=20 + zei between=20 by. and=20 livgyterbilma to produce <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d17"/>

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma non-A-non-B-hepatitis =20

the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo o= f=20 may be preferable, because = its place structure can be built from that of=20 bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo w= ithout a brivla must be constructed ad hoc. cmavocontrasted with rafsi in usage rafsicontrasted wi= th cmavo in usage rafsicontrasted with words Note that rafsi may not be used in=20 - zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look= like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the = two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words o= r in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate = but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts = of lujvo. + zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV ra= fsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion betw= een the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate= words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing s= eparate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only a= s parts of lujvo.

fu'ivla lujvounsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon food= use of fu'ivla for specific animalsuse of fu'iv= la for specific plantsuse of fu'ivla for specific jargonuse of fu'ivla for specific termsuse of fu= 'ivla for concrete termsuse of fu'ivla for fu'ivlause of The use of tanru or lujvo is not al= ways appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.=20 =20 brie or=20 =20 cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow fie= ld (e.g.=20 =20 =20 quark,=20 =20 integral, or=20 =20 iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for= concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The= vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific= terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowe= d (actually=20 =20 copied) into Lojban from the original language. la'o borrowingsStage 1 borrowingsusing foreign-language = name borrowingfour stages of There= are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modi= fied (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name = quoted with the cmavo=20 =20 - la'o (explained in full in=20 + la'o (explained in full in=20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1"/>

me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. =20

@@ -1174,70 +1174,70 @@ =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 4 borrowings borrowingsStage 4 borrowing= sfu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 for a proposal concerning St= age 4 fu'ivla.) fu'ivla= form of fu'ivlaconstruction of The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu= and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word = from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojban= ized - the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and mo= difications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'i= vla-form word. All fu'ivla: fu'ivlainitial consonant cluster in fu'ivlarules f= or formation of must contain a consonant cluster in= the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the be= ginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longe= r cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a pe= rmissible initial consonant pair:=20 - spraile is acceptable, but not=20 - ktraile or=20 - trkaile; + spraile is acceptable, but not=20 + ktraile or=20 + trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; slinku'i test= definition must not be gismu o= r lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'i= vla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a l= ujvo (the so-called=20 slinku'i test, not discussed further in this book);= =20 syllabic pronunciations of consonantsin fu'ivlaexample y= letterprohibition from fu'ivla= cannot contain=20 - y, although they may contain syllabic pronu= nciations of Lojban consonants; + y, although they may cont= ain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants; fu'ivlastress in like other brivla, are str= essed on the penultimate syllable. fu'ivla= consonant clusters in Note that consonan= t triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can= be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There i= s no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except = at the beginning. =20 =20 borrowingsStage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction fu'ivlacategorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of con= struction This is a fairly liberal definition and a= llows quite a lot of possibilities within=20 fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easi= ly on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always = guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla req= uire running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and shou= ld be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all t= he considerations that apply. fu'ivla= algorithm for constructing Here is a sim= ple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage = 3 fu'ivla: Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojb= an=20 - y, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.= + y, however, may not be us= ed in any fu'ivla. If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that= the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by addin= g a suggestively chosen final vowel. If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning= so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vo= wel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant. fu'ivla categ= orizerselection consideration for l-hyphenuse of Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4= -letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a=20 topic area. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi= ; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the= rest of the fu'ivla with an=20 - r-hyphen; if that would produce a double=20 - r, use an=20 - n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in=20 - r and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with=20 - n (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and = the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" wo= uld result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an=20 - l-hyphen. (This is the only use of=20 - l-hyphen in Lojban.) + r-hyphen; if that would p= roduce a double=20 + r, use an=20 + n-hyphen instead; if the = rafsi ends in=20 + r and the rest of the fu'= ivla begins with=20 + n (or vice versa), or if = the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "= dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible clu= ster), use an=20 + l-hyphen. (This is the on= ly use of=20 + l-hyphen in Lojban.) Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can= be used instead of the long rafsi. =20 Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exam= ples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not= be pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: @@ -1249,21 +1249,21 @@ spaghetti (from English or Italian) =20 spageti (Lojbanize) cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi) =20 dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi) where=20 - cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 + cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for= =20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with t= he short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: = in any event, it means the same thing. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/> @@ -1271,22 +1271,22 @@ Acer (the scientific name of maple trees) =20 =20 acer (Lojbanize) xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel) tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi) ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi) where=20 - tric- and=20 - ric- are rafsi for=20 + tric- and=20 + ric- are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tan= ru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they woul= d surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. @@ -1294,96 +1294,97 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/>

brie (from French) =20 bri (Lojbanize) cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)

where=20 - cirl- represents=20 + cirl- represents=20 cirla (=20 cheese). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/>

cobra =20 kobra (Lojbanize) sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)

where=20 - sinc- represents=20 + sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/>

quark =20 kuark (Lojbanize) kuarka (add final vowel) sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)

allowable diphtho= ngsin gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla allowable= diphthongsin fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and luj= vo d= iphthongsin fu'ivla fu'ivladiphthongs= in where=20 - sask- represents=20 + sask- represents=20 saske (=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 - a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong=20 - ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but = may appear in fu'ivla. + a added to the end of the wor= d, and the diphthong=20 + ua, which never appears in g= ismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8"/>

+ =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 (from Korean) =20 djamo (Lojbanize) lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi) ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)

where=20 - ler- represents=20 + ler- represents=20 lerfu (=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 - spageti and=20 + spageti and=20 kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 - xaceru looks like a compound cmavo, and=20 - kobra like a gismu. + xaceru looks like a compound cm= avo, and=20 + kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 - integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not c= onvey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with= an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 + integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, do= es not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even = one with an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 integral- has various other specialized meanings in oth= er fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 - integrale almost certainly would eventually come to mea= n the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates w= ith=20 + integrale almost certainly would eventually com= e to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English asso= ciates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 - i of=20 - integrale is removed, or something like=20 + i of=20 + integrale is removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to= the beginning;=20 - cmac- is the rafsi for=20 + cmac- is the rafsi for=20 cmaci (=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integral might be conveyed with=20 =20 djinrnintegrale or=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinju and=20 tarmi mean=20 building and=20 form respectively. @@ -1435,21 +1436,21 @@ kuln,r,kore,a Korean (the culture) =20 Navajoexample fu= 'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin= fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 - ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some f= orm of the native name=20 + ea is not a = valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name=20 Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 Navajo is far more widely known than=20 =20 Dine'e.

cmene names in Lojban (= see also cmene) cmenedefinition namespurpos= e of cmenepurpose of Lojbanized na= mes, called=20 @@ -1514,25 +1515,25 @@ Catherine<= secondary>example

kat,r,in. Catherine =20

syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 - r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so= =20 + r is skipped in determining t= he stressed syllable, so=20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 - ka.) + ka.) <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/> katis. Cathy =20 @@ -1573,214 +1574,198 @@ are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Jones. =20 namesauthority for cmeneauthority for The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing= the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how= they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name=20 Mary can thus be Lojbanized as=20 meris.,=20 maris.,=20 meiris.,=20 merix., or even=20 marys.. The last alternative is not pronounced = much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who value= s spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an=20 - s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the= end. + s; there must, however, be so= me Lojban consonant at the end. namesrestrictions on form of cmenerestrictions on fo= rm of Names are not permitted to have the sequences= =20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is im= mediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the = fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by = one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cme= ne might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. Howe= ver, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply tha= t the word before the=20 - la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, wh= ich is impossible. + la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without p= ause, which is impossible. <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">Nederlandsexample Laplaceexample For exampl= e, the invalid name=20 laplas. would look like the Lojban words=20 la plas., and=20 ilanas. would be misunderstood as=20 .i la nas.. However,=20 - NEderlants. cannot be misheard as=20 - NEder lants., because=20 - NEder with no following pause is not a possible Lojban = word. + NEderlants. cannot be mis= heard as=20 + NEder lants., because=20 + NEder with no following p= ause is not a possible Lojban word. namesalternatives for restricted sequences in = cmenealt= ernatives for restricted sequences in There are clo= se alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizin= g names, such as=20 ly,=20 - lei, and=20 + lei, and=20 dai or=20 =20 do'i, that do not cause these problems. cmenerules for namesrules for = Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristic= s: =20 cmeneconsonant clusters permitted in cmenefinal le= tter in They must end in one or more consonants. Th= ere are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene= , provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part= of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair. diphthongsspecific to cmene diphthongsspecific to = names uy diphthongin cmene iy diphthongin= cmene They may contain the letter y as a normal, n= on-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contai= n the two diphthongs=20 - iy and=20 - uy. + iy and=20 + uy. namesrequirement for pause after cmenerequirement = for pause after They are always followed in speech = by a pause after the final consonant, written as=20 - .. + .. capitalizatio= nuse of capitalizationfor unusual str= ess in names = capitalizationuse in names namesstress in cmenestress in They = may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate on= e, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin = sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital let= ters. =20 namesfrom Lojban words cmenefrom Lojban words Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized fr= om names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmav= o, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>One</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11"/>

pav. the One - from the cmavo=20 - pa, with rafsi=20 - pav, meaning=20 - one

+ from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav, meaning one <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/>

sol. the Sun - =20 - from the gismu=20 - solri, meaning=20 - solar, or actually=20 - pertaining to the Sun - =20

+ from the gismu solri, meaning sola= r, or actually pertaining to the Sun <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13"/>

ralj. Chief (as a title) - =20 - from the gismu=20 - ralju, meaning=20 - principal.

+ from the gismu ralju, meaning prin= cipal. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/>

nol. Lord/Lady - =20 - =20 - from the gismu=20 - nobli, with rafsi=20 - nol, meaning=20 - noble.

+ from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning noble. cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. Add a final=20 - s or=20 - n (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the= name ends in a vowel. + s or=20 + n (or some other consonan= t that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written L= ojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress= . Do not capitalize names otherwise. =20 =20 cmeneavoiding impermissible consonant clusters in If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel= between the consonants:=20 - y is recommended. + y is recommended. cmeneproscribed syllables in No cmene may h= ave the syllables=20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 doi in them, unless immediately preceded by= a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to = something else. Possible substitutions include=20 ly,=20 - ly'i, and=20 + ly'i, and=20 dai or=20 =20 do'i, respectively. scientific names<= /primary>rules for Linnaean namesrules for There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the sci= entific names (technically known as=20 =20 Linnaean binomials after their inventor) which are inte= rnationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is = essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted= into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 =20 =20 - la'o, explained in=20 + la'o, explained in=20 . Using this cmavo makes the alre= ady lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and le= aves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomple= te, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They= can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words= of the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 =20 =20 =20 back vowel in the following list refers to any of the l= etters=20 - a,=20 - o, or=20 - u; the term=20 + a,=20 + o, or=20 + u; the term=20 front vowel correspondingly refers to any of the letter= s=20 - e,=20 - i, or=20 - y. + e,=20 + i, or=20 + y. Change double consonants other than=20 - cc to single consonants. + cc to single consonants. Change=20 - cc before a front vowel to=20 - kc, but otherwise to=20 - k. + cc befo= re a front vowel to=20 + kc, but otherwise to=20 + k. Change=20 - c before a back vowel and final=20 - c to=20 - k. + c before a back vowel and= final=20 + c to=20 + k. Change=20 - ng before a consonant (other than=20 - h) and final=20 - ng to=20 - n. + ng before a consonant (= other than=20 + h) and final=20 + ng to=20 + n. Change=20 - x to=20 - z initially, but otherwise to=20 - ks. + x to=20 + z initially, but otherwis= e to=20 + ks. Change=20 - pn to=20 - n initially. + pn to=20 + n initially. Change final=20 - ie and=20 - ii to=20 - i. + ie and=20 + ii to=20 + i. Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:=20 aa a ae e ch k ee i eigh ei ew u @@ -1791,27 +1776,27 @@ ph f q k sc sk w u y i However, the diphthong substitutions should not = be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables. Change=20 h between two vowels to=20 - ', but otherwise remove it completely. If preservat= ion of the=20 + ', but otherwise remove it completely. If p= reservation of the=20 h seems essential, change it to=20 - x instead. + x instead. Place=20 - ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do not for= m Lojban diphthongs. + ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do= not form Lojban diphthongs. =20 Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: English=20 Mary meris. or meiris. English=20 Smith smit. @@ -1879,23 +1864,23 @@ pausebetween words pauseproscribed within words Any two words may have a pause between them; it is al= ways illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the w= ord into two words. pauseand consonant-final words consonant-final wordsnecessity for pause after Every word ending in a = consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmen= e. pauseand vowel-initial words vowel-initial wordsne= cessity for pause before Every word beginning with = a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, = or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants. pauseand cmene cmenerules for pause before Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immedi= ately preceding word is one of the cmavo=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i, or=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i, or=20 doi (which is why those strings are forbidd= en in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs. pauseand final-syllable stress final syllable stressrules for pause after stressfinal syllablerules for pause after If the last syllable o= f a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated = by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In = this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual st= ress (which already ends with a pause, of course). pauseand Cy-form cmavo cmavorules for pause after = Cy-form Cy-form cmavorules for pause after A cmavo of the form=20 Cy must be followed by = a pause unless another=20 Cy-form cmavo follows.<= /para> @@ -1912,21 +1897,21 @@ . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary= .) linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at= least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning= . Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the se= mantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is th= e most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguis= tic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that s= eems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'e za'e= use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeani= ng drift of You must also be aware of the possibili= ty of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for = posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that= is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a = different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessaril= y bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a= meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the= dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 - za'e (explained in=20 + za'e (explained in=20 =20 ) before a newly coined lujvo to = indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. =20 =20 =20 Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abst= raction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous= , the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop = some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then= use that tanru to make the lujvo. =20 =20 @@ -1967,75 +1952,75 @@ 4) hyphens in = lujvoproscribed where not required Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a= place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are reco= mmended, for reasons discussed below.=20 4a) If there are more than two words in the tanru, put a= n=20 - r-hyphen (or an=20 - n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CV= V-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an=20 - r-hyphen (or an=20 - n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the firs= t rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,=20 + r-hyphen (or an= =20 + n-hyphen) after t= he first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put = an=20 + r-hyphen (or an= =20 + n-hyphen) between= the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is C= CV-form (for example,=20 saicli requires no hyphen). Use an= =20 - r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen= is=20 - r, in which case use an=20 - n-hyphen. Never use an=20 - n-hyphen unless it is required. + r-hyphen unless t= he letter after the hyphen is=20 + r, in which case = use an=20 + n-hyphen. Never u= se an=20 + n-hyphen unless i= t is required. 4b) Put a=20 - y-hyphen between the consonants of = any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi. + y-hyphen between = the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear= between rafsi. 4c) tosma= bru test Put a=20 - y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi f= orm. + y-hyphen after an= y 4-letter rafsi form. =20 5) Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - w= ith the pattern=20 - CVC ... CVC + X- for=20 + CVC ... CVC + X - for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCC= V long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consona= nt cluster, or is something which has caused a=20 - y-hyphen to be installed between the prev= ious CVC and itself by one of the above rules. + y-hyphen to be installe= d between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules. The test is as follows: 5a) - Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first = y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there= are no y-hyphens. + Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first = y-hyphen, or up to the end of the = word in case there are no y-hyphen= s. These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. 5b) If all of those joints are permissible initials, the= n the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, t= he word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. 5c) - Install a y-hyphen at the fir= st such joint. + Install a y= -hyphen at the first such joint. lujvoselection of best form of lujvoscoring of Note that the=20 tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more e= fficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to l= eft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be= completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. =20 =20 @@ -2056,23 +2041,23 @@ 2) Count the number of apostrophes; call it=20 A. 3) Count the number of=20 - y-,=20 - r-, and=20 - n-hyphens; call it=20 + y-,=20 + r-, and=20 + n-hyphens; call it=20 =20 H. 4) For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 R:=20 @@ -2118,21 +2103,21 @@ =20 8 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 - y; call it=20 + y; call it=20 V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there = is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially = encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apos= trophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more p= leasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vo= wels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones bef= ore it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle = might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alter= native. =20 @@ -2199,103 +2184,103 @@ gerku are: -ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku The rafsi for=20 zdani are: -zda-, -zdan-, -zdani. Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 - -ger-,=20 - -ge'u- and=20 - -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 + -ger-,=20 + -ge'u- and=20 + -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 - -zda- and=20 - -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 + -zda- and=20 + -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then: ger-zda ger-zdani ge'u-zda ge'u-zdani gerk-zda gerk-zdani We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 =20 - ge cannot fall off the front, because the following wor= d would begin with=20 - rz, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. = So the lujvo forms are=20 + ge cannot fall off the front, because the follo= wing word would begin with=20 + rz, which i= s not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 gerzda and=20 gerzdani. The third form,=20 - ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though the firs= t rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in t= he first five letters. So=20 + ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though = the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant clus= ter in the first five letters. So=20 ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. The fourth form,=20 - ge'u-zdani, however, requires an=20 - r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 - ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of t= he lujvo is=20 + ge'u-zdani, however, requires a= n=20 + r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 + ge'u- part would fall off as a c= mavo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 ge'urzdani. The last two forms require=20 - y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are= =20 + y-hyphens, as all 4-letter ra= fsi do, and so are=20 =20 gerkyzda and=20 gerkyzdani respectively. boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score= is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a fin= al score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, an= d 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the= dictionary in the form=20 gerzda. For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 bloti klesi (=20 boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. =20 =20 The rafsi for=20 bloti are=20 - -lot-,=20 - -blo-, and=20 - -lo'i-; for=20 + -lot-,=20 + -blo-, and=20 + -lo'i-; for=20 klesi they are=20 - -kle- and=20 - -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru: + -kle- and=20 + -lei-. Both these gismu are amon= g the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an u= nusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru: lotkle blokle lo'ikle=20 lotlei blolei lo'irlei Only=20 lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusi= on with the cmavo sequence=20 - lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujv= o, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algo= rithm produces the following results: + lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of = the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scor= ing algorithm produces the following results: =20 lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367=20 lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456 Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen. Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 logji bangu girzu, or=20 logical-language group in English. (=20 The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) The available rafsi are=20 - -loj- and=20 - -logj-;=20 - -ban-,=20 - -bau-, and=20 - -bang-; and=20 - -gri- and=20 - -girzu, and (for name purposes only)=20 - -gir- and=20 - -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are: + -loj- and=20 + -logj-;=20 + -ban-,=20 + -bau-, and=20 + -bang-; and=20 + -gri- and=20 + -girzu, and (for name purposes o= nly)=20 + -gir- and=20 + -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo p= ossibilities are: loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri=20 logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu and the 12 name possibilities are: loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.=20 @@ -2320,57 +2305,57 @@ <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 =20 lojbangri and=20 lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 girzu, producing=20 lojbangirz. Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 male (sexual teacher). The=20 =20 - ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 + ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 cinse ctuca (which would be=20 cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 male, then the simpler tanru=20 nakni cinctu (=20 male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 - ke required for grouping need not be expressed. + ke required for grouping need not be expressed.=

The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: 1) gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chi= nese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the propos= ed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: co= nsonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were = simplified to just the fricative (=20 =20 =20 =20 - tc became=20 - c,=20 - dj became=20 - j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban = ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rul= es were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency. + tc became=20 + c,=20 + dj became=20 + j) and non-Lojban vowel= s were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dro= pped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake= of consistency. 2) All possible gismu forms were matched against the six sour= ce-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 2a) @@ -2458,22 +2443,22 @@ =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 - brod-, they all end in the letter=20 - o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu. + brod-, they all end in the letter=20 + o, which is otherwise a rare = letter in Lojban gismu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. broda 1st assignable predicate brode 2nd assignable predicate brodi 3rd assignable predicate brodo 4th assignable predicate brodu 5th assignable predicate cmavo structure word (from=20 cmalu valsi) lojbo Lojbanic (from=20 @@ -2640,21 +2625,21 @@ slovo Slavic xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controversi= al. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 - zei mechanism was devised instead.) + zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/>

tci'ile Chilean --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.