<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/>

non-standard orthographiesTengwar Finally, an orthography usin= g the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. = Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to=20 =20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index bfb6bff..33e929f 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -2192,21 +2192,21 @@ 5) Count the number of vowels, not including=20 y; call it=20 V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: - (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V + (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10= * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there is no p= reference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes= a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes= as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing= rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels ar= e chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it = have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might d= ominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.= =20 doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e12d1"/>

zbasai zba + sai @@ -2246,255 +2246,255 @@ zbazbasysarji zba + zbas + y + sarji (1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 =3D 12976

- lujvo-making examples - This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First,= we will start with the tanru=20 - gerku zdani (=20 - dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 - =20 - =20 - doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use= a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 - , using every possible rafsi. - The rafsi for=20 - gerku are: - - -ger-, - -ge'u-, - -gerk-, - -gerku - - The rafsi for=20 - zdani are: - - -zda-, - -zdan-, - -zdani. - - Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 - -ger-,=20 - -ge'u- and=20 - -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 - gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 - -zda- and=20 - -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 - zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are th= en: - - ger-zda - ger-zdani - ge'u-zda - ge'u-zdani - gerk-zda - gerk-zdani - - We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first tw= o forms need no hyphenation:=20 - =20 - ge cannot fall off the front, because the followi= ng word would begin with=20 - rz, which is not a permissibl= e initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 - gerzda and=20 - gerzdani. - The third form,=20 - ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though th= e first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluste= r in the first five letters. So=20 - ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. - The fourth form,=20 - ge'u-zdani, however, requires an= =20 - r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 - ge'u- part would fall off as a cma= vo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 - ge'urzdani. - The last two forms require=20 - y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafs= i do, and so are=20 - =20 - gerkyzda and=20 - gerkyzdani respectively. - boat classexample= The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor= of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 - gerzda would win. Its L score = is 6, its A score is 0, its H score i= s 0, its R score is 12, and its V sco= re is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 63= 67, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would prob= ably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 - gerzda. - For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 - bloti klesi (=20 - boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowboat= , motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long r= afsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never p= referred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. - The rafsi for=20 - bloti are=20 - -lot-,=20 - -blo-, and=20 - -lo'i-; for=20 - klesi they are=20 - -kle- and=20 - -lei-. Both these gismu are among = the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unu= sual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru: - - lotkle - blokle - lo'ikle - =20 - lotlei - blolei - lo'irlei - - Only=20 - lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion= with the cmavo sequence=20 - lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of th= e lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scorin= g algorithm produces the following results: - =20 - - lotkle - 5878 - blokle - 5858 - lo'ikle - 6367 - =20 - lotlei - 5867 - blolei - 5847 - lo'irlei - 7456 - - Logical Language Gr= oupexample So the form=20 - blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin ov= er=20 - blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly w= orse;=20 - lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and=20 - lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and hy= phen. - Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name f= rom the tanru=20 - logji bangu girzu, or=20 - logical-language group in English. (=20 - The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher o= f this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) - The available rafsi are=20 - -loj- and=20 - -logj-;=20 - -ban-,=20 - -bau-, and=20 - -bang-; and=20 - -gri- and=20 - -girzu, and (for name purposes onl= y)=20 - -gir- and=20 - -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo pos= sibilities are: - - loj-ban-gri - loj-bau-gri - loj-bang-gri - =20 - logj-ban-gri - logj-bau-gri - logj-bang-gri - =20 - loj-ban-girzu - loj-bau-girzu - loj-bang-girzu - =20 - logj-ban-girzu - logj-bau-girzu - logj-bang-girzu - - and the 12 name possibilities are: - - loj-ban-gir - loj-bau-gir - loj-bang-gir - =20 - logj-ban-gir - logj-bau-gir - logj-bang-gir - =20 - loj-ban-girz - loj-bau-girz - loj-bang-girz - =20 - logj-ban-girz - logj-bau-girz - logj-bang-girz - - After hyphenation, we have: - - lojbangri - lojbaugri - lojbangygri - =20 - logjybangri - logjybaugri - logjybangygri - =20 - lojbangirzu - lojbaugirzu - lojbangygirzu - =20 - logjybangirzu - logjybaugirzu - logjybangygirzu - =20 - lojbangir - lojbaugir - lojbangygir - =20 - logjybangir - logjybaugir - logjybangygir - =20 - lojbangirz - lojbaugirz - lojbangygirz - =20 - logjybangirz - logjybaugirz - logjybangygirz - - sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teacherexa= mple The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 - =20 - lojbangri and=20 - lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly low= er score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the orga= nization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it= , and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 - girzu, producing=20 - lojbangirz. - Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on th= e tanru=20 - nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 - male (sexual teacher). The=20 - =20 - ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 - teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 - teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms of= the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: - - nak-kem-cin-ctu =20 - nakykemcinctu - =20 - nak-kem-cin-ctuca - nakykemcinctuca - =20 - nak-kem-cins-ctu - nakykemcinsyctu - =20 - nak-kem-cins-ctuca - nakykemcinsyctuca - =20 - nakn-kem-cin-ctu - naknykemcinctu - =20 - nakn-kem-cin-ctuca - naknykemcinctuca - =20 - nakn-kem-cins-ctu - naknykemcinsyctu - =20 - nakn-kem-cins-ctuca - naknykemcinsyctuca - - gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 - nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred by= the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just m= ake a lujvo for=20 - cinse ctuca (which would be=20 - cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely im= portant. If there was a reason to specify=20 - male, then the simpler tanru=20 - nakni cinctu (=20 - male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru is = actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 - ke required for grouping need not be expressed. -

+ lujvo-making examples + This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 + gerku zdani (=20 + dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 + =20 + =20 + doghouse, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 + , using every possible rafsi.= + The rafsi for=20 + gerku are: + + -ger-, + -ge'u-, + -gerk-, + -gerku + + The rafsi for=20 + zdani are: + + -zda-, + -zdan-, + -zdani. + + Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 + -ger-,=20 + -ge'u- and=20 + -gerk- as possible rafsi for=20 + gerku; Step 2 directs us to use=20 + -zda- and=20 + -zdani as possible rafsi for=20 + zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then: + + ger-zda + ger-zdani + ge'u-zda + ge'u-zdani + gerk-zda + gerk-zdani + + We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 + =20 + ge cannot fall off the front, because the follo= wing word would begin with=20 + rz, which is not a permissi= ble initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 + gerzda and=20 + gerzdani. + The third form,=20 + ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though = the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant clus= ter in the first five letters. So=20 + ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo. + The fourth form,=20 + ge'u-zdani, however, requires a= n=20 + r-hyphen; otherwise, the=20 + ge'u- part would fall off as a c= mavo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 + ge'urzdani. + The last two forms require=20 + y-hyphens, as all 4-letter ra= fsi do, and so are=20 + =20 + gerkyzda and=20 + gerkyzdani respectively. + boat classexamp= le The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 + gerzda would win. Its L scor= e is 6, its A score is 0, its H score= is 0, its R score is 12, and its V s= core is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, = 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would pr= obably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 + gerzda. + For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 + bloti klesi (=20 + boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available. + The rafsi for=20 + bloti are=20 + -lot-,=20 + -blo-, and=20 + -lo'i-; for=20 + klesi they are=20 + -kle- and=20 + -lei-. Both these gismu are amon= g the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an u= nusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru: + + lotkle + blokle + lo'ikle + =20 + lotlei + blolei + lo'irlei + + Only=20 + lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusi= on with the cmavo sequence=20 + lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of = the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scor= ing algorithm produces the following results: + =20 + + lotkle + 5878 + blokle + 5858 + lo'ikle + 6367 + =20 + lotlei + 5867 + blolei + 5847 + lo'irlei + 7456 + + Logical Language = Groupexample So the form=20 + blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 + blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 + lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 + lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen. + Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 + logji bangu girzu, or=20 + logical-language group in English. (=20 + The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.) + The available rafsi are=20 + -loj- and=20 + -logj-;=20 + -ban-,=20 + -bau-, and=20 + -bang-; and=20 + -gri- and=20 + -girzu, and (for name purposes o= nly)=20 + -gir- and=20 + -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo p= ossibilities are: + + loj-ban-gri + loj-bau-gri + loj-bang-gri + =20 + logj-ban-gri + logj-bau-gri + logj-bang-gri + =20 + loj-ban-girzu + loj-bau-girzu + loj-bang-girzu + =20 + logj-ban-girzu + logj-bau-girzu + logj-bang-girzu + + and the 12 name possibilities are: + + loj-ban-gir + loj-bau-gir + loj-bang-gir + =20 + logj-ban-gir + logj-bau-gir + logj-bang-gir + =20 + loj-ban-girz + loj-bau-girz + loj-bang-girz + =20 + logj-ban-girz + logj-bau-girz + logj-bang-girz + + After hyphenation, we have: + + lojbangri + lojbaugri + lojbangygri + =20 + logjybangri + logjybaugri + logjybangygri + =20 + lojbangirzu + lojbaugirzu + lojbangygirzu + =20 + logjybangirzu + logjybaugirzu + logjybangygirzu + =20 + lojbangir + lojbaugir + lojbangygir + =20 + logjybangir + logjybaugir + logjybangygir + =20 + lojbangirz + lojbaugirz + lojbangygirz + =20 + logjybangirz + logjybaugirz + logjybangygirz + + <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">sexual teachermaleexample male sexual teachere= xample The only fully reduced lujvo forms are=20 + =20 + lojbangri and=20 + lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly l= ower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the or= ganization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in = it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for=20 + girzu, producing=20 + lojbangirz. + Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 + nakni ke cinse ctuca or=20 + male (sexual teacher). The=20 + =20 + ke cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 + teacher of sexuality who is male, rather than=20 + teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation: + + nak-kem-cin-ctu =20 + nakykemcinctu + =20 + nak-kem-cin-ctuca + nakykemcinctuca + =20 + nak-kem-cins-ctu + nakykemcinsyctu + =20 + nak-kem-cins-ctuca + nakykemcinsyctuca + =20 + nakn-kem-cin-ctu + naknykemcinctu + =20 + nakn-kem-cin-ctuca + naknykemcinctuca + =20 + nakn-kem-cins-ctu + naknykemcinsyctu + =20 + nakn-kem-cins-ctuca + naknykemcinsyctuca + + gismualgorithm for Of these forms,=20 + nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 + cinse ctuca (which would be=20 + cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 + male, then the simpler tanru=20 + nakni cinctu (=20 + male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 + ke required for grouping need not be expressed.= +

The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: 1) gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chi= nese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the propos= ed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: co= nsonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were = simplified to just the fricative (=20 =20 =20 @@ -2536,318 +2536,671 @@ gismucreationproscribed gismu pairs gismutoo-similar The scores were divided b= y the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then m= ultiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the pr= oportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the lan= guage. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers= .) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores w= as the total score for the proposed gismu form. 4) Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were r= emoved. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a con= flict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gism= u except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gism= u would have identical 4-letter rafsi. gismucreationand transcription blunders More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an = existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too si= milar=E2=80=9D based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was re= jected. - - - - - - proposed gismu - existing gismu - - - - - b - p, v - - - c - j, s - - - d - t - - - f - p, v - - - g - k, x - - - j - c, z - - - k - g, x - - - l - r - - - m - n - - - n - m - - - p - b, f - - - r - l - - - s - c, z - - - t - d - - - v - b, f - - - x - g, k - - - z - j, s - - - - + + + + + + proposed gismu + existing gismu + + + + + b + p, v + + + c + j, s + + + d + t + + + f + p, v + + + g + k, x + + + j + c, z + + + k + g, x + + + l + r + + + m + n + + + n + m + + + p + b, f + + + r + l + + + s + c, z + + + t + d + + + v + b, f + + + x + g, k + + + z + j, s + + + + gismusource-language weights for See for an example. 5) The gismu form with the highest score usually became the a= ctual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better ra= fsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunder= s (for example, the gismu=20 gismu should have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).<= /para> The language weights used to make most of the gismu were a= s follows: - - Chinese 0.36 - English 0.21 - Hindi 0.16 - Spanish 0.11 - Russian 0.09 - Arabic 0.07 - + + + + + + + Chinese0.36 + + + English0.21 + + + Hindi0.16 + + + Spanish0.11 + + + Russian0.09 + + + Arabic0.07 + + + + reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were = made much later using updated weights: - - Chinese 0.347 - Hindi 0.196 - English 0.160 - Spanish 0.123 - Russian 0.089 - Arabic 0.085 - + + + + + + + Chinese0.347 + + + Hindi0.196 + + + English0.160 + + + Spanish0.123 + + + Russian0.089 + + + Arabic0.085 + + + + gismucoined gismuexceptions to gismu creation by= algorithm (English and Hindi switched places due t= o demographic changes.) gismuLojban-specific Note that the stressed vow= el of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gi= smu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,=20 =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 brod-, they all end in the lette= r=20 o, which is otherwise a rare = letter in Lojban gismu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. - - broda 1st assignable predicate - brode 2nd assignable predicate - brodi 3rd assignable predicate - brodo 4th assignable predicate - brodu 5th assignable predicate - cmavo structure word (from=20 - cmalu valsi) - lojbo Lojbanic (from=20 - logji bangu) - lujvo compound word (from=20 - pluja valsi) - mekso Mathematical EXpression - + + + broda + 1st assignable predicate + + + brode + 2nd assignable predicate + + + brodi + 3rd assignable predicate + + + brodo + 4th assignable predicate + + + brodu + 5th assignable predicate + + + cmavo + structure word (from cmalu valsi) + + + lojbo + Lojbanic (from logji bangu)= + + + lujvo + compound word (from pluja valsi) + + + mekso + Mathematical EXpression + + It is important to understand that even though=20 cmavo,=20 lojbo, and=20 lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, t= hey are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gi= smu, both in grammar and in word formation. The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn fro= m the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for = concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recogniz= ed internationally. Small metric prefixes (values less than 1): - - decti .1/deci - centi .01/centi - milti .001/milli - mikri 1E-6/micro - nanvi 1E-9/nano - picti 1E-12/pico - femti 1E-15/femto - xatsi 1E-18/atto - zepti 1E-21/zepto - gocti 1E-24/yocto - + + + decti + .1/deci + + + centi + .01/centi + + + milti + .001/milli + + + mikri + 1E-6/micro + + + nanvi + 1E-9/nano + + + picti + 1E-12/pico + + + femti + 1E-15/femto + + + xatsi + 1E-18/atto + + + zepti + 1E-21/zepto + + + gocti + 1E-24/yocto + + Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1): - - dekto 10/deka - xecto 100/hecto - kilto 1000/kilo - megdo 1E6/mega - gigdo 1E9/giga - terto 1E12/tera - petso 1E15/peta - xexso 1E18/exa - zetro 1E21/zetta - gotro 1E24/yotta - + + + dekto + 10/deka + + + xecto + 100/hecto + + + kilto + 1000/kilo + + + megdo + 1E6/mega + + + gigdo + 1E9/giga + + + terto + 1E12/tera + + + petso + 1E15/peta + + + xexso + 1E18/exa + + + zetro + 1E21/zetta + + + gotro + 1E24/yotta + + gismucultural Other scientific or mathematical = terms: - - delno candela - kelvo kelvin - molro mole - radno radian - sinso sine - stero steradian - tanjo tangent - xampo ampere - + + + delno + candela + + + kelvo + kelvin + + + molro + mole + + + radno + radian + + + sinso + sine + + + stero + steradian + + + tanjo + tangent + + + xampo + ampere + + gismufor Lojban source languages gismufor languages The gismu=20 sinso and=20 tanjo were only made non-algorithmically becaus= e they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all th= e dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are uni= ts in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were mad= e by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).<= /para> Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, = but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the = multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words t= hat have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or langua= ges may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from it= s home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, w= hich uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of = usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be= based on the six major languages. The six Lojban source languages: - =20 - - jungo Chinese (from=20 - Zhong - 1 guo - 2) - glico English - xindo Hindi - spano Spanish - rusko Russian - xrabo Arabic - + + + + jungo + Chinese (from Zhong 1 guo 2) + + + glico + English + + + xindo + Hindi + + + spano + Spanish + + + rusko + Russian + + + xrabo + Arabic + + gismufor countries Seven other widely spoken la= nguages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't u= sed: - - bengo Bengali - porto Portuguese - baxso Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia - ponjo Japanese (from=20 - Nippon) - dotco German (from=20 - Deutsch) - fraso French (from=20 - Fran=C3=A7ais) - xurdo Urdu - + + + bengo + Bengali + + + porto + Portuguese + + + baxso + Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia + + + ponjo + Japanese (from Nippon) + + + dotco + German (from Deutsch) + + + fraso + French (from Fran=C3=A7ais<= /quote>) + + + xurdo + Urdu + + continentsgismu for gismugeographical (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing s= ystems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed voc= abulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights = were assigned for gismu-making purposes.) - gismuethnic Countries with a large number of sp= eakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of=20 - large is dependent on the specific language): - - English: - - merko American - brito British - skoto Scottish - sralo Australian - kadno Canadian - - Spanish: - - gento Argentinian - mexno Mexican - - Russian: - - softo Soviet/USSR - vukro Ukrainian - - Arabic: - - filso Palestinian - jerxo Algerian - jordo Jordanian - libjo Libyan - lubno Lebanese - misro Egyptian (from=20 - Mizraim) - morko Moroccan - rakso Iraqi - sadjo Saudi - sirxo Syrian - - Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia: - - bindo Indonesian - meljo Malaysian - - Portuguese: - - brazo Brazilian - - Urdu: - - kisto Pakistani - =20 - + gismuethnic Countries with a large number of sp= eakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of large is dependent on the specific language): + + + + + + + English: + + + + + merko + American + + + brito + British + + + skoto + Scottish + + + sralo + Australian + + + kadno + Canadian + + + + + + + + + Spanish: + + + + + gento + Argentinian + + + mexno + Mexican + + + + + + + + + Russian: + + + + + softo + Soviet/USSR + + + vukro + Ukrainian + + + + + + + + + Arabic: + + + + + filso + Palestinian + + + jerxo + Algerian + + + jordo + Jordanian + + + libjo + Libyan + + + lubno + Lebanese + + + misro + Egyptian (from Mizraim)<= /entry> + + + morko + Moroccan + + + rakso + Iraqi + + + sadjo + Saudi + + + sirxo + Syrian + + + + + + + + + Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia: + + + + + bindo + Indonesian + + + meljo + Malaysian + + + + + + + + + Portuguese: + + + + + brazo + Brazilian + + + + + + + + + Urdu: + + + + + kisto + Pakistani + + + + gismureligious The continents (and oceanic regi= ons) of the Earth: - =20 - - bemro North American (from=20 - berti merko) - dzipo Antarctican (from=20 - cadzu cipni) - ketco South American (from=20 - Quechua) - friko African - polno Polynesian/Oceanic - ropno European - xazdo Asiatic - + + + + bemro + North American (from berti merko) + + + dzipo + Antarctican (from cadzu cipni) + + + ketco + South American (from Quechu= a) + + + friko + African + + + polno + Polynesian/Oceanic + + + ropno + European + + + xazdo + Asiatic + + A few smaller but historically important cultures: - - latmo Latin/Roman - srito Sanskrit - xebro Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish - xelso Greek (from=20 - Hellas) - + + + latmo + Latin/Roman + + + srito + Sanskrit + + + xebro + Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish + + + xelso + Greek (from Hellas)= + + cultural wordsrafsi fu'ivla proposal for rafsi fu'ivla Major world religions: - - budjo Buddhist - dadjo Taoist - muslo Islamic/Moslem - xriso Christian - + + + budjo + Buddhist + + + dadjo + Taoist + + + muslo + Islamic/Moslem + + + xriso + Christian + + fu'ivla= form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal CCVVCV fu'ivlaa= nd rafsi fu'ivla proposal A few terms that cover mu= ltiple groups of the above: - - jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) - semto Semitic - slovo Slavic - xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish) - + + + jegvo + Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem) + + + semto + Semitic + + + slovo + Slavic + + + xispo + Hispanic (New World Spanish) + +

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in=20 , is unavoidably controversi= al. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture=20 deserves a gismu or=20 must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this arg= ument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substanti= ally complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet= a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested= in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that = has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small chang= es. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo tha= t contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; = finally the general=20 zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, @@ -2861,31 +3214,31 @@ Chilean is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a= Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist i= f they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, bu= t does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2"/>

- tci'ile ke canre tutra + tci'ile ke canre tutra Chilean type-of (sand territory) Chilean desert =20

could be represented by the lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d3"/>

- tci'ilykemcantutra + tci'ilykemcantutra

which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo u= nder this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigne= d to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo= . The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called= =20 rafsi fu'ivla, since they are distinguished fro= m other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is= workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might becom= e standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals= , foodstuffs, and other things. =20

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