Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System

Introductory tenseexplanation of presentation method This ch= apter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojba= n. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form=20 =20 How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban? Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting = to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is= understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the rea= der should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being c= orrectly understood. =20 tenseLojban contrasted with native languages Th= e system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of= all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest on= e in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your nat= ive language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, = you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced = level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you = to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act s= imilarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intu= itive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be cre= atively and productively combined. temporal tenseLojban contrasted with English in necessity temporal tenseas mandatory in English temporal tensere= al relationship to time in English temporal tensehistorica= l definition What is=20 tense? Historically,=20 tense is the attribute of verbs in English and related = languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses a= re traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, a= nd the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English.= However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English te= nse and the time actually expressed: @@ -145,24 +145,24 @@ within

be'a =20 FAhA north of

(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 - .) + .) Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fa= miliar time tenses of=20 =20 - , asks the reader? Because the= model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than= for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 + , asks the reader? Beca= use the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for spa= ce than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 =20 =20 . temporal tense el= isioncompared with spatial tense elision in meaning tempor= al tensecompared with spatial tense in elidability spatial= tensecompared with temporal tense in elidability spatial = tenseas optional in English En= glish doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of w= ays in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no ne= ed to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the = optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space = and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically. =20 VA selma'o FAhA= selma'o spatial tensedistance distancespec= ification with VA VA selma'oand distance spatial tenseas an imaginary journey imaginary journeyand = spatial tense spatial tensedefinition Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it oc= curs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary jour= ney from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direc= tion taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For = example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/> @@ -212,21 +212,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/>

le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

As explained in=20 - , it would be perfectly correc= t to use=20 + , it would be perfectly= correct to use=20 ku to move this tense to the beginning or the e= nd of the sentence to emphasize it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/> zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. @@ -370,21 +370,21 @@ ba for the future. (Etymologically, these deriv= e from the corresponding gismu=20 purci,=20 cabna, and=20 balvi. See=20 for an explanation of the= exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more s= patial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relativ= e directions as well as=20 =20 direction-like relationships like=20 surrounding,=20 within,=20 touching, etc. (See=20 - for a complete list.) But there ar= e really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the futu= re and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU? + for a complete list.= ) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, t= oward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of s= elma'o PU? bu'u ca tenseas subjective perception bu'ucompared with ca= ca<= /primary>compared with bu'u carational for The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings pe= rceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objecti= ve measurements. We have a sense of=20 =20 now which includes part of the objective past and part = of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into thr= ee parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a se= parate time-direction cmavo for the=20 zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for th= e zero space direction:=20 bu'u, which means something like=20 =20 coinciding. tenseas observer-based relativity theoryrelation to Lo= jban tense system (Technical note for readers conve= rsant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen b= y the speaker, who is assumed to be a=20 =20 =20 @@ -3309,21 +3309,21 @@ naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former.

Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 and=20 - .) It is gramm= atical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a = sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distan= ce to be specified. Here is an example: + .) It is grammatical fo= r a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, wh= ich allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be = specified. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1"/>

la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [= nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thi= ng-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.

@@ -3357,21 +3357,21 @@ Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e26d1"/>

.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe fi le lojbo = temci selsku ciste

Summary of tense selma'o tense selma'osummary of FIXME: TAG SPOT PU temporal direction

pu diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 4d0b104..9dfc5ae 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1285,22 +1285,22 @@ This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 tu'a,=20 would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some sor= t of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in = English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does n= ot seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to = construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not the name= of some event.) JAI selma'o jai= abstr= actionssimplification to sumti with jai abstractionsmaking concrete Logically, a counter= part of some sort is needed to=20 tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a = concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than = one function, discussed in=20 - and=20 - ; for the purposes of th= is chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo o= f selma'o SE. This conversion changes + and=20 + ; for the purposes of this chapter, it = operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. T= his conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/>

tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death.

@@ -1330,21 +1330,21 @@ that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) the one who caused your death because=20 jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated= into the description - not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it= does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raise= d into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by = using the modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10"/>

le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death)

diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 2729222..23dd4c4 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -1057,37 +1057,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7"/>

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death.

explained in=20 - , to be rendered w= ith lujvo: + , to be = rendered with lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8"/>

mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.

In making a lujvo that contains=20 jax- for a selbri that contains= =20 jai, the rule is to leave the=20 fai place as a=20 fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate= in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 fai is explained in=20 - and .) + and .)

Implicit-abstraction lujvo =20 Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producin= g a class of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. =20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 8541211..45beecf 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</ti= tle> - <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-attitudinals-introduction"> <title>What are attitudinal indicators? =20 This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for= expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes a= re usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfec= tly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e1d1"/> John is coming. @@ -1439,21 +1439,21 @@ mi .e nai .ui do I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal=20 nai expresses a=20 scalar negation, a concept explained in=20 - ; since ev= ery attitudinal word implies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 + ; since every attitudinal w= ord implies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 nai on each should be obvious. attitudinalsgrammar of internal compounding attitudinalsinternal grammarcomplete Thu= s, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part= optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it o= bviously would affect meaning. attitudinal nai intensity-word nai modifier nai intensity-word @@ -2468,21 +2468,21 @@ li'o was not part of the original quotation. In= practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalingu= istic expressions, such as=20 =20 sei (of selma'o SEI) or=20 to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except = where confusion might result. sa'aeditorial insertion of text already containing sa'a editorial insertion= of text already containing sa'a In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more in= stances of=20 sa'a, they can be changed to=20 =20 sa'asa'a. xu<= /indexterm> questionswith "xu" truth questions yes/no questions The cmavo=20 xu marks truth questions, which are discussed i= n detail in=20 - . In general,=20 + . In general,=20 xu may be translated=20 Is it true that ... ? and questions whether the attache= d bridi is true. When=20 xu is attached to a specific word or construct,= it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct. pau= questionsmarking in advance Lojban question w= ords, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of = the question. Placing the cmavo=20 pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the liste= ner realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning = of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. = The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. =20 paunai questionsrhetorical rhetorical question pauplacement in= sentence Although=20 pau is grammatical in any location (like all in= dicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bri= di. Its scalar opposite,=20 =20 paunai, signals that a bridi is not really a qu= estion despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical quest= ion: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 @@ -2581,35 +2581,35 @@

mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. =20

Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a= name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in = fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other description= s of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the = cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 nai too often vital to interpretation of a prot= ocol signal, as explained later in this section. =20 do'u DOhU selma= 'o voc= ativesgrammar overview The gra= mmar of vocatives is explained in=20 - ; but in brief, a v= ocative may be followed by a name (without=20 + ; but in brief, a vocative = may be followed by a name (without=20 la), a description (without=20 le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or noth= ing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elid= able terminator,=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never re= quired unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vo= cative. =20 vocativesand definition of "you" youdefining= Using any vocative except=20 mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the m= eaning of the pro-sumti=20 do, as the whole point of vocatives is to speci= fy the listener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired = listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speaker and=20 listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the ap= propriate terms would be=20 writer and=20 @@ -3139,21 +3139,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d23"/>

.i la djordj. cliva George leaves. George left.

Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 , to create m= etalinguistic comments that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 43ee029..dd5a6c3 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System -

Logical connection and truth tables =20 truth functions logical= languagetruth functions Lojba= n is a logical language: the name of the language itself means=20 =20 logical language. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (t= here are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the n= otions of a=20 =20 sentence (sometimes called a=20 statement or=20 proposition), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a= small set of=20 truth functions, which combine two sentences to create = a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that th= e truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only= on the truth value of the component sentences. For example, @@ -297,21 +297,21 @@ logical connectiv= escmavoformat for each selma'o Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function=20 A is=20 a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with= =20 A, which is a truth function, = or=20 a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for= =20 E in selma'o GIhA is=20 gi'e, and the cmavo for=20 U in selma'o GA is=20 gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo = easier to learn. compound logical = connectivescomponents Obviousl= y, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in= =20 - . Therefore, compound cmavo mu= st be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one = cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also c= ontain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo=20 + . Therefore, compo= und cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: e= ach has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, an= d may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo=20 se,=20 na, or=20 nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logi= cal connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained = in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relate= s to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar. JA selma'o A se= lma'o = jekdefinition ekdefinition -ek<= secondary>in name for logical connectives compound logical connectivesnaming convention For convenience, each= of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated b= y a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final=20 -A of the selma'o name to=20 -ek; the reasons for using=20 -ek are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Projec= t. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those base= d on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventi= onal to use=20 eks as the plural of=20 =20 ek.) When the term=20 @@ -422,21 +422,21 @@ ifEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective ifmeaning in logical connections How's that aga= in? Are those two English sentences in=20 really equivalent? In Engli= sh, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed=20 A if B, but the=20 if does not quite have its English sense.=20 is true so long as John is = a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because Jame= s is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of=20 if-then is technically known as a=20 material conditional. Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in=20 - ), the English sentence=20 + ), the English sen= tence=20 John is a man if James is a woman seems to be neither t= rue nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out t= o be most convenient to treat this=20 if as TTFT, which on investigation means that=20 is true.=20 , however, is equally true:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d9"/>

la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu @@ -462,21 +462,21 @@ la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman.

se<= /indexterm> sein logical connective to exchange sentences = The following example illustrates the use of=20 se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. T= he normal use of=20 se is to (in effect) transpose places of a brid= i, as explained in=20 - . + . <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11"/>

la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.

se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 @@ -854,21 +854,21 @@ ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary). is not equivalent to=20 , but is instead a valid tra= nslation into Lojban, using forethought, of=20 .

Grouping of afterthought connectives BO selma'o bo boin logical connectives logical connectionw= ith boprecedence logical connectivesg= rouping with bo There are several ways in Lojban to= render=20 using afterthought only. Th= e simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several func= tions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short sc= ope. In particular, if=20 bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a gra= mmatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping = rule. Connections marked with=20 bo are interpreted before connections not so ma= rked.=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 : @@ -1433,21 +1433,21 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule = [nu'u]</jbo> <gloss>I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [jo= int] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 <jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> is used.</para> <para>The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-modal-connectives"/>, <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-explicit-magnitudes"/>, and - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"section-quantifier-grouping"/>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-tanru"> <title>Logical connection within tanru logical connectiv= es in tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical connec= tive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is pos= sible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru = that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a= blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is b= oth blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within t= he tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were always = prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Her= e is a pair of examples: @@ -1629,21 +1629,21 @@ mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu I see a man and woman. But=20 means that you see one thin= g which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A=20 nanmu je ninmu is a manwoman, a presumably non-= existent creature who is both a=20 nanmu and a=20 ninmu.

Truth questions and connective questions =20 So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lo= jban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are= questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of = these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in = other chapters. truth questionssimple The simplest kind of ques= tion is of the type=20 Is it true that ... where some statement follows. This = type is called a=20 truth question, and can be represented in English by=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d1"/> @@ -1903,21 +1903,21 @@ <quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 <quote>but</quote> is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sente= nce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive = cmavo=20 <jbophrase>ku'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-discursives"/>, to the l= ogical=20 <jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase>.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-non-logical-connectives"> <title>Non-logical connectives andas non-logical connective Way back in=20 - , the point was made that not = every use of English=20 + , the point was ma= de that not every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 =20 and of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d1"/> John and Alice carried the piano. @@ -2341,21 +2341,21 @@ mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci l= e karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u =20 I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the = quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the = dog. ) List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o list of things to doexample<= /indexterm> to-do listexample tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on listsuse of tu'e/tu'u in=20 represents a list of things= to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a= sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the = dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u as general brackets around the whole list.= This is related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 - , because there is no logical conn= ective between the introductory phrase=20 + , because= there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase=20 mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The brackets= effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 di'e, which means=20 =20 the following utterance, refers to. Similarly,=20 .ijoi is used to connect sentences that represe= nt the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equiva= lent of=20 Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned= would join the events=20 Fran hit her head and=20 Fran fell out of the boat with=20 .ijoi. @@ -3281,20 +3281,20 @@ Exchange constructs: Place=20 se before the connective cmavo.

Locations of other tables - : a table explaining the meani= ng of each truth function in English. + : a table explaini= ng the meaning of each truth function in English. : a table relating the truth fu= nctions to the four basic vowels. - : a table of the connective quest= ion cmavo. + : a table of= the connective question cmavo. =20 : a table of the me= anings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.

diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 5549a90..48d398d 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <quote>No</quote> Problems: On Lojban Negation -

Introductory The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Loj= ban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to co= me up with a complete definition of the word=20 not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means furth= er that meanings of=20 not with different grammatical effect must be different= words, and even different grammatical structures. Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language= ; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical con= nectives and other structures. =20 In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar,= we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called=20 subject and=20 predicate. In the statement @@ -1105,32 +1105,32 @@ coinai. However, this is not generally done. Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called proto= col situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversatio= ns, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protoco= l words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as= might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on= =20 =20 nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 je'enai (=20 I didn't get that). Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 =20 =20 nai, he or she can presume it is a negative ack= nowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 - provides mo= re detail on this topic. + provides more detail on th= is topic. The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai ni just as=20 punai je ca corresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logica= lly connected abstractors will be: see=20 = . A=20 nai attached to a non-logical connective (of se= lma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false u= nder the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-= logical connectives are discussed in=20 .

Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of= a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1"/>

@@ -1234,21 +1234,21 @@

He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 ke and=20 ke'e would have been essential if the selbri ha= d been a tanru.

Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresp= onding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the= positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion= . Assuming the same context as in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1"/>

xu na go'i Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?

or equivalently @@ -1475,21 +1475,21 @@ ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that somethi= ng is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 .) Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 le'a has meaning=20 of category/class/type X,=20 ci'u has meaning=20 =20 on scale X, and=20 ci'e, based on=20 ciste, can be used to talk about universes of d= iscourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 - .=20 + .=20 kai and=20 la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other qua= lity and quantity errors. =20 We have to make particular note of potential problems in the are= as of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the rel= ationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It = is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is = colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,=20 blanu (=20 blue) is not explicitly defined as a=20 skari (=20 color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite= of=20 good is=20 bad. @@ -1504,21 +1504,21 @@ for explanat= ions of these usages. In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors hav= e been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References = to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma= 'o GOhA.=20 na'i at the beginning of a statement merely say= s that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.= =20 In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression. =20 Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 =20 xu question (see=20 - ).=20 + ).=20 na'i will be used when something about the ques= tioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 Have you stopped beating your wife?: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15"/> xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-= spouse? diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 1eeaa47..22bde67 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> - <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-quantifiers-introduction"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? nobody<= secondary>interpretation of The following brief dia= logue is from Chapter 7 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by L= ewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1"/> Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, holdi= ng out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. @@ -490,21 +490,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6"/>

ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-do= g.

using the conversion operator=20 se (explained in=20 - ) to change= the selbri=20 + ) to change the selbri=20 batci (=20 bites) into=20 se batci (=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the corresponding stra= tegy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained= =20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 =20 =20 se; one must be careful to preserve the order o= f the variables. poi= ro poi<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables ro<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables logical varia= bleswith poiin multiple appearan= ces l= ogical variableswith roin multip= le appearances If a variable occurs more than once, = then any=20 @@ -664,21 +664,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d8"/>

re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.

order of variable= sin moving to prenex Note that= when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached= relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same ord= er in the prenex as in the bridi proper.

Grouping of quantifiers distribution of q= uantified sumti indefinite sumtimultiple in sentence Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expre= ssions neither of which is=20 ro or=20 su'o (remembering that=20 su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier i= s given): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1"/>

@@ -1793,36 +1793,36 @@ subscriptsuse with logical variables logical variables= creating more by subscripting If the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di (or the selbri variables=20 =20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 =20 bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a= particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of th= em. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo= counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full = in=20 =20 - , but in gener= al consist of the cmavo=20 + , but in general consist= of the cmavo=20 xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or= more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expres= sion enclosed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2"/>

ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them.

The=20 pa da in=20 does not specify the number= of things to which=20 da refers, as the preceding=20 ci da does. Instead, it selects one of them for= use in this sumti only. The number of referents of=20 da remains three, but a single one (there is no= way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.

Conclusion logic and Lojban<= /primary>more aspects This chapter is in= complete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully underst= and nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban = realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logi= c speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someo= ne who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope = to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication,= those that are not). =20

diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 9f681a7..a2a48e0 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses -

What's a letteral, anyway? letter<= secondary>alphabet letteraldefinition BrownJames Cookeand "letteral" James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the wo= rd=20 =20 letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 z. A typical example of its use might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1"/> @@ -384,21 +384,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <jbophrase>slaka</jbophrase> are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">denpabu</jbophrase> would be a fu'ivla (= word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">denPAbu</jbophrase>. No pause is require= d between=20 <jbophrase>denpa</jbophrase> (or=20 <jbophrase>slaka</jbophrase>) and=20 <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>, though.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-alien-alphabets"> <title>Alien alphabets As stated in=20 - , Lojban's goal of cultural ne= utrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many oth= er writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (p= articularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard= Lojbanic way to pronounce them. + , Lojban's goal of c= ultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of a= s many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in writt= en text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need = a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 s and then into a Lojban lerf= u word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 09adbb2..2a22526 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban -

Introductory lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: mekso goalfor mathematical writing meksodesign goa= ls representing all the different forms of expressi= on used by mathematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reade= r can unambiguously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effo= rt and expect a listener to understand it; mekso goalfor common use mekso goalexpandable providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical = terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the= full resources of Lojban; @@ -32,21 +32,21 @@ mathematical nota= tionand omitted operators cont= ains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpr= etations for the strings=20 =20 3x and=20 2y than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the = Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 =20 must not omit the multiplic= ation operators. =20 mekso chaptercompleteness mekso chaptertable notation = convention The remainder of this chapter explains (= in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter = is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive a= bout uses of those components - as of now, there has been no really compreh= ensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test o= f usage to be fully clarified.

Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pa PA 1

re @@ -2074,21 +2074,21 @@ xo =20 PA number question

xo<= /indexterm> number questions= quest= ionsnumber The cmavo=20 xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask ques= tions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills = the blank where the answer should go. (See=20 =20 - for more on Lo= jban questions.) + for more on Lojban q= uestions.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1"/> li re su'i re du li xo =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what? What is 2 + 2? @@ -2114,21 +2114,21 @@ li remu pi'i xa du li paxono The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 number questions<= /primary>answers to numbersas grammatically com= plete utterances to which the correct reply would b= e=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as = grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for c= ounting off physical objects one by one.) =20

Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

subscriptsexternal grammar of Subscripting is a= general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that= can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modi= fier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (le= rfu strings) can be subscripted: @@ -2184,21 +2184,21 @@

xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo

x b 4

See=20 for the standard method of = specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 - . + .

Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o =20 PA null operand diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 1d560dd..20b7d25 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts</= title> - <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-structure-introduction"> <title>Introductory This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo = that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragra= phs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are foun= d in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described= are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents. This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).

Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.i @@ -55,21 +55,21 @@ tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a sing= le unit. A common use of=20 tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which c= ompose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from i= t by=20 .i. Another use might be a set of directions, w= here each numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences= separated by=20 .i. Grouping with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 ke and=20 ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-l= ogical connectives (see=20 - ). + ).

Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o NIhO new topic @@ -112,21 +112,21 @@ for a discussion of indi= cator scope.) =20 paragraph separat= ionspoken text Arabian Nights In spo= ken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by = one, with=20 ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient = to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book,= or in stories within stories such as=20 =20 The Arabian Nights, further levels may be expressed by = extending the=20 =20 ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text= will begin with the number of=20 ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale d= ivision which the text contains.=20 ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each c= ontext of discourse: see=20 - . + . NIhO selma'o<= /primary> no= 'i pre= vious topic=20 no'i is similar in effect to=20 ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previou= s topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English= discursive phrases as=20 =20 But getting back to the point .... By default, the topi= c resumed is that in effect before the last=20 ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, = then=20 no'i would resume the previous subtopic and=20 =20 no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that=20 =20 @@ -300,21 +300,21 @@ namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 =20 =20 are inherently vague, and t= his difference between=20 ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) a= nd=20 djica is ignored. See=20 for another topic/comment s= entence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subject in the English sense.

Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

xu UI truth question

ma @@ -393,21 +393,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1"/>

xu do klama le zarci [True or false?] You go to the store Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?

(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation mi= ght be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in=20 - . + . questionsfill-in-the-blank Fill-in-the-blank qu= estions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not k= nown to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a va= riety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds= of blanks. KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ma= quest= ionssumti Where a sumti is not= known, a question may be formed with=20 ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-su= mti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d2"/>

ma klama le zarci [What sumti?] goes-to the store @@ -535,21 +535,21 @@ ji of A,=20 ge'i of GA,=20 =20 gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, o= r ijoik as an answer) - see=20 =20 =20 - ; attitudes (= using=20 + ; attitudes = (using=20 pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an a= nswer) - see=20 ; place structures (using=20 fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an a= nswer) - see=20 =20 ; tenses and modals = (using=20 cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cm= avo as an answer) - see=20 and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. = See=20 @@ -605,21 +605,21 @@ ) nai (to vaguely negate something or other= , see=20 ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.

Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

XI selma'o xi subscri= pting The cmavo=20 @@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ la'edi'u cu nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going = by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car. SE selma'o se FA selm= a'oafter 5th place SE selma'oafter 5t= h place subscriptsand sumti re-ordering=20 shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the eve= nt itself. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 - requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ()= : + requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5"/>

le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'ed= i'u =20 The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.

diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 6ee099b..a9d20e2 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -705,29 +705,29 @@ =20 The cmavo=20 ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different t= opics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of= the text may be indicated by multiple=20 ni'o s, with perhaps=20 ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,=20 ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single=20 ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a = single English paragraph. The cmavo=20 .i separates sentences. It is sometimes compoun= ded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentenc= e in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 xu, discussed in=20 - , is one such word - it turns the= sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one p= erson is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 + , is one such word - it tur= ns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than= one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 .i even though she/he may be continuing on the = same topic. It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 .i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged = for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might mer= ely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good t= ranslation for=20 .i is the=20 and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....

tanru tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 tanru. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1"/> sutra tavla @@ -1426,24 +1426,24 @@ ko kurji Take care!example both mean=20 You take care of you and=20 Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 Take care of yourself.

Questions questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 - and in various= other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce thr= ee kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. + and in various other= chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kin= ds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. =20 =20 ma<= secondary>quick-tour version sumti questionsquick-tour ver= sion questionsquick-tour version T= he cmavo=20 ma is used to create a sumti question: it indic= ates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at th= e location of the=20 ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated= as=20 Who? or=20 What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 When?,=20 Where?, and=20 Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: @@ -1567,21 +1567,21 @@ mi cu tavla I talk. speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 mo requires some cooperation between the speake= r and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. I= f context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask t= he question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a t= anru (see=20 - ). + ). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 Yes or=20 No, such as <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index ce3ffec..0897eb9 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -169,43 +169,43 @@ Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: = "broda", "brode", "brodi", "brodo", or "brodu", for later use. ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. selma'o CEhE (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) =20 Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses. mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. selma'o CO () =20 When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so = that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one. mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). I try to go to the market from the house. selma'o COI (=20 - ,=20 - ) + ,=20 + ) =20 When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 . See=20 . coi .djan. Greetings, John. @@ -232,33 +232,33 @@ When are you going to the store? selma'o DAhO () =20 Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o= =20 ) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o=20 ). - selma'o DOI () + selma'o DOI () =20 The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 . No pause is required between "doi" and a foll= owing name. See=20 . doi frank. mi tavla do O Frank, I speak-to you. Frank, I'm talking to you. - selma'o DOhU () + selma'o DOhU () =20 Elidable terminator for=20 or=20 . Signals the end of a vocative. coi do'u Greetings [terminator] Greetings, O unspecified one! @@ -387,21 +387,21 @@ =20 Specifies whether an interval specified by=20 includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in p= airs before and after the=20 cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left= - and the right-hand endpoints. mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfu= rt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. - selma'o GEhU () + selma'o GEhU () =20 Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a relative phrase. See=20 . la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. @@ -419,21 +419,21 @@ selma'o GIhA () =20 Specifies a logical connective (e.g. "and", "or", "if") between = two bridi-tails: a bridi-tail is a selbri with any associated following sum= ti, but not including any preceding sumti. mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. I go-to the market and like John. - selma'o GOI () + selma'o GOI () =20 Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a= subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by= =20 See=20 . la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu John (referred to as it-1) is blue. @@ -470,21 +470,21 @@ selma'o JA () =20 Specifies a logical connection (e.g. "and", "or", "if") between = two tanru units, mathematical operands, tenses, or abstractions. ti blanu je zdani This is-blue and a-house. - selma'o JAI () + selma'o JAI () =20 When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator= attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place o= f the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place = of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of= the abstracted-over bridi. mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. I act so as to modify the wall color. I change the color of the wall. @@ -551,32 +551,32 @@ That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. selma'o KI () =20 When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it "sticky", so that it= applies to all further bridi until reset by another appearance of=20 . When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses. - selma'o KOhA () + selma'o KOhA () =20 A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute = for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups. le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-th= an this-thing. selma'o KU (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) =20 Elidable terminator for=20 and some uses of=20 . Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also= used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the = compound=20 +=20 to indicate natural language-style negation. le prenu ku le zdani ku klama The person, to-the house, goes. @@ -724,21 +724,21 @@ +=20 . Indicates the end of a qualified sumti. mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] I saw "Big Dog" [not the words, but a book or movie]. selma'o MAI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) =20 When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text. pamai mi pu klama le zarci 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. First, I went to the market. selma'o MAhO (=20 @@ -749,21 +749,21 @@ . See=20 . ma'o fy. boi xy. [operator] f x f(x) selma'o ME (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) =20 Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the t= hings referenced by the sumti. Terminated by=20 . ta me la ford. karce That is-a-Ford-type car That's a Ford car. @@ -905,42 +905,42 @@ =20 Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 . li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 selma'o NUhI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) =20 Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultan= eous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated = by=20 . mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house = from-the school. selma'o NUhU () =20 Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a termset. mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house = from-the school. selma'o PA (=20 - ) + ) =20 Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminat= ed by=20 . mi speni re ninmu I am-married-to two women. selma'o PEhE () @@ -1003,21 +1003,21 @@ selma'o SA () =20 Erases the previous phrase or sentence. mi klama sa do klama le zarci I go, er, you go-to the market. selma'o SE (=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 ) =20 Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging= the x1 place with a specified numbered place. le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by me. =20 Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo. @@ -1137,21 +1137,21 @@ Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old = [is best]. selma'o TUhU () =20 Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.<= /para> - selma'o UI () + selma'o UI () =20 Particles which indicate the speaker's emotional state or source= of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse. .ui la djan. klama [Happiness!] John is-coming. Hurrah! John is coming! selma'o VA () @@ -1187,21 +1187,21 @@ the-number n-power-two plus two-times-"n" plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n 2 + 2n + 1 selma'o VEhA () =20 A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short). - selma'o VEhO () + selma'o VEhO () =20 Elidable terminator for=20 : right mathematical parenthesis. li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa The-number ("n" plus one) times ("n" plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-"n" plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n @@ -1235,21 +1235,21 @@ =20 Mathematical operators (e.g. +, -). See=20 . li mu vu'u re du li ci The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3. 5 - 2 =3D 3 selma'o XI (=20 - ) + ) =20 The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a = subscript for whatever precedes it. xy. xi re x sub 2 x 2 diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 0c4999c..4aa7257 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology =20 -

Introductory , word formsin Lojban (see also= morphology) = morphologydefinition = morphologysimplicity of Morphology is the part of grammar = that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple com= pared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form dep= ending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such change= s compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 =20 boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. =20 @@ -194,21 +194,21 @@ li =20 exhibits=20 ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 li ci, a number. Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 ,=20 , and=20 respectively, so this chapter on= ly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 through=20 - for these summaries. + for these summaries.

The three basic description types descriptionstypes of The following cmavo are di= scussed in this section:

le LE the, the one(s) described as @@ -1466,21 +1466,21 @@

The syntax of vocative phrases vocative phrases<= /primary>as a free modifier Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter becaus= e their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative = phrase is one of the so-called=20 =20 free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 =20 . They can be placed after many, = but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t= erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and= ends of sentences, and in many other places. DOI selma'o COI= selma'o vocative phrasepurpose of T= he purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or t= o indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative = phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explaine= d in more detail in=20 =20 - . Sometimes = that is all there is to the phrase: + . Sometimes that is all the= re is to the phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1"/>

coi [greetings] Hello.

@@ -2038,21 +2038,21 @@ mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot I say=20 I'm John. quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o (at least one), because quotations are ana= logous to=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which act= ually are words or sequences of words.

Number summary number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Loj= ban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple n= umber up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operato= rs, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/>

li vo diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 03a35d0..2911024 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi -

What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? pronouns in Engli= shas noun abbreviations Speake= rs of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbre= viation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a comple= te description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. I= n English, we have words called=20 pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1"/> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require = mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a = thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express = a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would b= e too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. @@ -102,21 +102,21 @@ do mi foreman of a juryexample personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener(s) pro-sumtifor speaker(s)= pro= -sumtimi-series mi-seriesof pro-sumti= The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, t= he listener, and others in various combinations.=20 mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for= whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither= =20 mi nor=20 do is specific about the number of persons refe= rred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the= jury as=20 =20 mi, since in speaking officially he represents = all of them. COI selma'o mi'= e COI = selma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect o= n referent of "mi" The referents of=20 mi and=20 do are usually obvious from the context, but ma= y be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 - . The vocati= ve=20 + . The vocative=20 mi'e assigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign= =20 do. <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/>

mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u @@ -224,21 +224,21 @@ mi viska le prenu poi prami ko I see the person that loves you [imperative] Make=20 I see the person that loves you true! Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! Show me the person who loves you!

mi-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= As mentioned in=20 - , some pro-sumti series have c= orresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-se= ries among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship. + , some pro-sum= ti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equival= ent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.<= /para>

Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ti KOhA ti-series this here, a nearby object @@ -678,21 +678,21 @@

la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue= .

ge'u in other words,=20 goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always = elidable. The details are in=20 - .= + . goi assignment of= ko'a-series pro-sumtiuse in speech contrasted with wr= iting The afterthought form of=20 goi shown in=20 and=20 is probably most common in = speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we w= ill want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice i= s first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 goi is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> @@ -957,21 +957,21 @@ John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. Here the second=20 ri has as antecedent the first=20 ri, which has as antecedent=20 le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a = tree. To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained= in=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5"/>

lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pil= no riximu A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice use= s [repeat fifth-from-last].

Here=20 @@ -1569,40 +1569,40 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6"/>

mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that I run to this from that and vice versa.

sumti and bridi questions:=20 =20 <jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>mo</jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma KOhA sumti question

mo GOhA bridi question

ma<= /indexterm> questionssumti maas sumti question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 - , but=20 + , but=20 ma and=20 mo are listed in this chapter for completeness.= The cmavo=20 ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/>

do klama ma You go to-what-destination? diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 4f36181..798d4c9 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -1275,24 +1275,24 @@ la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. =20

Relative clauses in vocative phrases DOI selma'o COI= selma'o Vocative phrases are explained in more detai= l in=20 - . Briefly, they are= a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of ide= ntifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginnin= g with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 + . Briefly, they are a metho= d of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying= the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with c= mavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1"/>

coi. frank. Hello, Frank.

@@ -1420,21 +1420,21 @@ is more verbose than=20 , but may be clearer, sinc= e it explicitly spells out the two=20 ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assign= s them to the assignable cmavo=20 ko'a and=20 ko'e (explained in Chapter=20 )= .

Index of relative clause cmavo relative clauses<= /primary>list of cmavo for Relative clau= se introducers (selma'o NOI):

noi incidental clauses

poi restrictive clauses diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index e908b1c..66294ca 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals -

Introductory relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Loj= ban grammatical form called a=20 selbri. sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. goexample = x1in place structure notation place structurenotation conventions klamaplace structure= of The stock example of a place structure is that = of the gismu=20 klama: @@ -435,21 +435,21 @@ fa if the listener is the giver,=20 fi if he/she is the receiver. fi'aeffect on subsequent untagged sumti I have = inserted the tag=20 fe in brackets into=20 , but it is actually not nec= essary, because=20 fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore= ,=20 =20 le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 plac= e even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. There is also another member of FA, namely=20 fai, which is discussed in=20 - . + .

Conversion: SE The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

se SE 2nd place conversion @@ -610,37 +610,37 @@

mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing

The place structure of=20 blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of= =20 zdani, by the rule given in=20 - . The place structure of=20 + . The place struct= ure of=20 zdani is:

zdani: x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2

The place structure of=20 se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore:

x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2

Consequently,=20 means:

I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.

Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 - . + . multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 an= d x2 place of=20 =20 te klama, producing: se te FIXME: TAG SPOT

x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using = x5 =20

On the other hand,=20 @@ -1422,21 +1422,21 @@ bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the = ice [end]. means the same thing as=20 . Note: Either BAI modals or=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used i= n any of the constructions discussed in this section.

Modal relative phrases; Comparison The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe GOI restrictive relative phrase

ne @@ -1776,21 +1776,21 @@ ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more than one = sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 .ijeseri'abo to=20 .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 tu'e ... tu'u portion was an effect, but would = not pin down the=20 mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is l= egal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 ) to modify the whole of a=20 tu'e ... tu'u construct. fi'omixed modal connection with Note: The uses = of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and t= o=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

Modal conversion: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai JAI modal conversion =20

@@ -1837,21 +1837,21 @@ fai behaves like=20 fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the o= ther places around it. =20 modal conversions= in descriptions Like SE conver= sions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may re= fer to=20 the language of an expression as=20 le jai bau cusku, for example. modal conversion<= /primary>with no modal specified jai without modalmeaning In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 jai without a following modal. This usage is no= t related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of= =20 jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which sh= ould be an abstraction, into the=20 fai position, and to raise one of the sumti fro= m the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature = is discussed in more detail in=20 - . The following tw= o examples mean the same thing: + . The fo= llowing two examples mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/>

le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.

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