<anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/>

Pure emotion indicators Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, no= t of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no t= ruth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that the= y modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they= reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking a= bout; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinki= ng about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thi= nking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist. =20 Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The= =20 pure emotion indicators express the way the speaker is = feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators co= mprise the attitudinals which begin with=20 - u or=20 - o and many of those beginning= with=20 - i. + u or=20 + o and many of those beginning with=20 + i. The cmavo beginning with=20 - u are simple emotions, which = represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceiv= ed to be. + u are simple emotions, which represent the speake= r's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be.

.ua

discovery

confusion

.u'a

gain

loss @@ -182,21 +182,21 @@ cruelty

.u'u

repentance

lack of regret innocence

Here are some typical uses of the=20 - u attitudinals: + u attitudinals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d1"/>

.ua mi facki fi le mi mapku [Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the = hat]

@@ -242,31 +242,31 @@

.u'u do cortu =20 [Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels = guilty]

In=20 , note that the attitudinal= =20 - .uo is translated by an Engl= ish non-attitudinal phrase:=20 + .uo is translated by an English non-attitudinal= phrase:=20 =20 At last! It is common for the English equivalents of Lo= jban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less norma= l grammar, but actually expressions of emotion. In particular, both=20 - .uu and=20 - .u'u can be translated into = English as=20 + .uu and=20 + .u'u can be translated into English as=20 =20 I'm sorry; the difference between these two attitudes f= requently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, lead= ing to responses like=20 Why are you sorry? It's not your fault! It is important to realize that=20 - .uu, and indeed all attitudi= nals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the excla= mation=20 + .uu, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to = be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation=20 Pity! is just as likely to be ironically intended, but = this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally)= as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps w= orse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than m= isunderstood statements. The following examples display the effects of=20 nai and=20 cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d7"/>

@@ -294,23 +294,23 @@

In=20 , John's coming has been ant= icipated by the speaker. In=20 =20 and=20 , no such anticipation has b= een made, but in=20 the lack-of-anticipation go= es no further =E2=80=93 in=20 , it amounts to actual surpr= ise. It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words = beginning with=20 - o or=20 - i from those beginning with= =20 - u, but in general they repres= ent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions. + o or=20 + i from those beginning with=20 + u, but in general they represent more complex, mo= re ambivalent, or more difficult emotions. .o'a

pride

modesty

shame

=20 .o'e closeness @@ -346,21 +346,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d10"/>

.oi la djan. klama [Complaint!] John is coming.

Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming= . The word=20 - .oi is derived from the Yidd= ish word=20 + .oi is derived from the Yiddish word=20 oy of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yidd= ish origin. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d11"/> .o'onai la djan. klama =20 [Anger!] John is coming! @@ -394,26 +394,26 @@ .o'u la djan. klama =20 [Phew!] John is coming. In=20 and=20 , John's arrival is no probl= em: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the si= tuation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some = kind. The pure emotion indicators beginning with=20 - i are those which could not b= e fitted into the=20 - u or=20 - o groups because there was a = lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.=20 - .ia,=20 + i are those which could not be fitted into the=20 + u or=20 + o groups because there was a lack of room, so the= y are a mixed lot.=20 + .ia,=20 .i'a,=20 - .ie, and=20 + .ie, and=20 .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in=20 =20 instead.

.ii

fear

nervousness

security

=20 @@ -501,41 +501,41 @@ hypothetical worl= d inte= rnal world propositionalof attitudinals indicatorsplacement of As mentioned at the beginning o= f=20 , attitudinals may be divided= into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, an= d a contrasting group which may be called the=20 propositional attitude indicators. These indicators est= ablish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, di= stinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitu= de towards=20 =20 =20 what the world would be like if ..., or more directly s= tating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality. attitudinalspropositional effect on claim attitudinals= propositional contrasted with emotional attitudinalsemotio= nal contrasted with propositional In general, the b= ridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like=20 I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The em= otion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically in= dependent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like=20 I intend to go to the market, where the main claim is l= ogically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually= going to the market, but merely that I intend to. attitudinalsi- series attitudinalse- series attitudinalsa- series There is no sharp dist= inction between attitudinals beginning with=20 - a and those beginning with=20 - e; however, the original inte= nt (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into t= oo little space) was to make the members of the=20 - a-series the purer, more atti= tudinal realizers of a potential world, while the members of the=20 - e-series were more ambivalent= or complex about the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. T= he relationship between the=20 - a-series and the=20 - e-series is similar to that b= etween the=20 - u-series and the=20 - o-series, respectively. A few= propositional attitude indicators overflowed into the=20 - i-series as well. + a and those beginning with=20 + e; however, the original intent (not entirely rea= lized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was= to make the members of the=20 + a-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of= a potential world, while the members of the=20 + e-series were more ambivalent or complex about th= e speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship betw= een the=20 + a-series and the=20 + e-series is similar to that between the=20 + u-series and the=20 + o-series, respectively. A few propositional attit= ude indicators overflowed into the=20 + i-series as well. attitudinalslogical language and attitudinalspropositi= onal/emotional caveat attitudinalsemotional/propositional = caveat In fact, the entire distinction between pure= emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:=20 =20 .u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude in= dicator meaning=20 =20 I regret that ..., and=20 .a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure em= otion meaning=20 I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into = pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly b= y way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific= points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the=20 logical language aspect. =20 =20 Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by= initial letter, starting with those beginning with=20 - a: + a: .a'a

attentive

inattentive

avoiding

=20 =20 .a'e @@ -649,24 +649,24 @@ =20 [no interest] you complain I have no interest in your complaints. .a'ucu'i .au .a'o= .= a'i .ai .a'enai .a'a (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.= 1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly= including=20 .oicai, but probably also=20 .iucai.) attitudinalsrationale for attitudinalscontrasted with = bridi Splitting off the attitude into an indicator = allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relat= ionships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whateve= r. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri wou= ld make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 - e, which stand roughly in the= relation to those beginning with=20 - a as the pure-emotion indicat= ors beginning with=20 - o do to those beginning with= =20 - u- they are more complex or d= ifficult: + e, which stand roughly in the relation to those b= eginning with=20 + a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with= =20 + o do to those beginning with=20 + u- they are more complex or difficult:

.e'a

permission

prohibition

.e'e

competence

incompetence @@ -743,21 +743,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d12"/>

.e'u do klama le panka [suggestion] You go to-the park. I suggest going to the park.

.e'u .e'o .ei .e'e<= /primary> .e= 'a Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beg= inning with=20 - i, which are the overflow fro= m the other sets: + i, which are the overflow from the other sets:

.ia

belief

skepticism

disbelief

.i'a acceptance @@ -842,22 +842,22 @@

Attitudes as scales attitudinalsneutral attitudinalsnegative attitudinalspositive attitudinalsscale of<= /indexterm> In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales = run from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 positive and=20 negative are put into quotation marks because they are = loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects = this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the=20 positive words, namely=20 - .ii (fear) and=20 - .oi (pain/complaint), repres= ent emotions commonly thought of as less=20 + .ii (fear) and=20 + .oi (pain/complaint), represent emotions common= ly thought of as less=20 virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts= . But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful em= otions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, whil= e their counterparts are less commonly expressed. attitudinal scale= srationale for assignment (Why= the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be d= ifficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we = give the monosyllable=20 nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a n= ovice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indica= tor, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 random orientation, which would have unknown biases and= be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sc= ale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be bias= ed in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) CAI selma'o nai= cai naisai nairu'e cu'i ru'e sai cai attitudinal scaleseven-position emotion= al scale In fact, though, each emotional scale has se= ven positions defined, three=20 =20 positive ones (shown below on the left), three=20 negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral= one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The foll= owing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated c= mavo. All of these cmavo, except=20 nai, are in selma'o CAI. @@ -1159,21 +1159,21 @@ self-orientation<= /primary>example attitudinal modifiers It turn= ed out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recogn= ized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on= scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate e= motions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in cont= ext. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, oth= ers go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try t= o use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in=20 and=20 , and see what emoti= onal pictures you can build: =20 ga'inai ga'i condesce= nsionexample deferenceexample inferiorexample The cmavo=20 ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate conde= scension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 - .io. Whatever it is attached= to is marked as being below (for=20 + .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as be= ing below (for=20 ga'i) or above (for=20 =20 ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position.= Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is s= o marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the se= ntence, as with=20 =20 doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a stateme= nt addressed to a social superior. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1"/> @@ -1250,21 +1250,21 @@ =20 sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the othe= r hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings =E2=80=93 what we call ri= ghteous indignation might be=20 =20 =20 =20 o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lac= k of guilt:=20 .u'unai. se'i The cmavo=20 se'i expresses the difference between selfishne= ss and generosity, for example (in combination with=20 =20 - .au): + .au): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5"/>

.ause'i [desire] [self] I want it!

@@ -1406,21 +1406,21 @@ =20 unspecified level= of emotion unstated emotion For example,=20 .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the = scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or wit= h something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intens= ity. But=20 .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspeci= fied level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a wea= k level. A rough English equivalent of=20 =20 .ie ge'eru'e might be=20 I agree, but ... where the=20 but is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always ex= pressed in English by English attitudinals.) attitudinal indic= atorsplacement of scale in A s= cale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the sca= le word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can hav= e its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expre= ssible. For example,=20 .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling midway b= etween pain (=20 - .oi) and pleasure (=20 + .oi) and pleasure (=20 .oinai) which is intensely sexual (=20 ro'u) in nature. =20 attitudinalsplacement in sentences with "nai" attitudinal indicat= orsplacement of "nai" in The cmavo=20 nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the l= anguage: it always negates exactly one word =E2=80=93 the preceding one. Of= all the words used in indicator constructs,=20 nai is the only one with any meaning outside th= e indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator = cmavo and its=20 nai negator, the=20 nai will end up negating the last word of the i= ndicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example= , @@ -2510,21 +2510,21 @@ =20 <jbophrase>blanu</jbophrase> in=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-rXiR"/> could mean=20 <quote>sad</quote> (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'anai</prim= ary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>literally</= primary></indexterm> The negated form,=20 <jbophrase>pe'anai</jbophrase>, indicates that what has been said is t= o be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language i= ntuition is to be ignored.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>heartburn</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-im= ported"><primary>culturally dependent lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexte= rm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary><secondary>= place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-importe= d"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gene= ral-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>place structure of figurat= ive lujvo</secondary></indexterm> Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,=20 <jbophrase>pe'a</jbophrase> has a rafsi, namely=20 =20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">pev</jbophrase>. This rafsi is used in formi= ng figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have= nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus=20 + <rafsi>pev</rafsi>. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (cultural= ly dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the= place structure of the components. Thus=20 <jbophrase>risnyjelca</jbophrase> (heart burn) might have a place stru= cture like:</para> <place-structure> x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4 </place-structure> <para>whereas=20 <jbophrase>pevrisnyjelca</jbophrase>, explicitly marked as figurative,= might have the place structure:</para> <place-structure> x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2 =20 </place-structure> @@ -2793,24 +2793,24 @@ </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>vi'o</cmavo> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"sai">will comply</attitudinal-scale> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"nai">will not comply</attitudinal-scal= e> <description role=3D"long"> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>vi'o</primary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>vi'o</primary><= secondary>contrasted with je'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>je'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with vi'o</s= econdary></indexterm>=20 <quote>Wilco, X</quote>,=20 <quote>I understand and will comply</quote>. Similar to=20 <jbophrase>je'e</jbophrase> but signals an intention (similar to= =20 - <jbophrase role=3D"diphthong">.ai</jbophrase>) to comply with th= e other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 + <diphthong>.ai</diphthong>) to comply with the other speaker's r= equest. This cmavo is the main way of saying=20 <quote>OK</quote> in Lojban, in the usual sense of=20 <quote>Agreed!</quote>, although=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"diphthong">.ie</jbophrase> carries some of th= e same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received b= ut that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is=20 + <diphthong>.ie</diphthong> carries some of the same meaning. The= negative form indicates that the message was received but that you will no= t comply: a very colloquial version is=20 <quote>No way!</quote>. </description> </cmavo-entry> <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>ke'o</cmavo> <gismu>[krefu]</gismu> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"sai">please repeat</attitudinal-scale> <attitudinal-scale point=3D"nai">no repeat needed</attitudinal-sca= le> <description role=3D"long"> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'o</primary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ki'a</primary><= secondary>compared to ke'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gene= ral-imported"><primary>ke'o</primary><secondary>compared to ki'a</secondary= ></indexterm>=20 diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 8693c6f..82e78ee 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -326,21 +326,21 @@ <para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We= must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sente= nces. The event-clause version would look like:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-NILi"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d18"/>

The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) w= as aided by my uncle the Senator.

It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negat= ions into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi=20 - -nar- has been reserved for=20 + -nar- has been reserved for=20 na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure= that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negat= ion described in=20 , which will be much more c= ommon in tanru and lujvo.

Scalar Negation Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, w= hen we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e3d1"/> @@ -678,45 +678,45 @@ na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Inter= nal binding of tanru, with=20 bo, is not as tightly bound as=20 na'e.=20 co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope th= at is longer than all other tanru constructs. =20 In short,=20 na'e and=20 na'eke define a type of negation, which is shor= ter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri= . The result of=20 na'e negation remains an assertion of some spec= ific truth and not merely a denial of another claim. The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafs= i=20 - -nal-, representing=20 + -nal-, representing=20 na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, fo= rms an exact parallel to the English usage of=20 non-. Turning a series of related negations int= o lujvo gives: - '<= para>.y'y. + '.y'y= . - a<= para>.abu + a.abu= - b<= para>by. + bby.<= /jbophrase> - c<= para>cy. + ccy.<= /jbophrase> - d<= para>dy. + ddy.<= /jbophrase> - e<= para>.ebu + e.ebu= - f<= para>fy. + ffy.<= /jbophrase> - g<= para>gy. + ggy.<= /jbophrase> - i<= para>.ibu + i.ibu= - j<= para>jy. + jjy.<= /jbophrase> - k<= para>ky. + kky.<= /jbophrase> - l<= para>ly. + lly.<= /jbophrase> - m<= para>my. + mmy.<= /jbophrase> - n<= para>ny. + nny.<= /jbophrase> - o<= para>.obu + o.obu= - p<= para>py. + ppy.<= /jbophrase> - r<= para>ry. + rry.<= /jbophrase> - s<= para>sy. + ssy.<= /jbophrase> - t<= para>ty. + tty.<= /jbophrase> - u<= para>.ubu + u.ubu= - v<= para>vy. + vvy.<= /jbophrase> - x<= para>xy. + xxy.<= /jbophrase> - y<= para>.ybu + y.ybu= - z<= para>zy. + zzy.<= /jbophrase> BU selma'o bu bueffect on preceding word lerfu wordscompos= ed of compound cmavo lerfu wordscomposed of single cmavo lerfu= wordsvowel words contrasted with consonant words lerfu wo= rdsconsonant words contrasted with vowel words lerfu words= for vowelspause requirement before There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerf= u words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 - ' lerfu words are two syllabl= es and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Anoth= er fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 + ' lerfu words are two syllables and must be prece= ded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident= from the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 by and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY,= as is=20 .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand,= are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All = of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sent= ence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when= =20 bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1"/>

@@ -189,21 +189,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.

lerfu wordseffect of systematic formulation spelling out wordsLojban contrasted with English in usefulness Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reas= ons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how= a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the En= glish ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words=20 fail and=20 vale sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu wo= rd of either, namely=20 eff or=20 vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them =E2= =80=93 and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vail nor=20 fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the = spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling = out words does exist in Lojban. =20 lerfu words endin= g with "y"pause afterr= ationale Note that the lerfu words ending in=20 - y were written (in=20 + y were written (in=20 and=20 ) with pauses after them. It= is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to = do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3"/>

mi cy. claxu I lerfu-=20 c without @@ -217,22 +217,22 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4"/>

micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor.

A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 - y unless the next word is als= o a cmavo ending in=20 - y. The safest and easiest gui= deline is to pause after all of them. + y unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in= =20 + y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause a= fter all of them.

Upper and lower cases lower case letter= suse in Lojban capital lettersuse in = Lojban stressirregular marked with upper-case<= /indexterm> lower-case lette= rsEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban lower-case letters<= /primary>Lojban usage contrasted with English upper-case lettersEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban upper-case lettersLojban usage contrasted with English = Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) lett= ers in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper= -case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban = to mark irregular stress within names, thus: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1"/> @@ -349,39 +349,39 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <jbophrase>.abubu</jbophrase> is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not d= efined, but it is presumably different from=20 <jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase>.) It does not matter if the word is a cmav= o, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> are treated grammatically as if they were cm= avo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always n= ecessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene m= ay absorb preceding or following words.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>happy face</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-i= mported"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></inde= xterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>logograms</primary><s= econdary>words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-impo= rted"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indext= erm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>unusual characters</pri= mary><secondary>words for</secondary></indexterm> The ability to attach=20 <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> to words has been used primarily to make nam= es for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Loj= ban name for the=20 =20 =20 <quote>happy face</quote> is=20 =20 <jbophrase>.uibu</jbophrase>, based on the attitudinal=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"diphthong">.ui</jbophrase> that means=20 + <diphthong>.ui</diphthong> that means=20 <quote>happiness</quote>. Likewise, the=20 =20 <quote>smiley face</quote>, written=20 =20 <quote>:-)</quote> and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is= called=20 <jbophrase>zo'obu</jbophrase> The existence of these names does not me= an that you should insert=20 <jbophrase>.uibu</jbophrase> into running Lojban text to indicate that= you are happy, or=20 <jbophrase>zo'obu</jbophrase> when something is funny; instead, use th= e appropriate attitudinal directly.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>ampersand</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-im= ported"><primary>ampersand character</primary><secondary>word for</secondar= y></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>"&&q= uot;</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> Likewise,=20 <jbophrase>joibu</jbophrase> represents the ampersand character,=20 =20 =20 <quote>&</quote>, based on the cmavo=20 <jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> meaning=20 <quote>mixed and</quote>. Many more such lerfu words will probably be = invented in future.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>"</primary><= secondary>"</secondary><tertiary>word for</tertiary></indexterm> <ind= exterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>"."</primary><secondary= >word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><pr= imary>syllable break</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>wor= d for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primar= y>syllable break</primary><secondary>symbol for</secondary></indexterm> <i= ndexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>symbo= l for</secondary></indexterm> The=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">.</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">,</jbophrase> characters used in Lojbanic= writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assig= ned the lerfu words=20 + <letteral>.</letteral> and=20 + <letteral>,</letteral> characters used in Lojbanic writing to represen= t pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words= =20 =20 <jbophrase>denpa bu</jbophrase> (literally,=20 <quote>pause bu</quote>) and=20 <jbophrase>slaka bu</jbophrase> (literally,=20 <quote>syllable bu</quote>). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 <jbophrase>denpa</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>slaka</jbophrase> are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">denpabu</jbophrase> would be a fu'ivla (= word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">denPAbu</jbophrase>. No pause is require= d between=20 <jbophrase>denpa</jbophrase> (or=20 @@ -391,21 +391,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <section xml:id=3D"section-alien-alphabets"> <title>Alien alphabets As stated in=20 , Lojban's goal of c= ultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of a= s many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in writt= en text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need = a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 - s and then into a Lojban lerf= u word by adding=20 + s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu w= ord with=20 bu attached. The following assignments have bee= n made: .y'y.buh @@ -430,21 +430,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. q u a c k letters= symbol contrasted with sound for spelling letterssound contrasted with symbol for spelling Note th= at the fact that the letter=20 c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the = Lojban letter=20 - c is irrelevant; we are spell= ing an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we= are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those l= etters. + c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word = and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban= and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters. =20 A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: ty.bu=C3=BE (t= horn) dy.bu=C3=B0 (e= dh) @@ -529,21 +529,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 Japanese hiragana syllabary =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 Japanese hiragana= example hiraganaexample Japanese katakana= example katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not bee= n standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need f= or them. (Note the=20 - . characters marking leading = and following pauses.) + . characters marking leading and following pauses= .) LAU selma'o ce'= a bold= example italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsfor font facespecifying for letters fontspecifying for letters In addition, there may be multiple visible representat= ions within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwr= iting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 =20 font and face distinctions are also represented by shif= t words, indicated with the cmavo=20 =20 ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5"/> @@ -894,21 +894,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.

dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-express= ion e. This sentence contains four=20 e s.

Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 - e lerfu rather than fourteen,= the translation is not a literal one =E2=80=93 but=20 + e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is = not a literal one =E2=80=93 but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 lu ... li'u instead of=20 me'o, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4"/> @@ -1081,21 +1081,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 NATO). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunci= ations:=20 =20 =20 SQL may be=20 =20 ess cue ell or=20 sequel. lerfu wordsas a basis for acronym names acronymsusing = names based on lerfu words In Lojban, a name can be= almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by = a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu wo= rds together, using=20 =20 - ' wherever two vowels would c= ome together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant: + ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses= are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1"/> la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la s= ykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 @@ -1112,27 +1112,27 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. = .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 In=20 , the final consonant=20 - m stands for=20 + m stands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these a= cronyms. =20 "z" ins= tead of "'"in acronyms names based on lerfu = words acronyms names based on lerfu wordsusing "z&quo= t; instead of "'" in Another approach, wh= ich some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions= of the language that did not have a=20 - ' character, is to use the co= nsonant=20 - z instead of=20 - ': + ' character, is to use the consonant=20 + z instead of=20 + ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3"/> la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. = .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 51384c9..51b8c0a 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -129,29 +129,29 @@ one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20 123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo fro= m 1 to 5 end in the vowels=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u respectively; and the cmavo= from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i, and=20 - o respectively. None of the d= igit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart i= n noisy environments. + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewis= e end in the vowels=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i, and=20 + o respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin wit= h the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments= . =20

Signs and numerical punctuation PA selma'o The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma'u PA positive sign @@ -1829,21 +1829,21 @@ mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. In=20 ,=20 mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 - -mei is an objective indefinite = number of the kind explained in=20 + -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind expl= ained in=20 , a slightly different p= lace structure is required: individuals of se= texpressing measurement standard for indefinites setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites<= /indexterm> massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meiplace structure formed for objective indefinites = FIXME: TAG SPOT

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which= is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.

An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/> @@ -3107,24 +3107,24 @@ frinu to indicate a fraction slash.

rafsiconventional meaning for cu'o A similar co= nvention is used for the cmavo=20 cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related t= o=20 =20 cunso (probability); use a rafsi for=20 cunso in order to create lujvo based on=20 cu'o. The cmavo=20 =20 mei and=20 moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fa= ct:=20 - mem/=20 - mei and=20 - mom/=20 - moi respectively. + mem/=20 + mei and=20 + mom/=20 + moi respectively. ni'enu'a operandconverting from operator operatorconvert= ing into operand conversion of operator into operand algebra of functionsoperator and operand distinction in lambda calculusoperator and operand distinction in The grammar o= f mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators a= nd operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of funct= ions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the sam= e. An operator can be changed into an operand with=20 =20 =20 ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a = matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand. =20 te'u ma'o operatorconverting from operand operandconvertin= g into operator conversion of operand into operator To ch= ange an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing= a lerfu string such as=20 fy. into an operator. In fact,=20 ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, usin= g the elidable terminator=20 te'u if necessary. diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 070c0eb..960de5b 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1198,21 +1198,21 @@ It should be noted particularly that=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, s= pecifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote things w= hich are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo res= pectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d5"/>

zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku - sku is a rafsi of=20 + sku is a rafsi of=20 cusku.

(A minor note on interaction between=20 lo'u ... le'u and=20 zoi: The text between=20 lo'u and=20 le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fa= ct, non-Lojban material in the form of a=20 zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the = word=20 le'u is used either as the delimiting word for = the=20 @@ -1505,21 +1505,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3"/>

la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein. Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.

Using the happiness attitudinal,=20 =20 - .ui, would imply that the sp= eaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It wou= ld probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say: + .ui, would imply that the speaker was happy. In= stead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe= to elide the one who is happy, and say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4"/>

la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

@@ -1706,21 +1706,21 @@ mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan I express [foreign] [quote]=20 gy [unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 John. In=20 , the first=20 fy is taken to be the delimiting word. The next= word must be different from the delimiting word, and=20 gy., the Lojban name for the letter=20 - g, was chosen arbitrarily. Th= en the delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of=20 + g, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting wo= rd must be repeated. For purposes of=20 si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to = be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more=20 =20 si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. S= imilarly, a stray=20 lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation = and then erasing it all with three=20 si cmavo. What if less than the entire=20 zo or=20 zoi construct is erased? The result is somethin= g which has a loose=20 zo or=20 @@ -1817,21 +1817,21 @@ Y hesitation noise =20 Y selma'o .y Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say= next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate i= n Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cm= avo=20 .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the= English hesitation noise written=20 =20 uh (or=20 er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses = before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having not= hing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is= not significant in Lojban, the=20 - y sound can be dragged out fo= r as long as necessary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided th= e required pauses are respected. + y sound can be dragged out for as long as necessa= ry. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses ar= e respected. hesitation sound<= /primary> Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the = formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo.= Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if nec= essary, repeating) a word (=20 =20 =20 este in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning=20 that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism require= s a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 .y. has no grammatical significance: it can app= ear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word. diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml index 70209f0..36a5d31 100644 --- a/todocbook/2.xml +++ b/todocbook/2.xml @@ -93,98 +93,98 @@ bridi,=20 sumti, and=20 selbri, because it is best to come to understan= d them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words= , which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. underlinesexample double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chap= ter un= derscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notation conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this= chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) und= er each sumti, and a double underline (=3D=3D=3D) under each selbri, to hel= p you to tell them apart.

Pronunciation pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u and=20 - y. The first five are roughly= pronounced as=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u and=20 + y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 a as in=20 father,=20 - e as in=20 + e as in=20 let,=20 - i as in=20 + i as in=20 machine,=20 - o as in=20 + o as in=20 dome and=20 - u as in=20 + u as in=20 flute.=20 - y is pronounced as the sound = called=20 + y is pronounced as the sound called=20 schwa, that is, as the unstressed=20 a as in=20 about or=20 around. consonantspronunciation ofquick-tour version Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less = as their counterparts are in English:=20 - b,=20 - d,=20 - f,=20 - k,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n,=20 - p,=20 - r,=20 - t,=20 - v and=20 - z. The letter=20 - c, on the other hand is prono= unced as the=20 + b,=20 + d,=20 + f,=20 + k,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n,=20 + p,=20 + r,=20 + t,=20 + v and=20 + z. The letter=20 + c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 sh in=20 hush, while=20 - j is its voiced counterpart, = the sound of the=20 + j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the=20 s in=20 pleasure.=20 - g is always pronounced as it = is in=20 + g is always pronounced as it is in=20 gift, never as in=20 giant.=20 - s is as in=20 + s is as in=20 sell, never as in=20 rose. The sound of=20 - x is not found in English in = normal words. It is found as=20 + x is not found in English in normal words. It is = found as=20 ch in Scottish=20 loch, as=20 j in Spanish=20 junta, and as=20 ch in German=20 Bach; it also appears in the English in= terjection=20 yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The = letter=20 - r can be trilled, but doesn't= have to be. + r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be. diphthongspronunciation ofquick-tour version The Lojban diphthongs=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au are pronounced much as in= the English words=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, and=20 + au are pronounced much as in the English words= =20 sigh,=20 say,=20 boy, and=20 how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=20 - i pronounced like English=20 + i pronounced like English=20 y (for example,=20 - io is pronounced=20 + io is pronounced=20 yo) or else with a=20 - u pronounced like English=20 + u pronounced like English=20 w (for example,=20 - ua is pronounced=20 + ua is pronounced=20 wa). period<= secondary>quick-tour version commaquick-tour version apostroph= equick-tour version Lojban als= o has three=20 semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 =20 h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. stress<= secondary>quick-tour version Stress falls on the ne= xt to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is=20 - y, which is never stressed; i= n such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one= syllable, then that syllable is not stressed. + y, which is never stressed; in such words the thi= rd-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that= syllable is not stressed. All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters.

Words that can act as sumti pro-sumtiquick-tour version Here is a short tab= le of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not th= e entire set of such words, which may be found in=20 .

mi I/me, we/us diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index 0b58101..7da5b2c 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1920,21 +1920,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ =20 ZOI_quote_4= 34 : =20 /*pause*/ =20 /*pause*/ =20 ; =20 -/* pause is morphemic, represented by . The lexer assembles=20 +/* pause is morphemic, represented by . The lexer assembles=20 */ =20 ZO_quote_43= 5 : =20 ; =20 /* word may not be a compound; but it can be any valid Lojb= an selma'o value, including ZO, ZOI, SI, SA, SU. The preparser will not lex the word per = its diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 5e8a4e0..23497ba 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -39,253 +39,253 @@ w. alphabetic order<= /primary> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII= coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetic= al order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban te= xt is facilitated. =20 =20 stress<= secondary>showing non-standard capital lettersuse of Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard = stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Th= us the English name=20 Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 DJOsefin., pronounced=20 ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 for an explanation of the = symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitaliz= e the vowel letter, in this case=20 =20 - O, but it is easier on the re= ader to capitalize the whole syllable. + O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize t= he whole syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 =20 se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names ar= e meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with a= s little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the re= gular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter= .

Basic Phonetics bracketsuse in IPA notation phonetic alphabet IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (see = also IPA) Lojban pronunciations are defined using the= International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing= pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square= brackets: for example, the word=20 =20 cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 =20 [k=C3=A6t].=20 contains a brief expl= anation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest anal= ogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with = the technical terms used in describing speech sounds. =20 standard pronunci= ation = pronunciationstandard The stan= dard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed= in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit amb= iguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native= languages and dialects. In all cases except=20 =20 - r the first IPA symbol shown = represents the preferred pronunciation; for=20 - r, all of the variations (and= any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable. + r the first IPA symbol shown represents the prefe= rred pronunciation; for=20 + r, all of the variations (and any other rhotic so= und) are equally acceptable. Letter IPA X-SAMPA Description - ' + ' [h] [h] an unvoiced glottal spirant - , + , - - the syllable separator - . + . [=CA=94] [?] a glottal stop or a pause - a + a [a], [=C9=91] [a], [A] an open vowel - b + b [b] [b] a voiced bilabial stop - c + c [=CA=83], [=CA=82] [S], [s`] an unvoiced coronal sibilant - d + d [d] [d] a voiced dental/alveolar stop - e + e [=C9=9B], [e] [E], [e] a front mid vowel - f + f [f], [=C9=B8] [f], [p\] an unvoiced labial fricative - g + g [=C9=A1] [g] a voiced velar stop - i + i [i] [i] a front close vowel - j + j [=CA=92], [=CA=90] [Z], [z`] a voiced coronal sibilant - k + k [k] [k] an unvoiced velar stop - l + l [l], [l=CC=A9] [l], [l=3D] a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic) - m + m [m], [m=CC=A9] [m], [m=3D] a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic) - n + n [n], [n=CC=A9], [=C5=8B=CC=8D], [=C5=8B=CC=A9] [n], [n=3D], [N], [N=3D] a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic) - o + o [o], [=C9=94] [o], [O] a back mid vowel - p + p [p] [p] an unvoiced bilabial stop - r + r [r], [=C9=B9], [=C9=BE], [=CA=80], [r=CC=A9], [=C9=B9=CC=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9] [r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=3D], [r\=3D], [4=3D], [R\=3D] a rhotic sound - s + s [s] [s] an unvoiced alveolar sibilant - t + t [t] [t] an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop - u + u [u] [u] a back close vowel - v + v [v], [=CE=B2] [v], [B] a voiced labial fricative - x + x [x] [x] an unvoiced velar fricative - y + y [=C9=99] [@] a central mid vowel - z + z [z] [z] a voiced alveolar sibilant sounds<= secondary>clarity of clarity of sounds Lojban letterslist with= IPA pronunciation Lojban lettersIPA for pronouncing pronuncia= tionIPA for Lojban The Lojban = sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each ot= her. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pro= nunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in= a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory ru= les on the range of sounds. rounded/unrounded= vowels Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be = pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically=20 - o and=20 - u are rounded and the others = are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round=20 - y as well. Lojban consonants = can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Ru= ssian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, th= ough a following=20 - i may cause it. + o and=20 + u are rounded and the others are not, as in Engli= sh, but this is not a requirement; some people round=20 + y as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or = unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other lang= uages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following=20 + i may cause it. sounds for letter= sLojban contrasted with English soundsdifficult The sounds represented by the letters=20 - c,=20 - g,=20 - j,=20 - s, and=20 - x require special attention f= or speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthograph= y of English (=20 - =20 - c,=20 - g,=20 - s), or because they are strik= ingly different in Lojban (=20 - c,=20 - j,=20 - x). The English=20 + c,=20 + g,=20 + j,=20 + s, and=20 + x require special attention for speakers of Engli= sh, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=20 + =20 + c,=20 + g,=20 + s), or because they are strikingly different in L= ojban (=20 + c,=20 + j,=20 + x). The English=20 c represents three different sounds,=20 [k] in=20 cat and=20 [s] in=20 cent, as well as the=20 [=CA=83] of=20 ocean. Similarly, English=20 g can represent=20 [=C9=A1] as in=20 go,=20 @@ -295,29 +295,29 @@ garage (in some pronunciations). English=20 s can be either=20 [s] as in=20 cats,=20 [z] as in=20 cards,=20 [=CA=83] as in=20 tension, or=20 [=CA=92] as in=20 measure. The sound of Lojban=20 - x doesn't appear in most Engl= ish dialects at all. + x doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.= j-sound in Englis= hrepresentation in Lojban ch-sound in Englishrepresentation in Lojban ts-sound in Russianrepr= esentation in Lojban soundscomplex= There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not L= ojban consonants: the=20 ch of=20 church and the=20 j of=20 judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant so= unds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represe= nted in Lojban by the two separate consonants:=20 - tc (IPA=20 + tc (IPA=20 [t=CA=83]) and=20 - dj (IPA=20 + dj (IPA=20 [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojb= an consider it to be a consonant cluster.

The Special Lojban Characters charactersspecial The apostrophe, period, and c= omma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division = between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used= for different reasons: apostrophetype of letter in word-formation ' symboldef= inition (see also apostrophe) apostrophedefinition of The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short,= breathy English=20 h, (IPA=20 [h]). The letter=20 h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 @@ -332,24 +332,24 @@ [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases =E2=80=93 explained in detail in=20 =20 =E2=80=93 must occur. In particular= , a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word e= nding in a consonant is always followed by a pause. period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 =20 [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. =20 commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r (discussed later). Commas a= re never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presenc= e or placement of a comma. + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r (discussed later). Commas are never required: n= o two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a = comma. periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> .i.ai.i.ai.o [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o] @@ -394,160 +394,160 @@ apostropheexample of which preserves the rhythm= and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.

Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants diphthongsdefinition of There exist 16 diphthon= gs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of tw= o elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA=20 [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. vowels<= secondary>contrasted with consonants consonantscontrasted = with vowels For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a= relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consona= nt sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel s= ound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end o= f a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cl= uster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct = syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables. vowels<= secondary>definition of The six Lojban vowels are= =20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u, and=20 - y. The first five vowels appe= ar freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel=20 - y has a limited distribution:= it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of= the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a s= pace-filler word (like English=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u, and=20 + y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kin= ds of Lojban words. The vowel=20 + y has a limited distribution: it appears only in = Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a = glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (li= ke English=20 =20 uh or=20 er). diphthongslist of diphthongsIPA for The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunci= ations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the var= iant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:=20 - ai may be pronounced=20 + ai may be pronounced=20 [=C9=91j], for example.) Letters IPA Description - ai = =20 + ai =20 [aj] an open vowel with palatal off-glide - ei = =20 + ei =20 [=C9=9Bj] a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide - oi = =20 + oi =20 [oj] a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide - au = =20 + au =20 [aw] an open vowel with labial off-glide - ia = =20 + ia =20 [ja] an open vowel with palatal on-glide - ie = =20 + ie =20 [j=C9=9B] a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide - ii = =20 + ii =20 [ji] a front close vowel with palatal on-glide - io = =20 + io =20 [jo] a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide - iu = =20 + iu =20 [ju] a back close vowel with palatal on-glide - ua = =20 + ua =20 [wa] an open vowel with labial on-glide - ue = =20 + ue =20 [w=C9=9B] a front mid vowel with labial on-glide - ui = =20 + ui =20 [wi] a front close vowel with labial on-glide - uo = =20 + uo =20 [wo] a back mid vowel with labial on-glide - uu = =20 + uu =20 [wu] a back close vowel with labial on-glide - iy = =20 + iy =20 [j=C9=99] a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide - uy = =20 + uy =20 [w=C9=99] a central mid vowel with labial on-glide (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 for examples.) diphthongsclassification of The first four diph= thongs above (=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au, the ones with off-glides= ) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are= used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and= the last two (=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, and=20 + au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used i= n most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand= -alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 =20 - iy and=20 - uy) are used only in Lojbani= zed names. + iy and=20 + uy) are used only in Lojbanized names. syllabic consonan= ts con= sonantssyllabic The syllabic c= onsonants of Lojban,=20 =20 [l=CC=A9],=20 [m=CC=A9],=20 [n=CC=A9], and=20 [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 [l],=20 [m],=20 [n], and=20 [r] respectively. They normally have onl= y a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, althoug= h in principle any=20 =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r may be pronounced syllabica= lly. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic c= onsonant appears next to a=20 =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r that is not syllabic, it ma= y not be clear which is which: + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which= is which: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e4d1"/> brlgan. [br=CC=A9l gan] or [brl=CC=A9 gan] @@ -614,49 +614,49 @@ u'y =20 y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 - y appear only in Lojbanized n= ames. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 + y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could app= ear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 =20 .y'y. is so used =E2=80=93 it is the Lojban nam= e of the apostrophe letter (see=20 ). vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> meiin. mei,in. contains the diphthong=20 - ei followed by the vowel= =20 - i. In order to indicate a dif= ferent grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to: + ei followed by the vowel=20 + i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the= comma must always be used, leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d2"/> me,iin. which contains the vowel=20 - e followed by the diphthong= =20 - ii. In rough English represe= ntation,=20 + e followed by the diphthong=20 + ii. In rough English representation,=20 is=20 May Een, whereas=20 is=20 Meh Yeen.

Consonant Clusters consonanteffect on syllable count consonantdefinition<= /secondary> A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-soun= d that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either= preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a co= nsonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen = consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted= as a consonant. consonantsvoicing of consonantsvoiced/unvoiced equival= ents An important distinction dividing Lojban conso= nants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants= and the corresponding voiced ones: =20 @@ -665,108 +665,108 @@ UNVOICED VOICED - p - b + p + b - t - d + t + d - k - g + k + g - f - v + f + v - c - j + c + j - s - z + s + z - x + x - The consonant=20 - x has no voiced counterpart i= n Lojban. The remaining consonants,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r, are typically pronounced w= ith voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced. + x has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remain= ing consonants,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, and=20 + r, are typically pronounced with voice, but can b= e pronounced unvoiced. consonant cluster= scontrasted with single consonants consonant clusterscontrasted with doubled consonants = doubled consonants= contrasted with consonant clusters doubled consonantscontrasted with single consonants single consonantsc= ontrasted with consonant clusters single consonantscontra= sted with doubled consonants consonant clustersdefinition = of Consonant sounds occur in languages as single co= nsonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sou= nds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from oth= er consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like=20 [s] in English=20 hiss, or repeated like=20 [k] in English=20 backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more si= ngle or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different fro= m its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altoge= ther, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanize= d names. =20 consonantsposition of Consonants can occur in t= hree positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle)= , and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varie= s depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, = the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the c= ommon American English trait of changing a=20 t between vowels into a=20 d or even an alveolar tap (IPA=20 [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable in Lojban. consonantsfinal consonantsrestrictions on<= /indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single cons= onants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including sy= llabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names. =20 consonant pairsrestrictions on Pairs of consona= nts can also appear freely, with the following restrictions: It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this = would violate the rule against double consonants. voiced/unvoic= ed consonantsrestrictions on I= t is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The c= onsonants - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r are exempt from this re= striction. As a result,=20 - bf is f= orbidden, and so is=20 - sd, but= both=20 - fl and=20 - vl, and both=20 - ls and=20 - lz, are permitted. + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, and=20 + r are exempt from this restriction. As a resu= lt,=20 + bf is forbidden, and so is=20 + sd, but both=20 + fl and=20 + vl, and both=20 + ls and=20 + lz, are permitted. It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set= =20 - c,=20 - j,=20 - s,=20 - z. + c,=20 + j,=20 + s,=20 + z. The specific pairs=20 - cx,=20 - kx,=20 - xc,=20 - xk, and= =20 - mz are = forbidden. + cx,=20 + kx,=20 + xc,=20 + xk, and=20 + mz are forbidden. yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 - y can be inserted to break up= the pair: + y can be inserted to break up the pair: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>James</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> djeimyz. [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James @@ -788,94 +788,94 @@ - bl - br + bl + br - cf - ck - cl - cm - cn - cp - cr - ct + cf + ck + cl + cm + cn + cp + cr + ct - dj - dr - dz + dj + dr + dz - fl - fr + fl + fr - gl - gr + gl + gr - jb - jd - jg - jm - jv + jb + jd + jg + jm + jv - kl - kr + kl + kr - ml - mr + ml + mr - pl - pr + pl + pr - sf - sk - sl - sm - sn - sp - sr - st + sf + sk + sl + sm + sn + sp + sr + st - tc - tr - ts + tc + tr + ts - vl - vr + vl + vr - xl - xr + xl + xr - zb - zd - zg - zm - zv + zb + zd + zg + zm + zv Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoi= ced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in lear= ning: @@ -883,127 +883,127 @@ - pl - pr + pl + pr - fl - fr + fl + fr - bl - br + bl + br - vl - vr + vl + vr =20 =20 - cp - cf + cp + cf - ct - ck - cm - cn + ct + ck + cm + cn - cl - cr + cl + cr - jb - jv + jb + jv - jd - jg - jm + jd + jg + jm - sp - sf + sp + sf - st - sk - sm - sn + st + sk + sm + sn - sl - sr + sl + sr - zb - zv + zb + zv - zd - zg - zm + zd + zg + zm =20 =20 - tc - tr + tc + tr - ts + ts - kl - kr + kl + kr - dj - dr + dj + dr - dz + dz - gl - gr + gl + gr =20 =20 - ml - mr + ml + mr - xl - xr + xl + xr unvoiced consonan= tscontrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs<= /secondary> voic= ed consonantscontrasted with unvoiced in allowable con= sonant pairs Note that if both consonants of an ini= tial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the = voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The con= verse is not true:=20 - cn is a permissible initial= pair, but=20 - jn is not.)= + cn is a permissible initial pair, but=20 + jn is not.) consonant triples= Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words= . They are subject to the following rules: consonant tri= plesrestrictions on The first = two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initia= l consonant pair; The triples=20 - ndj,=20 - ndz,=20 - ntc, an= d=20 - nts are= forbidden. + ndj,=20 + ndz,=20 + ntc, and=20 + nts are forbidden. consonant cluster= smore than three consonants in= Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not= just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant t= riples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are pe= rmissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than= three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is val= id. =20 =20 =20 =20 =20

@@ -1056,51 +1056,51 @@ xapcke =20 [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B] In=20 , we see that buffering vowe= ls can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the s= econd pronunciation buffers the=20 - pc consonant pair but not t= he=20 - ck. The third pronunciation= buffers both. + pc consonant pair but not the=20 + ck. The third pronunciation buffers both. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> ponyni'u [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 - y, which is pronounced=20 + y, which is pronounced=20 [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bone bread</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> bongynanba [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 bone bread (note the use of=20 =20 [=C5=8B] as a representative of=20 - n before=20 - g) and + n before=20 + g) and <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d7"/> bongnanba [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings ca= n only take a limited form). If=20 @@ -1110,21 +1110,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d8"/> [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba] it would be very similar to=20 . Only a clear distinction b= etween=20 - y and any buffering vowel wou= ld keep the two words distinct. + y and any buffering vowel would keep the two word= s distinct. buffer vowelshortening of vowelslength of<= /indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order= to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not = mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer= vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, a= nd as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use= buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoi= d confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have tr= ouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By th= is guideline,=20 =20 would be pronounced <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d9"/> [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] @@ -1179,100 +1179,100 @@ sairgoi sair,goi sai,r,goi =20 This word contains the consonant pair=20 - rg; the=20 - r may be pronounced syllabica= lly or not. + rg; the=20 + r may be pronounced syllabically or not. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d5"/> klezba klez,ba kle,zba This word contains the permissible initial pair=20 - zb, and so may be syllabica= ted either between=20 - z and=20 - b or before=20 - zb. + zb, and so may be syllabicated either between= =20 + z and=20 + b or before=20 + zb. stressed vowelcompared with stressed syllable = stressed syllablecompared with stressed vowel stressdefinition of<= /secondary> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one = syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel soun= d (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on= the vowel sound itself, the terms=20 stressed syllable and=20 stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 - y or which contain a syllabic= consonant (=20 + y or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r) are never counted. (The Lo= jban term for penultimate stress is=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penult= imate stress is=20 da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress =E2=80=93 primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowes= t level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for s= yllables containing=20 - y, a syllabic consonant, or a= buffer vowel. + y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on an= y syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the s= yllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban stru= ctural words (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none = at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just precedin= g a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run t= ogether. stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> dikyjvo DI,ky,jvo (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 ky is not counted in determining stress. The vo= wel=20 - y is never stressed in a norm= al Lojban context. + y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Armstrong</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> .armstrong. .ARM,strong. This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 Armstrong. The final=20 =20 - g must be explicitly pronounc= ed. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced: + g must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffer= ing, the name would be pronounced: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d8"/> [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g= =C9=AA=CA=94] However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible p= lace just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also ac= ceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on = the first syllable. -ngLojban contrasted with English The English p= ronunciation of=20 Armstrong, as spelled in English, is not correct by Loj= ban standards; the letters=20 =20 ng in English represent a velar nasal (IPA=20 [=C5=8B]) which is a single consonant. I= n Lojban,=20 - ng represents two separate = consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use=20 + ng represents two separate consonants that mu= st both be pronounced; you may not use=20 [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban=20 - ng, although=20 + ng, although=20 [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable. English speaker= s are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the f= ollowing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d9"/> [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] or [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] or even @@ -1284,41 +1284,41 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10"/> .ARMstron. since Lojban=20 - n is allowed to be pronounced= as the velar nasal=20 + n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal= =20 [=C5=8B]. Here is another example showing the use of=20 - y: + y: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d11"/> bisydja BI,sy,dja BI,syd,ja This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 - bis and=20 - dja. When they are joined, an im= permissible consonant pair results:=20 - sd. In acco= rdance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in=20 + bis and=20 + dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant p= air results:=20 + sd. In accordance with the algorithm for maki= ng lujvo, explained in=20 , a=20 - y is inserted to separate the= impermissible consonant pair; the=20 - y is not counted as a syllabl= e for purposes of stress determination. + y is inserted to separate the impermissible conso= nant pair; the=20 + y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of st= ress determination. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja @@ -1374,48 +1374,48 @@ [=CB=88] An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which fol= lows=20 [=CB=88] receives primary stress.<= /para> [=CA=94] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - .. This sound is not us= ually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat that somet= imes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) whi= ch starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of Am= erican English, it is used between vowels instead of=20 + .. This sound is not usually considered par= t of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to= the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vow= el. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it i= s used between vowels instead of=20 t:=20 bottle [bo=CA=94l=CC=A9]. The English int= erjection=20 uh-oh! almost always has it between the syllables= . [=CB=90] A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoke= n for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in ord= er to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels. [a] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - a. This sound doesn't o= ccur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the=20 + a. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but soun= ds somewhat like the=20 ar of=20 park, as spoken in RP or New England American. It= is pronounced further forward in the mouth than=20 [=C9=91]. [=C9=91] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - a. The=20 + a. The=20 a of GA=20 father. The sound=20 [a] is preferred because GA speake= rs often relax an unstressed=20 [=C9=91] into a schwa=20 [=C9=99], as in the usual pronunci= ations of=20 about and=20 sofa. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban= , English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use=20 [a] instead: the Lojban word for= =20 sofa is=20 sfofa, pronounced=20 @@ -1430,116 +1430,116 @@ Not a Lojban sound. The=20 a of English=20 cat. [b] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - b. As in English=20 + b. As in English=20 boy,=20 sober, or=20 job. [=CE=B2] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - v. Not an English sound= ; the Spanish=20 + v. Not an English sound; the Spanish=20 b or=20 v between vowels. This sound shou= ld not be used for Lojban=20 - b. + b. [d] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - d. As in English=20 + d. As in English=20 dog,=20 soda, or=20 mad. [=C9=9B] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - e. The=20 + e. The=20 e of English=20 met. [e] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - e. This sound is not fo= und in English, but is the Spanish=20 + e. This sound is not found in English, but = is the Spanish=20 e, or the tense=20 e of Italian. The vowel of Englis= h=20 say is similar except for the off-glide: you can = learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the fir= st part of the English vowel. [=C9=99] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - y. As in the=20 + y. As in the=20 a of English=20 sofa or=20 about. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, a= s it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in t= he middle of the mouth. [f] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - f. As in=20 + f. As in=20 fee,=20 loafer, or=20 chef. [=C9=B8] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - f. Not an English sound= ; the Japanese=20 + f. Not an English sound; the Japanese=20 f sound. [g] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - g. As in English=20 + g. As in English=20 go,=20 eagle, or=20 dog. [h] The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound= . As in English=20 aha or the second "h" in=20 oh, hello. [i] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - i. Essentially like the= English vowel of=20 + i. Essentially like the English vowel of=20 pizza or=20 machine, although the English vowel is sometimes = pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban. [=C9=AA] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 =20 i of English=20 @@ -1556,186 +1556,186 @@ jist. Also Russian=20 y as in=20 byt' (to be); like a schwa=20 [=C9=99], but higher in the mouth.= [j] Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 - i. Like the=20 + i. Like the=20 y in English=20 yard or=20 say. [k] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - k. As in English=20 + k. As in English=20 kill,=20 token, or=20 flak. [l] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - l. As in English=20 + l. As in English=20 low,=20 nylon, or=20 excel. [l=CC=A9] The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - l, as in English=20 + l, as in English=20 bottle or=20 middle. [m] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - m. As in English=20 + m. As in English=20 me,=20 humor, or=20 ham. [m=CC=A9] The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - m. As in English=20 + m. As in English=20 catch 'em or=20 bottom. [n] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - n. As in English=20 + n. As in English=20 no,=20 honor, or=20 son. [n=CC=A9] The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - n. As in English=20 + n. As in English=20 button. [=C5=8B] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - n, especially in Lojban= ized names and before=20 - g or=20 - k. As in English=20 + n, especially in Lojbanized names and befor= e=20 + g or=20 + k. As in English=20 sing or=20 singer (but not=20 finger or=20 danger). [=C5=8B=CC=8D] An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic=20 - n, especially in Lojban= ized names. + n, especially in Lojbanized names. [o] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - o. As in the French=20 + o. As in the French=20 haute (cuisine) or Spanish=20 como. There is no exact English e= quivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the=20 o of=20 dough or=20 joke, but it is essential that the off-glide (a= =20 [w]-like sound) at the end of the = vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words i= s=20 [=C9=99w] in IPA terms, and has no= =20 [o] in it at all; unless you can s= peak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with thi= s sound. [=C9=94] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - o, especially before=20 - r. This sound is a shor= tened form of the=20 + o, especially before=20 + r. This sound is a shortened form of the=20 aw in GA=20 dawn (for those people who don't pronounce=20 dawn and=20 Don alike; if you do, you may have trouble with t= his sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the=20 o of=20 hot. [p] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - p. As in English=20 + p. As in English=20 pay,=20 super, or=20 up. [r] One version of Lojban=20 - r. Not an English sound= . The Spanish=20 + r. Not an English sound. The Spanish=20 rr and the Scots=20 r, a tongue-tip trill. [=C9=B9] One version of Lojban=20 - r. As in GA=20 + r. As in GA=20 right,=20 baron, or=20 car. Not found in RP. [=C9=BE] One version of Lojban=20 - r. In GA, appears as a = variant of=20 + r. In GA, appears as a variant of=20 t or=20 d in the words=20 metal and=20 medal respectively. A tongue-tip flap. [=CA=80] One version of Lojban=20 - r. Not an English sound= . The French or German=20 + r. Not an English sound. The French or Germ= an=20 r in reine or=20 rot respectively. A uvular trill.= [r=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=B9=CC=A9],=20 [=C9=BE=CC=A9],=20 @@ -1743,96 +1743,96 @@ are syllabic versions of the above.=20 [=C9=B9=CC=A9] appears in the GA (= but not RP) pronunciation of=20 bird. [s] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - s. As in English=20 + s. As in English=20 so,=20 basin, or=20 yes. [=CA=83] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - c. The=20 + c. The=20 sh of English=20 ship,=20 ashen, or=20 dish. [=CA=82] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - s. Not an English sound= . The Hindi retroflex=20 + s. Not an English sound. The Hindi retrofle= x=20 s with dot below, or Klingon=20 S. [t] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - t. As in English=20 + t. As in English=20 tea,=20 later, or=20 not. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pro= nouncing the=20 t between vowels as=20 [d] or=20 [=C9=BE]. [=CE=B8] Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Loj= ban=20 - '. The=20 + '. The=20 th of English=20 thin (but not=20 then). [v] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - v. As in English=20 + v. As in English=20 voice,=20 savor, or=20 live. [w] Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 - u. Like the=20 + u. Like the=20 w in English=20 wet [w=C9=9Bt] or=20 cow [k=C9=91w]. [x] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - x. Not normally an Engl= ish sound, but used in some pronunciations of=20 + x. Not normally an English sound, but used = in some pronunciations of=20 loch and=20 Bach;=20 gh in Scots=20 might and=20 night. The German=20 Ach-Laut. To pronounce=20 [x], force air through your throat= without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape. @@ -1841,156 +1841,156 @@ A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the= =20 =20 =C3=BC of German=20 h=C3=BCbsch. [z] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - z. As in English=20 + z. As in English=20 zoo,=20 hazard, or=20 fizz. [=CA=92] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - j. The=20 + j. The=20 si of English=20 vision, or the consonant at the end of GA=20 garage. [=CA=90] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - z. Not an English sound= . The voiced version of=20 + z. Not an English sound. The voiced version= of=20 [=CA=82].

English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs diphthongsEnglish analogues of Here is a list o= f English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diph= thongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it i= s intended as a help to English-speakers. Lojban English - ai = =20 + ai =20 pie - ei = =20 + ei =20 pay - oi = =20 + oi =20 boy - au = =20 + au =20 cow - ia = =20 + ia =20 yard - ie = =20 + ie =20 yes - ii = =20 + ii =20 ye - io = =20 + io =20 yodel (in GA only) - iu = =20 + iu =20 unicorn or few - ua = =20 + ua =20 suave - ue = =20 + ue =20 wet - ui = =20 + ui =20 we - uo = =20 + uo =20 woe (in GA only) - uu = =20 + uu =20 woo - iy = =20 + iy =20 million (the io part, tha= t is) - uy = =20 + uy =20 was (when unstressed)

Oddball Orthographies orthographynon-standard The following notes des= cribe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ= from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobod= y needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure.= Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology. =20 There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 =20 - x is replaced by=20 - h. The individual vowels like= wise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed = as follows: + x is replaced by=20 + h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchange= d. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows: =20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi,=20 - au become=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi,=20 - ao. + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi,=20 + au become=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi,=20 + ao. - ia through=20 - iu and=20 - ua through=20 - uu remain unchanged. + ia through=20 + iu and=20 + ua through=20 + uu remain unchanged. a'i,=20 =20 e'i,=20 o'i and=20 =20 a'o become=20 @@ -2001,28 +2001,28 @@ a,o. i'a through=20 i'u and=20 u'a through=20 u'u are changed to=20 =20 - ia through=20 - iu and=20 - ua through=20 - uu in lujvo and cmavo = other than attitudinals, but become=20 - i,a th= rough=20 - i,u an= d=20 - u,a th= rough=20 - u,u in= names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo. + ia through=20 + iu and=20 + ua through=20 + uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudi= nals, but become=20 + i,a through=20 + i,u and=20 + u,a through=20 + u,u in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cm= avo. All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. =20 The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 .i are capitalized, and irregular stress is mar= ked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stres= sed syllable. =20 @@ -2070,131 +2070,131 @@ =20 =20 The Lord Of The Rings, has bee= n devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that u= sed for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appen= dixes. In brief, the tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conv= entional ways; the calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the qu= esset=C3=A9ma represents velar consonants. =20 - t + t tinco - calma = =20 - d + d ando - anga = =20 - thule = =20 - c + c harma - anto = =20 - j + j anca - n + n numen - noldo = =20 - r + r ore - i + i anna - p + p parma - k + k quesse - b + b umbar - g + g ungwe - f + f formen - x + x hwesta - v + v ampa - unque - m + m malta - nwalme - u + u vala - vilya The letters=20 vala and=20 anna are used for=20 - u and=20 - i only when those letters are= used to represent glides. Of the additional letters,=20 - r,=20 - l,=20 - s, and=20 - z are written with=20 + u and=20 + i only when those letters are used to represent g= lides. Of the additional letters,=20 + r,=20 + l,=20 + s, and=20 + z are written with=20 r=C3=B3men,=20 lambe,=20 silme, and=20 =C3=A1re/=20 esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. - Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban com= ma or period. + Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by = halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period.

diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 0d12d15..5b26e8a 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -1,44 +1,44 @@ The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology =20

Introductory - , word formsin Lojban (see also= morphology) = morphologydefinition = morphologysimplicity of Morphology is the part of grammar = that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple com= pared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form dep= ending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such change= s compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like=20 + , word formsin Lojban (see also morphology) morphology<= /primary>definition morphologysimplicity of Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the = form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of man= y languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they a= re used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to langua= ges like Russian, but it does have changes like=20 boys as the plural of=20 =20 boy, or=20 walked as the past-tense form of=20 walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. =20 morphologyconventions for A stream of Lojban so= unds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specif= ic rules. These so-called=20 morphology rules are summarized in this chapter. (Howev= er, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fu= lly debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some c= onventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels an= d consonants. =20 yconsidered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions V= as a symbol for a single vowel morphologysymbol= ic conventions for discussing V represents any sing= le Lojban vowel except=20 - y; that is, it represents= =20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o, or=20 - u. + y; that is, it represents=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o, or=20 + u. VV stringas a symbol for a double vowel VV = represents either a diphthong, one of the following: - ai - ei - oi - au + ai + ei + oi + au or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vow= els, one of the following: a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u =20 e'a @@ -63,39 +63,39 @@ u'e u'i u'o u'u apostropheas not a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic ras a consonant for morphological discussions= syllabic nas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic mas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic l<= secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions C stringas a symbol for a single consonant = C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one o= f - b=20 - c=20 - d=20 - f=20 - g=20 - j=20 - k=20 - l=20 - m=20 - n=20 - p=20 - r=20 - s=20 - t=20 - v=20 - x - or z + b=20 + c=20 + d=20 + f=20 + g=20 + j=20 + k=20 + l=20 + m=20 + n=20 + p=20 + r=20 + s=20 + t=20 + v=20 + x + or z - . Syllabic l, m, n= , and r always count as consonants= for the purposes of this chapter. + . Syllabic l, m, n, and r always count as consonants for = the purposes of this chapter. CC stringas a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which co= nstitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:=20 bl br cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct dj dr dz fl fr @@ -105,21 +105,21 @@ ml mr pl pr sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st tc tr ts vl vr=20 xl xr zb zd zg zm zv - C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless= it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain speci= fied forbidden pairs. + C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless= it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified = forbidden pairs. C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes =E2=80=93 parts of speech =E2=80=93 in contrast to the eight tha= t are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla,= and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties =E2= =80=93 an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and un= ambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon eithe= r reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. =20 =20 They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 @@ -147,84 +147,84 @@ V-form - .a - .e - .i - .o - .u + .a + .e + .i + .o + .u CV-form ba ce di fo gu VV-form - .au - .ei - .ia + .au + .ei + .ia .o'u .u'e CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o coi cu'u In addition, there is the cmavo=20 .y. (remember that=20 - y is not a V), which must hav= e pauses before and after it. + y is not a V), which must have pauses before and = after it. cmavolack of relation of form to grammatical use experimental cmavoforms for cmavofor experimental use cmavosimple A simple cmavo thus has the pro= perty of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant fol= lowed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a r= ow, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cma= vo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are=20 ZEI selma'olujvowith zei There is also a different way of building lujvo, or = rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo= . You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of = them with the special cmavo=20 zei. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d12"/> bridi zei valsi @@ -1135,56 +1135,56 @@ must end in one or more vowels; slinku'i test= definition must not be gismu o= r lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'i= vla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a l= ujvo (the so-called=20 slinku'i test, not discussed further in this book);= =20 syllabic pronunciations of consonantsin fu'ivlaexample y= letterprohibition from fu'ivla= cannot contain=20 - y, although they may cont= ain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants; + y, although they may contain syllabic pronunc= iations of Lojban consonants; fu'ivlastress in like other brivla, are str= essed on the penultimate syllable. fu'ivla= consonant clusters in Note that consonan= t triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can= be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There i= s no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except = at the beginning. =20 =20 borrowingsStage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction fu'ivlacategorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of con= struction This is a fairly liberal definition and a= llows quite a lot of possibilities within=20 fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easi= ly on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always = guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla req= uire running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and shou= ld be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all t= he considerations that apply. fu'ivla= algorithm for constructing Here is a sim= ple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage = 3 fu'ivla: Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojb= an=20 - y, however, may not be us= ed in any fu'ivla. + y, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla. If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that= the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by addin= g a suggestively chosen final vowel. If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning= so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vo= wel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant. fu'ivla categ= orizerselection consideration for l-hyphenuse of Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4= -letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a=20 topic area. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi= ; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the= rest of the fu'ivla with an=20 - r-hyphen; if that would p= roduce a double=20 - r, use an=20 - n-hyphen instead; if the = rafsi ends in=20 - r and the rest of the fu'= ivla begins with=20 - n (or vice versa), or if = the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "= dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible clu= ster), use an=20 - l-hyphen. (This is the on= ly use of=20 - l-hyphen in Lojban.) + r-hyphen; if that would produce a double=20 + r, use an=20 + n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in=20 + r and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with=20 + n (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r= " and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using = "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an=20 + l-hyphen. (This is the only use of=20 + l-hyphen in Lojban.) Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can= be used instead of the long rafsi. =20 Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the exam= ples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not= be pronounced as a separate syllable. Here are a few examples: @@ -1196,21 +1196,21 @@ spaghetti from English or Italian =20 spageti Lojbanize cidj,r,spageti prefix long rafsi =20 dja,r,spageti prefix short rafsi where=20 - cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for= =20 + cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for=20 cidja, the Lojban gismu for=20 food, thus categorizing=20 cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with t= he short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: = in any event, it means the same thing. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d4"/> @@ -1218,22 +1218,22 @@ Acer the scientific name of maple trees =20 =20 acer Lojbanize xaceru add initial consonant and final vowel tric,r,xaceru prefix rafsi ric,r,xaceru prefix short rafsi where=20 - tric- and=20 - ric- are rafsi for=20 + tric- and=20 + ric- are rafsi for=20 tricu, the gismu for=20 tree. Note that by the same principles,=20 maple sugar could get the fu'ivla=20 =20 saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tan= ru=20 tricrxaceru sakta. Technically,=20 ricrxaceru and=20 tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they woul= d surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use. @@ -1241,95 +1241,95 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d5"/> brie from French =20 bri Lojbanize cirl,r,bri prefix rafsi where=20 - cirl- represents=20 + cirl- represents=20 cirla (=20 cheese). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d6"/> cobra =20 kobra Lojbanize sinc,r,kobra prefix rafsi where=20 - sinc- represents=20 + sinc- represents=20 since (=20 snake). <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d7"/> quark =20 kuark Lojbanize kuarka add final vowel sask,r,kuarka prefix rafsi allowable diphtho= ngsin gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla allowable= diphthongsin fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and luj= vo d= iphthongsin fu'ivla fu'ivladiphthongs= in where=20 - sask- represents=20 + sask- represents=20 saske (=20 science). Note the extra vowel=20 - a added to the end of the wor= d, and the diphthong=20 - ua, which never appears in g= ismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla. + a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong= =20 + ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but = may appear in fu'ivla. <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d8"/> =EC=9E=90=EB=AA=A8 from Korean djamo Lojbanize lerf,r,djamo prefix rafsi ler,l,djamo prefix rafsi where=20 - ler- represents=20 + ler- represents=20 lerfu (=20 letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 spageti and=20 kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xaceru looks like a compound cm= avo, and=20 kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, do= es not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even = one with an English-speaking background; its source =E2=80=93 the English w= ord=20 integral =E2=80=93 has various other specialized meanin= gs in other fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 integrale almost certainly would eventually com= e to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English asso= ciates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 - i of=20 + i of=20 integrale is removed, or something like=20 cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to= the beginning;=20 - cmac- is the rafsi for=20 + cmac- is the rafsi for=20 cmaci (=20 mathematics). The architectural sense of=20 integral might be conveyed with=20 =20 djinrnintegrale or=20 tarmrnintegrale, where=20 dinju and=20 tarmi mean=20 building and=20 form respectively. @@ -1381,21 +1381,21 @@ kuln,r,kore,a Korean the culture =20 Navajoexample fu= 'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin= fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 - ea is not a = valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name=20 + ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably= , some form of the native name=20 Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 Navajo is far more widely known than=20 =20 Dine'e.

cmene names in Lojban (= see also cmene) cmenedefinition namespurpos= e of cmenepurpose of Lojbanized na= mes, called=20 @@ -1460,21 +1460,21 @@ Catherine<= secondary>example kat,r,in. Catherine =20 syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 - r is skipped in determining t= he stressed syllable, so=20 + r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable= , so=20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 ka.) <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/> @@ -1519,72 +1519,72 @@ are both valid Lojbanizations of=20 John Smith. =20 namesauthority for cmeneauthority for The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing= the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how= they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name=20 Mary can thus be Lojbanized as=20 meris.,=20 maris.,=20 meiris.,=20 merix., or even=20 marys.. The last alternative = is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to= someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need n= ot be an=20 - s; there must, however, be so= me Lojban consonant at the end. + s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant = at the end. namesrestrictions on form of cmenerestrictions on fo= rm of Names are not permitted to have the sequences= =20 la,=20 lai, or=20 doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is im= mediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the = fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by = one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cme= ne might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. Howe= ver, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply tha= t the word before the=20 la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without p= ause, which is impossible. <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">Nederlandsexample Laplaceexample For exampl= e, the invalid name=20 laplas. would look like the L= ojban words=20 la plas., and=20 ilanas. would be misunderstoo= d as=20 .i la nas.. However,=20 - NEderlants. cannot be mi= sheard as=20 - NEder lants., because=20 - NEder with no following = pause is not a possible Lojban word. + NEderlants. cannot be mishea= rd as=20 + NEder lants., because=20 + NEder with no following paus= e is not a possible Lojban word. namesalternatives for restricted sequences in = cmenealt= ernatives for restricted sequences in There are clo= se alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizin= g names, such as=20 ly,=20 lei, and=20 dai or=20 =20 do'i, that do not cause these problems. cmenerules for namesrules for = Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristic= s: =20 cmeneconsonant clusters permitted in cmenefinal le= tter in They must end in one or more consonants. Th= ere are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene= , provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part= of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair. diphthongsspecific to cmene diphthongsspecific to = names uy diphthongin cmene iy diphthongin= cmene They may contain the letter y as a normal, n= on-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contai= n the two diphthongs=20 - iy and=20 - uy. + iy and=20 + uy. namesrequirement for pause after cmenerequirement = for pause after They are always followed in speech = by a pause after the final consonant, written as=20 - .. + .. capitalizatio= nuse of capitalizationfor unusual str= ess in names = capitalizationuse in names namesstress in cmenestress in They = may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate on= e, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin = sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital let= ters. =20 namesfrom Lojban words cmenefrom Lojban words Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized fr= om names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmav= o, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>One</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11"/>

pav. the One

- from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav, meaning one + from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav<= /rafsi>, meaning one <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/>

sol. the Sun

@@ -1604,42 +1604,42 @@ <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/> nol. Lord/Lady - from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning noble. + from the gismu nobli, with rafsi n= ol, meaning noble. cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. Add a final=20 - s or=20 - n (or some other consonan= t that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel. + s or=20 + n (or some other consonant that sounds good) = if the name ends in a vowel. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultim= ate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written L= ojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress= . Do not capitalize names otherwise. =20 =20 cmeneavoiding impermissible consonant clusters in If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel= between the consonants:=20 - y is recommended. + y is recommended. cmeneproscribed syllables in No cmene may h= ave the syllables=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 doi in them, unless immediately preceded by= a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to = something else. Possible substitutions include=20 ly,=20 ly'i, and=20 dai or=20 =20 @@ -1650,67 +1650,67 @@ =20 Linnaean binomials after their inventor) which are inte= rnationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is = essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted= into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 =20 =20 la'o, explained in=20 . Using this cmavo makes th= e already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, = and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though in= complete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names= . They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other= words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 =20 =20 =20 back vowel in the following list refers to any of the l= etters=20 - a,=20 - o, or=20 - u; the term=20 + a,=20 + o, or=20 + u; the term=20 front vowel correspondingly refers to any of the letter= s=20 - e,=20 - i, or=20 - y. + e,=20 + i, or=20 + y. Change double consonants other than=20 cc to single consonants. Change=20 - cc befo= re a front vowel to=20 - kc, but otherwise to=20 - k. + cc before a front vowel to=20 + kc, but otherwise to=20 + k. Change=20 - c before a back vowel and= final=20 - c to=20 - k. + c before a back vowel and final=20 + c to=20 + k. Change=20 - ng before a consonant (= other than=20 - h) and final=20 - ng to=20 - n. + ng before a consonant (other than=20 + h) and final=20 + ng to=20 + n. Change=20 - x to=20 - z initially, but otherwis= e to=20 - ks. + x to=20 + z initially, but otherwise to=20 + ks. Change=20 - pn to=20 - n initially. + pn to=20 + n initially. Change final=20 - ie and=20 - ii to=20 - i. + ie and=20 + ii to=20 + i. Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions: aaa @@ -1758,26 +1758,26 @@ yi However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if t= he two vowels are in two different syllables. Change=20 h between two vowels to=20 - ', but otherwise remove i= t completely. If preservation of the=20 + ', but otherwise remove it completely. If pre= servation of the=20 h seems essential, change it to=20 - x instead. + x instead. - Place ' between any= remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs. + Place ' between any remaining vowel pai= rs that do not form Lojban diphthongs. Some further examples of Lojbanized names are: @@ -1972,56 +1972,56 @@ Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for t= he final gismu in the tanru. Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens. hyphens in lujvo<= /primary>proscribed where not required A= dd hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place= that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommende= d, for reasons discussed below. If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an=20 - r-hyphen (or an=20 - n-hyphen) after the first= rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an=20 - r-hyphen (or an=20 - n-hyphen) between the two= rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form = (for example,=20 + r-hyphen (or an=20 + n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-= form. If there are exactly two words, then put an=20 + r-hyphen (or an=20 + n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first = rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,=20 saicli requires no hyphen). Use an=20 - r-hyphen unless the lette= r after the hyphen is=20 - r, in which case use an= =20 - n-hyphen. Never use an=20 - n-hyphen unless it is req= uired. + r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen i= s=20 + r, in which case use an=20 + n-hyphen. Never use an=20 + n-hyphen unless it is required. Put a=20 - y-hyphen between the cons= onants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between= rafsi. + y-hyphen between the consonants of any imperm= issible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi. tosmabru test= Put a=20 - y-hyphen after any 4-lett= er rafsi form. + y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form. Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi =E2=80=93= with the pattern=20 CVC ... CVC + X =E2=80=93 for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long= rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant clu= ster, or is something which has caused a=20 - y-hyphen to be installed betw= een the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules. + y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC= and itself by one of the above rules. The test is as follows: - Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in = case there are no y-hyphens. + Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens. These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the tr= ial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word = will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. - Install a y-hyphen = at the first such joint. + Install a y-hyphen at the first such jo= int. lujvoselection of best form of lujvoscoring of Note that the=20 tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more e= fficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to l= eft, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be= completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined. =20 =20

@@ -2031,83 +2031,83 @@ Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and a= postrophes; call it=20 L. Count the number of apostrophes; call it=20 A. Count the number of=20 - y-,=20 - r-, and=20 - n-hyphens; call it=20 + y-,=20 + r-, and=20 + n-hyphens; call it=20 =20 H. For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum= this value over all rafsi; call it=20 R:=20 CVC/CV (final) - (-sarji-) + (-sarji-) 1 CVC/C - (-sarj-) + (-sarj-) 2 CCVCV (final) - (-zbasu-) + (-zbasu-) 3 CCVC - (-zbas-) + (-zbas-) 4 CVC - (-nun-) + (-nun-) 5 CVV with an apostrophe - (-ta'u-) + (-ta'u-) 6 CCV - (-zba-) + (-zba-) 7 CVV with no apostrophe - (-sai-) + (-sai-) 8 Count the number of vowels, not including=20 - y; call it=20 + y; call it=20 V. lujvo formhierarchy of priorities for selection of hierarchy of priorities = for selecting lujvo form The score is then: (1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10= * R) - V lujvoscored examples of In case of ties, there is no p= reference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes= a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes= as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing= rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels ar= e chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it = have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might d= ominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.= =20 doghouseexample= luj= voexamples of making Here are = some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for = these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo): @@ -2155,81 +2155,81 @@ <para>This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. Firs= t, we will start with the tanru=20 <jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> (=20 <quote>dog house</quote>) and construct a lujvo meaning=20 =20 =20 <quote>doghouse</quote>, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will u= se a brute-force application of the algorithm in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-lujvo-scoring"/>, using every possible rafsi.= </para> <para>The rafsi for=20 <jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> are:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"4"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-ger-</jbophrase>, </member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-ge'u-</jbophrase>, </member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gerk-</jbophrase>, </member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gerku</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>, </member> + <member><rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi>, </member> + <member><rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi>, </member> + <member><rafsi>-gerku</rafsi></member> </simplelist> <para>The rafsi for=20 <jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> are:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"3"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-zda-</jbophrase>, </member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-zdan-</jbophrase>, </member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase>.</member> + <member><rafsi>-zda-</rafsi>, </member> + <member><rafsi>-zdan-</rafsi>, </member> + <member><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi>.</member> </simplelist> <para>Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-ger-</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-ge'u-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gerk-</jbophrase> as possible rafsi for=20 + <rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>,=20 + <rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi> as possible rafsi for=20 <jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>; Step 2 directs us to use=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-zda-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase> as possible rafsi for=20 + <rafsi>-zda-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-zdani</rafsi> as possible rafsi for=20 <jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>. The six possible forms of the lujvo are = then:</para> <simplelist type=3D"vert" columns=3D"1"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ger</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-zda</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ger</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ge'u</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-zda</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ge'u</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">gerk</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-zda</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">gerk</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member> + <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member> + <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member> + <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member> + <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member> + <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member> </simplelist> <para>We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first = two forms need no hyphenation:=20 =20 <jbophrase>ge</jbophrase> cannot fall off the front, because the follo= wing word would begin with=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"morphology">rz</jbophrase>, which is not a permissi= ble initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 + <morphology>rz</morphology>, which is not a permissible initial conson= ant pair. So the lujvo forms are=20 <jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>gerzdani</jbophrase>.</para> <para>The third form,=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ge'u</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-z= da</jbophrase>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV= , the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five = letters. So=20 + <rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi>, needs no hyphen, because even = though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consona= nt cluster in the first five letters. So=20 <jbophrase>ge'uzda</jbophrase> is this form of the lujvo.</para> <para>The fourth form,=20 <jbophrase valid=3D"false">ge'u-zdani</jbophrase>, however, requires a= n=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">r-</jbophrase>hyphen; otherwise, the=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">ge'u-</jbophrase> part would fall off as a c= mavo. So this form of the lujvo is=20 + <letteral>r-</letteral>hyphen; otherwise, the=20 + <rafsi>ge'u-</rafsi> part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of t= he lujvo is=20 <jbophrase>ge'urzdani</jbophrase>.</para> <para>The last two forms require=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">y-</jbophrase>hyphens, as all 4-letter ra= fsi do, and so are=20 + <letteral>y-</letteral>hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are= =20 =20 <jbophrase>gerkyzda</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>gerkyzdani</jbophrase> respectively.</para> <para> <indext= erm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>boat class</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in fav= or of short lujvo, so we might expect that=20 <jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> would win. Its <varname>L</varname> scor= e is 6, its <varname>A</varname> score is 0, its <varname>H</varname> score= is 0, its <varname>R</varname> score is 12, and its <varname>V</varname> s= core is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, = 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would pr= obably appear in the dictionary in the form=20 <jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>.</para> <para>For the next example, we will use the tanru=20 <jbophrase>bloti klesi</jbophrase> (=20 <quote>boat class</quote>) presumably referring to the category (rowbo= at, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long= rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never= preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.</= para> <para>The rafsi for=20 <jbophrase>bloti</jbophrase> are=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-lot-</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-blo-</jbophrase>, and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-lo'i-</jbophrase>; for=20 + <rafsi>-lot-</rafsi>,=20 + <rafsi>-blo-</rafsi>, and=20 + <rafsi>-lo'i-</rafsi>; for=20 <jbophrase>klesi</jbophrase> they are=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-kle-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-lei-</jbophrase>. Both these gismu are amon= g the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an u= nusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para> + <rafsi>-kle-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-lei-</rafsi>. Both these gismu are among the handful which hav= e both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possib= ilities available for a two-part tanru:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"3"> <member><jbophrase>lotkle</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>blokle</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>lo'ikle</jbophrase></member> =20 <member><jbophrase>lotlei</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>blolei</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>lo'irlei</jbophrase></member> </simplelist> <para>Only=20 @@ -2270,63 +2270,63 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Logical Language = Group</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> So the form=20 <jbophrase>blolei</jbophrase> is preferred, but only by a tiny margin = over=20 <jbophrase>blokle</jbophrase>; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly= worse;=20 <jbophrase>lo'ikle</jbophrase> suffers because of its apostrophe, and= =20 <jbophrase>lo'irlei</jbophrase> because of having both apostrophe and = hyphen.</para> <para>Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name= from the tanru=20 <jbophrase>logji bangu girzu</jbophrase>, or=20 <quote>logical-language group</quote> in English. (=20 <quote>The Logical Language Group</quote> is the name of the publisher= of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)</para> <para>The available rafsi are=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-loj-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-logj-</jbophrase>;=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-ban-</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-bau-</jbophrase>, and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-bang-</jbophrase>; and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase>, and (for name purposes o= nly)=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir-</jbophrase> and=20 - <jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz-</jbophrase>. The resulting 12 lujvo p= ossibilities are:</para> + <rafsi>-loj-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-logj-</rafsi>;=20 + <rafsi>-ban-</rafsi>,=20 + <rafsi>-bau-</rafsi>, and=20 + <rafsi>-bang-</rafsi>; and=20 + <rafsi>-gri-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-girzu</rafsi>, and (for name purposes only)=20 + <rafsi>-gir-</rafsi> and=20 + <rafsi>-girz-</rafsi>. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:</para= > <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"3"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></me= mber> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></me= mber> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></m= ember> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gri</jbophrase></member= > + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></= member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></member= > - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></member= > - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></membe= r> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></= member> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></= member> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi><= /member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></membe= r> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></membe= r> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase></memb= er> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi><= /member> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi><= /member> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi>= </member> </simplelist> <para>and the 12 name possibilities are:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"3"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></me= mber> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></me= mber> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></m= ember> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-gir</jbophrase></member= > + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></= member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">loj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member= > + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></m= ember> + <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></= member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-ban</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member= > - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bau</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member= > - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></membe= r> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></= member> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></= member> + <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi><= /member> </simplelist> <para>After hyphenation, we have:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"3"> <member><jbophrase>lojbangri</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>lojbaugri</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>lojbangygri</jbophrase></member> =20 <member><jbophrase>logjybangri</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>logjybaugri</jbophrase></member> <member><jbophrase>logjybangygri</jbophrase></member> @@ -2362,63 +2362,63 @@ <jbophrase>girzu</jbophrase>, producing=20 <jbophrase glossay=3D"false">lojbangirz.</jbophrase></para> <para>Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on = the tanru=20 <jbophrase>nakni ke cinse ctuca</jbophrase> or=20 <quote>male (sexual teacher)</quote>. The=20 =20 <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> cmavo ensures the interpretation=20 <quote>teacher of sexuality who is male</quote>, rather than=20 <quote>teacher of male sexuality</quote>. Here are the possible forms = of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:</para> <simplelist type=3D"horiz" columns=3D"2"> - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nak</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cin</jbophrase><jbophrase= role=3D"rafsi">-ctu</jbophrase></member> =20 + <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><raf= si>-ctu</rafsi></member> =20 <member><jbophrase>nakykemcinctu</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nak</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cin</jbophrase><jbophrase= role=3D"rafsi">-ctuca</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><raf= si>-ctuca</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>nakykemcinctuca</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nak</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cins</jbophrase><jbophras= e role=3D"rafsi">-ctu</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><ra= fsi>-ctu</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>nakykemcinsyctu</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nak</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"= rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cins</jbophrase><jbophras= e role=3D"rafsi">-ctuca</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><ra= fsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>nakykemcinsyctuca</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nakn</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cin</jbophrase><jbophras= e role=3D"rafsi">-ctu</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><ra= fsi>-ctu</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>naknykemcinctu</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nakn</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cin</jbophrase><jbophras= e role=3D"rafsi">-ctuca</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><ra= fsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>naknykemcinctuca</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nakn</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cins</jbophrase><jbophra= se role=3D"rafsi">-ctu</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><r= afsi>-ctu</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>naknykemcinsyctu</jbophrase></member> =20 - <member><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">nakn</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D= "rafsi">-kem</jbophrase><jbophrase role=3D"rafsi">-cins</jbophrase><jbophra= se role=3D"rafsi">-ctuca</jbophrase></member> + <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><r= afsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member> <member><jbophrase>naknykemcinsyctuca</jbophrase></member> </simplelist> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><s= econdary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> Of these forms,=20 <jbophrase>nakykemcinctu</jbophrase> is the shortest and is preferred = by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just= make a lujvo for=20 <jbophrase>cinse ctuca</jbophrase> (which would be=20 <jbophrase>cinctu</jbophrase>) since the sex of the teacher is rarely = important. If there was a reason to specify=20 <quote>male</quote>, then the simpler tanru=20 <jbophrase>nakni cinctu</jbophrase> (=20 <quote>male sexual-teacher</quote>) would be appropriate. This tanru i= s actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the=20 <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> required for grouping need not be expressed.= </para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-gismu-making"> <title>The gismu creation algorithm source languages<= /primary>use in creating gismu The gismu= were created through the following process: gismucreationscoring rules At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chine= se, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed= gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: cons= onant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were si= mplified to just the fricative ( - tc became=20 - c,=20 - dj became=20 - j) and non-Lojban vowels = were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropp= ed. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake o= f consistency. + tc became=20 + c,=20 + dj became=20 + j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Loj= ban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping= rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency. All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source= -language forms. The matches were scored as follows:=20 If three or more letters were the same in the proposed g= ismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the scor= e was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letter= s, if any, did not matter. If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gis= mu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutiv= e in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the sc= ore was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score. @@ -2438,86 +2438,86 @@ proposed gismu existing gismu - b - p, v + b + p, v - c - j, s + c + j, s - d - t + d + t - f - p, v + f + p, v - g - k, x + g + k, x - j - c, z + j + c, z - k - g, x + k + g, x - l - r + l + r - m - n + m + n - n - m + n + m - p - b, f + p + b, f - r - l + r + l - s - c, z + s + c, z - t - d + t + d - v - b, f + v + b, f - x - g, k + x + g, k - z - j, s + z + j, s gismusource-language weights for See for an example. The gismu form with the highest score usually became the act= ual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafs= i. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders = (for example, the gismu=20 gismu should have been=20 gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now). @@ -2582,22 +2582,22 @@ =20 bradi,=20 bredi,=20 bridi, and=20 brodi (but fortunately not=20 brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorith= m. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exception= s to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was suffi= cient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefix= es and the assignable predicates beginning with=20 - brod-, they all end in the lette= r=20 - o, which is otherwise a rare = letter in Lojban gismu. + brod-, they all end in the letter=20 + o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gis= mu. gismuscientific-mathematical The following gism= u represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were = either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of w= hole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though = they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi ass= igned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to th= ese concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short. broda 1st assignable predicate brode 2nd assignable predicate diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index e16c8ea..d26b414 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -1715,21 +1715,21 @@ =20 name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 ). Thus=20 djeimz. is not a valid version = of=20 James (because=20 - mz is inval= id):=20 + mz is invalid):=20 djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 la may be replaced by=20 ly,=20 lai by=20 ly'i,=20 doi by=20 do'i or=20 dai. Here are a few examples: =20 @@ -1751,37 +1751,37 @@ Lottie (American pronunciation)<= /entry> *latis LYtis. or lotis. Doyleexample Lyraexample Lottieexample= namesu= sing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other languag= es or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more ra= fsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 - loj- for=20 + loj- for=20 logji (logical) and=20 - ban- for=20 + ban- for=20 bangu (language) unite to form the name of this= language: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/>

lojban. Lojban

names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 =20 - s or=20 - n when borrowing vowel-final nam= es from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonan= t endings. + s or=20 + n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. =20 names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 la followed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 la followed by a selbri.

Pro-sumti summary pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index 34d180a..85a3d14 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -412,27 +412,27 @@ You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is= -a-false-sentence. ti-series pro-sum= ticontrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti di'ucontrasted with ta tacontrasted with di'u Using=20 ta instead of=20 di'u would cause the listener to look around to= see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. da'u de'u di'u As with=20 ti,=20 ta, and=20 tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes= : a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, = either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use = the=20 - i/=20 - a/=20 - u vowel convention of the dem= onstratives in=20 + i/=20 + a/=20 + u vowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 without causing collisions with = other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 - i/=20 - e/=20 - a convention in the first vow= el of the cmavo. + i/=20 + e/=20 + a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo. da'e de'e di'e Most references in speech are to the past (what has alr= eady been said), so=20 di'e,=20 =20 de'e, and=20 =20 da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writ= ing, they are frequently handy: =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> @@ -773,23 +773,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8"/>

mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf. I see the dog. D expresses the-word=20 Arf!.

goiuse in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti lerfu as pro-sumtiexplicit assignment of antecedent The Lojban wor= d=20 gerku begins with=20 - g, so the antecedent of=20 + g, so the antecedent of=20 gy., the cmavo for the letter=20 - g, must be=20 + g, must be=20 le gerku. In the English translation, we use th= e same principle to refer to the dog as=20 D. Of course, in case of ambiguity,=20 goi can be used to make an explicit assignment.= namesassigning with goi goiuse in assigning name Furthermore,=20 goi can even be used to assign a name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d9"/>

@@ -1979,25 +1979,25 @@ du, and=20 bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as= if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanin= gs.

KOhA cmavo by series mi-series

mi - I (rafsi: mib)<= /description> + I (rafsi: mib)

do - you (rafsi: don= and doi) + you (rafsi: don and doi)

mi'o you and I

mi'a I and others, we but not you

@@ -2011,29 +2011,29 @@ ko you-imperative

=20 ti-series

ti - this here; something nearby (rafsi: tif) + this here; something nearby (rafsi: tif)

ta - that there; something distant (rafsi: taz) + that there; something distant (rafsi: taz)

tu - that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: tuf) + that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: tuf= )

=20 di'u-series

di'u the previous utterance

@@ -2164,21 +2164,21 @@ vo'u x5 of this bridi

=20 da-series

da - something-1 (rafsi: dav/dza) + something-1 (rafsi: dav/dza)

de something-2

di something-3

@@ -2257,46 +2257,46 @@ no'a (repeats the next outer bridi) =20 bu'a-series

bu'a - some-predicate-1 (rafsi: bu= l) + some-predicate-1 (rafsi: bul)

bu'e some-predicate-2

bu'i some-predicate-3

=20 others:

co'e - has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e) + has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e)

mo bridi question

du identity: x1 is identical to= x2, x3 ... - + dub du'o

Other cmavo discussed in this chapter

goi diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index e10064e..df6eb58 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -2171,21 +2171,21 @@ uses 3rd consonant of gismu

tai tamsmi based on lujvo, not gismu

va'u xamgu - CV'V cmavo can't begin with x + CV'V cmavo can't begin with x

=20

Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</tit= le> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table= </primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with Engli= sh equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cm= avo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the= cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third colum= n gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the= fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by=20 <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>.</para> <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 <jbophrase>te</jbophrase>,=20 diff --git a/todocbook/README-tags b/todocbook/README-tags index a000907..d9b903a 100644 --- a/todocbook/README-tags +++ b/todocbook/README-tags @@ -1,11 +1,12 @@ =20 + We have a variety of local-use-only tags and roles that get converted into docbook XML as part of the processing. =20 <example> roles =20 <interlinear-gloss> =20 This is to only be used for=20 =20 <jbophrase> @@ -53,10 +54,21 @@ not(@glossary) or @glossary !=3D 'false') and ( not(@ro= le) or ( @role !=3D 'letteral' ) ) ]" priority=3D"2"> =20 generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template name=3D"make_slug"> generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template match=3D"//jbophrase[count(str:token= ize(text())) =3D 1 and ( not(@glossary) or @glossary !=3D 'false') generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template match=3D"//text()"> =20 <xsl:template match=3D"//jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) =3D 1 and= ( not(@glossary) or @glossary !=3D 'false') and ( not(@role) or ( @role !=3D 'morphology' and @role !=3D 'rafsi' and @role !=3D 'diphthong' and @role != =3D 'letteral' ) ) ]"> + + + ;<rafsi>\1</rafsi>;g' [0-9]* + ;<letteral>\1</letteral>;g' [0-9]* + ;<diphthong>\1</diphthong>;g' [0-9]* + ;<morphology>\1</morphology>;g' [0-9]* + +<pronunciation> + <jbo>.i,ai,i,ai,on.</jbo> + <ipa>[=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94]</ipa> +</pronunciation> commit b7ab1224e6c59b07695eef1610ef70575fb5d4cc Merge: 4d6165c 9df314f Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org> Date: Thu Feb 3 19:27:52 2011 -0800 Merge branch 'gh-pages' of github.com:dag/cll into gh-pages commit 4d6165cbed8fcf934c3fb7ecfb06c4cdae083bd2 Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org> Date: Thu Feb 3 19:26:43 2011 -0800 Various readme changes. diff --git a/todocbook/README-tags b/todocbook/README-tags new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a000907 --- /dev/null +++ b/todocbook/README-tags @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ + +We have a variety of local-use-only tags and roles that get converted into +docbook XML as part of the processing. + + <example> roles + + <interlinear-gloss> + +This is to only be used for=20 + + <jbophrase> + + <cmavo-list> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>bo</cmavo> + <selmaho>BO</selmaho> + <description>closest scope grouping</description> + </cmavo-entry> + </cmavo-list> + + + <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-do-mamta= -mi"> + <title> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1"/> + + + do mamta mi + You are-a-mother-of me + You are my mother + + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> + + + .i.ai.i.ai.o + [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA= =94o] + Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh! + + + +A, + +docbook2html_preprocess.xsl: +docbook2html_preprocess.xsl: + +generate_glossary.xsl: +generate_glossary.xsl: + + diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 200363d..5264132 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -1,11 +1,383 @@ =20 +All the imported/manual indexterm entries for single words or selma'o need +removing. Might be nice to re-apply * cb87291250fa978bcb67f965bfb880601ce= 9f367 +Chapter 6 lojban-word-importeds. for this. + +How about we split into , , and +? (is fragment quite right? pseudojbo? For things +that are lojbanic in structure, but not actual words; ktraile or +rafsi or similar). Basically all are Lojbanic to some extent; + are valid unless marked otherwise but have no +definition because phrasal; are valid unless marked +otherwise and have a definition unless marked otherwise; +is never valid nor has a definition. + + There should, however, be a way to mark that morphology fragments + are valid or not; consider cc + + What about cmevla? Maybe do , , ... ? + + +(from 4.xml): make into + +zort-: So for things like "spageti (Lojbanize)", what do you th= ink of spageti +(Lojbanize) or something? +I was thinking , but that seems a bit pointlessly bulky. +Oh, actually, without the parens at that point; they can get added back in= later if we want them. +By the code. + +Replace =E2=80=99 with ' + +Replace =E2=80=93 with — + +WRT rafsi: man seems best + + Will that suck for ger-zda ? + + Let alone logj-bang-girz + +r-hyphen -- just wrong + +Drop all the damned gismu definition tables in favour of cross references + +Handling chapter 2: why don't we just require that the number of sub-entri= es matches? + Also: maybe rename jbo/gloss for this purpose, or introduce roles. + +2.xml: + + +6.xml: + remove "This stuff was here before, not sure what it means - zort" + +3.xml: + becomes=20 + (an actual ISO code: + http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639:q ), as do most (all?) of the + + +4.xml: + + ' and friends: look for any single letter + that does't have a letteral role + + r- hyphen or -- lose + the space after - + + -ska-< + BUNCH MORE LIKE THIS + -kli-< -- move the + first hyphen, or something + + cc needs a role + + First para starts with , = for no apparent reason? + + (-sarji-)=20 + (-zbasu-) + -- extraneous trailing - + + Turn the metric prefix lists into 3 column tables; split on the / + + ). -- FIXME + + djan. smif. -- smif? *Really*? + +5.xml: + Preem Palverexample + is in the wrong place + + Karaitpic should be Karaitic + + Skt =3D emperor + ... a number of others; search on ' =3D ' + Qab =3D group of people -- should split into fourth + column on the =3D, like others? Or not, but should be consistent. + Especially given dog for working sheep, which is + curretnly in the languages column. -_- Maybe name tho columns, + too? + + -- FIXME + +6.xml: + James + + I say li mi. -- needs a quote? + + Why pi? -- needs a - after the pi to match the re= d book + +7.xml: + + mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i soi vo'e v= o'i mi bajykla ti ta -- needs to be 2 + =20 + I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.I= run to this from that and vice versa.=20 + -- that's a change; not on the errata list + + t1 talks to you about subject t3 in langua + ge t4 + since t2 (the addressee) is alread + y known to be + + c1 is a second person pronoun in language + c4 + since both the c2 place (the gramm + atical class) and the c3 place (the meaning) + are obvious from the context + + -- used to be examples! That's bad! + + -- bad + +8.xml + + ko'e (explained in Chapter + ). + =20 + -- double chapter + +9.xml + + the-number =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) theref ore 4.= -- needs an "n" before the =3D + + Do we want to auto-generate the BAI list at the end of Chapter 9 + from jbovlaste? Probably not for v1.1; for v2 maybe just say + "read the dict"? + + with + property + + as a + standard for + + as a + part of + + as a + limit of + + as a + method for + + on the same date + as -- one entry + + from source as an origin of + pertained to by concerning -- should almost + certainly be two entries; check and add to errata + + For-every X: X is-a-goer-to the store if-and-onl y-if is-a-walker= -on the field. + -- should be: "For-every X: X is-a-goer-to the store if-and-only-if it i= s-a-walker-on the field." (but check errata page) + +@@ -1463,7 +1463,7 @@ + + + +- la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nel= ci mi ++ la .apasionatas. ku poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se = nelci mi + The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein i= s-liked-by me. + + +@@ -1473,7 +1473,7 @@ + + + +- la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi ++ la .apasionatas. ku noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi + The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-= by me. + + +@@ -1502,7 +1502,7 @@ + + + +- la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi ++ la .apasionatas. ku pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi + The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. + + +@@ -1512,7 +1512,7 @@ + + + +- la .apasionatas ne la betovn. se nelci mi ++ la .apasionatas. ku ne la betovn. se nelci mi + The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me. + +-- and others + +10.xml + + mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci -- + doubled up + + + Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. + + [snip others] + + To my left, the man bites the dog. + + -- not really, no. + + ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo [whole time] [= all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places] + -- needs a gloss section + + once + ... + roroi + always + etc. + pare'u + the first time + rere'u + the second time + etc. + -- disconnected para, that were seperated by commas inside the + text + +12.xml + + kl1 goes to car kl2=3Dka1 which carries ka2 propell + ed by ka3 from origin kl3 + via route kl4 by means of kl5 + + kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via r + oute kl4 + by means of car kl5=3Dka1 carrying ka2 + propelled by + ka3. + + + dzukla: c1=3Dk1 walks to k2 from k + 3 via route k4 using limbs k5=3Dc3 + on surface c2 + + -- needs merge + +13.xml + + + ro'i + emotional + denying + emotion + + + + ro'o + physicaldenyingphysical + + + ro'u + sexualsexualabstinence + + -- needs merge + + hauteurrank + -- hwat the hell is hauteur rank? and theoretically needs merge + + STuff under [frili] needs merge + + obviously -- needs to go in li'a + + omitting ex.ni3 z + ou3 hai2s + hi pao -- needs a 3 for the last + + [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI + [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO -- need splitt= ing + + + +15.xml + + (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the pre + vious example is that + someone who has held four jobs has also held thre + e jobs)=20 + + (undue quantity negation indicating that the valu + e on a + scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect) + + -- bad break + + ), the -- FIXME + +17.xml: + + ligatured fi fi -- and several followig -- doubled + + h + a + n + 4 + -- should not be superscript + +18.xml: + +

123 ignore

-- heh + +

300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

10

.1010

30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

(n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n

-- misisng bits + + the function whose value is always f -- needs varn= ame + +19.xml: + + As for this news, I knew it. -- en + +20.xml: + + -- should be chapter-relative-clauses-= section-vuho + +21.xml: + + . -- should be + +TODO + + move all commenst about jbophrase and such into README-tags, have + README and TODO reference README-tags + +All + =20 + At least one TAG SPOT para is stil there but not in use. + =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D Instructions For Helpers =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.