The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours @@ -1327,21 +1327,21 @@ might appear at the end of = a command, to which the response <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d4"/>

.aicai - [intention] [maximal] + [intention] [maximal]

corresponds to=20 Aye! Aye! (hence the choice of cmavo). <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d5"/>

.e'apei @@ -1534,21 +1534,21 @@ =20 I now pronounce you husband and wife, where the very ac= t of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban= translation might be: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d1"/>

ca'e le re do cu simxu speni =20 - [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses. + [I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.

ba'anai ba'acu'= i = ba'a e= xperiencedexample rememberedexample antic= ipatedexample evidentialsba'a scale The three scale positions of=20 ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that i= t is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus=20 =20 =20 ba'a means that the statement represents a futu= re event as anticipated by the speaker;=20 =20 =20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 8c13c1f..0e87b0c 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -252,83 +252,83 @@

Logical connection of bridi I selma'o JA se= lma'o = bridilogical connective for <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">ijek logical connectivesconnecting bridi Now we are ready to= express=20 in Lojban! The kind of logi= cal connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them log= ically is an ijek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d1"/>

la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-a-man or James is-a-woman. + John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.

Here we have two separate Lojban bridi,=20 la djan. nanmu and=20 la djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connected by= =20 .ija, the ijek for the truth function=20 A. The=20 .i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dea= ling with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d2"/>

la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-a-man and James is-a-woman. + John is-a-man and James is-a-woman.

la djan. nanmu .ijo la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. + John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.

la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman. + John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.

bridilogical connection with negation To obtain= the other truth tables listed in=20 =20 , we need to know how to neg= ate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate = them directly by inserting=20 na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us= to place the negation within the connective itself. I selma'o JA se= lma'o To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix= =20 na to the JA cmavo but after the=20 .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, s= uffix=20 -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word= is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being= negated. So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires=20 =20 O with either of the two bridi= negated (not both), we can say either: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d5"/>

la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. + John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.

la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu - John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman + John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman

The meaning of both=20 and=20 is the same as that of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d7"/>

@@ -524,21 +524,21 @@ If you feed the pig, then it will grow are not logical = connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using=20 =20 rinka as the selbri joining two event abstracti= ons, thus:

=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7"/>

le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro - The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (i= t will grow). + The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of= (it will grow).

Causality is discussed in far more detail in=20 . and=20 illustrates a truth functio= n, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We alr= eady understand how to negate the first bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/> @@ -567,30 +567,30 @@ =20 <quote>gi</quote> itself and=20 <quote>ginai</quote>.</para> <para>Further examples:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qgmv" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d10"/>

ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman. + John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.

ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu - John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman. + John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.

GA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= G= A selma'o <= primary>ganai <= primary>gekssyntax of The synt= ax of geks is: [se] GA [nai] nai= GI selma'o<= /primary> gi= giks<= /primary>syntax of and of giks (which ar= e not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought conn= ection) is: =20 =20 =20 @@ -611,36 +611,36 @@ John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market. Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban d= oes not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bri= di can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logic= al connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d2"/>

la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci - John and Alice go-to the market. + John and Alice go-to the market.

A selma'o .e logical = connectiontransformation between forms=20 means exactly the same thin= g as=20 : one may be rigorously tran= sformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is = true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; a= ll of them, with one exception (see=20 ), can always be transforme= d into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth= function. A selma'o eksin sumti forethought logical connection sumti connectionafterthought The afterthought logical = connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selm= a'o A. If ijeks were used in=20 , the meaning would be chang= ed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d3"/>

la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci - John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market. + John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.

leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all. Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct Eng= lish equivalent: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d4"/>

la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci @@ -653,21 +653,21 @@ GA selma'o geksin forethought sumti connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">sumti connectionforethought What about forethought sumti con= nection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They ar= e not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most= commonly used ones. =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d5"/>

ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci - Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market. + Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.

A selma'o se writin= g conventionin eks na writing conventionin eks Of course, eks include all the same patte= rns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When=20 na or=20 se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is in= voked, as in the following example: A selma'o na.a FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6"/> @@ -690,46 +690,46 @@ E,=20 O, and=20 U, all but=20 O have the same truth values n= o matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d1"/>

mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu - I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man. + I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.

means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise, <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d2"/>

mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu - I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man. + I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.

means that one or more of the component sentences is true. logical connectiv= esequivalence relation on 3 sentences logical connectives<= /primary>non-associative=20 O, however, is different. Work= ing out the truth table for =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d3"/>

mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. - If-and-only-if I am-a-man. + If-and-only-if I am-a-man.

shows that=20 does not mean that either I= am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate transla= tion would be: Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I poss= ess either exactly one or else all three. logical connectio= nnegation in connecting more than 2 sentences logical conn= ectionof more than 2 sentencesth= ings to avoid Because of the counterintuitiveness of= this outcome, it is safest to avoid=20 O with more than two sentences= . Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected tru= th values when used with more than two sentences. logical connectio= nof more than 2 sentencesall or = none In fact, no combination of logical connectives = can produce the=20 @@ -931,40 +931,40 @@ , would seem to be the right= approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not beg= in with=20 ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, pr= oducing=20 , which is instead parallel = to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d9"/>

mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke= 'e] - I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the off= ice ). + I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the = office ).

KE selma'o ke ke in s= umti groupingwhere allowed If = sumti were allowed to begin with=20 ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so=20 ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logic= al connective. This rule does not apply to=20 tu'e grouping of bridi, as=20 shows. German rich manexample Now we have enough facil= ities to handle the problem of=20 :=20 I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these. T= he following paraphrase has the correct meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d10"/>

[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u] ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) - and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ). + and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).

The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all = three component sentences are true or all three are false. =20

Compound bridi logical connectio= nof selbri So far we have seen= how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi con= nection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one su= mti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically conne= ct sentences that are identical except for having different selbri. =20 =20 @@ -983,95 +983,95 @@ is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d2"/>

mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. - I go-to the market and like John. + I go-to the market and like John.

GIhA selma'o<= /primary> gi= 'e com= pound bridilogical connection of bridi-taildefinition gihekdefinition A= s=20 indicates, giheks are used = in afterthought to create compound bridi;=20 =20 =20 gi'e is the gihek corresponding to=20 and. The actual phrases=20 klama le zarci and=20 nelci la djan. that the gihek connects are know= n as=20 bridi-tails, because they represent (in this use) the= =20 tail end of a bridi, including the selbri and any follo= wing sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d3"/>

mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci - I am-rich and go-to the market. + I am-rich and go-to the market.

In=20 , the first bridi-tail is=20 ricfu, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-ta= il is=20 klama le zarci, a selbri with one following sum= ti. compound bridimore than one sumti in common Sup= pose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d4"/>

mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu do - I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-yo= u. + I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from= -you.

compound bridi wi= th more than one sumti in commonwith common sumti firs= t In=20 , the first and last sumti o= f each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are different. = By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to=20 can be achieved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d5"/>

fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu - to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units. + to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units.

tail-termsdefinition logical connectivesbridi-tail con= nection where the=20 fi does not have an exact English translation b= ecause it merely places=20 do in the third place of both=20 lebna and=20 dunda. However, a form that preserves natural s= umti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also = allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as = tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of= =20 therefore is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d6"/>

mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do - I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.<= /en> + I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from yo= u.

VAU selma'o vau= bridi= -tailseliding vau in compound bridi with more than one sum= ti in commonwith vau The=20 vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail = from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable=20 vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it e= ver necessary to express this=20 =20 vau. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d7"/>

mi klama le zarci [vau] - I go-to the market. + I go-to the market.

has a single elided=20 vau, and=20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d8"/>

@@ -1083,49 +1083,49 @@ terminates both the right-h= and bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.

logical connectiv= esobservative sentence connection A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete senten= ces, the Lojban observative: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d9"/>

klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju - A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. + A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.

logical connectio= nof observativesrelation of firs= t places Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi un= derlying=20 , this compound bridi does n= ot necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the pr= esence of an explicit x1 (other than=20 =20 zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can forc= e the goer and the walker to be identical. relation of first= places in logical connection of observativesrationale= A strong argument for this convention is provided = by analysis of the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d10"/>

klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. - A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Ro= me. + A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from= -Rome.

If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi = were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), = the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the = same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York = is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting=20 da, meaning roughly=20 something, into the x1 place cures the problem: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d11"/>

da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom. Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix - and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome. + and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.

GIhA selma'o<= /primary> na= i = se na gi= hekssyntax of The syntax of gi= heks is: =20 [na] [se] GIhA [nai] which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.

@@ -1148,21 +1148,21 @@ ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after giheks: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2"/>

mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e] I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, - or walk-to the school and walk-to the office. + or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.

KEhE selma'o<= /primary> ke= logic= al connectionof bridi-tailsrestr= iction on ke <= primary>multiple compound bridirestriction on ke is the gihek version of=20 . The same rule about using= =20 ke ... ke'e bracketing only just after a connective app= lies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in=20 cannot be explicitly groupe= d; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them. compound bridiseparate tail-terms for bridi-tails Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its = own set of tail-terms: =20 @@ -1176,21 +1176,21 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>owe money</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-901t"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d4"/>

mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau = la djan. - [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/f= rom John. + [If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book t= o/from John.

The literal English translation in=20 is almost unintelligible, b= ut the Lojban is perfectly grammatical.=20 mi fills the x1 place of all three selbri;=20 lo rupnu is the x2 of=20 dejni, whereas=20 le cukta is a tail-term shared between=20 dunda and=20 lebna;=20 @@ -1198,21 +1198,21 @@ dejni and by=20 dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater clari= ty is probably achieved by moving=20 la djan. to the beginning of the sentence, as i= n=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d5"/>

fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna va= u le cukta - To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or = take the book. + To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give = or take the book.

logical connectio= nof bridi-tailsforethought Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bri= di-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban gra= mmar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a sing= le bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their= selbri. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d6"/>

mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan. I both go to the market and like John. @@ -1232,44 +1232,44 @@

negating a foreth= ought-connected bridi-tail pair negating a forethought-connected sentence pair The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated a= s a whole by prefixing=20 na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d8"/>

mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani - [False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house. + [False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house.

compound bridiseparate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails= Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the eq= uivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought= equivalent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d9"/>

mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do - I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/f= rom you. + I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) t= o/from you.

forethought conne= ctionobservatives Here is a pa= ir of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of=20 =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d10"/>

ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju - Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office. + Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.

Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both= shared and unshared terms before their selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d11"/>

mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.= @@ -1306,94 +1306,94 @@ to the market from th= e office FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d2"/>

mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je =20 le zdani ce'e le ckule I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and - to-the house [plus] from-the school. + to-the house [plus] from-the school.

The literal translation uses=20 [plus] to indicate the termset connective, and=20 [joint] to indicate the position of the logical connect= ive joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d3"/>

mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule - I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from= -the school. + I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house f= rom-the school.

which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 pla= ces only. termset logical c= onnectionunequal length What h= appens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to = bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of w= hich bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one brid= i and the x3 place of another: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d4"/>

mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju =20 - I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office. + I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office= .

can be clearly understood by expansion to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d5"/>

mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju - I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office. + I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office= .

unequal termset c= onnectioncompared with compound bridi connection with = unequal separate bridi-tails So=20 le briju is your origin but my destination, and= thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of=20 klama simultaneously! This is legal because eve= n though there is only one selbri,=20 klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed h= ere. In addition,=20 mi in=20 is serving as a termset con= taining only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with = tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d6"/>

mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju - I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office. + I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.

means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the= office;=20 =20 le briju is the x3 place of=20 klama and the x2 place of=20 dzukla. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i forethought termsetslogical connection of logic= al connectionof forethought termsets Forethought termsets also exist, and use=20 nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and=20 nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal= the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit= side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a= gek, with the gek just after the=20 nu'i, and an extra=20 nu'u just before the gik: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e11d7"/>

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office - [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset]. + [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].

Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 nu'i is used. The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 and=20 .

Logical connection within tanru @@ -1404,30 +1404,30 @@ blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within t= he tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were = always prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a p= air of examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d1"/>

ti blanu zdani - This is-a-blue type-of house. + This is-a-blue type-of house.

ti blanu je zdani - This is-blue and a-house. + This is-blue and a-house.

blue houseexample unconnected tanrucontrasted with log= ically connected version logical connectionin tanrucontrasted with unconnected version B= ut of course=20 and=20 are not necessarily equival= ent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that=20 might just as well mean <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d3"/> @@ -1458,36 +1458,36 @@ the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always= work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blu= e houses, then =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d6"/>

la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu - Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person. + Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.

tanru grouping effect of jeks would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedenc= e than unmarked tanru grouping, but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d7"/>

la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu - Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person. + Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.

is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the h= ouse, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to s= ay=20 Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blu= e team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make s= uch logical manipulations impossible. =20 BO selma'o bo logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= bo It suffices to note here, then, a few purely gra= mmatical points about tanru logical connection.=20 =20 bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rul= es: @@ -1542,21 +1542,21 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA= selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><prima= ry>tanru connection grouping</primary><secondary>guheks unmarked tanru</sec= ondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>tanru gr= ouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm= >=20 Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are = used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru gro= uping does:</para> =20 =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Gyrc"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d11"/>

la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu - Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person. + Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.

is the forethought version of=20 . sumti logical con= nectioncontrasted with tanru logical connection tanru logi= cal connectioncontrasted with sumti logical connection= tan= rureducing logically connected sumti tocaveat = logical connectionof tanrucaveat A word of caution about the use of logical= ly connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead th= e speaker astray. In correctly reducing <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d12"/>

@@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@ Is is true that to the beginning of a statement; there = is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its = subject.=20 Is Fido a dog? is the truth question corresponding to= =20 Fido is a dog. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is t= o prefix the cmavo=20 xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement:

xu la faidon. gerku - Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog? + Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?

and=20 are equivalent in meaning.<= /para> truth questionsanswering "no" truth questionsanswering "yes" truth questionsas yes-or-no que= stions A truth question can be answered=20 yes or=20 no, depending on the truth or falsity, respecti= vely, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 go'i and of saying=20 @@ -1677,21 +1677,21 @@ By translating=20 into Lojban and prefixing= =20 xu to signal a truth question, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d7"/>

xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu - Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)? + Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?

Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate= answer would be=20 go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answ= er would be=20 nago'i. =20 But that is not what an English-speaker who utters=20 is asking! The true signifi= cance of=20 is that the speaker desires= to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presu= pposed that only one is true). questionsconnection Lojban has an elegant mecha= nism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in = English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lo= jban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done b= y using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the log= ical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table: @@ -1734,21 +1734,21 @@ .i were not available, and different cmavo had = to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-conn= ective cmavo assignments.) connective questi= onsanswering One correct trans= lation of=20 employs a question gihek: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d8"/>

la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu =20 - Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat? + Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?

Here are some plausible answers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d9"/>

nagi'e Alice is not a dog and is a cat. @@ -1815,21 +1815,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d14"/>

do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi =20 gi loi tcati You desire something-about [truth function?] a-mass-of coffee - [or] a-mass-of tea? + [or] a-mass-of tea?

the answer must be in afterthought form. connective questi= onscompared with other languages There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic = form of connective question. The Chinese sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d15"/>

ni @@ -1837,21 +1837,21 @@

means=20 Do you walk or run?, and is exactly parallel to the Loj= ban: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d16"/>

do cadzu gi'i bajra =20 - You walk [or?] run? + You walk [or?] run?

connective questi= on answerscontrasted with other languages<= /indexterm> However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply = to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. if coffeebring teaexample = Abraham Lincolnexample imperativesand truth truthin imperative sentences bridi connectionuse of imperative= s in bridi connectionuse of truth questions in= Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of = sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the conve= ntion that a truth question is true if the answer is=20 =20 =20 yes and false if the answer is=20 no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involv= ing the special pro-sumti=20 ko, which means=20 you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the= command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may= be translated thus: @@ -1904,38 +1904,38 @@ JOI selma'o joi= which would mean that each of them carried the piano= by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomeno= n as a=20 mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, J= ohn-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of t= hem separately. The cmavo=20 joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or mor= e components into a mass: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d3"/>

la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno - John massed-with Alice carry the piano. + John massed-with Alice carry the piano. =20

components contra= sted with massin properties of= mass contrasted with compon= entsin properties of supervisingas a = contribution to mass action=20 covers the case mentioned, = where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all= the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because= the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can l= ead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then J= ohn-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in=20 =20 . JA selma'o A se= lma'o JOI selma'o non-logical connectionin tanrudistinguishing from connection of sumti non-logical connection= of sumtidistinguishing from connection in = tanru joi grammarcontrasted with jeks joi grammarcontrasted with eks non-logical connectionand elida= bility of terminators Grammatically,=20 joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) o= r between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid = for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: LE selma'o KU selma= 'o le ku t= erminatorseliding ku in non-logical connections FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4"/>

le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci - The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. + The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.

The cmavo=20 ku is the elidable terminator for=20 le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this = case. If the first=20 ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see= =20 le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru component is= to follow; since the second=20 le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. = No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a= following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously. JOI selma'o joikdefinition Single or compound cma= vo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the n= ames for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect= bridi-tails. blue and redexample mixed withexample tanru connectionconnotation of non-logical In tanr= u,=20 @@ -2026,63 +2026,63 @@ =20 jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern= : the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals = - but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George= are brothers is: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d8"/>

la djeimyz. bruna la djordj. - James is-the-brother-of George. + James is-the-brother-of George.

brothersexample possibly adding a discursive el= ement meaning=20 and vice versa. However,=20 James and George are brothers cannot be correctly trans= lated as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d9"/>

la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna - James and George is-a-brother. + James and George is-a-brother.

since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brothe= r and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the=20 .e is changed to=20 jo'u, however, the meaning of=20 =20 is preserved: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d10"/>

la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna =20 - James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers. + James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.= =20

The tanru=20 remei bruna is not strictly necessary in this s= entence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and Ge= orge are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, w= e could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of=20 =20 remei is a mass with two components, leading to= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d11"/>

la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei - James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome. + James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.

joi= where=20 joi is used to create the necessary mass. fa'u respectivelyexample respectivelyspecifying with fa'= u co= nnectionnon-distributed Likewi= se,=20 fa'u can be used to put two individuals togethe= r where order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d12"/> @@ -2122,32 +2122,32 @@ <para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-MBsp"/>. The meaning of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-MBsp"/> can also be conveyed by a t= ermset:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-nER7"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d15"/>

la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas.= prami =20 - James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves. + James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.

termsetscompared to fa'u fa'ucompared to termsets at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as t= o make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lis= ts is only described rather than enumerated: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d16"/>

la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi - James and-respectively George love two sisters. + James and-respectively George love two sisters.

which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, = though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.

More about non-logical connectives pi'u ku'a jo'e cross-pr= oductof sets intersectionof sets unionof sets set operations The final three= JOI cmavo,=20 jo'e,=20 =20 ku'a, and=20 @@ -2165,107 +2165,107 @@ =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d1"/>

lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda =20 - The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large= . + The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is la= rge. =20

lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu =20 - The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things i= s small. + The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-thing= s is small. =20

rich and Germanexample intersection of setscompared wi= th and union of setscompared with or There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes=20 and=20 equivalent respectively to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d3"/>

lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda - The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large. + The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d4"/>

lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu - The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small. + The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.

The following example uses=20 se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of two el= ements: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d5"/>

la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.<= /jbo> =20 cu prami se remei James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha =20 - are-lover type-of-pairs. + are-lover type-of-pairs.

andcontrasted with cross-product cross-productcontrast= ed with and <= primary>econtrasted with pi'u = pi'ucon= trasted with .e means that each of the pairs James/= Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefo= re it is similar in meaning to=20 ; however, that example spea= ks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa. JOI selma'o non-log= ical connectivesgrouping joiksgroupin= g Joiks may be combined with=20 bo or with=20 ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows groupin= g of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete par= allelism with logical connections: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d6"/>

mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei (I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) - are-a-mass type-of-two-set + are-a-mass type-of-two-set

asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass= . termsetsnon-logical connection of non-logical connectionof termsets Non-logical connection is permitted a= t the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumt= i or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place s= tructure of=20 =20 casnu is: casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2 so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not expl= ained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in diffe= rent languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we = can say: discuss in languageexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d7"/>

mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu =20 ( I [plus] in-language Lojban - massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss. + massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.

Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in=20 cannot be mechanically conv= erted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi= . The forethought equivalent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d8"/>

@@ -2334,21 +2334,21 @@ Fran fell out of the boat with=20 .ijoi.

nai= scalar negation= of non-logical connective non-logical connectiveseffect of = nai on joikseffect of nai on naieffect on= joiks The following=20 nai, if present, does not negate either of the = things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (l= ogical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d11"/>

mi jo'unai do cu remei - I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome + I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome

The result of=20 mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not a mass= , therefore=20 =20 jo'u is not applicable;=20 =20 joi would be the correct connective. connective answer= snon-logical connective questionsnon= -logical There is no joik question cmavo as such; h= owever, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logic= al connective question, as in the following exchange: @@ -2428,21 +2428,21 @@ is equivalent to: sebi'o<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d3"/>

mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac. =20 - I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First= -hour. + I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] Fi= rst-hour.

English cannot readily express=20 sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by re= versing the two sumti. =20 mi'i intervalsexpressed as center and distance Th= e third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely=20 mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a differe= nt viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. F= or example: =20 bomb destroyed fifty = milesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -2558,21 +2558,21 @@ joigiks= connection types Joigiks may be used to = non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.<= /para> in forethought becomes: carry the pianoexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d10"/>

joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno - [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. + [Together] John and Alice carry the piano. =20

The first=20 gi is part of the joigik; the second=20 =20 gi is the regular gik that separates the two things bei= ng connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed in foretho= ught as: @@ -2605,34 +2605,34 @@ Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 , and contain many mekso features not= explained in this chapter. exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1"/>

vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci - ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. + ( Three or four ) people go-to the market.

three of four peo= pleexample=20 is equivalent in meaning, b= ut uses forethought connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d2"/>

vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci - ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. + ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.

ve'o Note that the mekso in=20 and=20 are being used as quantifie= rs. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed i= n=20 vei and=20 ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right p= arenthesis mark,=20 ve'o, is an elidable terminator. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: @@ -2763,39 +2763,39 @@ The verbatim translation of=20 , namely: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d5"/>

mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja - I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food. + I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.<= /gloss>

fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that t= he buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying= was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is = discussed in=20 .) However, the tense informati= on - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buyi= ng food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The=20 .ije is replaced by=20 .ijebo, and the tense cmavo=20 ba is inserted between=20 .ije and=20 bo: ba .ijebabo FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d6"/>

mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja =20 - I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of f= ood. + I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-o= f food.

Here the=20 pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the tim= e of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The=20 ba relates the two items to one another: the se= cond item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omittin= g the=20 bo; if it were omitted, the=20 ba and the second=20 pu would run together to form a compound tense= =20 =20 =20 @@ -2937,21 +2937,21 @@ =20 =20 and=20 are equivalent in meaning:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d1"/>

le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu = xlali - The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Fra= nk's writing is bad. + The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of = Frank's writing is bad.

le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. =20 @@ -2971,21 +2971,21 @@

Jupiter lifeexample is true, since the embedded= sentence is a tautology, but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4"/>

mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= - or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at= Jupiter + or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't= -at Jupiter

is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (=20 jinvi requires some sort of evidence, real or f= ancied, unlike=20 krici).

Constructs and appropriate connectives connectivestable by constructs connected The fo= llowing table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically o= r non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required fo= r both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) = indicates that tensed connection is permitted. A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not po= ssible. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 61e294b..57d06ea 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -148,31 +148,31 @@ The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi = is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo= =20 na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affir= mative form of the bridi (but after the=20 cu, if there is one): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d3"/>

mi klama le zarci - I go-to the store. + I go-to the store.

when negated becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d4"/>

mi na klama le zarci - I [false] go-to the store. + I [false] go-to the store.

Note that we have used a special convention to show in the Engli= sh that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word=20 not, because this highlights the naturalness of putting= the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to l= earn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with= =20 na and natural language negation with=20 not. In English, the word=20 not can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an Engl= ish predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,=20 not may indicate either contradictory negation or anoth= er form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi neg= ation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always = a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole br= idi. =20 Because of the ambiguity of English=20 @@ -268,32 +268,32 @@ na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar current= ly does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate construc= ts involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation whe= re you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru = form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept= separate from other forms of negation. =20 The grammar of=20 na allows multiple adjacent negations, which ca= ncel out, as in normal logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d11"/>

ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi - This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me)= . + This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to = me). =20

which is the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d12"/>

ti barda prenu co melbi mi - This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me). + This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me).

When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with= =20 na is permitted in two positions: before or aft= er the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined= , but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses= /modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it = remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d13"/>

mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci @@ -584,21 +584,21 @@ mi klama le zarci I go to the market.

mi na'e klama le zarci - I non-go to the market. + I non-go to the market.

Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being use= d in=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is=20 na'e. But what exactly does=20 na'e negate? Does the negation include only the gismu= =20 @@ -607,56 +607,56 @@ only the gismu. The cmavo=20 na'e always applies only to what follows it. looks as if it were paralle= l to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d3"/>

mi na klama le zarci - I [false] go-to the market. + I [false] go-to the market.

but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation usin= g=20 na denies the truth of a relationship, but a se= lbri negation with=20 na'e asserts that a relationship exists other than that= stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statem= ent. The grammar allotted to=20 na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar negation= s in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain t= he scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of=20 na'e is determined. In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before com= bining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-= selbri-scope negation, for which we can use=20 na'e as well. The positive sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d4"/>

mi cadzu klama le zarci - I walking-ly go to the market. + I walking-ly go to the market.

can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d5"/>

mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci - I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market. + I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.

mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci - I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market. + I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.

These negations show the default scope of=20 na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanr= u.=20 =20 says that I am going to the= market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, the= re are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one - se= e=20 for a discussion of tanru meaning).= In neither=20 nor=20 does the=20 @@ -670,78 +670,78 @@ mo question must be plausible - the result must= not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate= to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the con= text.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, w= hile still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbr= i negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a differe= nt relationship. We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than= a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as= exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given= twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the=20 na'e): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d7"/>

mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci - I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market. + I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.

This negation uses the same=20 ke and=20 ke'e delimiters (the=20 ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that ar= e used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The=20 ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negati= on does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-stru= cture is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves= are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by=20 na'e. Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d8"/>

mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci - I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market. + I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.

In=20 , only the=20 sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is= indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly. Negations made with=20 na'e or=20 na'eke also include within their scope any sumti attach= ed to the brivla or tanru with=20 be or=20 bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of the bri= vla or tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d9"/>

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci - I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.= + I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the mark= et.

Note that=20 and=20 do not express the same thi= ng: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d10"/>

mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka - I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms. + I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.

mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e] mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]) - I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms). + I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).

The translations show that the negation in=20 is more restricted in scope= ; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (=20 mi). Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be= unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of=20 na'e as an operator. Grouping with=20 ke and=20 ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advan= tage.=20 na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Internal bind= ing of tanru, with=20 @@ -786,30 +786,30 @@ other than,=20 non-, or another negator for=20 na'e in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban in= to English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d13"/>

mi na'e klama le zarci I am other-than-(going-to) the market. - ?I am not going-to the market. + ?I am not going-to the market.

mi nalkla le zarci - I am-a-non-go-er-to the market. + I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.

Note that to compare with the English translation form using=20 non-, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were= a noun. Since Lojban=20 klama is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjecti= ve, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in mea= ning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly= different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.= Consider the following highly problematic sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d15"/> @@ -822,32 +822,32 @@ The selbri=20 krecau negates with=20 na'e as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d16"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-other-than hair-without. - The current King of France is other-than-bald. + The current King of France is other-than-bald.

or, as a lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d17"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without. - The current King of France is a non-bald-one. + The current King of France is a non-bald-one.

and=20 express the predicate negat= ion forms using a negation word (=20 na'e) or rafsi (=20 -nal-); yet they make positive assertions about the cur= rent King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This foll= ows from the close binding of=20 na'e to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by = absorbing the negative marker into the word. =20 =20 @@ -876,41 +876,41 @@

Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 , the default is the set of = plausible alternatives. Thus if we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre - The chair is a non-(red-thing). + The chair is a non-(red-thing).

the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color a= nd not <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d2"/>

le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci - The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market. + The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market.

However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or con= trary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that w= e are referring to a color by saying: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d3"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre skari - The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something u= nder some conditions). + The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by somethin= g under some conditions).

We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the= two trailing sumti values explicit (the=20 as perceived by and=20 under conditions places have been added to the place st= ructure of=20 xunre). But assume we have a really stubborn li= stener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to = misinterpret=20 even with three specific su= mti provided. In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita=20 ci'u, which translates roughly as=20 =20 @@ -918,109 +918,109 @@ X is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti c= an be bound into the negated selbri with=20 be. To clarify=20 , we might say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d4"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari =20 - The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing. + The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.

We can alternately use the sumti tcita=20 teci'e, based on=20 ciste, which translates roughly as=20 of a system of components X, for universes of discourse= ; in this case, we would express=20 as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d5"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre be teci'e le skari - The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors= )-thing. + The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-col= ors)-thing.

Other places of=20 ciste can be brought out using the grammar of s= elma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d6"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'e lo'i skari - The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors= )-thing. + The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-col= ors)-thing.

The cmavo=20 le'a, also in selma'o BAI, can be used to speci= fy a category: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d7"/>

le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari - The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colo= rs)-thing. + The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-c= olors)-thing.

which is minimally different in meaning from=20 . The cmavo=20 na'e is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want= to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo= =20 to'e, which is grammatically equivalent to=20 na'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d8"/>

le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari =20 - The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-= ness. + The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of col= or-ness.

Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmav= o=20 no'e, also grammatically equivalent to=20 na'e. Here are some parallel examples of=20 na'e,=20 no'e, and=20 to'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d9"/>

ta melbi - That is-beautiful. + That is-beautiful.

ta na'e melbi That is-non-beautiful. That is other than beautiful. - That is ugly [in one sense]. + That is ugly [in one sense].

ta no'e melbi That is-neutrally beautiful. - That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful). + That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful)= .

ta to'e melbi That is-opposite-of beautiful. That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive. @@ -1146,21 +1146,21 @@ pu naje ca.

As a special case, a=20 -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE= , ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 ) signals a scalar negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d3"/>

mi paroinai dansu le bisli - I [once] [not] dance-on the ice + I [once] [not] dance-on the ice

means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 is very different from the = English use of=20 not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 never- that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in= =20 , most indicators have an impl= icit scale, and=20 nai changes the indicator to refer to the oppos= ite end of the scale. Thus=20 @@ -1197,21 +1197,21 @@ One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of= a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1"/>

xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom. - Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rom= e.) + Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and = Rome.)

You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've disc= ussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each a= nswer). The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent = to the expanded sentence with the=20 =20 na immediately after the=20 cu (and before any tense/modal): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d2"/> @@ -1234,111 +1234,111 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>The respondent can change the tense, putting the=20 <jbophrase>na</jbophrase> in either before or after the new tense:</pa= ra> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-rii2"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d4"/>

na ba go'i - [false] [future] [repeat previous] + [false] [future] [repeat previous]

meaning <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d5"/>

la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome. It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.

or alternatively <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d6"/>

ba na go'i - [false] [future] [repeat previous] + [false] [future] [repeat previous]

meaning <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d7"/>

la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom. - John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome. + John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.

We stated in=20 that sentences like=20 and=20 appear to be semantically i= dentical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found. You can also use a scalar negation with=20 na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a=20 na'eke immediately after any tense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d8"/>

na'e go'i - other-than [repeat previous] + other-than [repeat previous]

which means <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d9"/>

la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom. John previously other-than(went-to) - [both] Paris and Rome. + [both] Paris and Rome.

He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. = The unnecessary=20 ke and=20 ke'e would have been essential if the selbri had been a= tanru.

Affirmations There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (=20 ja'a) and selma'o NAhE (=20 je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding n= egator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positiv= e in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assumi= ng the same context as in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d1"/>

xu na go'i - Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]? + Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?

or equivalently <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d2"/>

xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom. Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to - [both] Paris and Rome.] + [both] Paris and Rome.]

The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative q= uestion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d3"/>

go'i [repeat previous] @@ -1348,39 +1348,39 @@ go'i does not mean=20 Yes it is; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous= statement unmodified, including any negators present; and=20 actually states that it is = false that John went to both Paris and Rome. When considering: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d4"/>

na go'i - [false] [repeat previous] + [false] [repeat previous]

as a response to a negative question like=20 , Lojban designers had to ch= oose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. D= oes=20 create a double negative in= the sentence by adding a new=20 na to the one already there (forming a double n= egative and hence a positive statement), or does the=20 na replace the previous one, leaving the senten= ce unchanged? It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the= preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or = a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way E= nglish usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japane= se, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as pos= itive. =20 The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can= also replace the=20 na in the context, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d5"/>

ja'a go'i - (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.) + (John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)

ja'a can replace=20 na in a similar manner wherever the latter is u= sed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d6"/>

@@ -1390,21 +1390,21 @@

je'a can replace=20 na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negat= ion does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the ab= sence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7"/>

ta je'a melbi - that is-indeed beautiful. + that is-indeed beautiful.

Metalinguistic negation forms The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with= negation. Consider the English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d1"/> @@ -1422,49 +1422,49 @@ =20 Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negatio= n with English-language examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d2"/>

I have not=20 stopped beating my wife beating my wife - (I never started - failure of presupposition). + (I never started - failure of presupposition).

5 is not blue - (color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of catego= ry). + (color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of cat= egory).

The current King of France is not bald. - (there is no current King of France - existential failure) + (there is no current King of France - existential failure)<= /gloss> =20

I do not have THREE children. - (I have two - simple undue quantity) + (I have two - simple undue quantity)

I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four. (inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous exam= ple is that someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs) @@ -1479,21 +1479,21 @@ (undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)

She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful. - (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale) + (undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)

<anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d9"/> The house is not blue, but green. (the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related cat= egory applies) @@ -1535,21 +1535,21 @@ I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED. (spelling or mispronunciation error) <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d14"/>

Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep. - (non-contradictory correction) + (non-contradictory correction)

The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended. Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples t= hat we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't= claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, = due to some error in the statement,=20 true and=20 false don't really apply. Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement inten= ding a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way = (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of = our logical negation schemes using=20 na,=20 na'e and kin. The cmavo=20 na'i is assigned this function. If it is presen= t in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the sta= tement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluat= ion of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive a= nd negative statements. @@ -1614,21 +1614,21 @@ xu question (see=20 ).=20 na'i will be used when something about the ques= tioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like=20 Have you stopped beating your wife?: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d15"/>

xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe - Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spo= use? + Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-= spouse?

Responses could include: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d16"/>

na'i go'i The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way. diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 2867040..f4be710 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -108,38 +108,38 @@

There are two plausible Lojban translations of=20 . The simpler one is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d2"/>

[zo'e] viska mi - Something-unspecified sees me. + Something-unspecified sees me.

zo'e somethingunspecified definite with "zo'e" zo'eas a translation for "something" The= cmavo=20 zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (i= ndeed, even=20 zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as exp= lained in=20 ) and the listener must fil= l in the correct value from context. In other words,=20 means=20 =E2=80=98You-know-what' sees me. However,=20 is just as likely to assert= simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translat= ion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3"/>

da zo'u da viska mi - There-is-an-X such-that X sees me. + There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.

da<= /indexterm> zo'econtrasted with da dacontrasted with zo'e existential= claimsdefinition daas a translation = for "something"=20 does not presuppose that th= e listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that t= here is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called=20 existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing= is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in princip= le - an inanimate object. We will see in=20 =20 =20 how to represent such restr= ictions.) ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u log= ical variablesnotation convention variableslogical prenexsyntax of prenexexpla= nation=20 has a two-part structure: t= here is the part=20 @@ -191,21 +191,21 @@ claims, because=20 da prami da is not structurally the same as=20 =20 da prami de. However, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d6"/>

de zo'u de prami de - There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y + There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y

logical variables= effect of global substitution = means exactly the same thing as=20 ; it does not matter which v= ariable is used as long as they are used consistently. It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bri= di directly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d7"/>

@@ -247,21 +247,21 @@ universal claims<= /primary>explanation Of course, this exa= mple is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. = It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal clai= ms (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed= , some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, s= ince they are so rarely true in Lojban.) =20 everything sees m= eexample The Lojban translatio= n of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d2"/>

ro da zo'u da viska mi - For-every X : X sees me. + For-every X : X sees me.

ro da ro everythingexpressing with "ro da" When the variable cmavo=20 da is preceded by=20 ro, the combination means=20 For every X rather than=20 There is an X. Superficially, these English formulation= s look totally unrelated:=20 will bring them within a co= mmon viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of=20 ro da for=20 everything on faith. @@ -453,21 +453,21 @@

prenex<= secondary>effect of order of variables in prenexpurpose of= You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of = the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order t= han the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider everyone bitten by do= g FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d3"/>

ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da - For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y = bites X. + For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog:= Y bites X.

The prenex of=20 is like that of=20 (but with relative clauses)= : it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to= some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi par= t, the=20 de appears before the=20 da. Therefore, the true translation is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d4"/> @@ -501,21 +501,21 @@ <quote>Everybody does</quote> or that=20 <quote>Everything is</quote> when in fact there are obvious counterexa= mples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such= statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such= as tense) which implicitly restricts them.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</= primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>re-orde= ring logical variables with se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"ge= neral-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>using to re-order logical v= ariables</secondary></indexterm> How can we express=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-Cfnb"/> in Lojban without a prenex?= Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:<= /para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-y90e"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6"/>

ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku - Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.<= /en> + Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-do= g.

using the conversion operator=20 se (explained in=20 ) to change the selbri=20 batci (=20 bites) into=20 se batci (=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the corresponding stra= tegy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained= =20 @@ -538,21 +538,21 @@ weapon against se= lfexample (in which=20 di is used rather than=20 da just for variety) loses its prenex as follow= s: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8"/>

ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di - This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-perso= n by-Z. + This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-pe= rson by-Z.

prenex<= secondary>dropping for terseness As the examples in= this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression o= ften even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguou= s language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are= observed.

Variables with generalized quantifiers PA selma'o quantifi= erswith logical variables So f= ar, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo= =20 ro in front. Now=20 ro is a Lojban number, and means=20 all; thus=20 @@ -596,21 +596,21 @@ numbers= English contrasted with Lojban on exactness numbersLojban contrasted with English on exactness Thi= s means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the re= levant occasion. In English, we might take=20 Two things see me to mean that at least two things see = the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would h= ave to be made as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d3"/>

su'ore da zo'u da viska mi - For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me. + For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.

which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the spea= ker, but not otherwise. We note the=20 su'o here meaning=20 at least;=20 su'o by itself is short for=20 su'opa where=20 pa means=20 one, as is explained in=20 . @@ -626,21 +626,21 @@ Two Xes see me. and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d5"/>

su'ore da viska mi - At-least-two Xes see me. + At-least-two Xes see me.

respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in=20 . ro prenu all person= sexample restricted variablecompared = with indefinite description indefinite descriptioncompared= with restricted variable indefinite descriptiondefinition= Now we can explain the constructions=20 ro prenu for=20 =20 all persons and=20 =20 re prenu for=20 @@ -665,31 +665,31 @@ Two persons see me. is short for <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d7"/>

re da poi prenu cu viska mi - Two Xes which are-persons see me. + Two Xes which are-persons see me.

which in turn is short for: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d8"/>

re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi - For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me. + For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.

order of variable= sin moving to prenex Note that= when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached= relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same ord= er in the prenex as in the bridi proper.

Grouping of quantifiers distribution of q= uantified sumti indefinite sumtimultiple in sentence Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expre= ssions neither of which is=20 ro or=20 su'o (remembering that=20 su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier i= s given): @@ -705,87 +705,87 @@ dogs biteexample three dogs bite two menexample multiple i= ndefinite sumtimeaning indefinite sumtimeaning when multiple in sentence The question ra= ised by=20 is, does each of the dogs b= ite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men pe= r dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the n= umber of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker = has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two= and six inclusive. Let us transform=20 step by step as we did with= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d2"/>

ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu - Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men. + Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.

(Note that we need separate variables=20 da and=20 de, because of the rule that says each indefini= te description gets a variable never used before or since.) =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d3"/>

ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da batci de - For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bit= es Y. + For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X = bites Y.

Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men= , and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events alt= ogether. multiple indefini= te sumtieffect of re-ordering in sentence<= /indexterm> How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which j= ust two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in = the prenex to =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d4"/>

re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de - For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bite= s Y + For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X b= ites Y

for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly tw= o, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The d= istinction is called a=20 scope distinction: in=20 ,=20 ci gerku is said to have wider scope than=20 re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in the pren= ex. In=20 the reverse is true. NUhU selma'o<= /primary> NU= hI selma'o = nu'u nu'i CEhE selma'o ce'e termseteffect on scope of mul= tiple indefinite sumti multiple indefinite sumti scopein t= ermset multiple indefinite sumtiexpressing with equal scop= e The solution is to use a termset, which is a grou= p of terms either joined by=20 ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surro= unded by=20 nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and=20 nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are ei= ther sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into = a termset are understood to have equal scope: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d5"/>

ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci - Three dogs [plus] two men, bite. + Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.

which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be= freely elided. roeffect of order when multiple in sentence indefinite sumticompared to sumti with lo sumti with locompared to i= ndefinite sumti quantified sumtidifferent types contrasted= for scope for distribution What about descriptors,= like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in term= sets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 lo case which functions like the case without a descrip= tor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 le nanmu means=20 ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 . Two sumti with=20 ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6"/>

[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu - [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men. + [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.

means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men spec= ified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit = quantifier before=20 le other than=20 ro, the problems of this section reappear.

The problem of=20 <quote>any</quote> Consider the English sentence @@ -821,21 +821,21 @@ , on the other hand, does no= t require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, = conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she wal= ks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban = translation of=20 =20 =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d3"/>

ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi - For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on= the field. + For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker= -on the field.

anyas a universal claimlater restricted Although=20 is a universal claim as wel= l, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or ano= ther in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothin= g is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the= -field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other. anyas an existential claim There is another use= of=20 any in English that is not universal but existential. C= onsider =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d4"/> @@ -847,68 +847,68 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>any box</primary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>need any box</p= rimary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-7Eu9"/> does not at all mean that I= need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only o= ne box. But the naive translation</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-KHya"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d5"/>

mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti - I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one + I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one

does not work either, because it asserts that there really is su= ch a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d6"/>

da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da - There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need = X. + There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I ne= ed X.

What to do? Well, the x2 place of=20 nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an= object, and in fact=20 can also be paraphrased as:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d7"/>

mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau ti - I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-tha= n this-one. + I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-= than this-one.

Rewritten using variables,=20 becomes <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d8"/>

mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that : - X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thin= g. + X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-t= hing.

logical variables= explicitly placing in outer prenex logical variablesimplicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex prenexinternal to a bridi So we see that= a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default,= a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionall= y) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not exte= nd beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prene= x explicitly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d9"/>

da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one su= ch-that : - I need the event-of my possessing X. + I need the event-of my possessing X.

existential varia= blein main bridi contrasted with in abstraction existentia= l variablein abstraction contrasted with in main bridi= But what are the implications of=20 and=20 ? The main difference is tha= t in=20 , the=20 da is said to exist in the real world of the ou= ter bridi; but in=20 =20 , the existence is only with= in the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to= pass. So=20 means @@ -1259,21 +1259,21 @@ I, and not you, love everything. expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d4"/>

mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda - I love everything, and-not, you love everything. + I love everything, and-not, you love everything.

and then into prenex form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d5"/>

roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the = same) it. @@ -1324,21 +1324,21 @@

We cannot express this directly with=20 na; the apparently obvious translation <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d2"/>

su'oda poi verba na klama su'ode poi ckule - At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-one= Y which-are school(s). + At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-= one Y which-are school(s).

when converted to the external negation form produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d3"/>

naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is false that some which are children go-to some which a= re schools. @@ -1404,38 +1404,38 @@ da, forcing us to invert it instead.=20 merely switched the selbri = and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to fixed negation The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that t= he quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert t= he selbri of=20 and rearrange the sumti to = produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d8"/>

su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba - Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child. + Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.

naku negationrationale for considering an advanced technique naku negation = boundaryeffect on conversion with se conversion with seeffect of naku negation boundary on or rather,=20 means something completely = different from=20 . Conversion with=20 se under=20 naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti a= re treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. = Thus, internal negation with=20 naku is considered an advanced technique, used = to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages. It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverte= d in a sentence.=20 is identical in meaning to:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d9"/>

su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule - Some children don't go-to some school. + Some children don't go-to some school.

indefinite sumti<= /primary>as implicit quantification but = in=20 , the bound variables=20 da and=20 de have been hidden. exporting negatio= n to prenex"naku" contrasted with internal b= ridi negation exporting negation to prenexinternal bridi n= egation contrasted with "naku" It is triv= ial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with=20 =20 na to the prenex, as we saw in=20 ; you just move it to the le= ft end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a=20 @@ -1481,21 +1481,21 @@ It is not the case that all children go to some school.

or more briefly <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d13"/>

ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule - All children [false] go-to some school(s). + All children [false] go-to some school(s).

conversion of sen= tence with quantified variablestechnique As noted in=20 , a sentence with two differ= ent quantified variables, such as=20 , cannot always be converted= with=20 se without first exporting the quantified variables. Wh= en the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, = but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d14"/> @@ -1585,116 +1585,116 @@ =20 =20 and=20 are exactly equivalent: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d1"/>

la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom. - John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome. + John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.

naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom. - It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome. + It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.

go to Paris or Ro= meexample DeMorgan's Lawand logically= connected sentences logically connected sentencesand DeMo= rgan's Law negatormovement from bridi to sumti= It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator= from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,=20 and related examples are no= t sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected senten= ces. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,=20 =20 expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d3"/>

ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama [It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, - and John, to-Rome, [false] goes. + and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.

The=20 ga and=20 gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 ge and=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. DeMorgan's Lawand bridi-tail logical connection= bridi-tail logical connecti= onand DeMorgan's Law Here is a= nother example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical co= nnection (explained in=20 =20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4"/>

la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla - Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs. + Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.

la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla Jane to-the market either [false] walks or [false] runs. - Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs). + Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs).

(Placing=20 le zarci before the selbri makes sure that it i= s properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise,= it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.) transformations w= ith logical connectivessteps I= t is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from=20 to=20 , that you become familiar w= ith expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the s= entences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation c= orrect by the following steps. By moving its=20 na to the beginning of the prenex as a=20 naku,=20 becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d6"/>

naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla - It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs). + It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs)= .

And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into t= wo bridi, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d7"/>

naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks) - and (Jane to-the market runs). + and (Jane to-the market runs).

is the result. At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute th= e negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d8"/>

ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla Either Jane to-the market [false] walks, - or Jane to-the market [false] runs. + or Jane to-the market [false] runs.

which is the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d9"/>

ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla @@ -1706,30 +1706,30 @@ which then condenses down to=20 . DeMorgan's Lawand internal naku negations internal naku negations= and DeMorgan's Law DeMorgan's Law must a= lso be applied to internal=20 naku negations: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d10"/>

ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la djan. - (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John. + (Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.

la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom. - John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome. + John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.

That=20 and=20 mean the same should become= evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the= Lojban and prove that they are the same.

selbri variables =20 bu'i bu'e bu'a GOhA= selma'o selbri logical variables logical variablesfor selbri In addition to the variables=20 @@ -1771,21 +1771,21 @@ re nanmu, since=20 bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla li= ke=20 nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involvi= ng the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex. selbri variables<= /primary>form when not in prenex When th= e prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d2"/>

la djim. bu'a la djan. - Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John. + Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John.

selbri variables<= /primary>quantified As a result, if the = number before the variable is anything but=20 su'o, the prenex is required: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d3"/>

ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. @@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@

A few notes on variables quantifieron previously quantified variable A v= ariable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has alre= ady been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as i= n: three cats whiteand two bigexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d1"/>

ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda - Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big. + Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.

What does=20 mean? The appearance of=20 ci da quantifies=20 da as referring to three things, which are rest= ricted by the relative clause to be cats. When=20 re da appears later, it refers to two of those = three things - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of=20 da alone, if there were any, would refer once m= ore to the three cats, so the requantification of=20 da is purely local. prenex scopein abstractions prenex scopein relative cl= auses prenex scopein embedded bridi prenex scopeinformal prenex scopefor sentences joined by .i prenex = scopefor sentences joined by ijeks In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to = following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index e680459..08ac12c 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -216,21 +216,21 @@ a but=20 A, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d2"/>

.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a =20 =20 - i [upper] V A N [lower] + i [upper] V A N [lower]

The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called=20 shift words. shift wordscope How long does a shift word last= ? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the= end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is onl= y in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found. LAU selma'o shiftsingle-lettergrammar of= shift wordfor single letter It is often conve= nient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo=20 tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU c= mavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: t= he combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 for details.) chemical elements= use of single-letter shift for= A likely use of=20 tau is in the internationally standardized symbols for = the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single up= per-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu: @@ -501,21 +501,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d7"/>

ce'a .pavrel. bu =20 - 12-point font size + 12-point font size =20

BY selma'o na'a= font<= /primary>example 12-pointexample handwritingexample Helvetica fontexample lo'acontrasted with na'a na'acontrasted with lo'a canceling= letter shifts = shift wordscanceling effect The cmavo=20 na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word = cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lowe= r-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 =20 =20 =20 lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentia= lly leaving font and case shifts in place. =20 @@ -746,21 +746,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4"/>

la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. =20 =20 - SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban. + SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.

Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 ru'o.abupyky instead. lerfu stringsas pro-sumtifor multiple sumti separ= ated by boi What about A gives BC<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5"/> @@ -807,21 +807,21 @@

References to lerfu pro-sumtilerfu stringeffect on reference to lerfu= itself lerfureference to The rules= of=20 make it impossible to use u= nmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1"/>

.abu. cu lerfu - A is-a-letteral. + A is-a-letteral.

LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 .abu refers to. The solution to this problem ma= kes use of the cmavo=20 me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. "a" is lett= eralexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/> @@ -856,21 +856,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-pbDf"/> is also true!</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primar= y></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</pri= mary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>la'e lu</p= rimary><secondary>compared with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm ty= pe=3D"general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>compared with la'= e lu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary= >representing lerfu</primary><secondary>lu contrasted with me'o</secondary>= </indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lu</primary><se= condary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm>= <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>co= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm= > <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>c= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <i= ndexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>c= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 <quote>lu ... li'u</quote> instead of=20 <quote>me'o</quote>, producing:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-pbDf"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d4"/>

lu .abu li'u cu lerfu - [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. + [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.

(The single-word quote=20 zo cannot be used, because=20 .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, because it says:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5"/> @@ -881,21 +881,21 @@ word "abu&qu= ot;example which is not the ca= se; rather, the thing symbolized by the word=20 .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6"/>

la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu =20 - The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. + The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.

which is correct.

Mathematical uses of lerfu strings lerfu stringsuses in mathematics mathematicsuse of ler= fu strings in This chapter is not about Lojban math= ematics, which is explained in=20 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu s= trings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. @@ -1185,21 +1185,21 @@ se'e convention is only intelligible to those w= ho know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular= character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cu= ltural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with acc= ess to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. =20 peace symbol Unicode As another example, the Unicode character set (also kno= wn as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted = trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a= Lojbanist may say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d2"/>

me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi - the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-a= t-peace + the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of bein= g-at-peace

se'eand number base convention When a=20 se'e string appears in running discourse, some = metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or som= e other base, and which character set is in use. =20

List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 245adf4..e4f2b13 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -121,21 +121,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d3"/>

pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero 1234567890 - one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. + one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hund= red and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20

123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo fro= m 1 to 5 end in the vowels=20 a,=20 @@ -413,21 +413,21 @@ pa pi re pi ci 1.2.3 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d7"/>

pa ni'u re - 1 negative-sign 2 + 1 negative-sign 2

subtraction opera= torcontrasted with negative sign negative signcontrasted with subtraction operator=20 is not=20 1 minus 2, which is represented by a different cmavo se= quence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a mean= ing. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they m= ay be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban = number system. It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 oddities do have a meaningful use in some restricted ar= ea of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for speci= alized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would= use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 to=20 . @@ -500,39 +500,39 @@ =20 li for=20 le in=20 would produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4"/>

li ci prenu - The-number 3 is-a-person. + The-number 3 is-a-person.

which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i add= ition operatorcontrasted with positive sign positive sign<= /primary>contrasted with addition operator additiona mathematical operator mathematical operators The cm= avo=20 su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of math= ematical operators, and means=20 =20 addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 ma'u which means the positive sign as an indica= tion of a positive number: =20 +1 + -1 =3D 0example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5"/>

li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. - +1 + -1 =3D 0 + +1 + -1 =3D 0

Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of=20 du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d6"/>

li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci @@ -700,21 +700,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2"/>

li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 p plus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 z equals the-number=20 x. - p + -n + z =3D x + p + -n + z =3D x

where we know that=20 va'a is a forethought operator because there is no oper= and preceding it. va'a is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUh= U. In contrast,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -807,21 +807,21 @@ Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1"/>

li xy. mleca li mu - The-number x is-less-than the-number 5. + The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 =20 =20 mleca x1 is less than x2 @@ -950,31 +950,31 @@ each. This number does not have a definite value in the= abstract:=20 li ro is undefined. But when used to count or q= uantify something, the parallel between=20 ro and=20 pa is clearer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d1"/>

mi catlu pa prenu - I look-at one person + I look-at one person

mi catlu ro prenu =20 - I look-at all persons + I look-at all persons =20

might be true, whereas=20 is almost certainly false.<= /para> The cmavo=20 so'a,=20 =20 so'e,=20 @@ -988,63 +988,63 @@ =20 ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the ma= gnitude decreases: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d3"/>

mi catlu so'a prenu =20 - I look-at almost-all persons + I look-at almost-all persons =20

mi catlu so'e prenu =20 - I look-at most persons + I look-at most persons =20

mi catlu so'i prenu =20 - I look-at many persons + I look-at many persons

mi catlu so'o prenu =20 - I look-at several persons + I look-at several persons

mi catlu so'u prenu =20 - I look-at a-few persons + I look-at a-few persons

The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space = for up to five indefinite numbers between=20 =20 ro and=20 no, with a built-in ordering. In particular,=20 so'e does not mean=20 =20 most in the sense of=20 a majority or=20 @@ -1054,21 +1054,21 @@ pi (the decimal point) in order to make a fract= ional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a = totality.=20 =20 piro therefore means=20 the whole of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d8"/>

mi citka piro lei nanba - I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread + I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread

Similarly,=20 piso'a means=20 almost the whole of; and so on down to=20 piso'u,=20 a tiny part of. These numbers are particularly appropri= ate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as=20 shows. In addition to these cmavo, there is=20 no'o, meaning=20 @@ -1080,52 +1080,52 @@ no'o can be translated=20 =20 the average value, but the average in question is not, = in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appro= priately represented by operators. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d9"/>

mi catlu no'o prenu =20 - I look-at a-typical-number-of persons + I look-at a-typical-number-of persons

mi citka pino'o lei nanba - I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread. + I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.

da'a timesimplicit expression of timesexplicit expressio= n of=20 da'a is a related cmavo meaning=20 all but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d11"/>

mi catlu da'a re prenu - I look-at all-but two persons + I look-at all-but two persons

mi catlu da'a so'u prenu =20 - I look-at all-but a-few persons + I look-at all-but a-few persons

is similar in meaning to=20 . da'adefault number for If no number follows=20 da'a, then=20 pa is assumed;=20 da'a by itself means=20 all but one, or in ordinal contexts=20 @@ -1152,39 +1152,39 @@ ma'u and=20 ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive number and=20 some negative number respectively. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d14"/>

li ci vu'u re du li ma'u - the-number 3 =E2=88=92 2 =3D some-positive-number + the-number 3 =E2=88=92 2 =3D some-positive-number

li ci vu'u vo du li ni'u - the-number 3 =E2=88=92 4 =3D some-negative-number + the-number 3 =E2=88=92 4 =3D some-negative-number

mi ponse ma'u rupnu - I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units. + I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.

mo'a du'e rau indefinit= e valuessubjective subjective amounts= expressing All of the numbers discussed so far are = objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers (=20 rairgugde,=20 superlative-states) in the world, then=20 ro rairgugde means the same as=20 xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however, to e= xpress subjective indefinite values. The cmavo=20 =20 rau (enough),=20 =20 @@ -1192,21 +1192,21 @@ =20 mo'a (too few) are then appropriate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d17"/>

mi ponse rau rupnu =20 - I possess enough currency-units. + I possess enough currency-units. =20

pi<= /indexterm> enough currency<= /primary>example indefinite portionssubjective<= /secondary> subj= ective portionsexpressing Like= the=20 so'a-series,=20 =20 rau,=20 =20 du'e, and=20 =20 @@ -1337,71 +1337,71 @@ =20 za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbe= rs with upper or lower bounds: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d6"/>

mi catlu su'e re prenu =20 - I look-at at-most two persons + I look-at at-most two persons

mi catlu su'o re prenu - I look-at at-least two persons + I look-at at-least two persons

mi catlu me'i re prenu =20 - I look-at less-than two persons + I look-at less-than two persons

mi catlu za'u re prenu =20 - I look-at more-than two persons + I look-at more-than two persons

exactly twoexample more thanexample less thanexample at leastexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">at mostex= ample pluralLojban equivalent of = exact numberexpressing at mostcontrasted with more thanat least, less than at leastcontrasted with more= thanless than, at most more thancont= rasted with less thanat least, at most less than= contrasted with more thanat least, at most= Each of these is a subtly different claim:=20 is true of two or any great= er number, whereas=20 requires three persons or m= ore. Likewise,=20 refers to zero, one, or two= ;=20 to zero or one. (Of course,= when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,=20 me'i re can be any number less than 2, and like= wise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,=20 =20 exactly 2, neither more nor less is just=20 re. Note that=20 su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of Englis= h plurals. za'uwith elided number me'iwith elided number su'owith elided number su'ewith elided number If no number follows one of these cmavo,=20 pa is understood: therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d10"/>

mi catlu su'o prenu - I look-at at-least [one] person + I look-at at-least [one] person

is a meaningful claim. pi<= /indexterm> inexact portions= with bounds Like the numbers in=20 , all of these cmavo may be = preceded by=20 pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for pa= rt of a whole. For example,=20 pisu'o means=20 =20 at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 @@ -1460,59 +1460,59 @@

radixdecimal (see also base) In normal contexts= , Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) sy= stem. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particul= ar circumstances. octal systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) binary systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) basespecify= ing To specify a number in a particular base, the V= UhU operator=20 ju'u is suitable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1"/>

li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no - The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10. + The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.

basechanging permanently baseassumed Here, the final=20 pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is= the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a met= alinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been work= ed out.) hexadecimal syste= mspecifying numbers in (see also base) digitsrationale for having 16 Lojban has digits f= or representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer= applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the ba= se 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this= ambiguity is avoided: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d2"/>

li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi - The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748. + The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748. =20

li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze - The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567. + The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.

ABC base 16example digits beyond 9word pattern Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs=20 au,=20 ei,=20 ai are used twice in the same order. The digits= for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit c= mavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough a= vailable cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are= also in alphabetical order. decimal pointin bases other than 10 base pointin bases= other than 10 The base point=20 =20 pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base= 10: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4"/>

li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu - The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. + The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. =20

VUhU selma'o<= /primary> F.8 ba= se 16example basenon-constant ju'ugrammar of Since=20 ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical = to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undef= ined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for makin= g=20 ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which = is not a constant. pi'e hoursminutesseconds: example compound basedefinition compound baseseparator for base varying= for each digitseparator for T= here are some numerical values that require a=20 base that varies from digit to digit. For example, time= s represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 =20 digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 @@ -1548,31 +1548,31 @@ =20 no to=20 paso, each separated by=20 pi'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d7"/>

li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci - the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443 + the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443

base greater than= 16two digits contrasted with compound single-digits base = greater than 16compound single-digits contrasted with = two digits Carefully note the difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d8"/>

pano ju'u reno - the-digit-10 base 20 + the-digit-10 base 20

which is equal to ten, and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d9"/>

pa pi'e no ju'u reno 1;0 base 20 @@ -1582,21 +1582,21 @@ large-base decima= l fractionexpressing Both=20 pi and=20 pi'e can be used to express large-base fraction= s: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d10"/>

li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu - The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35. + The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.

basevague=20 pi'e is also used where the base of each digit = is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d11"/>

dei jufra panopi'epapamoi @@ -1680,21 +1680,21 @@ Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that= is, I have three rats. =20 Another example, with one element this time: singular me= example individualexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2"/>

mi poi pamei cu cusku dei - I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. + I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.

In=20 ,=20 mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind expl= ained in=20 , a slightly different place= structure is required: individuals of setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites set= expressing measurement standard for indefinites massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meipl= ace structure formed for objective indefinites FIXM= E: TAG SPOT @@ -1768,59 +1768,59 @@

mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence =20 - I am enough-th in the movie line. + I am enough-th in the movie line. =20

enough-thexample all-thexample= first ratexample=20 means, in the appropriate c= ontext, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I wi= ll get a seat for the movie. si'e portion selbri= place structure portion selbridefinit= ion The cmavo=20 si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/>

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. - This meal is one-third of my daily food. + This meal is one-third of my daily food.

cu'o probability se= lbriplace structure probability selbridefinition <= primary>one-third of food The cmavo=20 cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is= : =20 =20 event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 probability selbr= ivalues The number must be bet= ween 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9"/>

le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o - The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.= + The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability = .5. =20

va'e coin headsexample probability .5example= scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition<= /secondary> The cmavo=20 va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is: =20 =20 x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 @@ -1885,21 +1885,21 @@ me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti i= nto a selbri. A whole=20 me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: (n+1)-th ratexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13"/>

ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats. - That is my (n+1)-th rat. + That is my (n+1)-th rat.

Here the mekso=20 ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with=20 me and=20 me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 pa and the=20 moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them i= nto the compound=20 @@ -1955,34 +1955,34 @@ What is 2 + 2?

le xomoi prenu cu darxi do The what-number-th person hit you? - Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? + Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? =20

questionsdigit digit questions police lineup=20 xo can also be combined with other digits to as= k questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could = be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d3"/>

li remu pi'i xa du li paxono - The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 + The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0

number questions<= /primary>answers to numbersas grammatically com= plete utterances to which the correct reply would b= e=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as = grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for c= ounting off physical objects one by one.) =20

Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section: @@ -2213,32 +2213,32 @@ 4 9 2 can be represented either as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2"/>

jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re =20 - the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (= 4 9 2) + the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vecto= r (4 9 2)

or as <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d3"/>

jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi = zeboi re =20 - the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vecto= r (6 7 2) + the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-ve= ctor (6 7 2)

matricesuse of parentheses with vectorsuse of parenthe= ses with matricesuse as operands = vectorsu= se as operands inner product outer product The regular mekso op= erators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both= of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices= when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are = no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but = appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word o= r string prefixed by=20 ma'o. xi<= /indexterm> subscriptsto form matrices of more than 2 dimensions matrixwith more than 2 dimensions Matrices of more = than two dimensions can be built up using either=20 pi'a or=20 =20 sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimens= ion. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 =20 =20 @@ -2266,36 +2266,36 @@ .) The number of operands pe= r operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lo= jban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no te= rminator. Here is a simple example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1"/>

li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu =20 - the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five. + the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.

The operands are=20 re and=20 ci; the operator is=20 su'i. Here is a more complex example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d2"/>

li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa =20 - the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plu= s equals the-number two-six + the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), = plus equals the-number two-six

Here the operands of the first=20 pi'i are=20 re and=20 ci; the operands of the second=20 pi'i are=20 vo and=20 mu (with=20 boi inserted where needed), and the operands of the=20 @@ -2327,21 +2327,21 @@ li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du =20 li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a =20 =20 =20 The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of. - 3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2 + 3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d4"/>

li cinoki'oki'o du li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei =20 @@ -2372,53 +2372,53 @@ KE selma'o BO s= elma'o connection of operatorsgrouping connection of operandsgrouping In addition, A+BO and A+= KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1"/>

vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci - ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. + ( Three or four ) people go-to the market.

three or four peo= pleexample=20 is equivalent in meaning, b= ut uses forethought connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2"/>

vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci - ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market. + ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.

parenthesesfor complex mekso used as quantifier= meksoc= omplex used as quantifier Note that the mekso here = are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a = simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This ru= le prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using=20 li. lo'o lo'o= effect of logical connective on elidability of logical connectioneffect on elidability of lo'o literminat= or for By the way,=20 li has an elidable terminator,=20 lo'o, which is needed when a=20 =20 li sumti is followed by a logical connective that could= seem to be within the mekso. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d3"/>

li re su'i re du li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu =20 The-number two plus two equals - the-number four or else a non-known number. + the-number four or else a non-known number.

Omitting the=20 lo'o would cause the parser to assume that another oper= and followed the=20 =20 .onai and reject=20 lo as an invalid operand. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: @@ -2509,34 +2509,34 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary= ></indexterm> Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginni= ng and end points can be expressed by=20 <jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>:</para> =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-LvBT"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8"/>

li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu =20 - the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5 + the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5

closed intervalexpressed with mi'i open intervalexpres= sed with mi'i which expresses the same interval as= =20 . Note that the=20 ga'o and=20 ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are n= ow implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d9"/>

li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu - the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5] + the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]

connection of ope= randsprecedence over operator = Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another in= terval centered on the number. As=20 shows, non-logical (or logi= cal) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.<= /para> =20 subscriptsmultiple for same base word compound subscript You can also combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, t= o make a compound subscript: =20 =20 @@ -2741,21 +2741,21 @@ x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ... for as many places as may be required. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d3"/>

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu - The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5. + The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.

uses=20 nu'a to make the operator=20 va'a into a two-place bridi nu'ause in answering operator questions na'uuse in ask= ing operator questions answersto operator questions questions<= /primary>operator Used together,=20 nu'a and=20 na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso oper= ators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor= is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 , to which=20 is one correct answer: @@ -2787,21 +2787,21 @@ su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with th= e inverse cmavo=20 nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 into=20 produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d6"/>

li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo - The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-n= umber four. + The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals th= e-number four.

where the=20 na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi MAI selma'o mai= first= lyexample digit stringdefinition of secti= on numbering textsub-division numbering with -mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: =20 @@ -2833,21 +2833,21 @@ all-ly lastly

ny.mai - nth-ly + nth-ly

<anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11"/> pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order) @@ -2906,31 +2906,31 @@ SE selma'o The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on = operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create= (probably unintelligible) operators as needed. NAhE selma'o<= /primary> negati= onof operator Members of selma= 'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. T= he implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi tr= ue: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d2"/>

li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare - The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12. + The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.

opposite-of-minusexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d3"/>

li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu - The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. + The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. =20

The sense in which=20 plus is the opposite of=20 minus is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one= ; negated operators are defined only loosely. bo<= /indexterm> lu'e la'e negationof operand symbolfor operand referentof operand=20 la'e and=20 lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics t= o get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of sel= ma'o NAhE followed by=20 bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that so= me other operand would make the bridi true: @@ -2959,21 +2959,21 @@ Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative= which cannot be misconstrued is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6"/>

la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu - Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men. + Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.=

rafsiconventional meaning for frinu PA selma'omembers = with rafsi Certain other members of PA also have as= signed rafsi:=20 so'a,=20 =20 so'e,=20 =20 so'i,=20 =20 so'o,=20 @@ -3059,21 +3059,21 @@ Score is not a word for 20 in the same way that=20 ten is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20= objects. The original may be taken as short for=20 Four score years and seven years ago. Thinking of a sco= re as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d3"/>

li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze =20 - the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven + the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven

In=20 ,=20 voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four things= each of which are groups of twenty; the=20 mo'e and=20 =20 te'u then make this sumti into a number in order to all= ow it to be the operand of=20 su'i. base-20 arithmeti= cremnants of scoreas alternate base = for years Another approach is to think of=20 diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 8f25b3e..6f40590 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -18,21 +18,21 @@ I selma'o .i audio-vi= sually isomorphic Since Lojban is audio-visually isom= orphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of = a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period= serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling)= usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single sepa= rator: the cmavo=20 =20 .i (of selma'o I): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e2d1"/>

mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli - I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice. + I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.

sentencesseparator for joining The word=20 separator should be noted.=20 .i is not normally used after the last sentence= nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammati= cal.=20 .i signals a new sentence on the same topic, no= t necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences i= s left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal= , and the following sentence states something that happened after the previ= ous sentence. =20 Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is ca= pitalized, the cmavo=20 .i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appr= opriate to place extra space before=20 .i to make it stand out better for the reader. = In some styles of Lojban writing, every=20 @@ -172,35 +172,35 @@ =20 I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from= comment (a bridi): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3"/>

le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno - The news : I [perfective] know. + The news : I [perfective] know. =20

is the literal Lojban trans= lation of=20 . Of course, the topic-comme= nt structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d4"/>

mi ba'o djuno le nuzba - I [perfective] know the news. + I [perfective] know the news. =20

means the same as=20 , and it is simpler. However= , often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri with= in the comment is vague: fish eatexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d5"/> @@ -270,34 +270,34 @@ <quote>want money</quote>; you=20 <quote>want to have money</quote> or something of the sort, as the x2 = place of=20 <jbophrase>djica</jbophrase> demands an event. As a result, the straig= htforward rendering of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-ggMy"/> without a topic is not:</pa= ra> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-Mdjd"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d10"/>

do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri - You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence. + You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.

where=20 ri means=20 loi jdini and is interpreted as=20 the mere existence of money, but rather: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d11"/>

do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri - You possess money only-if you desire something-about it. + You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.

namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 =20 =20 are inherently vague, and t= his difference between=20 ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) a= nd=20 djica is ignored. See=20 for another topic/comment s= entence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 @@ -517,21 +517,21 @@ How many people did you see? The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi u= tterance: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d11"/>

vomu - Forty-five. + Forty-five.

Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 ji of A,=20 ge'i of GA,=20 =20 gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 @@ -621,92 +621,92 @@ XI selma'o xi subscri= pting The cmavo=20 xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number= , a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be atta= ched to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (= or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful eithe= r to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refin= ed distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this= section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. Lojban gismu have at most five places: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1"/>

mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce - I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.<= /en> + I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the ca= r.

Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change t= he order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags fo= r individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. C= onversion of=20 =20 , using=20 xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d2"/>

le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi - The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house= via-the road for-me. + The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the ho= use via-the road for-me.

And reordering of the place structures might produce: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d3"/>

fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klam= a - Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car,= go. + Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the c= ar, go.

to=20 all mean the same thing. Bu= t consider the lujvo=20 nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction oper= ator=20 nu to=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4"/>

la'edi'u cu nunkla =20 mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> - by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.= + by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the c= ar.

SE selma'o se FA selm= a'oafter 5th place SE selma'oafter 5t= h place subscriptsand sumti re-ordering=20 shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the eve= nt itself. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ():= <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5"/>

le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u =20 The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me - to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-se= ntence. + to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last= -sentence.

Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of= FA with a subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d6"/>

fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u =20 fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, - to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going. + to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.

to=20 also all mean the same thin= g, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite th= e tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of = SE or FA could be substituted into=20 sexixa and=20 faxixa without change of meaning:=20 vexixa means the same thing as=20 sexixa. ko'a-seriesafter tenth da-seriesafter third subscriptsand pro-sumti Lojban provides two = groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo = are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bou= nd using=20 @@ -722,21 +722,21 @@ X sub 4 is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, = and <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d8"/>

ko'ixipaso - something-3 sub 18 + something-3 sub 18

is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series= . This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequence= s of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that=20 daxivo and=20 dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti,= unlike the situation with=20 sexixa and=20 vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to= the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi=20 broda,=20 brode,=20 brodi,=20 @@ -776,33 +776,33 @@ ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to e= xpress so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (stateme= nts whose truth value is not merely=20 true or=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 jei: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d11"/>

li pimu jei mi ganra - The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad. + The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.

However, by convention we can attach a subscript to=20 ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to=20 na if we change the amount): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d12"/>

mi ja'a xipimu ganra - I truly-sub-.5 am-broad + I truly-sub-.5 am-broad

subscriptsand paragraph separators Finally, as = mentioned in=20 ,=20 ni'o and=20 no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the st= art and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics ca= n be assigned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.

Utterance ordinals: MAI @@ -828,21 +828,21 @@ =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 mai or=20 mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here= are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1"/>

mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani - I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. + I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. =20

This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the ho= use: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for conve= nience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can = be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or = its meaning. =20 =20 Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:=20 romai, for example, means=20 all-thly or=20 lastly. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list an= d have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say=20 @@ -1022,21 +1022,21 @@ le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation= that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist= of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 ), so that the=20 le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be = meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quota= tion with=20 lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for t= eaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to= mark such errors: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2"/>

lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. - [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-st= ructure in Lojban. + [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical= -structure in Lojban.

is grammatical even though = the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 =20 lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which them= selves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3"/> @@ -1260,21 +1260,21 @@ Bob is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word=20 Bob. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d8"/>

lu'e la bab. cmene la bab. - A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob. + A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.

through=20 all mean approximately the = same thing, except for differences in emphasis.=20 is different: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d9"/> @@ -1422,21 +1422,21 @@ For completeness, the cmavo=20 za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It mark= s a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occ= asion): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d8"/>

mi klama la za'e. .albeinias =20 - I go-to so-called Albania + I go-to so-called Albania =20

marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 =20 la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in= Albanian. unabridged dictio= nary Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 za'e indicates that the word has been made up on the sp= ot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionar= y (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). =20 =20 @@ -1651,33 +1651,33 @@ SI selma'o si erasure= word The cmavo=20 si (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator= that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d1"/>

ti gerku si mlatu - This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat. + This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.

means the same thing as=20 ti mlatu. Multiple=20 si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate nu= mber of words: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d2"/>

ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani - That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house. + That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.

erasure= zo In order to erase the word=20 zo, it is necessary to use three=20 si cmavo in a row: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d3"/>

commit edab8546e3c5b4720b91b8fb4d3a766f517ffe7b Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 9 17:16:43 2011 -0500 Chapter 11: section titles, s to s, and s to s. diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index c4761bb..580c9ec 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -1,101 +1,101 @@ Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban A= bstraction -

The syntax of abstraction The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as=20 abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole brid= i and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abs= tractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and comp= lex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and ano= ther. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a = result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with = this difficulty until=20 - . + . KEI selma'o kei= N= U selma'o An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a= full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve s= uch cmavo; they are known as=20 abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable termin= ator=20 - kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi + kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d1"/>

mi klama le zarci - I go-to the store + I go-to the store

into an abstraction using=20 - nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into= + nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change= it into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d2"/>

nu mi klama le zarci [kei] - an-event-of my going-to the store + an-event-of my going-to the store

KEI selma'oeliding observativesand abstractions The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associat= ed sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding=20 - kei improperly, as many of the common uses of abstracti= on selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of= the abstraction if=20 - kei had been elided. + kei improperly, as many of the common uses of a= bstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be= part of the abstraction if=20 + kei had been elided. (Technically,=20 - kei is never necessary, because the elidable terminator= =20 - vau that closes every bridi can substitute for it; howe= ver,=20 - kei is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost= always clearer.) + kei is never necessary, because the elidable te= rminator=20 + vau that closes every bridi can substitute for = it; however,=20 + kei is specific to abstractions, and using it i= s almost always clearer.) tanruand abstractions abstractionsgrammatical uses The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exac= tly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri= may be used as observatives, as in=20 =20 , or used in tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3"/>

la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier.

want to be a sold= ierexample descriptionsand abstractio= ns Abstraction selbri may also be used in descripti= ons, preceded by=20 - le (or any other member of selma'o LE): + le (or any other member of selma'o LE): <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d4"/>

la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] - John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. + John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.

We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction eithe= r at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its=20 - cu; in either of these circumstances,=20 - kei can normally be elided. + cu; in either of these circumstances,=20 + kei can normally be elided. abstractionsplace structure The place structure= of an abstraction selbri depends on the particular abstractor, and will be= explained individually in the following sections. Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical f= orm used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of=20 we see=20 my going-to the store rather than=20 I go-to the store; likewise, in the glosses of=20 and=20 we see=20 being-a-soldier rather than=20 is-a-soldier. This procedure reflects the desire for mo= re understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban f= orm. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of= an abstraction selbri.

Event abstraction abstractionsevent event abstractions The following cm= avo is discussed in this section:

nu NU event abstractor

NU selma'o nu le nudefinition nudefinition common abstractor The examples in=20 - made use of=20 - nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most comm= on abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state = of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 + made use of=20 + nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the m= ost common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event o= r state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the=20 =20 - le description built on a=20 - nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 - le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct: + le description built on a=20 + nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based= on=20 + le alone. The following sumti are quite distinc= t: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1"/>

le klama the comer, that which comes

@@ -151,62 +151,62 @@ klama.=20 describes something associa= ted with the bridi as a whole: the event of it. events<= secondary>duration In Lojban, the term=20 event is divorced from its ordinary English sense of so= mething that happens over a short period of time. The description: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d7"/>

le nu mi vasxu - the event-of my breathing + the event-of my breathing

is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal c= ircumstances). On the other hand, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d8"/>

le nu la djan. cinba la djein. - the event-of John kissing Jane + the event-of John kissing Jane =20

kissing Janeexample normal circumstances is relativel= y brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances). =20 =20 abstractionssumti ellipsis in We can see from= =20 =20 through=20 that ellipsis of sumti is v= alid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sen= tence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure o= ut from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that t= he proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 =20 - nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place el= lipsized: + nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 = place ellipsized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d9"/>

mi nelci le nu limna I like the event-of swimming. I like swimming.

is elliptical, and most probably means: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d10"/>

mi nelci le nu mi limna - I like the event-of I swim. + I like the event-of I swim.

In the proper context, of course,=20 could refer to the event of= somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,=20 I like swimming, can't be interpreted as=20 I like Frank's swimming; this is a fundamental distinct= ion between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatev= er the context indicates that it should mean. abstractionsimplicit in sumti Note that the lac= k of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstrac= tion. In the context of=20 , the appearance of=20 le se nelci (=20 that which is liked) is in effect an abstraction: @@ -214,47 +214,47 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11"/>

le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. The thing which I like happens often.

which in this context means - + My swimming happens often. Event descriptions with=20 - le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 + le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and = lujvo place structures: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12"/>

la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study Lojban is easy for me when I study.

under conditions<= /primary>example (The=20 when of the English would also be appropriate for a con= struction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than = that the studying is concurrent with the ease.) nuplace structure eventsplace structure The place structure of a=20 - nu abstraction selbri is simply: - + nu abstraction selbri is simply: + x1 is an event of (the bridi)

Types of event abstractions =20 NU selma'o za'i= z= u'o pu'u mu'e event abstractionstypes Th= e following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mu'e =20 NU point-event abstractor =20 @@ -275,43 +275,43 @@

za'i =20 NU state abstractor =20

Event abstractions with=20 - nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long= , short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discr= iminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other= abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events,= or four ways of looking at the same event. + nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whet= her long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more fine= ly discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are fo= ur other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of= events, or four ways of looking at the same event. mu'e achievement ab= stractionsdefinition point-event abstractionsdefinition abstractionsachievement abstractionspoint-event triumph point-event abstractor An eve= nt considered as a point in time is called a=20 point-event, or sometimes an=20 achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in t= his context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event ca= n be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought o= f as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor=20 =20 - mu'e means=20 + mu'e means=20 =20 point-event-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1"/>

le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri =20 The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.= =20

pu'u killing Jimexample abstractionsprocess<= /indexterm> process abstract= ionsdefinition process abstractor <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginnin= g, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a=20 process. The abstractor=20 - pu'u means=20 + pu'u means=20 =20 process-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2"/>

ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a =20 cu porpi kei @@ -319,55 +319,55 @@ =20 [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaki= ng-up ) many state-rulers were-killed During the fall of the Roman Empire, =20 many Emperors were killed.

zu'o Roman Empireexample abstractionsactivity activity abstr= actionsdefinition activity abstractor Roman Empire An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive i= s called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 - zu'o means=20 + zu'o means=20 =20 activity-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3"/>

mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe =20 I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump). I am tired because I jump.

za'i abstractionsstate state abstractionsdefinition state ab= stractor An event considered as something that is eit= her happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a=20 state. The abstractor=20 - za'i means=20 + za'i means=20 =20 state-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d4"/>

le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do =20 The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. My being alive is dangerous to you. =20

being aliveexample event typesdescribed The abstractors in=20 through=20 could all have been replace= d by=20 - nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allow= s every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: + nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojb= an allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: state eventdescribed the=20 state of running begins when the runner starts and = ends when the runner stops; activity even= tdescribed the=20 activity of running consists of the cycle=20 lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...= (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition= of the cycle); @@ -381,23 +381,23 @@ achievement e= ventdescribed Athens indivisible marathon Pheidippides= the=20 achievement of running is most alien to English, bu= t sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like=20 =20 Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens (the orig= inal marathon). =20 =20 =20 Further information on types of events can be found in=20 - . + . The four event type abstractors have the following place structu= res: - + =20 -mu'e: x1 is a point event of (the bridi) +mu'e: x1 is a point event of (the bridi) =20 =20 -pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 +pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 =20 =20 -za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true +za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being= true =20 =20 =20 -zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeat= ed actions x2 +zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting o= f repeated actions x2 =20

Property abstractions The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ka NU property abstractor =20

ce'u KOhA abstraction focus

The things described by=20 - le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, the thin= gs of which=20 - nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderat= ely=20 + le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, = the things of which=20 + nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only= moderately=20 abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in = space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is=20 the property of being blue, or=20 the property of being a go-er? They are what logicians = call=20 intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 =20 the property of having a heart is an abstract object wh= ich, when applied to John, is true. In fact, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1"/> @@ -524,31 +524,31 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in =20 =20 property abstract= ionsspecifying determining place by sumti ellipsis propert= y abstractionssumti ellipsis in There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi= , depending on which place of the bridi is=20 understood as being specified externally. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d5"/>

ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei] - a-property-of me loving something-unspecified + a-property-of me loving something-unspecified

property of lovin= gexample is quite different fr= om <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d6"/>

ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei] - a-property-of something-unspecified loving me + a-property-of something-unspecified loving me

In particular, sentences like=20 and=20 are quite different in mean= ing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d7"/>

@@ -566,54 +566,54 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me). John loves me more than George loves me.

property abstract= ionsspecifying determining place with ce'u= The=20 X used in the glosses of=20 through=20 as a place-holder cannot be= represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there = must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in=20 =20 - . Instead, the cmavo=20 + . Instead, the cmavo=20 ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explic= it sumti is wanted. (The form=20 X will be used in literal translations.) Therefore, an explicit equivalent of=20 , with no ellipsis, is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d9"/>

la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u - John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X). + John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).

and of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d10"/>

la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka ce'u prami mi - John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me). + John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me).

This convention allows disambiguation of cases like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d11"/>

le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] - the property-of giving the horse + the property-of giving the horse =20

giving the horse<= /primary>example into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d12"/>

le ka ce'u dunda le xirma @@ -633,38 +633,38 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei] the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the horse to X) the property of being one to whom the horse is given

which is also a possible interpretation. property abstract= ionsuse of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction<= /secondary> rela= tionship abstraction It is also possible to have more= than one=20 ce'u in a=20 - ka abstraction, which transforms it from a property abs= traction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions=20 + ka abstraction, which transforms it from a prop= erty abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions= =20 =20 =20 =20 package up a complex relationship for future use; such = an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2= place of the selbri=20 bridi, whose place structure is: - + =20 bridi: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3 propertiesplace structure The place structure o= f=20 - ka abstraction selbri is simply: - + ka abstraction selbri is simply: + ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)

Amount abstractions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ni NU amount abstraction =20 =20 =20 @@ -686,40 +686,40 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in blueness could be measured with a colorimeter or a simi= lar device. However, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d2"/>

le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei] the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother) the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?) - the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?) + the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)

makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply d= o not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother. =20 Semantically, a sumti with=20 - le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treated gramma= tically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo= =20 - mo'e: + le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treate= d grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematic= al cmavo=20 + mo'e: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d3"/>

li pa vu'u mo'e =20 le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue) - 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture + 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture

Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d4"/> @@ -739,38 +739,38 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue). The picture varies in how blue it is. The picture varies in blueness. conveys that the blueness c= omes and goes, whereas=20 conveys that its quantity c= hanges over time. Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort= of scale, and so the place structure of=20 - ni abstraction selbri is: - + ni abstraction selbri is: + ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2 Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is= to use something like=20 - le ni ... kei be. See=20 + le ni ... kei be. See=20 for the use of this constru= ction.

Truth-value abstraction:=20 =20 - <quote>jei</quote> + jei The=20 blueness of the picture discussed in=20 - refers to the measurable am= ount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of tr= uth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in= Lojban using=20 - jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 - ni. In the simplest cases,=20 - le jei produces not a number but a truth value: + refers to the measurable amount of= blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of = the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban= using=20 + jei, which is closely related semantically to= =20 + ni. In the simplest cases,=20 + le jei produces not a number but a truth value:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1"/>

le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4 the truth of 2 + 2 being 4

@@ -782,48 +782,48 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5 the truth of 2 + 2 being 5 is equivalent to=20 falsehood. However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply tr= ue or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and=20 - jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of g= rey intended: + jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the sh= ade of grey intended: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d3"/>

mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei] I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime doer)). I will decide whether George is a criminal.

whether criminal<= /primary>example jeiplace structure= truth-value abs= tractionsplace structure legal system=20 does not imply that George = is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am us= ing, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,=20 =20 - jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of=20 - ni: - + jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of= =20 + ni: + jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 fuzzy logic and t= ruth-value abstraction abstractionstruth-value and fuzzy log= ic Abstractions using=20 - jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the=20 - jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 incl= usive (as distinct from=20 - ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales).= The detailed conventions for using=20 - jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been establish= ed. + jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban= ; the=20 + jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 an= d 1 inclusive (as distinct from=20 + ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended = scales). The detailed conventions for using=20 + jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been e= stablished.

Predication/sentence abstraction =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du'u NU predication abstraction =20 @@ -850,87 +850,87 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the event of Frank being a fool. mental activity Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially ph= ysical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thin= king, feeling, and the like;=20 comes close to claiming tha= t Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speak= er. (In fact,=20 =20 is an instance of improperl= y marked=20 sumti raising, a concept discussed further in=20 =20 - ). + ). Try again: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d3"/>

mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool. + I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.

Closer.=20 says that I know whether or= not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as=20 =20 does. To catch that nuance,= we must say: NU selma'o du'u FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d4"/>

mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I know the predication that Frank is a fool. =20

Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion=20 Frank is a fool is not a property of=20 =20 - le du'u abstraction, but of=20 + le du'u abstraction, but of=20 djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (= As a result,=20 djuno like=20 - jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how w= e know.)=20 + jei has a place for epistemology, which specifi= es how we know.)=20 has no such implied asserti= on: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5"/>

mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. =20 =20

Frank is a foolexample curiousexample curious and here=20 - du'u could probably be replaced by=20 - jei without much change in meaning: + du'u could probably be replaced by=20 + jei without much change in meaning: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6"/>

mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. =20 =20

truth-value abstr= actionsplace structure As a ma= tter of convenience rather than logical necessity,=20 - du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (p= iece of language) expressing the bridi: - + du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sen= tence (piece of language) expressing the bridi: + du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2 abstractionsspeakingwriting, etc. se du'u linguistic behavio= r and=20 - le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places of selb= ri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding= bridi: + le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places= of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior r= egarding bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d7"/> la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei] John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to = the store John says that George goes to the store. @@ -945,41 +945,41 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote. John says=20 George goes to the store. because=20 claims that John actually s= aid the quoted words, whereas=20 claims only that he said so= me words or other which were to the same purpose. lu'e=20 - le se du'u is much the same as=20 - lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but=20 - se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas=20 - lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 + le se du'u is much the same as=20 + lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but= =20 + se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas=20 + lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 for a discussion of=20 - lu'e.) + lu'e.)

Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

kau =20 UI indirect question marker =20

du'u There is an alternative type of sentence involving=20 - du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. = In addition to sentences like + du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional at= titude. In addition to sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d1"/>

I know that John went to the store.

we can also say things like @@ -994,35 +994,35 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in know whoexample abstractionswith wonderdoubt, etc. This form is called an=20 indirect question in English because the embedded Engli= sh sentence is a question:=20 =20 Who went to the store? A person who says=20 is claiming to know the ans= wer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English = verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who= went to the store. =20 =20 UI selma'o kau<= /primary> To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a=20 =20 =20 - le du'u abstraction, but rather than using a question w= ord like=20 + le du'u abstraction, but rather than using a qu= estion word like=20 who (=20 ma in Lojban), we use any word that will fit gr= ammatically and mark it with the suffix particle=20 kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so gramm= atically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of=20 =20 is therefore: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d3"/>

mi djuno le du'u makau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of - X [indirect question] [past] going to the store. + X [indirect question] [past] going to the store. =20

know whocontrasted with know that indirect questions&q= uot;ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau" kau"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau"<= /indexterm> In=20 , we have chosen to use=20 ma as the word marked by=20 kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done a= s well:=20 =20 zo'e or=20 da or even=20 @@ -1057,34 +1057,34 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in ma as English and Chinese and many other langua= ges do? Because=20 ma always signals a direct question, and so <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d5"/>

mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of - [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store + [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store

means <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d6"/>

Who is it that I know goes to the store?

indirect question= s without "kau" indirect question involving sumti= It is actually not necessary to use=20 - le du'u and=20 + le du'u and=20 kau at all if the indirect question involves a = sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d7"/>

mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci I know about the [past] goer to-the store. @@ -1108,21 +1108,21 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in =20 is-at the park. I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.

In addition,=20 is only a loose paraphrase = of=20 , because it is left to the = listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-stor= e is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.

Minor abstraction types The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

li'i =20 NU experience abstractor =20 @@ -1132,98 +1132,98 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in concept abstractor =20 su'u NU general abstractor

li'i abstractionsexperience experience abstraction experience abstractor<= /indexterm> There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little = used so far. The abstractor=20 - li'i expresses experience: + li'i expresses experience: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d1"/>

mi morji le li'i mi verba =20 - I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child) + I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)

si'o abstractionsconcept abstractionsidea concept abstractio= n idea= abstraction concept abstractor The abstractor=20 - si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea: + si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an id= ea: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d2"/>

mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno - I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete. + I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.

su'u abstractionsvague vague abstraction vague abstractor Fin= ally, the abstractor=20 - su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasp= ed from context: + su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must = be grasped from context: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d3"/>

ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running =20 See how the three mice run! =20

miceexample experience abstractionsplace structure All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An ex= perience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of=20 - li'i is: + li'i is: =20 - + li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2 =20 =20 idea abstractions= place structure concept abstractionsp= lace structure Similarly, an idea requires a mind t= o hold it, so the place structure of=20 - si'o is: - + si'o is: + si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2 vague abstraction= splace structure Finally, ther= e needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction=20 - su'u is representing, so its place structure is: - + su'u is representing, so its place structure is= : + su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2 abstractionscreating new types template The x2 place = of=20 - su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the = other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example, + su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any= of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For exam= ple, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d4"/>

le nu mi klama - the event-of my going + the event-of my going

can be paraphrased as <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d5"/>

le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu - the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event + the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event

and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:<= /para> bicycle raceexample Jesusexample = intersect Jesus FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d6"/>

le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai @@ -1234,27 +1234,27 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in =20 =20 type-of-killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race= =20

Note the importance of using=20 - kei after=20 - su'u when the x2 of=20 - su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specified; othe= rwise, the=20 - be lo ends up inside the abstraction bridi. + kei after=20 + su'u when the x2 of=20 + su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specifi= ed; otherwise, the=20 + be lo ends up inside the abstraction bridi. =20

Lojban sumti raising =20 LAhE selma'o<= /primary> JA= I selma'o <= primary>jai tu'a = abstraction conversion The following cmavo a= re discussed in this section:

tu'a LAhE an abstraction involving

@@ -1280,88 +1280,88 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d2"/>

mi troci le nu [mi] gasnu le nu le vorme cu karbi'o I try the event-of (I am-agent-in the event-of - (the door open-becomes)). + (the door open-becomes)).

which has an abstract description within an abstract description= , quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), w= e may also say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d3"/>

I try the door. =20

LAhE selma'o<= /primary> tu= 'a try= the doorexample abstractionssimplifi= cation to sumti with tu'a where it is understood th= at what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. T= he same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explici= tly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is=20 - tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equival= ent of=20 + tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban= equivalent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d4"/>

mi troci tu'a le vorme - I try some-action-to-do-with the door. + I try some-action-to-do-with the door.

intermediate abst= raction The term=20 sumti-raising, as in the title of this section, signifi= es that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even with= in an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is=20 =20 raised to the main bridi level. This transformation fro= m=20 to=20 loses information: nothing = except convention tells us what the abstraction was. Using=20 - tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at= the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prep= ared for the listener to respond something like: + tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking e= asier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must= be prepared for the listener to respond something like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d5"/>

tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a =20 - something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!] + something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]

LUhU selma'o<= /primary> lu= 'u which indicates that=20 tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The termin= ator for=20 - tu'a is=20 - lu'u, and is used in=20 + tu'a is=20 + lu'u, and is used in=20 =20 to make clear just what is = being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word=20 vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raise= d sumti might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d6"/>

tu'a la djan. cu cafne - something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs + something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs

This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 - tu'a,=20 + tu'a,=20 would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some sor= t of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in = English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does n= ot seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to = construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not the name= of some event.) JAI selma'o jai= abstr= actionssimplification to sumti with jai abstractionsmaking concrete Logically, a counter= part of some sort is needed to=20 - tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete= one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 - jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one func= tion, discussed in=20 + tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a = concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 + jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than = one function, discussed in=20 and=20 ; for the purposes of this chapter, = it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE= . This conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/>

tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes @@ -1384,52 +1384,48 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in cause can either be the actual cause (an event), or els= e the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the= x1 of=20 rinka is always an event.=20 and=20 look equally convenient (or= inconvenient), but in making descriptions,=20 can be altered to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d9"/>

- le jai rinka - be le nu do morsi - that-which-is associated-with causing - (the event-of your death) + le jai rinka be le nu do morsi + that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) the one who caused your death

because=20 - jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description - not so for=20 - tu'a. + jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated= into the description - not so for=20 + tu'a. The weakness of=20 - jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 - jai explained in=20 + jai used in descriptions in this way is that it= does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raise= d into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by = using the modal form of=20 + jai explained in=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10"/>

- le jai gau rinka - be le nu do morsi - that-which-is agent-in causing - (the event-of your death) + le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi + that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death)

Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses This section is a logical continuation of=20 - . + . ZAhO selma'o<= /primary> NU= selma'o There exists a relationship between the four= types of events explained in=20 - and the event contour tense= cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually i= nterdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU even= t types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 + and the event contour tense cm= avo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually inte= rdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event t= ypes and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 =20 , and only summarized here. The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: process abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o represent spans of time: before an eve= nt begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. @@ -1459,59 +1455,59 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in excessive or=20 superfective part of the event). The cmavo=20 co'i represents an entire event considered = as a point-event or achievement. =20 pu'u All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes an= d abstracted with=20 - pu'u. Only processes have enough internal structure to = make all these points and spans of time meaningful. + pu'u. Only processes have enough internal struc= ture to make all these points and spans of time meaningful. =20 za'i state abstract= ionsrelated tense contours For= events seen as states and abstracted with=20 - za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 =20 =20 =20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o; the starting and ending points=20 co'a and=20 co'u, and the achievement contour=20 co'i. States do not have natural endings distin= ct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be= stopped and resumed.) =20 zu'o activity abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = For events seen as activities and abstracted with=20 - zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 =20 =20 =20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o, and the achievement contour=20 co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic = and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you d= o not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat. =20 achievement abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = point-event abstractionsrelated tense contours For events = seen as point-events and abstracted with=20 - mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spans=20 + mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spa= ns=20 =20 =20 =20 pu'o and=20 ba'o but not=20 ca'o (a point-event has no duration), and the a= chievement contour=20 co'i. =20 Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be = treated as such. The points in time may be seen as=20 - mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute pro= cesses or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes wit= hin processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstrac= t things. + mu'e point-events; the spans of time may consti= tute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to proce= sses within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated= abstract things. =20

Abstractor connection An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined = by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail = in=20 . The connection can be expande= d to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.=20 and=20 are equivalent in meaning:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d1"/>

@@ -1526,24 +1522,24 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in

le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. =20

This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody kno= ws what uses it may eventually have.

Table of abstractors The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for = it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the a= ssociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks th= an for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the fo= llowing line) its place structure. - + nu event of fasnu nun =20 x1 is an event of (the bridi) ka property of ckaji kam x1 is a property of (the bridi) ni amount of klani nil x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2 jei truth-value of jetnu jez x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 li'i experience of lifri liz diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index e755a68..ee526a0 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -506,21 +506,21 @@ ) or discursive (see=20 and=20 ) purposes. ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. selma'o KEI (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of an abstraction bridi. =20 la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. John wants to be a soldier. selma'o KEhE (=20 @@ -837,21 +837,21 @@ ) Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the pr= eceding sumti. Terminated by=20 . See=20 . le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu The house which is blue is small. selma'o NU (=20 - ) + ) Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction = selbri. Terminated by=20 . la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. selma'o NUhA (=20 ) Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 commit c55bcf32c790b110a7854f162aa616485d016d41 Merge: 73a869a 3e8b80d Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 9 12:42:55 2011 -0500 Merge remote branch 'mathw/gh-pages' into gh-pages =20 Conflicts: todocbook/3.xml todocbook/TODO commit 3e8b80de9cb71d1632e219215f34199ae1befc11 Author: Matthew Walton Date: Tue Dec 28 15:16:19 2010 +0000 Chapter 3 title and section tags diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index ce5d757..b1041ab 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ - Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban -

+ <quote>The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</quote></tit= le> + <section xml:id=3D"section-orthography"> <title>Orthography Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance = can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can= be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a conseque= nce, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or= phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sou= nd or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronun= ciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) a= nd pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition,= everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when wri= tten) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. = These two properties together are known technically as=20 tone of voice orthography @@ -42,47 +42,47 @@ ASCII alphabetic order Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, = which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the E= nglish name=20 Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 DJOsefin., pronounced=20 ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 - for an explanation of the s= ymbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize= the vowel letter, in this case=20 + for an explanation of the= symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitali= ze the vowel letter, in this case=20 square brackets O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the who= le syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 capitalization se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant = to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little= distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular ru= les of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.

Basic Phonetics Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonet= ic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By c= onvention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for exampl= e, the word=20 square brackets cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 General American [k=C3=A6t].=20 - contains a brief explanati= on of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues= in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the t= echnical terms used in describing speech sounds. + contains a brief explanation of the I= PA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English= , and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical te= rms used in describing speech sounds. technical terms The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban= letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately = been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers = of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except=20 Lojban letters r the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred p= ronunciation; for=20 @@ -339,21 +339,21 @@ ch of=20 church and the=20 j of=20 judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant so= unds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represe= nted in Lojban by the two separate consonants:=20 tc (IPA=20 [t=CA=83]) and=20 dj (IPA=20 [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojb= an consider it to be a consonant cluster.

The Special Lojban Characters The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They a= re all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a d= ifferent pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons: The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy = English=20 h, (IPA=20 [h]). The letter=20 h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 . In addition, the apostrophe v= isually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differe= nt ways) to separate syllables. The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth tra= nsition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In f= act, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowe= l glide. @@ -442,21 +442,21 @@ =20 3.4) .i'ai'i'ai'on. =20 [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94] which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, = of the original English.

Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is= a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a gli= de, either a labial (IPA=20 [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-s= ound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively = brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audib= le. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the = vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position.= Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sound= s do not affect the determination of syllables. The six Lojban vowels are=20 a,=20 e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 @@ -510,21 +510,21 @@ [wo] a back mid vowel with labial on-glide uu =20 [wu] a back close vowel with labial on-gli= de =20 iy =20 [j=C9=99] a central mid vowel with palatal= on-glide uy =20 [w=C9=99] a central mid vowel with labial = on-glide (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 - for examples.) + for examples.= ) The first four diphthongs above (=20 ai,=20 ei,=20 oi, and=20 au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most t= ypes of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone w= ords and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 borrowings iy and=20 @@ -585,23 +585,23 @@ Earl Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stress= ed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see=20 syllabic consonants - ). + ).

Vowel Pairs Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in = a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) b= y an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with = the=20 vowel pairs [h] sound between (and not by a glottal = stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). glottal stop @@ -701,21 +701,21 @@ which contains the vowel=20 e followed by the diphthong=20 ii. In rough English representation,=20 is=20 May Een, whereas=20 is=20 Meh Yeen.

Consonant Clusters A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that preced= es or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or= following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant requi= red in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: f= or the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consona= nt. An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of v= oicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the correspon= ding voiced ones: unvoiced consonants UNVOICED VOICED p b @@ -810,28 +810,28 @@ =20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] James The regular English pronunciation of=20 James, which is=20 [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 djeimz., which contains a forbidden consonant pair.

Initial Consonant Pairs The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a= word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly l= arge group of permissible consonant pairs described in=20 consonant pairs - . Even so, it is more than E= nglish allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and other= s) can learn to pronounce. + . Even so, it is more t= han English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and = others) can learn to pronounce. There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as f= ollows: initial consonant pairs consonant pairs @@ -896,21 +896,21 @@ doubled consonants consonant clusters

Buffering Of Consonant Clusters Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even t= hose languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojb= an set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound bet= ween consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sou= nd may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener= from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 doubled consonants consonant clusters @@ -1061,21 +1061,21 @@ =20 8.9) =20 [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] with lengthened vowels.

Syllabication And Stress A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthong= s, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as=20 syllabic consonants vowels for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication= rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to th= e preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are convent= ional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are sylla= bified in any language are always very complex. A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A cons= onant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair= constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned= to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first an= d second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syll= able breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables. It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. = For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names w= ith consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to i= ndicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication. @@ -1356,21 +1356,21 @@ le re no bliprenu le re no bliPREnu If the cmavo=20 no in=20 were to be stressed, the p= hrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 , which is unacceptable in = Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.

IPA For English Speakers There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to = define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader.= All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less al= phabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, s= ome attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. = These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of o= ther dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television = sets. television Received Pronunciation @@ -1885,21 +1885,21 @@ [=CA=90] An allowed variant of Lojban=20 z. Not an English sound. The voiced version of=20 [=CA=82].

English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are= similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an officia= l pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers. Lojban English =20 ai =20 pie ei =20 pay oi =20 @@ -1935,21 +1935,21 @@ uu =20 woo =20 iy =20 million (the=20 io part, that is) uy =20 was (when unstressed)

Oddball Orthographies The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been writt= en or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained = in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except peopl= e with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanat= ion or further apology. orthography There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 orthography diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index ba095a3..acaa18f 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,20 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 +Matthew Walton: 3 =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 Fix the chapter name so it's just the second part, i.e. =20 Chapter 5 --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.