Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System

Introductory tenseexplanation of presentation method This ch= apter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojba= n. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form=20 =20 How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban? Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting = to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is= understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the rea= der should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being c= orrectly understood. =20 tenseLojban contrasted with native languages Th= e system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of= all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest on= e in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your nat= ive language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, = you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced = level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you = to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act s= imilarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intu= itive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be cre= atively and productively combined. temporal tenseLojban contrasted with English in necessity temporal tenseas mandatory in English temporal tensere= al relationship to time in English temporal tensehistorica= l definition What is=20 tense? Historically,=20 tense is the attribute of verbs in English and related = languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses a= re traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, a= nd the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English.= However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English te= nse and the time actually expressed: - =20 - - I go to London tomorrow. - - I will go to London tomorrow. + + I go to London tomorrow. =20 - I am going to London tomorrow. + I will go to London tomorrow. =20 - + I am going to London tomorrow. all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the= present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound ten= se usually called=20 =20 =20 =20 present progressive. Likewise, a newspaper headline say= s=20 JONES DIES, although it is obvious that the time referr= ed to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every = sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, beca= use every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojba= n brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them. elided tensemeaning of space locationas part of tense = system (see also tensespatial tense) timeas part of tense system (see also tensetemporal t= ense) tense systemand space location tense systemand space location tenseselbri types applicable to<= /secondary> In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every se= lbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide = information about location in space as well as in time. All tense informati= on is optional in Lojban: a sentence like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d1"/>

mi klama le zarci - I go-to the market. + I go-to the market.

go to marketexample can be understood as: - - I went to the market. - I am going to the market. - I have gone to the market. - I will go to the market. - I continually go to the market. - + + I went to the market. + I am going to the market. + I have gone to the market. + I will go to the market. + I continually go to the market. as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is c= orrect. cu<= /indexterm> cueffect of tense specification tense specificationef= fect on elidability of terminators tense specificationeffe= ct on "cu" tenseposition of in sentence The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is= easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the=20 - cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 - cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for el= iding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,= =20 + cu, and can in fact always replace the=20 + cu (although in very complex sentences the rule= s for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following exa= mples,=20 pu is the tense marker for=20 past time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2"/>

- mi cu pu klama le zarci - mi pu klama le zarci + mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci I in-the-past go-to the market. I went to the market.

ku<= /indexterm> kuwith tense tensewith ku tenseposit= ion in sentence alternative It is also possible to = put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding=20 - ku after it. This=20 - ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never pos= sible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: + ku after it. This=20 + ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost n= ever possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3"/>

puku mi klama le zarci In-the-past I go-to the market. Earlier, I went to the market.

@@ -93,21 +88,21 @@ I went to the market earlier. tenseemphasizing by position in sentence tenseeffect o= f different position in sentence=20 through=20 are different only in empha= sis. Abnormal order, such as=20 through=20 exhibit, adds emphasis to t= he words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to= be more noticeable.

Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi VA short distance

va @@ -150,27 +145,27 @@ within

be'a =20 FAhA north of

(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in=20 - .) + .) Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more fa= miliar time tenses of=20 =20 - , asks the reader? Because t= he model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space th= an for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 + , asks the reader? Because the= model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than= for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in=20 =20 =20 - . + . temporal tense el= isioncompared with spatial tense elision in meaning tempor= al tensecompared with spatial tense in elidability spatial= tensecompared with temporal tense in elidability spatial = tenseas optional in English En= glish doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of w= ays in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no ne= ed to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the = optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space = and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically. =20 VA selma'o FAhA= selma'o spatial tensedistance distancespec= ification with VA VA selma'oand distance spatial tenseas an imaginary journey imaginary journeyand = spatial tense spatial tensedefinition Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it oc= curs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary jour= ney from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direc= tion taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For = example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/>

le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. @@ -188,21 +183,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d2"/>

le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog.

Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location = to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left = (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reason= able translation is: =20 - + To my left, the man bites the dog. The=20 my does not have an explicit equivalent in the = Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.= vu<= /indexterm> va= vi VA selma'o= z= u'a VA= selma'orelation of words to tit= a, tu zu'aderivation of word (Etymo= logically, by the way,=20 zu'a is derived from=20 zunle, the gismu for=20 left, whereas=20 vi,=20 va, and=20 @@ -218,34 +213,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/>

le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

As explained in=20 - , it would be perfectly corr= ect to use=20 - ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of th= e sentence to emphasize it: + , it would be perfectly correc= t to use=20 + ku to move this tense to the beginning or the e= nd of the sentence to emphasize it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/>

zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

Compound spatial tenses compound tensedefinition Humph, says the reader= : this talk of=20 imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the poi= nt of it? -=20 zu'a means=20 on the left and=20 vi means=20 nearby, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-j= ourney model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involve= d. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs r= un together: =20 =20 =20 @@ -253,21 +248,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d1"/>

le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku The man [up] [left] bites the dog.

manhole= example imaginary journeystages of in compound = tenses compound spatial tenseexplanation of The proper interpretation of=20 is that the imaginary journ= ey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then = to the left. A translation might read: - + Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog. (Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-= biting is going on at the edge of the street.) =20 compound tense or= deringLojban contrasted with English compound tenseLojban contrasted with English in order of specification In the English translation, the keywords=20 left and=20 above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This = effect is typical of what happens when we=20 unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equiva= lents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Loj= ban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. The opposite order also makes sense: @@ -318,21 +313,21 @@ The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [wit= hin] bites the dog. Within a place a long distance to the right of a place whic= h is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of= me, the man bites the dog. Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to= say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter t= he Lojban version of=20 is than the English version= .

Temporal tenses: PU and ZI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu PU past

ca @@ -374,27 +369,27 @@ means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary j= ourney through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of c= ourse, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in th= e previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) ba<= /indexterm> ca= pu spacecontrasted with time in number of directions timecontrasted with space in number of directions Lo= jban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 pu for the past,=20 ca for the present, and=20 ba for the future. (Etymologically, these deriv= e from the corresponding gismu=20 purci,=20 cabna, and=20 balvi. See=20 - for an explanation of the = exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more sp= atial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative= directions as well as=20 + for an explanation of the= exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more s= patial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relativ= e directions as well as=20 =20 direction-like relationships like=20 surrounding,=20 within,=20 touching, etc. (See=20 - for a complete list.) But = there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward = the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o= PU? + for a complete list.) But there ar= e really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the futu= re and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU? bu'u ca tenseas subjective perception bu'ucompared with ca= ca<= /primary>compared with bu'u carational for The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings pe= rceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objecti= ve measurements. We have a sense of=20 =20 now which includes part of the objective past and part = of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into thr= ee parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a se= parate time-direction cmavo for the=20 zero direction, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for th= e zero space direction:=20 bu'u, which means something like=20 =20 coinciding. tenseas observer-based relativity theoryrelation to Lo= jban tense system (Technical note for readers conve= rsant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen b= y the speaker, who is assumed to be a=20 =20 =20 @@ -486,21 +481,21 @@

le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. The man bit the dog long ago and far away. =20

Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ve'i VEhA short space interval

ve'a @@ -648,37 +643,37 @@

ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe That-there [right] [short space interval =96 front] is-a-fi= sh. That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.

Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a poin= t on my right to another point in front of the first point.

Vague intervals and non-specific tenses interval sizevague interval sizeunspecified What is the significance of failing to specify an interval si= ze of the type discussed in=20 =20 - ? The Lojban rule is that if= no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left = vague by the speaker. For example: + ? The Lojban rule is that if= no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left = vague by the speaker. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1"/>

mi pu klama le zarci - I [past] go-to the market. + I [past] go-to the market.

really means: - + At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the event=20 I went to the market was in progress. tense directionimplications on scope of event = past eventpossible extension into present The vague or unsp= ecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there = is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past= ! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-m= arket is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. tenseLojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 points up a fundamental dif= ference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sen= tence like=20 I went to the market generally signifies that the going= -to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete= at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 pu has no such implication. tenseaorist aoristdefinition = Classical Greek aorist tense<= /primary>compared with Lojban tense This= property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 @@ -690,26 +685,26 @@

le tricu ba crino The tree [future] is-green. The tree will be green.

future eventpossible extension into present doe= s not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is n= ot green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, gre= en may have already started. This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of i= ndicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are= several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 - (event contours) and=20 + (event contours) and=20 =20 =20 - (logical connection betwee= n tenses). + (logical connection betwe= en tenses).

Dimensionality: VIhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi'i VIhA on a line

vi'a @@ -763,33 +758,33 @@ =20 =20 pastward and=20 =20 futureward considered as space rather than time directi= ons - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression= useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct wit= h a=20 =20 =20 vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-= contradictory. =20

Movement in space: MOhI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

mo'i MOhI movement flag

MOhI selma'o<= /primary> mo= 'i mov= ement specificationinteraction with direction in tense= s di= rectioninteraction with movement specification in tens= es t= enseexpressing movement in tensestati= c contrasted with moving All the information carrie= d by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: = the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less r= emote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on th= e result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speake= r is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cma= vo=20 =20 - mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and opt= ional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather th= an a static direction from the speaker. + mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction= and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion r= ather than a static direction from the speaker. toward my rightexample on rightcontrasted with toward righ= t to= ward rightcontrasted with on right FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1"/>

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. =20 @@ -823,58 +818,58 @@

toward her right<= /primary>example=20 is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 =20 ), and allows specifying a refe= rence frame. =20 tenseorder of movement specification in movementorder = in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 - mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the=20 - mo'i construct coming last: + mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, wit= h the=20 + mo'i construct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/>

le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on= the ice. Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward= my right on the ice. =20

movementwith multiple directions directionsmultiple wi= th movement <= primary>complex movementsexpressing It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 zu'a ca'u after=20 - mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separ= ate bridi. + mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in= a separate bridi. =20 Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently= involving movement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/>

mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.

eat in airplaneexample (Perhaps I am eating in = an airplane.) time travel movementtime There is no parallel facilit= y in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time - time travel - but = one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. =20

Interval properties: TAhE and=20 - <quote>roi</quote> + roi =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + di'i TAhE regularly =20 na'o TAhE typically =20 ru'i TAhE continuously =20 ta'e TAhE habitually =20 =20 di'inai TAhE irregularly @@ -950,51 +945,51 @@ mi na'o klama le zarci =20 I [typically] go-to the market. I typically go/went/will go to the market. illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no dist= ance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is = no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-= to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine t= hese vague values. nai= intermittently<= /primary>example interval spreadexpressing Engl= ish "intermittently"=20 Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, = but by adding the negation suffix=20 - -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 + -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to=20 ru'i. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5"/>

le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. The child intermittently walks on the ice. =20

interval spreadnegation with nai As shown in th= e cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with=20 - -nai;=20 + -nai;=20 ru'inai and=20 di'inai are probably the most useful. ROI selma'o roi= once<= /primary>example tensequantified quantified tempora= l tensedefinition An intermitt= ent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the = interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 - roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a= number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English= , but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 + roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appen= ded to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in= English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 =20 =20 never,=20 once,=20 twice,=20 thrice, ...=20 always, and by the related phrases=20 many times,=20 a few times,=20 too many times, and so on. All of these are handled in = Lojban by a number plus=20 - -roi: + -roi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d6"/> mi paroi klama le zarci I [one time] go-to the market. I go to the market once. @@ -1015,22 +1010,22 @@

mi pu reroi klama le zarci I [past] [two times] go-to the market. I went to the market twice.

quantified tempor= al tense with directionLojban contrasted with English = in implications The English is slightly over-specif= ic here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which = may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval i= s vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the = present or even the future. quantified tempor= al tensenegating with nai Addi= ng=20 - -nai to=20 - roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 + -nai to=20 + roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 =20 other than (the number specified): rat eats cheeseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d9"/>

le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese. @@ -1047,21 +1042,21 @@ =20 whole time interval: conceptually, an interval which st= retches from time's beginning to its end: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d10"/>

mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci =20 - I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market. + I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.

Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,=20 might in appropriate contex= t mean the same as=20 after all - but=20 allows us to be specific wh= en specificity is necessary. =20 ze'eca ze'eba ze'= epu PU selma'o have neverexample ze'ecameanin= g of ze'ebameaning of ze'epumeaning of ze'eeffect on following PU direction= temporal directionexception in meaning when following ze'e A PU cmavo following=20 ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one = that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo=20 =20 @@ -1084,25 +1079,25 @@ =20

says nothing about whether I might go in future. ve'e quantified spa= ce The space equivalent of=20 ze'e is=20 =20 ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a= quantified space tense: see=20 =20 =20 - for an explanation of spac= e interval modifiers. + for an explanation of space interval = modifiers.

Event contours: ZAhO and=20 - <quote>re'u</quote> + re'u =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu'o ZAhO inchoative

ca'o @@ -1205,21 +1200,21 @@

le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli The child [perfective] walks-on the ice. The child is finished walking on the ice. =20

finishedexample continuesexample on vergeexample <= primary>tense directioncontrasted with event contours = in implication of extent event contourscontrasted with ten= se direction in implication of extent event contoursimplic= ations on scope of event event contoursperfective event contou= rscontinuitive event contoursinchoati= ve As discussed in=20 - , the simple PU cmavo make n= o assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event e= xtends into one of the other tenses as well.=20 + , the simple PU cmavo make no ass= umptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extend= s into one of the other tenses as well.=20 =20 through=20 illustrate that these ZAhO = cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begu= n, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over. ba'oas futureward of event pu'oas pastward of event ba'oexplanation of derivation pu'oexplanati= on of derivation Note that in=20 and=20 ,=20 pu'o and=20 ba'o may appear to be reversed:=20 pu'o, although etymologically connected with=20 pu, is referring to a future event; whereas=20 @@ -1353,21 +1348,21 @@

la djan. pu co'i catra la djim =20 John [past] [achievative] kills Jim. John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.

ROI selma'o re'= u cycl= es ord= inal tense Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an= individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by=20 - re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI: + re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d12"/> mi pare'u klama le zarci I [first time] go-to the store. I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval)= . @@ -1388,34 +1383,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d14"/>

mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci I [one time] [first time] go-to the store. There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first= time.

Space interval modifiers: FEhE The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fe'e FEhE space interval modifier flag

FEhE selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'e ten= seorder of spatial interval modifiers in <= /indexterm> spatial interval= modifiersorder in tense spatial intervalsexpressing degree of continuity over space intervalsc= ompared with time intervals in continuity Like time= intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repet= itive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interva= l properties, we instead prefix the flag=20 =20 =20 - fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A = space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size = and/or dimensionality cmavo: + fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval proper= ties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interv= al size and/or dimensionality cmavo: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1"/>

ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni =20 @@ -1446,21 +1441,21 @@ li re su'i re du li vo [whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places= ] The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.

As shown in=20 , when a tense comes first i= n a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this ca= se=20 du), it is emphasized. be'a ZAhO selma= 'o fe'e = spatial contoursexpressing The= =20 - fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose befor= e members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 + fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpo= se before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space d= irection meaning=20 =20 north of.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d4"/>

tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci That-yonder [medium space interval =96 north] [space] [init= iative] is-a-rock. @@ -1468,71 +1463,71 @@ That is the south face of a rock. =20

rock faceexample south faceexample event contourstemporal contrasted with spatial spatial contourscontrasted with temporal event contours beginning point= spatial Here the notion of a=20 beginning point represented by the cmavo=20 =20 co'a is transferred from=20 beginning in time to=20 beginning in space under the influence of the=20 - fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike tim= e, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientati= on is necessary, and the=20 + fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, un= like time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of o= rientation is necessary, and the=20 ve'abe'a provides an orientation in which the s= outh face is the=20 =20 beginning and the north face is the=20 end, since the rock extends from south (near me) to nor= th (away from me). FAhA selma'ouse in specifying space/time mapping direction<= /indexterm> space/time metap= horexpressing direction mapping for spaceas time-based metaphor timeas space-based metaphor Many natural languages represent time by a space-based= metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be=20 behind us. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed= . Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a tim= e-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicat= es which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather = than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.) fe'eeffect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on ZAhO selma'oeffect= on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI ROI selma'oeffect of ZAhO o= n fe'e flag <= primary>TAhE selma'oeffect of ZAhO on fe'e flag If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space i= nterval modifiers, the=20 - fe'e flag must be prefixed to each. + fe'e flag must be prefixed to each.

Tenses as sumti tcita argument tagsbased on tenses (see also sumti tcita) sumti tcitabased on tenses temporal informationadding to a s= entence with tense sumti tcita spatial informationadding t= o a sentence with tense sumti tcita tensesuse as sumti tci= ta So far, we have seen tenses only just before the= selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with=20 - ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as= sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or tempo= ral information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: + ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lo= jban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial = or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d1"/>

mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the hou= se. I go to the market when you go to the house.

ca<= /indexterm> sumti tcitabased on tense direction tense directionas= sumti tcita = cameaning as a sumti tcita Here=20 ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with= =20 - ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, the=20 - le nu construct. What=20 + ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, th= e=20 + le nu construct. What=20 asserts is that the action = of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by t= hat sumti. So=20 ca, which means=20 now when used with a selbri, means=20 simultaneously-with when used with a sumti. Consider an= other example: pu pumeaning as a sumti tcita FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d2"/>

mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani - I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the ho= use. + I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the= house.

The second=20 pu is simply the past tense marker for the even= t of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's = past. How are we to understand the first=20 pu, the sumti tcita? imaginary journey= starting at a different point = imaginary journey<= secondary>starting point All of our imaginary journ= eys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we= are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, n= amely at the event of your going to the house.=20 then says that my going to = the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, bu= t instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.=20 can therefore be translated= : - + I had gone to the market before you went to the house. sumti tcitabased on tense distance tense distanceas su= mti tcita spatial tensesas sumti tcita (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present contex= t.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d3"/>

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. @@ -1556,65 +1551,65 @@ le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance= ] park The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.

fe'e rat eats chees= eexample near the parkexample sumti tcita= based on event contoursrelation of main bridi to sumt= i process in = sumti tcitaevent contours contrasted with dir= ection/distance as basis for tense direction/distance as sumti tcita<= secondary>contrasted with event contours event contours as sumti tcitacontrasted with direction and distance = ZAhO selma'o sumti tcita= based on spatial contours spatial contoursas su= mti tcita sumti tcitabased on event contours event contoursas sumti tcita The event contours= of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with=20 =20 =20 - fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretatio= n of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. T= he event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of t= he main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, = or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is= seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the = main bridi is intended. For example: + fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The inter= pretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, ho= wever. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the act= ion of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO spe= cifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi i= tself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase= of the main bridi is intended. For example: in the aftermathexample die after livingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d6"/>

mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live. I die in the aftermath of my living. =20

Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my liv= ing-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast=20 with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d7"/>

mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive - I am-dead [future] the event-of I live. + I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.

As explained in=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 does not exclude the possib= ility that I died before I ceased to live! Likewise, we might say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d8"/>

mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka - I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat + I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat

which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store,= whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d9"/>

mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka - I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat + I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat

would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating= . =20 Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and sp= atial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita): too longexample boat sailedexample= FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d10"/> @@ -1668,21 +1663,21 @@ loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] wi= nter. Snow falls in the long winter. claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as win= ters go, snow falls. =20

Sticky and multiple tenses: KI =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki KI sticky tense set/reset

@@ -1699,32 +1694,32 @@ mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.<= /gloss> I went to the market. The man bit the dog. Here the use of=20 puki rather than just=20 pu ensures that the tense will affect the next = sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there = would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence = might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first senten= ce. (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form p= art of a narrative. See=20 - for an explanation of=20 + for an explanation of=20 story time, which employs a different set of convention= s.) =20 What if the second sentence has a tense anyway? had earlier= example tenseeffect of sticky tense on FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d2"/>

mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku - I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the d= og. + I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites th= e dog.

Here the second=20 pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds = to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is tak= en to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d3"/>

@@ -1732,21 +1727,21 @@ =20

compound tensecompared with tense in scope of sticky tense<= /indexterm> tense in scope o= f sticky tensecompared with compound tense= and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation = from any other sentences) to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d4"/>

mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku - I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog= . + I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the = dog.

compound tensecompared with multiple tenses in sentence tensesmultiple in sentence compared with compound tense tensesmultiple in sentence The point has not been d= iscussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tens= e construct in a sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d5"/>

puku mi ba klama le zarci [past] I [future] go-to the market. @@ -1797,29 +1792,29 @@ sticky tensesfrom part of a multiple tense But = why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate= portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part= of a tense sticky. Consider=20 , which adds a second bridi = and a=20 ki to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d9"/>

pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku - [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the= dog. + [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites = the dog.

What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not=20 puba, but only=20 pu, since only=20 pu was made sticky with=20 ki. So the translation is: - + I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog. sumti with tense<= /primary>effect of main bridi tense on = embedded bridi tenseseffect of main bridi tense on tense on main bridieffect on embedded sumti with tenses tense on main bridieffect on embedded bridi tenses tenseon embedded bridi<= /secondary> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within= another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, = descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these = subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted re= lative to the tense of the main bridi: former marketexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10"/>

mi pu klama le ba'o zarci @@ -1851,24 +1846,24 @@ =20 kiwith no tense sticky tensescanceling=20 ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This = cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the= speaker's location in both space and time. tensehandling multiple episodes tensesubscripting subscrip= tsfor sticky tense In complex = descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscr= ipt to=20 =20 ki. A time made sticky with=20 kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specify= ing=20 kixipa as a tense by itself. In the case of wri= tten expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the read= er's, and a pair of subscripted=20 ki tenses could be used to distinguish the two.=

Story time stories= flow of time in story timerationale for story time<= /primary>definition Making strict use of= the conventions explained in=20 - would be intolerably awkwa= rd when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the nar= rator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time= within the story itself. The term=20 + would be intolerably awkward= when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narra= tor is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time w= ithin the story itself. The term=20 story in this section refers to any series of statement= s related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.<= /para> story timetenseless sentences in tenseless sentences in story time story timeas a convention for inferring tense Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called=20 story time, for inferring tense within a story. It is p= resumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time mor= e or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are impli= citly tensed as=20 =20 what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setti= ng is advanced by each sentence. The following mini-story illustrates the important features of s= tory time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d1"/> @@ -1942,21 +1937,21 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>.i ko'e bartu klama</jbo> <gloss>It-2 out ran</gloss> <en>It ran out.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cave</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-importe= d"><primary>story tense</primary><secondary>Lojban convention contrasted wi= th English convention</secondary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qE94"/> sets both the time (long ag= o) and the place (in a cave) using=20 =20 <jbophrase>ki</jbophrase>, just like the sentence sequences in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section13"/>. No further space cmavo ar= e used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchange= d. The English translation of=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-sticky-tenses"/>. No further space cmavo are = used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged.= The English translation of=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qE94"/> is marked for past tense al= so, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all o= ther English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't no= tice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past= tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narrativ= es.</para> =20 <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qEa4"/> is tenseless. Outside story= time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that = of=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qE94"/>, since a sticky tense is in= effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afte= rwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set = in=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qE94"/>).</para> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qEa7"/> has an explicit tense. This= is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; therefore, the= event of=20 @@ -1975,21 +1970,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qebJ"/>.</para> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qebT"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qeBW"/> are again tenseless, and so= happen after=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qebJ"/>. (Story time is changed.)</= para> <para>So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium inte= rval) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14= .1.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>story time</prima= ry><secondary>with no initial sticky time</secondary></indexterm> If no sti= cky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified ti= me (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference p= oint and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. = The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time su= fficiently.</para> =20 =20 </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section15"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-sub-bridi-tenses"> <title>Tenses in subordinate bridi subordinate claus= estense usage rules in English= English has a set of rules, formally known as=20 sequence of tense rules, for determining what tense sho= uld be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the mai= n sentence. Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d1"/>

John says that George is going to the market. @@ -2035,118 +2030,118 @@ subordinate claus= e tenseeffect of main bridi tense on subordinate clause te= nseLojban compared with Esperanto subordinate clause tense= Lojban compared with Russian = subordinate clause tenseLojban contrasted with English sequence of tense rulesLojban contrasted with English Lojban, = like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A tense in a subor= dinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense already set in the m= ain bridi. Thus=20 through=20 can be expressed in Lojban = respectively thus: John says that George= goes to marketexample FIXME: = TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d5"/>

la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca klama le zarci - John [present] says the statement-that George [present] goes-t= o the market. + John [present] says the statement-that George [present] goe= s-to the market.

la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci - John [present] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to t= he market. + John [present] says the statement-that George [past] goes-t= o the market.

la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca klama le zarci - John [past] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to t= he market. + John [past] says the statement-that George [present] goes-t= o the market.

la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci - John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the = market. + John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to t= he market.

Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is=20 . The=20 ca looks quite odd, as if George were going to = the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this=20 ca is really a=20 ca with respect to a reference point specified = by the outer=20 pu. This behavior is the same as the additive b= ehavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in=20 =20 - . + .

CUhE selma'o<= /primary> na= u nau<= /primary>syntax tenseoverriding to speaker's cu= rrent tensespeaker's current There= is a special cmavo=20 nau (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to over= ride these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it= sounds like English=20 =20 now.) It is not grammatical to combine=20 nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by = way of a logical or non-logical connection (see=20 =20 =20 - ). Here is a convoluted sen= tence with several nested bridi which uses=20 + ). Here is a convoluted se= ntence with several nested bridi which uses=20 nau at the lowest level: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d9"/>

la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci= =20 John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the s= tatement-that George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to th= e market. John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said tha= t Mary is now going to the market. =20

sticky tenseseffect of nau on naueffect on sticky ten= ses The use of=20 nau does not affect sticky tenses. =20

Tense relations between sentences tense with sumti = tcitaasymmetry of The sumti tc= ita method, explained in=20 - , of asserting a tense rela= tionship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, + , of asserting a tense relationship b= etween two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d1"/>

le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le ge= rku The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bite= s the dog. The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites = the dog.

bo<= /indexterm> .i= sentencesconnecting with tense tenseconnecting sente= nces in with which specifies an imaginary journey l= eftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims= only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of=20 - le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to w= ithout being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can b= e expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of=20 + le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely refer= red to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each eve= nt can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of=20 .i connecting them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d2"/>

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisl= i The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice= .

.izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the=20 .i separates the sentences and the=20 zu'a is the tense. The=20 - bo is required to prevent the=20 + bo is required to prevent the=20 zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, name= ly=20 le verba. tensesumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences tense connection = of sentencescontrasted with sumti tcita form imaginary jou= rneyorigin of in tense-connected sentences= tense connectio= n of sentencesorder of Note th= at the bridi in=20 appear in the reverse order= from their appearance in=20 . With=20 .izu'abo (and all other afterthought tense conn= ectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. Thi= s is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting = between this form and the sumti tcita form. =20 means the same thing as: @@ -2156,21 +2151,21 @@ le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli =20 The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on= the ice. The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the chil= d walks on the ice. tense connected s= entencesimportance of bo in If= the=20 - bo is omitted in=20 + bo is omitted in=20 , the meaning changes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d4"/> le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli= The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-o= n the ice. The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something wal= ks on the ice. @@ -2198,41 +2193,41 @@ makes the origin point of t= he tense the event described by the first sentence. tense connected s= entencesforethought mode Two s= entences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just= like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims bo= th sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship sp= ecified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe. =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 gi<= /indexterm> imaginary journe= yorigin in tense forethought sentence connection sentences= forethought tense connection of forethought tense connecti= on of sentencesorder of The or= igin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus=20 - gi. Another=20 - gi is used to separate the sentences: + gi. Another=20 + gi is used to separate the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d6"/>

pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani [past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house. Before I go to the market, I go to the house.

A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relations= hip between sumti: gi sumtiforethought tense connection of imaginary journeyori= gin in tense forethought sumti connection forethought tense connection of sumti= order of FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d7"/>

mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani - I go-to [past] the market [,] the house. + I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.

Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a ten= se-like relationship between nouns,=20 =20 cannot be expressed in Engl= ish without paraphrasing it either into=20 or else into=20 I go to the house before the market, which is ambiguous= - is the market going? gi<= /indexterm> bridi-tailsforethought tense connection of imaginary journeyorigin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection forethought tense conn= ection of bridi-tailsorder of = Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship be= tween bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a=20 bridi-tail is explained fully in=20 ; roughly speaking, it is a sel= bri, possibly with following sumti.)=20 @@ -2248,27 +2243,27 @@ I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house. I, before going to the market, go to the house. tense connection = of bridi-tailsmeaning of tense connection of sumtimeaning of In both=20 and=20 , the underlying sentences= =20 mi klama le zarci and=20 mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only the rel= ationship in time between them is claimed. tense afterthough= t connection formsselma'o allowed tense forethought connec= tion formsselma'o allowed tense connectionexpansions of tense connectionequivalent meanings Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are ap= propriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equival= ent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cma= vo): - + subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y

Tensed logical connectives tensed logical co= nnectives logical connectivestensed = The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system= . That system is a separate topic, explained in=20 =20 and touched on only in summary= here. By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 through 17.3 are equivalent= in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d1"/>

@@ -2289,21 +2284,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d3"/>

la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.

bo<= /indexterm> stoke cat then r= abbitexample and thenexample Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical= connective=20 and? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later stroke= s the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective b= y placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo= =20 - bo, thus: + bo, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d4"/>

la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu =20 Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.

@@ -2322,34 +2317,34 @@ la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit. tensed logically = connected sumti tensed logically connected bridi-tails tensed logically connected sente= nces=20 through 17.6 are equivalent= in meaning. They are also analogous to=20 through=20 respectively. The=20 - bo is required for the same reason as in=20 + bo is required for the same reason as in=20 : to prevent the=20 ba from functioning as a sumti tcita for the fo= llowing sumti (or, in=20 , from being attached to the= following selbri). tensed logical co= nnectiveswith tu'e=85tu'u tensed logical connectiveswith ke=85ke'e In addition to the=20 - bo construction of=20 + bo construction of=20 through=20 , there is also a form of te= nsed logical connective with=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - ke ... ke'e (=20 - tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical connective sy= stem makes=20 + ke ... ke'e (=20 + tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical conne= ctive system makes=20 through=20 equivalent in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7"/>

mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri l= e mlatu tu'u I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the = cat). I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or = I carry both. @@ -2412,37 +2407,37 @@ I carry the sack and [future] (the cat and/or [present] the= dog). I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.=

tensed logically = connected sumtiwith grouping = tensed logically connected br= idi-tailswith grouping tensed logically connected sentence= swith grouping=20 through=20 are equivalent in meaning t= o each other, and correspond to the tenseless=20 through=20 respectively.

Tense negation nai= ZAhO selma'ocontradictory negation of FAhA selma'oco= ntradictory negation of PU selma'ocontradictory negation o= f ne= gationof tenses tensesnegating Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or Z= AhO can be contradicted by a=20 - -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples: + -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d1"/>

mi punai klama le zarci I [past] [not] go-to the market. I didn't go to the market.

nai= negation of ten= sesmeaning of tensescontradictory neg= ation of with nai As a contradictory negation,=20 implies that the bridi as a= whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negate= d tense is a sumti tcita,=20 - -nai negation indicates that the stated relationship do= es not hold: + -nai negation indicates that the stated relatio= nship does not hold: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d2"/>

mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to t= he house. It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that= you went to the house.

@@ -2503,38 +2498,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d8"/>

mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live. I am dead other than during my life.

FAhA selma'o<= /primary> PU= selma'o scalar negation of tensesselma'o allowed with contradic= tory negation of tensesselma'o allowed with Unlike=20 - -nai contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses = is not limited to PU and FAhA: + -nai contradictory negation, scalar negation of= tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d9"/>

le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice The child walks on the ice other than to my right.

ROI selma'oscalar negation of TAhE selma'oscalar nega= tion of The use of=20 - -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discusse= d in=20 - ; this use is also a scalar = negation. + -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been = discussed in=20 + ; this use is also a sc= alar negation.

Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ca'a =20 CAhA actually is

@@ -2716,21 +2711,21 @@ (at some understood moment in the future). tenses with elide= d CAhAmeaning As always in Loj= ban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the contex= t can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d11"/>

ta jelca - That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn. + That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.

inflammableexample with no CAhA specified can t= ranslate the two very different English sentences=20 That is on fire and=20 That is inflammable. The first demands immediate action= (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be= disambiguated with: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d12"/> @@ -2762,21 +2757,21 @@

jelca It burns!

the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning=20 Fire!

Logical and non-logical connections between tenses Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; l= ogical connection is explained in more detail in=20 . Some of the terminology in th= is section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives= . JA selma'o logicall= y connected tensesexpansion to sentences tenses<= secondary>logically connected with JA logically connected tenseswith JA The appropriate logical connectives b= elong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expa= nded to one between sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d1"/>

mi pu je ba klama le zarci @@ -2807,21 +2802,21 @@

is far more specific than <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d4"/>

mi ba klama le zarci - I [future] go-to the market. + I [future] go-to the market.

which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about = my past or present.=20 ba does not imply=20 punai or=20 canai; to compel that interpretation, either a = logical connection or a ZAhO is needed. connected tenses<= /primary>negation of compared with negation in connective Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation = in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in = meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d5"/> @@ -2853,23 +2848,23 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu</jbo> <gloss>I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.</glo= ss> =20 <en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en= > =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)</para> <para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is d= iscussed in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter10-section21"/>. Other uses will probably = be identified in future.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"section-sub-events"/>. Other uses will probably be id= entified in future.</para> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter10-section21"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-sub-events"> <title>Sub-events six-shooterexample tensesnon-logical connection of for= sub-events Another application of non-logical tens= e connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter:= a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire= off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d1"/>

mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti @@ -2906,21 +2901,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d3"/>

mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum. On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.

Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai JAI tense conversion =20

@@ -2929,34 +2924,34 @@ indefinite place

SE selma'o conversi= ondefinition Conversion is the= regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. T= he cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with = one of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d1"/>

mi cu klama le zarci - I go-to the market. + I go-to the market.

le zarci cu se klama mi - The market is-gone-to by-me. + The market is-gone-to by-me.

jai= jai with tense<= /primary>as equivalent of SE in grammar = tense conversionaccessing tense of bridi with jai conversionacces= sing tense of bridi with jai It is also possible to= bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this= chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using=20 - jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:= + jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalen= t of SE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d3"/>

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. The rat eats the cheese in the park.

@@ -3005,73 +3000,73 @@ =20 =20 =20 place of eatingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d8"/>

mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla - I saw the place-of eating the cheese. + I saw the place-of eating the cheese.

Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no=20 fai appears. tense conversion<= /primary>of temporal tenses Of course, t= emporal tenses are also usable with JAI: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d9"/>

mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan. I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. I know the time of John's death. I know when John died.

Tenses versus modals modals<= secondary>contrasted with tenses in semantics tensescontra= sted with modals in semantics modalscompared with tenses i= n syntax tensescompared with modals in syntax<= /indexterm> Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paral= leled by some use of modals as explained in=20 . Modals and tenses alike can b= e followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and = mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is p= erfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense const= ructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the = two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in e= arlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically in= terchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be mainta= ined. modals<= secondary>importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d1"/>

mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi =20 I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me. I like you because you like me.

places the=20 - le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu=20 + le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu=20 mukti (which underlies the modal=20 mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed = bridi =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d2"/>

mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi I like you after the event-of you like me. I like you after you like me.

tenses<= secondary>importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use places the=20 - le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu=20 + le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu=20 balvi (which underlies the tense=20 ba), namely the point of reference for the futu= re tense. Paraphrases of=20 and=20 , employing the brivla=20 mukti and=20 balvi explicitly, would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d3"/> @@ -3144,34 +3139,34 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d8"/>

bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do After you like me, I like you.

respectively. modal sentence co= nnectiontable of equivalent schemata The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sente= nces) all have the same meaning: - + X .i BAI bo Y BAI gi Y gi X X BAI le nu Y tense sentence co= nnectiontable of equivalent schemata whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same me= aning: - + X .i TENSE bo Y TENSE gi X gi Y Y TENSE le nu X neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentenc= e schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representin= g the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the ten= sed sentences, no such simple rule exists.

Tense questions:=20 <jbophrase>cu'e</jbophrase> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu'e CUhE tense question

@@ -3258,21 +3253,21 @@ or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see=20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8"/>

seka'a le briju - With-destination the office. + With-destination the office.

modal-or-tense qu= estionspre-specifying some information tense-or-modal ques= tionspre-specifying some information cu'ecombining with other tense cmavo The only way t= o combine=20 cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical = connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: when elseexample sowed grainexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9"/>

@@ -3297,42 +3292,42 @@

Answers to=20 would be logical connective= s such as=20 je, meaning=20 both,=20 naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former.

Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 and=20 .) It is grammatical for a term= set to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allo= ws both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specifie= d. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1"/>

la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end te= rmset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.

Here the termset extends from the=20 - nu'i to the implicit=20 - nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms= =20 - la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point, and the= tagged sumti=20 + nu'i to the implicit=20 + nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes t= he terms=20 + la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point,= and the tagged sumti=20 lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 ) marks as a quantity. Both ter= ms are governed by the tag=20 zu'a It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -3343,38 +3338,38 @@ la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u lo mitre be li mu Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5. Frank stands five meters to the left.

Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e26d1"/>

.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe =20 fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste

Summary of tense selma'o tense selma'osummary of FIXME: TAG SPOT =20 - + PU temporal direction =20 =20 pu =3D past, ca =3D present, ba =3D future =20 ZI temporal distance zi =3D short, za =3D medium, zu =3D long =20 ZEhA temporal interval ze'i =3D short, ze'a =3D medium, ze'u =3D long, ze'e =3D infin= ite @@ -3388,25 +3383,25 @@ di'i =3D regularly, na'o =3D typically, ru'i =3D continuously,= ta'e =3D habitually =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 ZAhO event contours =20 =20 see=20 - + =20 FAhA spatial direction see=20 - + =20 VA spatial distance vi =3D short, va =3D medium, vu =3D long =20 VEhA spatial interval =20 ve'i =3D short, ve'a =3D medium, ve'u =3D long, ve'e =3D infin= ite =20 =20 VIhA spatial dimensionality @@ -3414,43 +3409,43 @@ vi'i =3D line, vi'a =3D plane, vi'u =3D space, vi'e =3D space-= time =20 =20 =20 FEhE spatial interval modifier flag =20 fe'enoroi =3D nowhere, fe'eroroi =3D everywhere, fe'eba'o =3D = beyond, etc. =20 MOhI spatial movement flag mo'i =3D motion; see=20 - + =20 KI set or reset sticky tense tense+ ki =3D set,=20 ki alone =3D reset =20 CUhE tense question, reference point cu'e =3D asks for a tense or aspect, nau =3D use speaker's ref= erence point =20 =20 =20 JAI tense conversion =20 jaica =3D the time of, jaivi =3D the place of, etc.

List of spatial directions and direction-like relations =20 spatial direction= slist of The following list of= FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used with= out=20 - mo'i to express a direction, and then when used with=20 - mo'i to express movement in the direction. When possibl= e, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. + mo'i to express a direction, and then when used= with=20 + mo'i to express movement in the direction. When= possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed. ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backward= zu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita b= elow downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o = pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to=20 te'e bordering moving along the border (of) re'o adjacent (to) alongfa'a farna towards arriving att= o'o away from departing fromzo'i inward (from) approachingze'o outward (fro= m) receding fromzo'a tangential (to) passing (by)be'a berti north (of) nort= hward(ly)ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly)du'a stuna east (of) eastward(l= y)vu'a west (of) westward(ly) =20 ze'ospecial note on direction orientation zo'ispecial = note on direction orientation to'ospecial note on directio= n orientation fa'aspecial note on direction orientation Special note on=20 fa'a,=20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index d837b6a..e755a68 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -141,21 +141,21 @@ ) Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or= not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion= . .ei cai mi klama le zarci =20 [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. I must go to the market. selma'o CAhA (=20 - ) + ) Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential = (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability. =20 ro datka ka'e flulimna =20 All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers. All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating. selma'o CEI (=20 @@ -208,21 +208,21 @@ selma'o CU (=20 ) Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it.= Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable t= erminators. =20 le gerku cu klama le zarci The dog goes to-the store. selma'o CUhE (=20 - ) + ) Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the res= t of the bridi is true. See=20 ,=20 ,=20 , and=20 . do cu'e klama le zarci You [When/Where?] go to-the store? When are you going to the store? @@ -260,37 +260,37 @@ selma'o FA (=20 ) Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place= structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order. fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car. I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car. selma'o FAhA (=20 - ) + ) Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked w= ith=20 ) or along which (when prefixed by=20 or=20 ) the action of the bridi takes place. le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. To my left, the man bites the dog. selma'o FAhO (=20 ) A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there = is no more text. Useful in talking to computers. selma'o FEhE (=20 - ) + ) Indicates that the following interval modifier (using=20 ,=20 , or=20 ) refers to space rather than time. ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni =20 You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain. Sow the grain in a line and evenly! @@ -527,35 +527,35 @@ ) Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a grouping. ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. selma'o KI (=20 - ) + ) When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it =93sticky=94, so tha= t it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appearance of=20 . When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses. selma'o KOhA (=20 ) A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute = for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups. le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-than= this-thing. selma'o KU (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 and some uses of=20 . Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also= used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the = compound=20 +=20 to indicate natural language-style negation. le prenu ku le zdani ku klama The person, to-the house, goes. The person goes to the house. @@ -757,21 +757,21 @@ Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimen= sioned units. Terminated by=20 . li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu =20 The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. selma'o MOhI (=20 - ) + ) A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specif= ied by a following=20 cmavo. le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. The child walks toward my right on the ice. =20 selma'o NA (=20 @@ -906,21 +906,21 @@ An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 =20 . li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re =20 The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. selma'o PU (=20 - ) + ) Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither). mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. I went to the market. selma'o RAhO (=20 ) The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicit= ly attached to a pro-bridi (see=20 @@ -935,21 +935,21 @@ =20 A: mi ba lumci le mi karce B: mi go'i ra'o =20 =20 A: I [future] wash my car. B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=92s car). selma'o ROI (=20 - ) + ) When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once= , twice, many times). mi reroi klama le zarci I twice go-to the market. selma'o SA (=20 ) Erases the previous phrase or sentence. @@ -1005,21 +1005,21 @@ mi prami do soi mi I love you [reciprocally] me. I love you and vice versa. selma'o SU (=20 ) Closes and erases the entire previous discourse. selma'o TAhE (=20 - ) + ) A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.). le verba ta'e klama le ckule =20 The child habitually goes to-the school. selma'o TEI (=20 ) Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 @@ -1084,21 +1084,21 @@ selma'o UI (=20 ) Particles which indicate the speaker=92s emotional state or sour= ce of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse. .ui la djan. klama [Happiness!] John is-coming. Hurrah! John is coming! selma'o VA (=20 - ) + ) A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither). le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. Over there the man is biting the dog. selma'o VAU (=20 ) Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 @@ -1118,40 +1118,40 @@ li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 The-number (=93n=94 plus one) times (=93n=94 plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=93n=94 plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n 2 + 2n + 1 selma'o VEhA (=20 - ) + ) A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short). selma'o VEhO (=20 ) Elidable terminator for=20 : right mathematical parenthesis. =20 li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 The-number (=93n=94 plus one) times (=93n=94 plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=93n=94 plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n 2 + 2n + 1 selma'o VIhA (=20 - ) + ) A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval). =20 le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli =20 The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. selma'o VUhO (=20 @@ -1186,49 +1186,49 @@ selma'o Y (=20 ) Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say. =20 doi .y. .y. .djan O, uh, uh, John! selma'o ZAhO (=20 - ) + ) A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing). mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. I=92m on the verge of fighting. selma'o ZEI () A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo. =20 ta xy. zei kantu kacma That is-an-(X - ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. =20 selma'o ZEhA (=20 - ) + ) A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short). mi puze'a citka I [past] [short interval] eat. I ate for a little while. selma'o ZI (=20 - ) + ) A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short tim= e ago or in the future). mi puzi citka I [past] [short distance] eat. I ate a little while ago. selma'o ZIhE (=20 ) Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the sa= me sumti. Although generally translated with =93and=94, it is not considere= d a logical connective. diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index af7f0fa..d99de1a 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi

What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? pronouns in Engli= shas noun abbreviations Speake= rs of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbre= viation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a comple= te description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. I= n English, we have words called=20 pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1"/> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require = mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a = thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express = a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would b= e too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. pronouns in Engli= shas independent of abbreviations Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Fu= rthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of a= bbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: =20  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>shook stick</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.