Signs and numerical punctuation

Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

@@ -648,24 +648,24 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d3"/>

fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klam= a Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the c= ar, go.

- to=20 - all mean the same thing. Bu= t consider the lujvo=20 - nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction oper= ator=20 - nu to=20 + to=20 + all mean the same thing. = But consider the lujvo=20 + nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction op= erator=20 + nu to=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4"/>

la'edi'u cu nunkla =20 mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> @@ -696,25 +696,25 @@ fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u =20 fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.

- to=20 - also all mean the same thin= g, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite th= e tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of = SE or FA could be substituted into=20 - sexixa and=20 - faxixa without change of meaning:=20 - vexixa means the same thing as=20 + to=20 + also all mean the same th= ing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite = the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member o= f SE or FA could be substituted into=20 + sexixa and=20 + faxixa without change of meaning:=20 + vexixa means the same thing as=20 sexixa. ko'a-seriesafter tenth da-seriesafter third subscriptsand pro-sumti Lojban provides two = groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo = are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bou= nd using=20 goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are exis= tentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explaine= d more fully in=20 .) There are ten ko'a-series cm= avo and 3 da-series cmavo available. da<= /indexterm> DA selma'o If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or = the da-series can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7"/>

@@ -1026,22 +1026,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2"/>

lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical= -structure in Lojban.

- is grammatical even though = the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 - =20 + is grammatical even thoug= h the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 + =20 lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text wh= ich themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3"/>

lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. @@ -1211,21 +1211,21 @@ It should be noted particularly that=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, s= pecifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 zoi quotation is the only way to quote things w= hich are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo res= pectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d5"/>

zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku - sku is a rafsi of=20 + sku is a rafsi of=20 cusku.

(A minor note on interaction between=20 lo'u ... le'u and=20 zoi: The text between=20 lo'u and=20 le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fa= ct, non-Lojban material in the form of a=20 zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the = word=20 le'u is used either as the delimiting word for = the=20 @@ -1264,22 +1264,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d8"/>

lu'e la bab. cmene la bab. A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.

- through=20 - all mean approximately the = same thing, except for differences in emphasis.=20 + through=20 + all mean approximately th= e same thing, except for differences in emphasis.=20 is different: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d9"/>

la bab. cmene la bab. Bob is the name of Bob.

@@ -1335,39 +1335,39 @@ =20 BAhE next word is nonce

English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for = contrastive emphasis, thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d1"/> - I saw George. + I saw George. is quite different from <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d2"/> - I saw George. + I saw George. The heavy stress on=20 George - (represented in writing by=20 + (represented in writing by=20 italics) indicates that I saw George rather than = someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only t= o help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate = syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that= many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word = order is rearranged, producing something like <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d3"/> - It was George whom I saw. + It was George whom I saw. In Lojban, the cmavo=20 ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word w= hich is to be emphasized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d4"/>

mi viska la ba'e .djordj. I saw the-one-named [emphasis]=20 @@ -1468,22 +1468,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1"/>

doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska= le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!)= you see the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

- implicitly redefines=20 - do within the parentheses: the listener is chan= ged by=20 + implicitly redefines=20 + do within the parentheses: the listener is ch= anged by=20 doi frank. When the context sentence resumes, h= owever, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored. TO selma'o to'i= edito= rial commentary There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:= =20 to'i. The difference between=20 to and=20 to'i is the difference between parentheses and = square brackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 =20 to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same spe= aker, whereas remarks within=20 to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, pe= rhaps an editor: @@ -1533,21 +1533,21 @@

la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

The grammar of the bridi following=20 sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must e= ither precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 be and=20 bei: - Susanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + Susanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5"/>

la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein. Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane. =20

@@ -1600,21 +1600,21 @@ I go to the store. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d9"/>

lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci - I go, John said,=20 + I go, John said,=20 to the store.

Note the=20 sa'a following each=20 =20 sei, marking the=20 sei and its attached bridi as an editorial inse= rt, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 sa'a cmavo would probably be dropped. =20 @@ -1681,21 +1681,21 @@ The first use of=20 si does not erase anything, but completes the= =20 zo quotation. Two more=20 si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first= =20 si and the=20 zo. Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with=20 si: - erasurenames FIXME: TAG SPOT + erasure= names FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d4"/> mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton. I talk in-language that-named=20 and speranto, er, er, Esperanto. @@ -1874,102 +1874,102 @@

List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. zo quotes the following word, no matter wha= t it is. - si erases the preceding word unless it is a= =20 + si erases the preceding word unless it is= a=20 zo. - sa erases the preceding word and other word= s, unless the preceding word is a=20 + sa erases the preceding word and other wo= rds, unless the preceding word is a=20 zo. - su is the same as=20 + su is the same as=20 sa, but erases more words. - lo'u quotes all following words up to a=20 - le'u (but not a=20 + lo'u quotes all following words up to a= =20 + le'u (but not a=20 zo le'u). le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of = a =E2=80=9Clo'u quotation. ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no ma= tter what it is, but using=20 le'u may create difficulties. - zei combines the preceding and the followin= g word into a lujvo, but does not affect=20 - zo,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 - fa'o, and=20 - =20 + zei combines the preceding and the follow= ing word into a lujvo, but does not affect=20 + zo,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + fa'o, and=20 + =20 zei. BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is=20 si,=20 sa, or=20 su, or unless it is preceded by=20 zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succ= ession. - bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu wo= rd, except for=20 - zo,=20 - si,=20 - sa,=20 - su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 - fa'o,=20 - =20 - zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 - bu. Multiple=20 + bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu = word, except for=20 + zo,=20 + si,=20 + sa,=20 + su,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + fa'o,=20 + =20 + zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 + bu. Multiple=20 bu cmavo may be used in succession. UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for=20 zo,=20 si,=20 sa,=20 su,=20 lo'u, ZOI,=20 fa'o,=20 =20 zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succes= sion. A following=20 nai is made part of the UI. - .y.,=20 - da'o,=20 - =20 - fu'e, and=20 - =20 - fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absorb = a following=20 - =20 + .y.,=20 + da'o,=20 + =20 + fu'e, and=20 + =20 + fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absor= b a following=20 + =20 nai.

List of Elidable Terminators The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban.= The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that = starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kin= ds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cm= avo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo. =20

commit 97c4e9af2513a00e8187f9975424be28136df612 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 16 20:34:44 2011 -0500 Chapter 19: example tags, s, and section titles. diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index 6f40590..5ec9ece 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts</= title> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section1"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> <title>Introductory This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo = that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragra= phs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are foun= d in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described= are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents. This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing r= eference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other= chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was a= s complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified langu= age, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before u= nderstanding every part of it (to some degree).

Sentences: I The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.i I sentence separator =20

@@ -42,36 +42,36 @@ An=20 .i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or no= n-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both:= these constructs are explained in=20 ,=20 , and=20 . In all cases, the=20 .i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals ca= n also be attached to an=20 .i if they are meant to apply to the whole sent= ence: see=20 . BO selma'o bo sentenc= esclose grouping There exist a= pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentences closely together. I= f the=20 .i (with or without connectives) is followed by= =20 - bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences being separa= ted are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connected by= =20 + bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences bein= g separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connec= ted by=20 .i alone. TUhU selma'o<= /primary> TU= hE selma'o = tu'u tu'e titlespecifying with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by=20 - tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 - tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit.= A common use of=20 - tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which compose a= poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from it by=20 + tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 + tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a sing= le unit. A common use of=20 + tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which c= ompose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from i= t by=20 .i. Another use might be a set of directions, w= here each numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 - tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences separat= ed by=20 + tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences= separated by=20 .i. Grouping with=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-logical c= onnectives (see=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-l= ogical connectives (see=20 ).

Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o NIhO new topic

no'i @@ -102,49 +102,49 @@ ni'o in writing and in conversation. DAhO selma'o<= /primary> da= 'o par= agraph separationwritten text = tensesc= ope effect of new paragraph indicatorsscope effect of new = paragraph pro-sumtiscope effect of new paragraph pro-bridiscope effect of new paragraph paragraphse= ffects on scope discursive indicator indicator scope In written= text, a single=20 ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new su= bject, whereas=20 =20 ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. In this= situation,=20 ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitions of = all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explic= it cancelling is expressed by the cmavo=20 da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free gramma= r of an indicator =E2=80=93 it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of=20 =20 ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of selma'o= UI) or tense references, but=20 ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change of to= pic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See=20 - for a discussion of indicat= or scope.) + for a discussion of indi= cator scope.) =20 paragraph separat= ionspoken text Arabian Nights In spo= ken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by = one, with=20 ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient = to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book,= or in stories within stories such as=20 =20 The Arabian Nights, further levels may be expressed by = extending the=20 =20 ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text= will begin with the number of=20 ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale d= ivision which the text contains.=20 ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each c= ontext of discourse: see=20 - . + . NIhO selma'o<= /primary> no= 'i pre= vious topic=20 no'i is similar in effect to=20 ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previou= s topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English= discursive phrases as=20 =20 But getting back to the point .... By default, the topi= c resumed is that in effect before the last=20 ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, = then=20 no'i would resume the previous subtopic and=20 =20 no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that=20 =20 no'i also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignmen= ts dropped at the previous=20 ni'o. subscripted topic= s If a=20 ni'o is subscripted, then a=20 no'i with the same subscript is assumed to be a= continuation of it. A=20 no'i may also have a negative subscript, which = would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the to= pic found thereby.

Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

zo'u ZOhU topic/comment separator

The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the norm= al English sentence which has a subject and a predicate: @@ -165,21 +165,21 @@ zhe ZOhU selma'o<= /primary> zo= 'u new= sexample The wide space in the= first two versions of=20 separate the topic (=20 this news) from the comment (=20 =20 I know already). Lojban uses the cmavo=20 - zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from= comment (a bridi): + zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sum= ti) from comment (a bridi): <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d3"/>

le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno The news : I [perfective] know. =20

@@ -215,54 +215,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d6"/>

which is vague in exactly the same way. Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before= =20 - zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sent= ences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 + zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comm= ent sentences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 =20 =20 - zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi co= ntaining quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quanti= fier logic in Lojban (see=20 + zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a = bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion o= f quantifier logic in Lojban (see=20 ), but an example would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7"/>

roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. Every person has a father.

The string of sumti before=20 - zo'u (called the=20 + zo'u (called the=20 prenex: see=20 ) may contain both a topic and = bound variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d8"/>

loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. As for fathers, every person has one.

topic/commentmultiple sentence To specify a top= ic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in=20 - tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topic and the=20 - zo'u directly in front. This is the exception to the ru= le that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: + tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topic and = the=20 + zo'u directly in front. This is the exception t= o the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d9"/>

loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u] The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want ) Money: if you have it, you want it.

@@ -296,21 +296,21 @@ namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences lik= e=20 =20 =20 are inherently vague, and t= his difference between=20 ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) a= nd=20 djica is ignored. See=20 for another topic/comment s= entence. The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, b= ut in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especi= ally if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sente= nces don't necessarily have a=20 subject in the English sense.

Questions and answers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

xu UI truth question

ma @@ -477,23 +477,23 @@ la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju John, Marsha, the store, the office. =20 John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.<= /en> =20 (Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungrammatical r= esult, because=20 - * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: t= he first=20 + * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical L= ojban: the first=20 le zarci has to be closed with its proper termi= nator=20 - ku, for reasons explained in=20 + ku, for reasons explained in=20 . This effect is not important:= Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both que= stion and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange = is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) GOhA selma'o<= /primary> mo= quest= ionsselbri Questions to be ans= wered with a selbri are expressed with=20 mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-brid= i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d9"/>

la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] @@ -522,25 +522,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d11"/>

vomu Forty-five.

Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 ji of A,=20 - ge'i of GA,=20 + ge'i of GA,=20 =20 gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 - gu'i of GUhA, or=20 + gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, o= r ijoik as an answer) - see=20 =20 =20 ; attitudes (using=20 pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an a= nswer) - see=20 ; place structures (using=20 fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an a= nswer) - see=20 =20 ; tenses and modals (using=20 @@ -548,21 +548,21 @@ and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. = See=20 =20 for details. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: linked argume= nts ut= terancesnon-bridi any number o= f sumti (with elidable terminator=20 - vau, see=20 + vau, see=20 ) an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see=20 ) a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parenthes= es (see=20 ) @@ -576,22 +576,22 @@ a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti= , see=20 ) a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, s= ee=20 ) linked arguments (beginning with=20 =20 - be or=20 - bei and attached to some previously expressed selbr= i, often in a description,see=20 + be or=20 + bei and attached to some previously express= ed selbri, often in a description,see=20 ) At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also per= mitted: one or more names (to indicate direct address without=20 =20 doi, see=20 ) @@ -601,47 +601,47 @@ ) nai (to vaguely negate something or other, = see=20 ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.

Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

XI selma'o xi subscri= pting The cmavo=20 - xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number= , a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be atta= ched to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (= or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful eithe= r to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refin= ed distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this= section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used. + xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (= a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can= be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the constr= uction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are usef= ul either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make mo= re refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder= of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be u= sed. Lojban gismu have at most five places: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d1"/>

mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the ca= r.

Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change t= he order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags fo= r individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. C= onversion of=20 =20 , using=20 - xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce: + xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d2"/>

le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the ho= use via-the road for-me.

And reordering of the place structures might produce: @@ -651,21 +651,21 @@ fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klam= a Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the c= ar, go. to=20 all mean the same thing. Bu= t consider the lujvo=20 nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction oper= ator=20 - nu to=20 + nu to=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d4"/>

la'edi'u cu nunkla =20 mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> @@ -698,26 +698,26 @@ fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u =20 fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.

to=20 also all mean the same thin= g, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite th= e tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of = SE or FA could be substituted into=20 - sexixa and=20 + sexixa and=20 faxixa without change of meaning:=20 - vexixa means the same thing as=20 - sexixa. + vexixa means the same thing as=20 + sexixa. ko'a-seriesafter tenth da-seriesafter third subscriptsand pro-sumti Lojban provides two = groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo = are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bou= nd using=20 - goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentiall= y or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more f= ully in=20 + goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are exis= tentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explaine= d more fully in=20 .) There are ten ko'a-series cm= avo and 3 da-series cmavo available. da<= /indexterm> DA selma'o If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or = the da-series can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7"/> daxivo X sub 4 @@ -728,62 +728,62 @@

ko'ixipaso something-3 sub 18

is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series= . This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequence= s of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that=20 daxivo and=20 dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti,= unlike the situation with=20 - sexixa and=20 - vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to= the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi=20 + sexixa and=20 + vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be = given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi=20 broda,=20 brode,=20 brodi,=20 brodo, and=20 brodu. subscriptsmathematical Subscripts on lerfu word= s are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variabl= es: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d9"/>

li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3 =20 x

and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since= lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantic= ally equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In=20 , note the required terminat= or=20 - boi after each=20 + boi after each=20 xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript= to be attached without ambiguity.) subscriptsand names Names, which are similar to= pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the= same name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d10"/>

la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire =20 John

subscriptsand tense Subscripts on tenses allow = talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same gen= eral cmavo. For example,=20 puxipa could refer to one point in the past, an= d=20 puxire a second point (earlier or later). subscriptsand fuzzy truths You can place a subs= cript on the word=20 ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to e= xpress so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (stateme= nts whose truth value is not merely=20 true or=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 - jei: + jei: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d11"/>

li pimu jei mi ganra The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.

However, by convention we can attach a subscript to=20 @@ -792,26 +792,26 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d12"/>

mi ja'a xipimu ganra I truly-sub-.5 am-broad

subscriptsand paragraph separators Finally, as = mentioned in=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 ni'o and=20 no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the st= art and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics ca= n be assigned to different subscripts. Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.

Utterance ordinals: MAI =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mai MAI utterance ordinal, -thly =20 @@ -820,22 +820,22 @@ MAI higher order utterance ordinal =20

MAI selma'o mo'= o = mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to Englis= h=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing=20 - mai or=20 - mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here= are some examples: + mai or=20 + mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu stri= ng. Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e7d1"/>

mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house. =20

@@ -843,31 +843,31 @@ =20 =20 Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:=20 romai, for example, means=20 all-thly or=20 lastly. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list an= d have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say=20 ny.mai, or=20 Nthly. =20 The difference between=20 - mai and=20 - mo'o is that=20 - mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;=20 - mai was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas= =20 + mai and=20 + mo'o is that=20 + mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;= =20 + mai was designed for lists of numbered items, w= hereas=20 =20 - mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works. If thi= s chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with=20 - mo'o: this section would then be introduced with=20 + mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works= . If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section= with=20 + mo'o: this section would then be introduced wit= h=20 zemo'o, or=20 Section 7.

Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fu'e =20 FUhE open attitudinal scope

@@ -930,54 +930,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d5"/>

[.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani [belief] I see the blue house. I believe I see a blue house.

or to an explicit=20 - vau placed at the end of a bridi. + vau placed at the end of a bridi. Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be= attached to=20 ni'o or=20 no'i. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text= applies to the whole text. However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the= range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the b= oundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo=20 - fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and=20 + fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and=20 =20 fu'o (of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope m= arkers. Placing=20 =20 - fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from wha= t precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words unti= l further notice. The notice is given by=20 + fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it = from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following wo= rds until further notice. The notice is given by=20 =20 fu'o, which can appear anywhere and cancels all= in-force attitudinals. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e8d6"/>

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse =20 =20 I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.

Here, only the=20 blanu zdani portion of the three-part tanru=20 blanu zdani ponse is marked as a belief of the = speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules f= or interpreting multi-part tanru:=20 blanu zdani groups first because tanru group fr= om left to right unless overridden with=20 - ke or=20 - bo. + ke or=20 + bo. Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudi= nals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active at= titudinals rather than superseding them.

Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lu LU begin quotation

li'u @@ -1006,67 +1006,67 @@ I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote] I said,=20 I'm John. But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the= language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the cas= e, quotation deserves some elaboration. The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in=20 , uses the cmavo=20 lu (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mar= k, and the cmavo=20 =20 - li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. T= he text between=20 + li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation= mark. The text between=20 lu and=20 - li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quo= tation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo=20 - li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's al= most never possible to elide it except at the end of text. + li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If= the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmav= o=20 + li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but= it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text. The cmavo=20 - lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and=20 - le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation= that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist= of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 + lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and=20 + le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a q= uotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must= consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in=20 ), so that the=20 - le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be = meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quota= tion with=20 - lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for t= eaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to= mark such errors: + le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need= not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmen= e. Quotation with=20 + lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojb= an for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in En= glish to mark such errors: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d2"/>

lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban. [quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical= -structure in Lojban.

is grammatical even though = the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 =20 - lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which them= selves do not constitute grammatical utterances: + lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text wh= ich themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3"/>

lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. In the sentence=20 le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 - viska le should be replaced by=20 - viska lo. + viska le should be replaced by=20 + viska lo.

Note the topic-comment formulation (=20 =20 - ) and the indicator applying= to the selbri only (=20 - ). Neither=20 - viska le nor=20 - viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require= =20 - lo'u quotation. + ) and the indicator applying= to the selbri only (=20 + ). Neither=20 + viska le nor=20 + viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both = require=20 + lo'u quotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 - lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 + lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 lo'u ... le'u is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d4"/>

la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u .iku'i ri jmive Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. @@ -1095,36 +1095,36 @@ ,=20 ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged = sumti=20 le ninmu, because=20 le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted seque= nce of Lojban words. Instead,=20 =20 ri ends up referring to the referent of the sum= ti=20 la tcarlis., and so it is Charlie who is alive.= The metalinguistic erasers=20 =20 si,=20 - sa, and=20 + sa, and=20 su, discussed in=20 - , do not operate in text be= tween=20 - lo'u and=20 - le'u. Since the first=20 - le'u terminates a=20 - lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to have a= =20 - lo'u quotation within another=20 - lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a=20 - le'u to occur within a=20 + , do not operate in text between=20 + lo'u and=20 + le'u. Since the first=20 + le'u terminates a=20 + lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to = have a=20 + lo'u quotation within another=20 + lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a= =20 + le'u to occur within a=20 lo'u ... le'u quotation by preceding it with th= e cmavo=20 - zo, discussed in=20 - . Note that=20 - le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is required. + zo, discussed in=20 + . Note that=20 + le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is requi= red.

More on quotations: ZO, ZOI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo ZO quote single word

zoi @@ -1132,131 +1132,131 @@ non-Lojban quotation =20

la'o ZOI non-Lojban name

The cmavo=20 - zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the s= ingle following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other = uses,=20 + zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark f= or the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Amon= g other uses,=20 =20 - zo allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced withou= t having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically= legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo = are not permitted. For example: + zo allows a metalinguistic word to be reference= d without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphol= ogically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compoun= d cmavo are not permitted. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d1"/>

zo si cu lojbo valsi si is a Lojbanic word.

Since=20 - zo acts on a single word only, there is no correspondin= g terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 - zo, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation = are rarely or never elidable. + zo acts on a single word only, there is no corr= esponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of=20 + zo, since the terminators for other kinds of qu= otation are rarely or never elidable. The cmavo=20 - zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting no= n-Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 + zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for qu= oting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is=20 =20 - zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (called the de= limiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which= is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, b= ut not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to= the Lojban name of the language being quoted: + zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (calle= d the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, a= nd which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is c= ommon, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corres= ponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d2"/>

zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra John is a man is an English sentence.

where=20 gy stands for=20 glico. Other popular choices of delimiting word= s are=20 .kuot., a Lojban name which sounds like the Eng= lish word=20 quote, and the word=20 - zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word sugges= ting the topic of the quotation. + zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban wor= d suggesting the topic of the quotation. Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimitin= g word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimit= ing word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-v= isual isomorphism:=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is fine in speech but ungra= mmatical as written, whereas=20 is correct when written but= ungrammatical in speech. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d3"/>

- ?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy. + mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy. I know about the word which-is=20 gyrations.

- ?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai + mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai I know about the word which-is=20 gyrations.

The text=20 gy appears in the written word=20 gyrations, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by= =20 - jai appears in the spoken word=20 + jai appears in the spoken word=20 gyrations. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a= matter of good style. It should be noted particularly that=20 - zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifica= lly CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 - zoi quotation is the only way to quote things which are= not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectivel= y, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: + zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, s= pecifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and=20 + zoi quotation is the only way to quote things w= hich are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo res= pectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d5"/>

zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku - sku is a rafsi of=20 + sku is a rafsi of=20 cusku.

(A minor note on interaction between=20 lo'u ... le'u and=20 - zoi: The text between=20 - lo'u and=20 - le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-= Lojban material in the form of a=20 - zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the word=20 - le'u is used either as the delimiting word for the=20 - zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, the oute= r=20 - lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefor= e,=20 - le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word in any=20 - zoi quotation.) + zoi: The text between=20 + lo'u and=20 + le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fa= ct, non-Lojban material in the form of a=20 + zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the = word=20 + le'u is used either as the delimiting word for = the=20 + zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, = the outer=20 + lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. = Therefore,=20 + le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word i= n any=20 + zoi quotation.) Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the name= s of things: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d6"/>

zo .bab. cmene la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.

In=20 ,=20 zo .bab. is the word, whereas=20 la bab. is the thing named by the word. The cma= vo=20 - la'e and=20 - lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between r= eferences and their referents: + la'e and=20 + lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth b= etween references and their referents: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d7"/> zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word=20 Bob. @@ -1281,119 +1281,113 @@ la bab. cmene la bab. Bob is the name of Bob. and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlik= ely situation. People are not names. (In=20 through=20 , the name=20 bab. was separated from a preceding=20 - zo by a pause, thus:=20 + zo by a pause, thus:=20 zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause is th= at all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word othe= r than=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i (all of selma'o LA) and=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i (all of selma'o LA) and=20 doi (of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other = cmavo that may precede a name: of these,=20 - zo is one of the most common.) + zo is one of the most common.) The cmavo=20 - la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here= for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation= . Instead,=20 - la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Li= nnaean binomial names (such as=20 + la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentio= ned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a q= uotation. Instead,=20 + la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especiall= y the Linnaean binomial names (such as=20 =20 Homo sapiens) which are the internationally standardize= d names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names whic= h can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such= as=20 =20 Goethe, can also appear in Lojban text with=20 =20 - la'o: + la'o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e10d10"/>

la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly. =20 Goethe is a Homo sapiens. =20

Using=20 - la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, ma= kes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 + la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, how= ever, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of=20 =20 - la'o might be=20 - la me zoi. + la'o might be=20 + la me zoi.

Contrastive emphasis: BAhE The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ba'e BAhE emphasize next word

za'e =20 BAhE next word is nonce

English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for = contrastive emphasis, thus - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d1"/> - - I saw George. - + I saw George. is quite different from - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d2"/> - - I saw - + I saw George. The heavy stress on=20 George (represented in writing by=20 italics) indicates that I saw George rather than = someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only t= o help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate = syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that= many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word = order is rearranged, producing something like - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d3"/> - - It was George whom I saw. - + It was George whom I saw. In Lojban, the cmavo=20 - ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is = to be emphasized: + ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word w= hich is to be emphasized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d4"/>

mi viska la ba'e .djordj. I saw the-one-named [emphasis]=20 George. I saw

Note the pause before the name=20 - djordj., which serves to separate it unambiguously from= the=20 - ba'e. Alternatively, the=20 - ba'e can be moved to a position before the=20 - la, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct=20 - la djordj.: + djordj., which serves to separate it unambiguou= sly from the=20 + ba'e. Alternatively, the=20 + ba'e can be moved to a position before the=20 + la, which in effect emphasizes the whole constr= uct=20 + la djordj.: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d5"/> mi viska ba'e la djordj. I saw [emphasis] the-one-named=20 George. I saw @@ -1413,42 +1407,42 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d7"/>

mi ba'e viska la djordj. I saw (not heard or smelled) George.

Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi c= an also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker= 's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri whe= n moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree. For completeness, the cmavo=20 - za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It mark= s a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occ= asion): + za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE.= It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for= the occasion): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e11d8"/>

mi klama la za'e. .albeinias =20 I go-to so-called Albania =20

marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 =20 la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in= Albanian. unabridged dictio= nary Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 - za'e indicates that the word has been made up on the sp= ot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionar= y (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). + za'e indicates that the word has been made up o= n the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged d= ictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). =20 =20

Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

to TO open parenthesis

@@ -1462,111 +1456,110 @@ close parenthesis

sei SEI metalinguistic bridi marker

TOI selma'o toi= T= O selma'o <= primary>to The cmavo=20 to and=20 - toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for = inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the pare= ntheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, re= fer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have bee= n assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, = but the reverse is not true. + toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parenthes= es, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within = the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, how= ever, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that = have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical r= emarks, but the reverse is not true. <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d1"/>

doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska= le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!)= you see the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

implicitly redefines=20 do within the parentheses: the listener is chan= ged by=20 doi frank. When the context sentence resumes, h= owever, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored. TO selma'o to'i= edito= rial commentary There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:= =20 to'i. The difference between=20 to and=20 to'i is the difference between parentheses and = square brackets in English prose. Remarks within=20 =20 - to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, wh= ereas remarks within=20 - to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an= editor: + to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same spe= aker, whereas remarks within=20 + to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, pe= rhaps an editor: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d2"/>

la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi l= i'u - Frank expresses=20 - I love you [you =3D Jane] + Frank expresses I love you [you =3D Jane]

UI selma'o sa'a= edito= rial insertion = bracketed remark The=20 sa'a suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o U= I) meaning=20 =20 editorial insertion, and indicating that the marked wor= d or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of t= he quotation. It is required whenever the=20 =20 =20 =20 - to'i ... toi remark is physically within quotation mark= s, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the convention may b= e relaxed if no actual confusion results. + to'i ... toi remark is physically within quotat= ion marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the conventi= on may be relaxed if no actual confusion results. Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the p= revious word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents = of subscripts and other such so-called=20 free modifiers. Semantically, however, parenthetical re= marks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what fol= lows them. =20 SEI selma'o sei= metal= inguistic commentwith embedded discursive<= /indexterm> discursivesembedded embedded discursive The cmavo=20 - sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive brid= i. Comments added with=20 + sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discurs= ive bridi. Comments added with=20 =20 - sei are called=20 + sei are called=20 metalinguistic, because they are comments about the dis= course itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This s= ense of the term=20 metalinguistic is used throughout this chapter, and is = not to be confused with the sense=20 language for expressing other languages. When marked with=20 - sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in anot= her utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have c= mavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: + sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded= in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do no= t have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d3"/>

la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein. Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.

Using the happiness attitudinal,=20 =20 - .ui, would imply that the speaker was happy. In= stead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe= to elide the one who is happy, and say: + .ui, would imply that the sp= eaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It wou= ld probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d4"/>

la frank. prami sei gleki la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

The grammar of the bridi following=20 - sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either pr= ecede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 - be and=20 - bei: + sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must e= ither precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with=20 + be and=20 + bei: Susanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e12d5"/>

la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein. Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane. =20

This restriction allows the terminator cmavo=20 - se'u to almost always be elided. + se'u to almost always be elided. referenceand discursive utterances pro-sumtiand discur= sive utterances metalinguistic levels or reference metalinguistic levels Since a discursive utterance is working at a=20 higher level of abstraction than a non-discursive utter= ance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Sp= ecifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs= in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at=20 =20 higher metalinguistic levels in determining their refer= ent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguis= tic levels. For example, the English=20 =20 he said in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this p= urpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level tha= n the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of = the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be = at a higher level than the context. Lojban works differently from English in that the=20 he said can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojb= an, you can say: @@ -1614,30 +1607,30 @@ <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci</jbo> <en> <quote>I go</quote>, John said,=20 <quote>to the store</quote>.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Note the=20 <jbophrase>sa'a</jbophrase> following each=20 =20 - <quote>sei</quote>, marking the=20 - <quote>sei</quote> and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not = part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 + <jbophrase>sei</jbophrase>, marking the=20 + <jbophrase>sei</jbophrase> and its attached bridi as an editorial inse= rt, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these=20 <jbophrase>sa'a</jbophrase> cmavo would probably be dropped.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>SEhU selma'o<= /primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>se= 'u</primary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for=20 - <quote>sei</quote> is=20 - <quote>se'u</quote> (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to = separate a selbri within the=20 - <quote>sei</quote> comment from an immediately following selbri (or co= mponent) outside the comment.</para> + <jbophrase>sei</jbophrase> is=20 + <jbophrase>se'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, ex= cept to separate a selbri within the=20 + <jbophrase>sei</jbophrase> comment from an immediately following selbr= i (or component) outside the comment.</para> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter19-section13"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-erasure"> <title>Erasure: SI, SA, SU The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

si SI erase word

sa @@ -1667,130 +1660,130 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d2"/>

ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.

erasure= zo In order to erase the word=20 - zo, it is necessary to use three=20 + zo, it is necessary to use three=20 si cmavo in a row: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d3"/>

zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la bab. The-word=20 Bob is-the-name-of the word=20 si, er, er, Bob.

The first use of=20 si does not erase anything, but completes the= =20 - zo quotation. Two more=20 + zo quotation. Two more=20 si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first= =20 si and the=20 - zo. + zo. Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with=20 si: erasurenames FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d4"/>

mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton. I talk in-language that-named=20 and speranto, er, er, Esperanto.

The Lojbanized spelling=20 .esperanto breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban mo= rphology rules (see=20 ) into two Lojban words, the cma= vo=20 .e and the undefined fu'ivla=20 speranto. Therefore, two=20 si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,= =20 - .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 - la, but recognition of=20 + .e speranto is not grammatical after=20 + la, but recognition of=20 si is done before grammatical analysis. erasure= quotes Even more messy is the result of = an incorrect=20 - zoi: + zoi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d5"/>

mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan I express [foreign] [quote]=20 gy [unquote], er, er, er, er,=20 John.

In=20 , the first=20 fy is taken to be the delimiting word. The next= word must be different from the delimiting word, and=20 gy., the Lojban name for the letter=20 - g, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting = word must be repeated. For purposes of=20 + g, was chosen arbitrarily. Th= en the delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of=20 si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to = be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more=20 =20 si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. S= imilarly, a stray=20 - lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 + lo'u quotation mark must be erased with=20 fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation = and then erasing it all with three=20 si cmavo. What if less than the entire=20 - zo or=20 - zoi construct is erased? The result is something which = has a loose=20 - zo or=20 - zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and which is i= ncurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 - zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the=20 - zo as well: + zo or=20 + zoi construct is erased? The result is somethin= g which has a loose=20 + zo or=20 + zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and wh= ich is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by=20 + zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the= =20 + zo as well: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d6"/>

mi se cmene zo .djan. si si zo .djordj. I am-named-by the-word=20 John, er, er, the-word=20 George.

The parser will reject=20 - zo .djan. si .djordj., because in that context=20 - djordj. is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather than a quot= ed word. + zo .djan. si .djordj., because in that context= =20 + djordj. is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather tha= n a quoted word. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 si erasure. =20 SA selma'o sa erasure= multiple word precise erasures starting marker As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with=20 =20 si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefor= e, the cmavo=20 - sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than on= e word. The cmavo following=20 - sa should be the starting marker of some grammatical co= nstruct. The effect of the=20 + sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more= than one word. The cmavo following=20 + sa should be the starting marker of some gramma= tical construct. The effect of the=20 =20 - sa is to erase back to and including the last starting = marker of the same kind. For example: + sa is to erase back to and including the last s= tarting marker of the same kind. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d7"/>

mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan. I see the ... I say the-word=20 John.

Since the word following=20 - sa is=20 + sa is=20 .i, the sentence separator, its effect is to er= ase the preceding sentence. So=20 =20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d8"/> mi cusku zo .djan. @@ -1800,188 +1793,188 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e13d9"/>

mi viska le blanu zdan. sa le xekri zdani I see the blue hou ... the black house.

In=20 ,=20 - le blanu zdan. is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects t= he speaker's original intention to say=20 + le blanu zdan. is ungrammatical, but clearly re= flects the speaker's original intention to say=20 le blanu zdani. However, the=20 zdani was cut off before the end and changed in= to a name. The entire ungrammatical=20 - le construct is erased and replaced by=20 + le construct is erased and replaced by=20 le xekri zdani. Note: The current machine parser does not implement=20 - sa erasure. Getting=20 + sa erasure. Getting=20 =20 - sa right is even more difficult (for a computer) than g= etting=20 + sa right is even more difficult (for a computer= ) than getting=20 si right, as the behavior of=20 si is defined in terms of words rather than in = terms of grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are con= ceptually simpler entities. On the other hand,=20 - sa is generally easier for human beings, because the ru= les for using it correctly are less finicky. + sa is generally easier for human beings, becaus= e the rules for using it correctly are less finicky. SU selma'o su erasure= total multiple speakers The cmavo=20 su (of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguisti= c operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multi= ple speakers, then=20 =20 su will only erase the remarks made by the one = who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore=20 - susu is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conve= rsation. + susu is needed to eradicate a whole discussion = in conversation. Note: The current machine parser does not implement either=20 su or=20 - susu erasure. + susu erasure. =20

Hesitation: Y The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.y. Y hesitation noise =20

Y selma'o .y Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say= next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate i= n Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cm= avo=20 .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the= English hesitation noise written=20 =20 uh (or=20 er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses = before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having not= hing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is= not significant in Lojban, the=20 - y sound can be dragged out for as long as neces= sary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses = are respected. + y sound can be dragged out fo= r as long as necessary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided th= e required pauses are respected. hesitation sound<= /primary> Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the = formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo.= Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if nec= essary, repeating) a word (=20 =20 =20 este in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning=20 that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism require= s a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 .y. has no grammatical significance: it can app= ear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.

No more to say: FAhO The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fa'o =20 FAhO end of text

FAhO selma'o<= /primary> fa= 'o yie= lding the floor end of file computer interaction unconditional signal T= he cmavo=20 fa'o (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted m= arker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indi= cate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor duri= ng a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser = takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted wit= h=20 =20 =20 =20 - zo or with=20 + zo or with=20 lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at= the end of subordinate texts quoted with=20 - lu ... li'u or parenthesized with=20 - to ... toi. + lu ... li'u or parenthesized with=20 + to ... toi.

List of cmavo interactions The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recogniz= ed by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of the= m interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in th= is chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER C= ASE. - zo quotes the following word, no matter what it is.= + zo quotes the following word, no matter wha= t it is. si erases the preceding word unless it is a= =20 - zo. + zo. - sa erases the preceding word and other words, unles= s the preceding word is a=20 - zo. + sa erases the preceding word and other word= s, unless the preceding word is a=20 + zo. su is the same as=20 - sa, but erases more words. + sa, but erases more words. - lo'u quotes all following words up to a=20 - le'u (but not a=20 + lo'u quotes all following words up to a=20 + le'u (but not a=20 zo le'u). - le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of a =E2=80= =9Clo'u quotation. + le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of = a =E2=80=9Clo'u quotation. ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no ma= tter what it is, but using=20 - le'u may create difficulties. + le'u may create difficulties. - zei combines the preceding and the following word i= nto a lujvo, but does not affect=20 - zo,=20 + zei combines the preceding and the followin= g word into a lujvo, but does not affect=20 + zo,=20 si,=20 - sa,=20 + sa,=20 su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 fa'o, and=20 =20 - zei. + zei. BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is=20 si,=20 - sa, or=20 + sa, or=20 su, or unless it is preceded by=20 - zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession.<= /para> + zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succ= ession. - bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu word, exce= pt for=20 - zo,=20 + bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu wo= rd, except for=20 + zo,=20 si,=20 - sa,=20 + sa,=20 su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 + lo'u, ZOI cmavo,=20 fa'o,=20 =20 - zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 - bu. Multiple=20 - bu cmavo may be used in succession. + zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 + bu. Multiple=20 + bu cmavo may be used in succession. UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for=20 - zo,=20 + zo,=20 si,=20 - sa,=20 + sa,=20 su,=20 - lo'u, ZOI,=20 + lo'u, ZOI,=20 fa'o,=20 =20 - zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 - bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A = following=20 + zei, BAhE cmavo, and=20 + bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succes= sion. A following=20 nai is made part of the UI. .y.,=20 da'o,=20 =20 - fu'e, and=20 + fu'e, and=20 =20 fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absorb = a following=20 =20 nai.

be'o BE sumti attached to a tanru unit

diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 6a904f1..2146e9c 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -19,21 +19,21 @@ BAIselma'o catalog sumti placeadditionalselma'o catalog=20 selma'o BAI (=20 ) May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not o= therwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a s= ingle place of some other selbri. mi tavla bau la lojban. I speak in-language Lojban. BAhEselma'o catalog nonce wordmarkingselma'o catalog emphasismarking= selma'o catalog=20 selma'o BAhE (=20 - ) + ) Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (on= e invented for the occasion). =20 la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci =20 George goes to the store. It is George who goes to the store. selma'o BE (=20 @@ -272,21 +272,21 @@ ) or along which (when prefixed by=20 or=20 ) the action of the bridi takes place. le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku The man [left] bites the dog. To my left, the man bites the dog. selma'o FAhO (=20 - ) + ) A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there = is no more text. Useful in talking to computers. selma'o FEhE (=20 ) Indicates that the following interval modifier (using=20 ,=20 , or=20 ) refers to space rather than time. ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni @@ -331,34 +331,34 @@ Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands. =20 li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo =20 the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four 2 + 2 =3D 4 selma'o FUhE (=20 - ) + ) Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o=20 affect not the preceding word, as usual, but ra= ther all following words until a=20 . mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse =20 =20 I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one. selma'o FUhO (=20 - ) + ) Cancels all indicators of selma'o=20 which are in effect. mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse =20 =20 I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. @@ -439,21 +439,21 @@ ) Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. = Takes the place of=20 when forming logically-connected tanru. See=20 . la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu Alice is both rich and blue. selma'o I (=20 - ) + ) Separates two sentences from each other. mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani I go-to the market. I go-to the office. selma'o JA (=20 ) Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two tanru units, mathemati= cal operands, tenses, or abstractions. @@ -616,42 +616,42 @@ ) Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or speci= fy things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by=20 . See=20 . le gerku cu klama le zdani The dog goes-to the house. selma'o LEhU (=20 - ) + ) Indicates the end of a quotation begun with=20 . Not an elidable terminator. lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. selma'o LI (=20 ) Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 =20 . li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 selma'o LIhU (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 . Indicates the end of a text quotation. =20 mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. selma'o LOhO (=20 ) @@ -659,31 +659,31 @@ . Indicates the end of a mathematical expression= used in a=20 description. li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu =20 The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. 4 > 3 selma'o LOhU (=20 - ) + ) Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they= form a text or not. Terminated by=20 . do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote]. You said, =E2=80=9Cmi du do du ko'a=E2=80=9D. selma'o LU (=20 - ) + ) Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Ter= minated by=20 . mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. selma'o LUhU (=20 ) Elidable terminator for=20 @@ -693,21 +693,21 @@ mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u =20 =20 I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]. selma'o MAI (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text. pamai mi pu klama le zarci 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. First, I went to the market. selma'o MAhO (=20 ) Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand.= Terminated by=20 @@ -823,21 +823,21 @@ li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i =20 ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu =20 The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume selma'o NIhO (=20 - ) + ) Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it= contains old or new subject matter. selma'o NOI (=20 ) Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the pr= eceding sumti. Terminated by=20 . See=20 . le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu The house which is blue is small. @@ -943,79 +943,79 @@ selma'o ROI (=20 ) When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once= , twice, many times). mi reroi klama le zarci I twice go-to the market. selma'o SA (=20 - ) + ) Erases the previous phrase or sentence. mi klama sa do klama le zarci I go, er, you go-to the market. selma'o SE (=20 ,=20 ) Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging= the x1 place with a specified numbered place. le zarci cu se klama mi The market is-gone-to by me. Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo. selma'o SEI (=20 - ) + ) Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment o= n the main bridi. Terminated by=20 =20 . la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. selma'o SEhU (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 and=20 . Ends metalinguistic insertions. =20 la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein. Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. selma'o SI (=20 - ) + ) Erases the previous single word. mi si do klama le zarci I, er, you go to-the market. selma'o SOI (=20 ) Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2= =80=9D in English). =20 =20 mi prami do soi mi I love you [reciprocally] me. I love you and vice versa. selma'o SU (=20 - ) + ) Closes and erases the entire previous discourse. selma'o TAhE (=20 ) A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.). le verba ta'e klama le ckule =20 The child habitually goes to-the school. @@ -1040,51 +1040,51 @@ . Marks the end of a mathematical conversion c= onstruct. li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals the-number array( four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) selma'o TO (=20 - ) + ) Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Term= inated by=20 . doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. selma'o TOI (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 . The right discursive parenthesis. doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. selma'o TUhE (=20 - ) + ) Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Ter= minated by=20 . lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu= 'u] Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [i= s best]. selma'o TUhU (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 . Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.<= /para> selma'o UI (=20 ) Particles which indicate the speaker=E2=80=99s emotional state o= r source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse. .ui la djan. klama [Happiness!] John is-coming. Hurrah! John is coming! @@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@ the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n 2 + 2n + 1 selma'o VEhA (=20 ) A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short). selma'o VEhO (=20 - ) + ) Elidable terminator for=20 : right mathematical parenthesis. =20 li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n @@ -1177,21 +1177,21 @@ ) The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a = subscript for whatever precedes it. xy. xi re x sub 2 x 2 selma'o Y (=20 - ) + ) Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say. =20 doi .y. .y. .djan O, uh, uh, John! selma'o ZAhO (=20 ) A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing). @@ -1233,39 +1233,39 @@ ) Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the sa= me sumti. Although generally translated with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, it is n= ot considered a logical connective. mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love = it. I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love. I own a white dog, which I love. selma'o ZO (=20 - ) + ) Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.<= /para> =20 zo si cu lojbo valsi The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word. selma'o ZOI (=20 - ) + ) Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (w= hich can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The d= elimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the = text by pauses. zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra =20 The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence. =20 selma'o ZOhU (=20 ,=20 - ) + ) Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to= which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment s= entences. su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves= Y There is a man who loves all fish.

diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index ed56316..58c91be 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,22 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 -Zort: Chapters 3 to 12 (they contain FIXMEs, though, mostly about - index stuff) +Zort: 3 to 19 (they contain FIXMEs, though) Matthew Walton: 3 =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so: =20 commit 5a9f3386faa98ddf98d44db0d3f4cc522f02b1aa Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 16 20:24:04 2011 -0500 Chapter 18: tables and lists. diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index dd32015..3708d92 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -143,38 +143,66 @@ u respectively; and the cmavo= from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i, and=20 o respectively. None of the d= igit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart i= n noisy environments. =20

Signs and numerical punctuation PA selma'o The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ma'u PA positive sign - - ni'u PA negative sign - - - pi PA decimal point - - fi'u PA fraction slash - - ra'e PA repeating decimal - - ce'i PA percent sign - - - ki'o PA comma between digits + + + ma'u + PA + positive sign + + + + ni'u + PA + negative sign + + + + + pi + PA + decimal point + + + + fi'u + PA + fraction slash + + + + ra'e + PA + repeating decimal + + + + ce'i + PA + percent sign + + + + + ki'o + PA + comma between digits + =20 - + ni'u mau negative num= bersexpressing positive numbersexplic= it expression signed numbersexpressing A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs= as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1"/>

ni'u pa negative-sign 1 @@ -307,107 +335,108 @@ pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa =20 point one comma one two comma one

.001012001

Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ci'i PA infinity - + + + ci'i + PA + infinity + =20 - ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1) =20 - pai PA =20 -=CF=80, pi (approx 3.14159...) - te'o PA exponential e (approx 2.71828...) - fi'u PA golden ratio,=20 + + ka'o + PA + imaginary i, sqrt(-1) + =20 -=CE=A6, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.6180= 3...) - + + pai + PA + =CF=80, pi (approx 3.14159...) + + + te'o + PA + exponential e (approx 2.71828...) + + + fi'u + PA + golden ratio, =CE=A6, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.61803...) + + fractionmeaning with elided numerator and denominator numbersspecial The last cmavo is the same as the fr= action sign cmavo: a fraction sign with neither numerator nor denominator r= epresents the golden ratio. Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-nu= mber cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d1"/> - - - 4.1) ma'u ci'i - - + -=E2=88=9E - =20 - + + ma'u ci'i +

+=E2=88=9E

+ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d2"/> - - - 4.2) ci ka'o re - - 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to=20 -3 + 2i) - + + ci ka'o re + 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i) + ka'o ci'i infinityexample ka'oas special number compared w= ith as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 =20 i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d3"/> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - 4.3) ci'i no - - infinity zero - - =20 -=E2=84=B5 -0 (a transfinite cardinal) - + + ci'i no + infinity zero + =E2=84=B50<= /mathphrase> (a transfinite cardinal) + =20 The special numbers=20 pai and=20 te'o are mathematically important, which is why= they are given their own cmavo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d4"/> - - - 4.4) pai - pi,=20 -=CF=80 - =20 - + + pai + pi, = =CF=80 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d5"/> - - - 4.5) te'o - e - + + te'o +

e

+ numerical punctua= tionundefined However, many co= mbinations are as yet undefined: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d6"/> pa pi re pi ci

1.2.3

@@ -427,32 +456,64 @@ It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 oddities do have a meaningful use in some restricted ar= ea of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for speci= alized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would= use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 to=20 .

Simple infix expressions and equations =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - du GOhA equals - su'i VUhU plus - vu'u VUhU minus - pi'i VUhU times - te'a VUhU raised to the power + + + du + GOhA + equals + + + su'i + VUhU + plus + + + vu'u + VUhU + minus + + + pi'i + VUhU + times + + + te'a + VUhU + raised to the power + =20 - ny. BY letter=20 -n - vei VEI left parenthesis - ve'o VEhO right parenthesis - + + ny. + BY + letter + + n + + vei + VEI + left parenthesis + + + ve'o + VEhO + right parenthesis + + VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i 1 += 1 =3D 2example mathematical notation= infix Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one e= quals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1"/> li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two.

1 + 1 =3D 2

@@ -642,32 +703,68 @@ ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable ter= minator: the first use of it in=20 is required, but the second= use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first= =20 =20 bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not ne= cessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry wi= th the other one. =20 =20

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator - va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse - pe'o PEhO forethought flag + + + boi + BOI + numeral/lerfu string terminator + + + va'a + VUhU + negation/additive inverse + + + pe'o + PEhO + forethought flag + =20 - ku'e KUhE forethought terminator - py. BY letter p - xy. BY letter x - zy. BY letter z - ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator - fy. BY letter f - + + ku'e + KUhE + forethought terminator + + + py. + BY + letter p + + + xy. + BY + letter x + + + zy. + BY + letter z + + + ma'o + MAhO + convert operand to operator + + + fy. + BY + letter f + + The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes,= but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators ha= ve exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from c= ontext or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.<= /para> But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or = which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression = in such cases is the use of=20 forethought operators, also known as Polish notation. I= n this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the opera= nds afterwards: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d1"/>

li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.<= /gloss> @@ -800,38 +897,74 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1"/>

li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: - - du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 - dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 - - - mleca x1 is less than x2 - zmadu x1 is greater than x2 - dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equa= l or less] - dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equa= l or greater] - tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shap= e-equal] - - turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, stru= cture-equal] - - cmima x1 is a member of set x2 - gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-= part] - na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, numb= er-near] - terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3 - + + + du +

x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...

+ + + dunli +

x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on prope= rty/quality/dimension/quantity x3

+ + + + + mleca + x1 is less than x2 + + + zmadu + x1 is greater than x2= + + + dubjavme'a +

x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, = equal or less]

+ + + dubjavmau +

x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equal or greater]

+ + + tamdu'i + x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shape-equal] + + + + turdu'i +

x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stur= a dunli, structure-equal]

+ + + + cmima +

x1 is a member of set x2

+ + + gripau +

x1 is a subset of set x2 [gi= rzu pagbu, set-part]

+ + + na'ujbi +

x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, number-near]

+ + + terci'e +

x1 is a component with function x2 of s= ystem x3

+ + Note the difference between=20 dunli and=20 =20 du;=20 dunli has a third place that specifies the kind= of equality that is meant.=20 =20 du refers to actual identity, and can have any = number of places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2"/> @@ -1227,31 +1360,51 @@ <quote>many</quote> in the circumstances).</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>both dogs</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qIBi"/> assumes a mostly monogamous= culture by stating that three is=20 <quote>many</quote>.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section9"> <title>Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - ji'i PA approximately - su'e PA at most + + + ji'i + PA + approximately + + + su'e + PA + at most + =20 =20 - su'o PA at least - me'i PA less than + + su'o + PA + at least + + + me'i + PA + less than + =20 - za'u PA more than + + za'u + PA + more than + =20 - + ji'i ji'i= effect of placement approximate numbersexpressi= ng The cmavo=20 ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to= indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of= a number, the whole number is approximate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1"/>

ji'i vo no approximation four zero @@ -1639,23 +1792,23 @@ me'u MEhU terminator for ME MOI selma'o numeric= al selbrispecial Lojban posses= ses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kin= d of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number.= There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based= selbri with specific place structures. mei= cardinal selbri= definition cardinal selbriplace struc= ture The cmavo=20 mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place st= ructure is: =20 - + x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh= ich is/are x3 - + massexpressing relation with individuals forming masse= xpressing relation with set forming individualsexpressing = relation with mass formed individualsexpressing relation w= ith set formed setexpressing relation with individuals for= ming set setexpressing relation with mass formed from set<= /secondary> A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given n= umber of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which = make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenien= ce, not logical necessity. =20 Some examples: three rats<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1"/>

lei mi ratcu cu cimei @@ -1679,24 +1832,23 @@

In=20 ,=20 mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 -mei is an objective indefinite = number of the kind explained in=20 , a slightly different place= structure is required: individuals of setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites set= expressing measurement standard for indefinites massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meipl= ace structure formed for objective indefinites FIXM= E: TAG SPOT - - x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of whic= h is/are x3, - measured relative to the set x4. - + + x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of whic= h is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4. + An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/>

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. =20 The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. @@ -1723,23 +1875,23 @@ In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the = new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that th= e rats are=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. =20 More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . moi= ordinal selbri<= /primary>definition ordinal selbriplace structu= re The cmavo=20 moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure= is: =20 - + x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 - + Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5"/>

ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me. This is my first rat. =20 @@ -1766,59 +1918,59 @@ I am enough-th in the movie line. =20

enough-thexample all-thexample= first ratexample=20 means, in the appropriate c= ontext, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I wi= ll get a seat for the movie. si'e portion selbri= place structure portion selbridefinit= ion The cmavo=20 si'e creates portion selbri. The place structur= e is: =20 =20 - + x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 - + Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/>

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. This meal is one-third of my daily food.

le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability = .5. =20

va'e coin headsexample probability .5example= scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition<= /secondary> The cmavo=20 va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structur= e is: =20 =20 - + x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 - + unreduced fractio= nsuse in granular scales scalegranula= r contrasted with continuous If the scale is granul= ar rather than continuous, a form like=20 =20 cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 i= s not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positio= ns is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here = is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d10"/>

le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. @@ -2095,24 +2247,22 @@ gei= exponential not= ationwith gei scientific notationwith= gei geias a binary operator Findi= ng a suitable example of=20 ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, an= d ternary operators are not common. The operator=20 gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary u= se. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific = (also called=20 exponential) notation. The first operand of=20 gei is the exponent, and the second operand is = the mantissa or fraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2"/>

- li cinonoki'oki'o du - li bi gei ci - The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals - the-number eight scientific three. + li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci + The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number ei= ght scientific three.

300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

3 ( 10^8example geirationale for order of places scientifi= c notationrationale for order of places Why are the arguments to=20 gei in reverse order from the conventional symb= olic notation? So that=20 gei can be used in forethought to allow easy sp= ecification of a large (or small) imprecise number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d3"/> @@ -2167,24 +2317,22 @@ matrix<= secondary>definition vectordefinition A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix i= s a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vecto= rs, which are in turn built up out of operands. te'u JOhI selma= 'o jo'i = vector indicatorterminator for= vector= components of jo'iprecedence of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">vector indicator=20 jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the ve= ctor indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but = has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather tha= n full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of = components;=20 =20 te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1"/>

- li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du - li jo'i voboi xaboi - The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= - the-number array (four, six). + li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i vob= oi xaboi + The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six).

(1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)

30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - .abu BY letter a - by BY letter b - cy BY letter c - fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root) - lo'o LOhO terminator for LI + + + .abu + BY + letter a + + + by + BY + letter b + + + cy + BY + letter c + + + fe'a + VUhU + nth root of (default square root) + + + lo'o + LOhO + terminator for LI + =20 - + GA selma'o A se= lma'o = afterthought connectionof operators afterthought connectio= nof operands forethought connectiono= f operators <= primary>forethought connectionof operands<= /indexterm> operator connect= ionforethought operator connectionaft= erthought operand connectionforethought operand connectionafterthought As befits a logical l= anguage, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both= operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connective= s are provided in=20 =20 . Operands are connected in aft= erthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumt= i. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethoug= ht with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no ac= cident. KE selma'o BO s= elma'o connection of operatorsgrouping connection of operandsgrouping In addition, A+BO and A+= KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the oper= ators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1"/> @@ -2411,21 +2579,21 @@ <jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo</jbo> <gloss>the-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur.</gloss> <math>Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4.</math> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-k36J"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/> - + =20 17.6) go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy. =20 su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve= 'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number=20 a-times-(=20 x power two ) plus=20 @@ -2436,27 +2604,27 @@ then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b ) plus or = minus the-root-of (=20 b-power-2 minus four-times- a-times- c ) ] divided-by two-times- a. Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then x =3D -b =C2=B1=20 -=E2=88=9A +=E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88=92 4ac) =20 2a - + quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added = to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses c= annot be removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 fe'a and=20 ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are pr= esent in the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence= rules be understood. @@ -2552,31 +2720,31 @@ te'u mo'e= terminator for ni'eterminator for na'uterminator for One of the mekso design goal= s requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within = mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are th= ree relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator=20 te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors m= arked with=20 jo'i) na'u operator deriv= ed from selbrieffect of selbri place structure on selbri p= lace structureeffect on operator formed by= conversion of s= elbri into operator operatorconverting selbri into selbriconverting into an operator The cmavo= =20 na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In genera= l, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and = the other unfilled places specify the operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d1"/> - + =20 18.1) li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i =20 The-number the-operator tangent (=20 =CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. =20 tan( =CF=80/2) =3D=20 =E2=88=9E - + tan(pi/2) =3D inf= inityexample=20 tanjo is the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 na'u here makes it into an operator which is th= en used in forethought ni'e formulaeexpressing based on pure dimensions = conversion of selbri into op= erand = operandconverting selbri into = selbric= onverting into an operand The cmavo=20 ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 pla= ce of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 =20 ni abstraction, since=20 ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 @@ -2694,23 +2862,23 @@ 2 + 2 and=20 4 are not the same. The relationship between=20 li and=20 me'o is related to that between=20 la djan., the person named John, and=20 zo .djan., the name=20 John nu'a selbriplace structure of converted operator = conversion of operator into = selbri operatorconverting into selbri selbriconverting operator into The cmavo=20 nu'a is the inverse of=20 na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as= a normal selbri, with the place structure: - + x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ... - + for as many places as may be required. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d3"/>

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.

@@ -3056,223 +3224,448 @@ Overall,=20 probably captures the flavo= r of the English best.=20 and=20 are too simple, and=20 is too tricky. Nevertheless= , all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustra= te the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can prob= ably be said in more than one way.

mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo. - - BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings - BY lerfu for variables and functions (see=20 -) - FUhA reverse-Polish flag - GOhA includes=20 -du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmav= o - - JOhI array flag - KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso - LI mekso articles (li and me'o) - - MAhO make operand into operator - MOI creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see=20 + + + BOI + elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings + + + BY + lerfu for variables and functions (see ) + + + FUhA + reverse-Polish flag + + + GOhA + includes du (mathematical equa= lity) and other non-mekso cmavo + =20 + + JOhI + array flag + + + KUhE + elidable terminator for forethought mekso + + + LI + mekso articles (li and me'o) + =20 -) - MOhE make sumti into operand - NAhU make selbri into operator - NIhE make selbri into operand - NUhA make operator into selbri - PA numbers (see=20 -) - PEhO optional forethought mekso marker - TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI - VEI left parenthesis - VEhO right parenthesis - VUhU operators (see=20 -) - XI subscript flag - + + MAhO + make operand into operator + + + MOI + creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see <= xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section11"/>) + + + MOhE + make sumti into operand + + + NAhU + make selbri into operator + + + NIhE + make selbri into operand + + + NUhA + make operator into selbri + + + PA + numbers (see ) + + + PEhO + optional forethought mekso marker + + + TEhU + elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and J= OhI + + + VEI + left parenthesis + + + VEhO + right parenthesis + + + VUhU + operators (see ) + + + XI + subscript flag + +

Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a,= b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethough= t operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules= apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU. operatorslist of simple FIXME: TAG SPOT - - su'i plus (((a + b) + c) + ...) - pi'i times (((a =C3=97 b) =C3=97 c)= =C3=97 ...) - vu'u minus (((a =E2=88=92 b) =E2=88= =92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) - fe'i divided by (((a / b) / c) / ...) - ju'u number base numeral string=20 -a interpreted in the base b - pa'i ratio the ratio of a to b, a:b - fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse 1 /=20 - -a - gei scientific notation b =C3=97 (c [default 10]= to the=20 - -a power) - ge'a null operator (no operands) - - de'o logarithm log=20 -a to base=20 -b (default 10 or=20 -e as appropriate) - te'a to the power/exponential =20 - -a to the=20 -b power - fe'a nth root of/inverse power b -th root of a (default square root: b =3D 2) - cu'a absolute value/norm | a | - ne'o factorial a! - pi'a matrix row vector combiner (all operands are row ve= ctors) - - sa'i matrix column vector combiner (all operands are column= vectors) - - ri'o integral integral of a with respe= ct to b over range c - - sa'o derivative derivative of a with res= pect to b of degree c (default 1) - fu'u non-specific operator (variable) - si'i sigma (=CE=A3) summation summation of a usin= g variable b over range c - va'a negation of/additive inverse -a - re'a matrix transpose/dual a -* - + + + su'i + plus + (((a + b) + c) + ...) + + + pi'i + times + (((a =C3=97 b) =C3=97 c)= =C3=97 ...) + + + vu'u + minus + (((a =E2=88=92 b) =E2=88= =92 c) =E2=88=92 ...) + + + fe'i + divided by + (((a / b) / c) / ...) + + + ju'u + number base + numeral string a interpreted in t= he base b + + + pa'i + ratio + the ratio of a to b, a:b + + + fa'i + reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse + 1 / a + + + gei + scientific notation + b =C3=97 (c [default 10] to the a= power) + + + ge'a + null operator + (no operands) + + + + de'o + logarithm + log a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate) + + + te'a + to the power/exponential + a to the b pow= er + + + fe'a + nth root of/inverse power + bth root of a (default sq= uare root: b =3D 2) + + + cu'a + absolute value/norm + | a | + + + ne'o + factorial + a! + + + pi'a + matrix row vector combiner + (all operands are row vectors) + + + + sa'i + matrix column vector combiner + (all operands are column vectors) + + + + ri'o + integral + integral of a with respect to b over range c + + + + sa'o + derivative + derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (defau= lt 1) + + + fu'u + non-specific operator + (variable) + + + si'i + sigma (=CE=A3) summation + summation of a using variable b over range c + + + va'a + negation of/additive inverse + -a + + + re'a + matrix transpose/dual + a* + +

- Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numb= ers. - - - digitslist of decimal Decimal digits: - - no, pa, re, ci, vo, mu, xa, ze, bi, so - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 - rafsi: non, pav, rel, cib, von, mum, xav, zel, biv, soz - - - - digitslist of hexadecimal Hexadecimal digit= s: - - dau, fei, gai, jau, rei, vai - A/10, B/11, C/12, D/13, E/14, F/15 - - - - numberslist of special Special numbers: - - pai, ka'o, te'o, ci'i - - - =20 -=CF=80, imaginary i, exponential e, = infinity ( - -=E2=88=9E) - - - - punctuationlist of numerical Number punctua= tion: - - pi, ce'i, fi'u - - - decimal point, percentage, fraction (not division) - -rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (from frinu; see=20 - -) - - pi'e, ma'u, ni'u - mixed-base point, plus sign (not addition), minus sign (not subtr= action) - - - ki'o, ra'e - - - thousands comma, repeating-decimal indicator - - ji'i, ka'o - - approximation sign, complex number separator - - - - numberslist of indefinite Indefinite number= s: - - - ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - so'u, - =20 - da'a - - - all, almost all, most, many, several, - few, - all but - - - rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, - =20 - sot, - daz - - - - - Subjective numbers: - - - rau, - =20 - du'e, - =20 - mo'a - =20 - enough, too many, too few - - - Miscellaneous: - - xo, tu'o - - - number question, null operand - - - - + Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other number= s. + + + digitslist of decimal Decimal digits: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + rafsi + + + + + no + pa + re + ci + vo + mu + xa + ze + bi + so + + + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + + + non + pav + rel + cib + von + mum + xav + zel + biv + soz + + + + + + + digits<= secondary>list of hexadecimal Hexadecimal digits: + + + + + + + + + + + dau + fei + gai + jau + rei + vai + + + A/10 + B/11 + C/12 + D/13 + E/14 + F/15 + + + + + + + numbers= list of special Special numbers: + + + + + + + + + pai + ka'o + te'o + ci'i + + + =CF=80 + imaginary i + exponential e + infinity (=E2=88=9E) + + + + + + + punctuationlist of numerical Number punctuation= : + + + + + + + + pi + ce'i + fi'u + + + decimal point + percentage + fraction (not division) + + + piz + cez + fi'u (from frinu; see ) + + + pi'e + ma'u + ni'u + + + mixed-base point + plus sign (not addition) + minus sign (not subtraction) + + + ki'o + ra'e + + + thousands comma + repeating-decimal indicator + + + ji'i + ka'o + + + approximation sign + complex number separator + + + + + + + numbers= list of indefinite Indefinite numbers: + + + ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, + so'u, + da'a + + + all, almost all, most, many, several, + few, + all but + + + rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, + sot, + daz + + + + + Subjective numbers: + + + rau, + du'e, + mo'a + enough, too many, too few + + + Miscellaneous: + + xo, tu'o + number question, null operand + + +

Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures<= /title> - <xxx> + <place-structure> mei x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard = x4] rafsi: mem, mei - moi x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 [by standard x4] rafsi: mom, moi - si'e x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3] - rafsi: none - cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 - [by standard x3] - rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see=20 - -<xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section20"/>) - + rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-= section20"/>) va'e x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 - [by standard x3] rafsi: none - </xxx> + </place-structure> </section> </chapter> commit f93063ad22a839e64d8f5fc4f56bae7693797601 Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com> Date: Sun Jan 16 14:47:15 2011 -0500 Chapter 18: example tags. Invented <math>. =20 <math> is like <en> but for when the text consists solely of math. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 94b24ac..37d5770 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -2680,41 +2680,41 @@ =20 <jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> to create mathematical intervals:</para> =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-z2oF"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d5"/>

li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one - [0,1) +

[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one =20

ce'o zero to oneexample compound subscript You can also= combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, t= o make a compound subscript: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6"/>

xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 x sub (=20 b sequence=20 d) - xb,d +

x b,d

boi= x{bd}example Note that t= he=20 boi in=20 is not elidable, because th= e=20 xi subscript needs something to attach to.

Tenses, modals, and logical connection PU selma'o The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the= logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simulta= neously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interacti= on with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of th= is chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of sel= ma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 85923d1..8cde5c5 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -980,21 +980,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2"/>

li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x =20 - y =3D f(x) +

y =3D f(x)

Note the=20 boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 fy and=20 xy. selbrilerfu string as lerfu stringas selbri A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o = MOI): diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 4614071..dd32015 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -17,27 +17,25 @@ mekso goalprecision mekso goalcoverage= encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in natur= al languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary language= situations than natural languages allow. reverse Polish no= tationand mekso goals Polish notation= and mekso goals mekso goalsmathematical notation form Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a sing= le notation such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make pr= ovision for all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily us= ed. =20 mekso goalsand non-mathematical expression Goal= 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so that the bou= ndary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either side at many= points. mathematical nota= tioninternational uniqueness of mekso goalsand ambiguity Goal 3 is the most subtle. Writ= ten mathematical expression is culturally unambiguous, in the sense that ma= thematicians in all parts of the world understand the same written texts to= have the same meanings. However, international mathematical notation does = not prescribe unique forms. For example, the expression =20 =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e1d1"/> - - 3x + 2y - +

3x + 2y

mathematical nota= tionand omitted operators cont= ains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpr= etations for the strings=20 =20 3x and=20 2y than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the = Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 =20 must not omit the multiplic= ation operators. =20 mekso chaptercompleteness mekso chaptertable notation = convention The remainder of this chapter explains (= in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter = is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive a= bout uses of those components - as of now, there has been no really compreh= ensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test o= f usage to be fully clarified.

@@ -97,45 +95,45 @@ PA selma'o hundred<= /primary>expressing as number tenexpressing as = number numbersas compound cmavo <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">digitscma= vo for numbersexpressing simple Th= e simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. Th= ere are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9= are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1"/>

pa re ci one two three - 123 ignore +

123 ignore

one hundred and twenty three =20

pa no one zero - 10 +

10

ten

pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero - 1234567890 - one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hund= red and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. +

1234567890

+ one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20

123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo fro= m 1 to 5 end in the vowels=20 a,=20 @@ -173,150 +171,150 @@ ni'u mau negative num= bersexpressing positive numbersexplic= it expression signed numbersexpressing A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs= as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1"/>

ni'u pa negative-sign 1 - -1 +

-1

pa<= /indexterm> -1example signs on numbersgrammar Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are atta= ched. It is also possible to use=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of t= hese numbers is explained in=20 . decimal pointas numerical punctuation punctuationin nu= mbers numerical punctuation Various numerical punctuation= marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following exa= mples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2"/>

ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five - 3.1415 +

3.1415

pi<= /indexterm> 3.1415= example decimal pointeffect of different notati= ons (In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a= period in the symbolic version of=20 ;=20 pi is still the Lojban representation for the d= ecimal point.) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d3"/>

re fi'u ze =20 two fraction seven - 2/7 +

2/7

fi'u 2/7<= secondary>example reciprocalexpression of mathematical fractio= nsnumerator default fractionsexpressi= ng with numerical punctuation=20 is the name of the number t= wo-sevenths; it is not the same as=20 the result of 2 divided by 7 in Lojban, although numeri= cally these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present bu= t the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the= reciprocal of the following number: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d4"/>

fi'u ze =20 fraction seven - 1/7 +

1/7

pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze =20 point three five repeating one four two eight five seven - .35142857142857... +

.35142857142857...

ra'e repeating deci= malsmarking start of repeating portion repeating decimals<= /primary>expressing with numerical punctuation Note that the=20 ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating po= rtion=20 =20 142857 begins. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d6"/>

ci mu ce'i =20 three five percent =20 - 35% +

35%

pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze =20 one comma two three four comma five six seven - 1,234,567 +

1,234,567

ki'o ce'i commas in n= umberseffect of other notation conventions= commas in numbe= rsas numerical punctuation percentas = numerical punctuation (In some cultures, spaces are= used in the symbolic representation of=20 ;=20 ki'o is still the Lojban representation.) =20 commas in numbers= with elided digits It is also = possible to have less than three digits between successive=20 ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have= been elided: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d8"/>

pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo =20 one comma two three comma four - 1,023,004 +

1,023,004

In the same way,=20 ki'o can be used after=20 =20 pi to divide fractions into groups of three: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d9"/>

pi ki'o re re =20 point comma two two - .022 +

.022

pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa =20 point one comma one two comma one - .001012001 +

.001012001

Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ci'i PA infinity =20 =20 @@ -404,21 +402,21 @@ e numerical punctua= tionundefined However, many co= mbinations are as yet undefined: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d6"/>

pa pi re pi ci - 1.2.3 +

1.2.3

<anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d7"/> pa ni'u re 1 negative-sign 2 @@ -449,21 +447,21 @@ ve'o VEhO right parenthesis VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i 1 += 1 =3D 2example mathematical notation= infix Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one e= quals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1"/>

li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two. - 1 + 1 =3D 2 +

1 + 1 =3D 2

dugrammar of mathematical equalityexpressing=20 , a mekso sentence, is a reg= ular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features.=20 du is the predicate meaning=20 x1 is mathematically equal to x2. It is a cmavo for con= ciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathe= matical contexts,=20 du means=20 x1 is identical with x2 or=20 x1 is the same object as x2. li<= /indexterm> numbersusing for quantification contrasted with talking about numberstalking about contrasted with using for quantification number a= rticleexplanation of use thefor talki= ng about numbers themselves articlenumber The cmavo=20 @@ -518,33 +516,33 @@ ma'u which means the positive sign as an indica= tion of a positive number: =20 +1 + -1 =3D 0example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5"/>

li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals = the-number zero. - +1 + -1 =3D 0 +

+1 + -1 =3D 0

Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of=20 du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d6"/>

li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three= . - 5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3 +

5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3

conversion into s= umti from mekso conversion of mekso into sumti lias converter of m= ekso into sumti general sumticontrasted with operands operands= contrasted with general sumti = VUhU operands operators of VUhUgrammar of operands duwith complex mekso= on both sides Why don't we say=20 li mu su'i li pa rather than just=20 li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU operator= s connect mekso operands (numbers, in=20 ), not general sumti.=20 =20 li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumt= i, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 , filling the places of a br= idi precedencemathematical default operator left-right groupingas Lojban default operator precedencein Lojban defaul= t ca= lculator mathematicsas default in Lojban By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathema= tics: there is no notion of=20 @@ -555,85 +553,80 @@ times, the multiplication operator: =20 pi'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d7"/>

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two= -three. - 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 +

3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23

Is the Lojban version of=20 true? No!=20 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 is indeed 23, because the usual conventi= ons of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition= ; that is, the multiplication=20 =20 4 =C3=97 5 is done first, giving 20, and only then the = addition=20 3 + 20. But VUhU operators by default are done left to = right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d8"/>

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu The-number three plus four times five equals the-number thr= ee-five. - 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35 +

3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35

default operator = precedencecontrasted with mekso goal Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 =C3=97= 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simp= licity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of m= athematics. What can be done? operator preceden= ceeffect of pragmatic convention operator precedenceand mathematical notation mathematical notationand operator precedence There are three solutio= ns, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution i= s to ignore the problem. People will say=20 li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, becaus= e the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deep= ly ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores sema= ntics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in t= his one area. =20 operator preceden= ce in other languages operator precedencerationale for defau= lt left-grouping (Why not hard-wire the precedences= into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentiall= y because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of p= recedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13= levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. Fo= r Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired prece= dence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets = where the conventions are different.) operator preceden= cegeneralized explicit specification The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the preceden= ce of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be ex= plained in=20 . BIhE selma'o<= /primary> bi= 'e bi'= eeffect on following operator = operator precedencescope modification with bi'e The third = solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with = the cmavo=20 bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automaticall= y of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9"/>

li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci =20 The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two= -three. - 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23 +

3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23

is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a=20 bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multip= le=20 =20 bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allo= wed. =20 ve'o vei parenthesis<= /primary>mathematical operator precedencespec= ifying by parenthesis In addition, of course, Lojba= n has the mathematical parentheses=20 vei and=20 ve'o, which can be used just like their written= equivalents=20 ( and=20 ) to group expressions in any way desired: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10"/>

- li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du - li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa + li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny.= [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 =20 - The-number (=20 - n plus one) times (=20 - n plus one) - equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=20 - n plus 1. - (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n + The-number (n plus one) times (= n plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times- n plus 1. +

(n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse pe'o PEhO forethought flag =20 ku'e KUhE forethought terminator - py. BY letter=20 -p - xy. BY letter=20 -x - zy. BY letter=20 -z + py. BY letter p + xy. BY letter x + zy. BY letter z ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator - fy. BY letter=20 -f + fy. BY letter f The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes,= but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators ha= ve exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from c= ontext or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.<= /para> But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or = which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression = in such cases is the use of=20 forethought operators, also known as Polish notation. I= n this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the opera= nds afterwards: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d1"/>

li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.<= /gloss> - sum(1,2,3) =3D 6 +

sum(1,2,3) =3D 6

Note that the normally elidable number terminator=20 boi is required after=20 pa and=20 re because otherwise the reading would be=20 pareci=3D 123. It is not required after=20 ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sak= e of symmetry. The only time=20 boi is required is, as in=20 , when there are two consecu= tive numbers or lerfu strings. @@ -700,21 +689,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2"/>

li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 p plus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 z equals the-number=20 x. - p + -n + z =3D x +

p + -n + z =3D x

where we know that=20 va'a is a forethought operator because there is= no operand preceding it. va'a is the numerical negation operator, of sel= ma'o VUhU. In contrast,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -737,21 +726,21 @@ =20 z =3D f(x)? The answer is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d3"/>

li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy. The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x. - z =3D f(x) +

z =3D f(x)

=20

Again, no parentheses are used. The construct=20 ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, a= nd appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular= infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and some= times mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses t= o accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special f= lag=20 ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The= cmavo=20 xy. and=20 zy. are variables, but=20 fy. is an operator (a function) because=20 ma'o marks it as such. The=20 @@ -813,21 +802,20 @@

li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 - dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 =20 =20 mleca x1 is less than x2 zmadu x1 is greater than x2 dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equa= l or less] dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equa= l or greater] tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shap= e-equal] =20 turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, stru= cture-equal] @@ -847,37 +835,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2"/>

py. du xy.boi zy. p is-identical-to=20 x z - p =3D x =3D z +

p =3D x =3D z

=20

li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5. - 2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5 +

2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5

As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not = say anything about what might be true.

Indefinite numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro @@ -1517,33 +1505,33 @@ =20 digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 =20 pi'e is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d5"/>

ci pi'e rere pi'e vono - 3:22:40 +

3:22:40

compound baseexpressing digits in Each digit se= quence separated by instances of=20 pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the = number as a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by sp= ecial rules: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d6"/>

li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'= e rexa pi'e paci The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13. - 3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13 +

3:22:40 + 0:3:33 =3D 3:26:13

Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the num= bers in=20 and=20 is hours, the second minute= s, and the third seconds. =20 base greater than= 16expressing numbers in Mayan mathematicsas a system with base larger than 16 The same = mechanism using=20 pi'e can be used to express numbers which have = a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use dig= its from=20 =20 no to=20 @@ -1568,21 +1556,21 @@ the-digit-10 base 20 which is equal to ten, and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d9"/>

pa pi'e no ju'u reno - 1;0 base 20 + 1;0 base 20

which is equal to twenty. large-base decima= l fractionexpressing Both=20 pi and=20 pi'e can be used to express large-base fraction= s: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d10"/> @@ -1789,21 +1777,21 @@ x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 </xxx> <para>Some examples:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-i8r4"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/>

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. - This meal is one-third of my daily food. + This meal is one-third of my daily food.

cu'o probability se= lbriplace structure probability selbridefinition <= primary>one-third of food The cmavo=20 cu'o creates probability selbri. The place stru= cture is: =20 =20 event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 probability selbr= ivalues The number must be bet= ween 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: @@ -1904,25 +1892,23 @@ pa and the=20 moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combin= e them into the compound=20 pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.= numerical selbri<= /primary>based on non-numerical sumti It= is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after=20 me and before a member of MOI, producing strang= e results indeed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14"/>

- le nu mi nolraitru - cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o + le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o<= /jbo> =20 - The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler - has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability= . + The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-ste= reotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability. =20 I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. =20

subscriptsexternal grammar of Subscripting is a= general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that= can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modi= fier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (le= rfu strings) can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d1"/>

li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> =20 - x +

x 3 =3D x 1 + x<=
subscript>2

XI selma'o xi x-sub-3= example subscriptsinternal grammar of= Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 xi (of selma'o XI).=20 xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string,= or a general mekso expression in parentheses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2"/>

xy.boixino - x +

x 0

xy.boixiny. - x +

x n

xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] - x +

x (n+1)

free modifierseffects on elidability of terminators subscriptseffects on elidability of terminators subscripts on lerfu wordseffect on elidability of boi Note that= subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a= =20 boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, o= f which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence= of an otherwise elidable terminator. superscripts subscripts= before main expression There i= s no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as expone= nts) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression= . If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these pur= poses. =20 boi= sub-subscripts<= /primary> subscr= iptsmultiple as sub-subscript = subscriptsterminator for The elidable terminator for a sub= script is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely=20 boi. By convention, a subscript following anoth= er subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d5"/>

xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo - x +

x b 4

See=20 for the standard method of = specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 .

Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section: @@ -2092,69 +2078,69 @@ va'a in infix form. We would use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1"/>

li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny. =20 =20 The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero= minus n. - -n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n +

-n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n

li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number eight scientific three. - 300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10 +

300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

gei reno (scientific) two-zero - 10 +

10

10^20example floating point numbersexpressing exponential = notationwith base other than 10 geias= a ternary operator operandstoo many for infix operation null = operatorfor infix operations with too many operands ge'afor infix operations with too many operands<= /indexterm> Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common= exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the def= ault value. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (T= his has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integ= ers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating = point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here= is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4"/>

papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 - .1010 +

.1010

Vectors and matrices The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jo'i JOhI @@ -2185,40 +2171,40 @@ te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1"/>

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six). - (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) +

(1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)

ge'a sa'i pi'a matrixwith ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns matrixas combination of vectors matrix column operator <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">matrix row operator<= /indexterm> Vectors can be combined into matrices using either=20 pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 =20 =20 sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first com= bines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vect= ors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of ar= guments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 =20 =20 =20 ge'a. magic squareexample Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix =20 - + 8 1 6 3 5 7 4 9 2 - + can be represented either as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2"/> jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re =20 the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vecto= r (4 9 2) @@ -2319,56 +2305,43 @@ =20 gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 ge'a gei, where the=20 =20 ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operand= s into a single operand. Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d3"/>

- li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du - =20 - li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a - =20 - =20 - =20 - The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals - the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of. - 3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2 + li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a + The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals the-number (RP= !) two, null, negative-of. +

3 =E2=88=92 5 =3D -2

- li cinoki'oki'o du - li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei - =20 - =20 - The-number 30-comma-comma equals - the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.= - 30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10 + li cinoki'oki'o du li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei + The-number 30-comma-comma equals the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10= , null-op), exponential-notation. +

30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - .abu BY letter=20 -a - by BY letter=20 -b - cy BY letter=20 -c + .abu BY letter a + by BY letter b + cy BY letter c fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root) lo'o LOhO terminator for LI =20 GA selma'o A se= lma'o = afterthought connectionof operators afterthought connectio= nof operands forethought connectiono= f operators <= primary>forethought connectionof operands<= /indexterm> operator connect= ionforethought operator connectionaft= erthought operand connectionforethought operand connectionafterthought As befits a logical l= anguage, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both= operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connective= s are provided in=20 =20 . Operands are connected in aft= erthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumt= i. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethoug= ht with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no ac= cident. KE selma'o BO s= elma'o connection of operatorsgrouping connection of operandsgrouping In addition, A+BO and A+= KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the oper= ators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 @@ -2400,55 +2373,51 @@ lo'o lo'o= effect of logical connective on elidability of logical connectioneffect on elidability of lo'o literminat= or for By the way,=20 li has an elidable terminator,=20 lo'o, which is needed when a=20 =20 li sumti is followed by a logical connective th= at could seem to be within the mekso. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d3"/>

- li re su'i re du - li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu + li re su'i re du li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu =20 - The-number two plus two equals - the-number four or else a non-known number. + The-number two plus two equals the-number four or else a no= n-known number.

Omitting the=20 lo'o would cause the parser to assume that anot= her operand followed the=20 =20 .onai and reject=20 lo as an invalid operand. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d4"/>

li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four. - 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. +

2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4.

The forethought-connection form of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d5"/>

- li re ge su'i gi pi'i re - du li vo - the-number two both plus and times two - equals the-number four. - Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. + li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo + the-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. +

Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4.

Here is a classic example of operand logical connection: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/> =20 17.6) go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy. @@ -2494,21 +2463,21 @@ =20 BIhI selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o non-logical connectionof operators non-logical connect= ionof operands Non-logical con= nection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between op= erators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with=20 bi'o to create intervals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7"/>

li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one - [0,1) +

[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one =20

mi'i Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginni= ng and end points can be expressed by=20 mi'i: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8"/> @@ -2543,21 +2512,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d10"/>

xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 x sub (=20 b sequence=20 d) - x +

x b,d

Using Lojban resources within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

na'u NAhU @@ -2611,44 +2580,40 @@ =20 ni abstraction, since=20 ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 ni'e makes that number available as a mekso ope= rand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2"/>

- li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i - =20 - ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu - =20 - The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= - quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. - Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume + li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e n= i condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu + The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. +

Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume

li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu =20 The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. - 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. +

2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals.

pride of lionsexample 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals= example folk quantifiersexpressing= Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called=20 folk quantifiers, such as=20 =20 a pride of lions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d4"/> @@ -2704,34 +2669,32 @@ <quote>the number which is the value of the mekso ...</quote>, whereas= =20 <jbophrase>me'o</jbophrase> just means=20 <quote>the mekso ...</quote> So it is true that:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-93Qu"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d1"/>

li re su'i re du li vo The-number two plus two equals the-number four. - 2 + 2 =3D 4 +

2 + 2 =3D 4

but false that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d2"/>

me'o re su'i re du me'o vo The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four. - - 2 + 2=3D=20 - 4 + 2 + 2=3D4

me'orelation to li compared with la/zo relation= lirela= tion to me'o compared with la/zo relation since the= expressions=20 2 + 2 and=20 4 are not the same. The relationship between=20 li and=20 me'o is related to that between=20 la djan., the person named John, and=20 zo .djan., the name=20 John @@ -2759,21 +2722,21 @@ na'u make it possible to ask questions about me= kso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator quest= ion, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 , to which=20 is one correct answer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d4"/>

li re na'u mo re du li vo The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four. - 2 ? 2 =3D 4 +

2 ? 2 =3D 4

<anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d5"/> nu'a su'i plus @@ -2833,21 +2796,21 @@ all-ly lastly <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d10"/>

ny.mai - nth-ly + nth-ly

<anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11"/> pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order) @@ -2945,23 +2908,21 @@ 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. digits<= secondary>names from digitsrafsi for The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Ad= ditionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as = names: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d5"/>

la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu - Those-named=20 - Seven who attack that-named=20 - Thebes [past] are-men. + Those-named Seven who attack that-named Thebes [past] are-men. The Seven Against Thebes were men.

Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alt= ernative which cannot be misconstrued is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6"/>

@@ -3032,33 +2993,33 @@ four score and seven. (A=20 score, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it = is analogous to a=20 dozen for 12.) The trivial way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d1"/>

li bize eight seven - 87 +

87

is mathematically correct, = but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are intended to be co= mplex and formal. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d2"/>

li vo pi'i reno su'i ze four times twenty plus seven - 4 =C3=97 20 + 7 +

4 =C3=97 20 + 7

scoreas 20-year span=20 is also mathematically corr= ect, but still misses something.=20 Score is not a word for 20 in the same way that=20 ten is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20= objects. The original may be taken as short for=20 Four score years and seven years ago. Thinking of a sco= re as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d3"/> @@ -3083,21 +3044,21 @@ <quote>four-twenties-seven</quote>. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Ad= dress hard to translate into French!) If=20 =20 <quote>score</quote> is the representation base, then we have:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-2C3I"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d4"/>

li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno four ; seven base 20 - 47 +

47

Overall,=20 probably captures the flavo= r of the English best.=20 and=20 are too simple, and=20 is too tricky. Nevertheless= , all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustra= te the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can prob= ably be said in more than one way.

mekso selma'o summary diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index e65bbd8..1a3460c 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -2052,41 +2052,41 @@ number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Loj= ban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple n= umber up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operato= rs, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/>

li vo the-number four - 4 +

4

li re su'i re the-number two plus two - 2 + 2 +

2 + 2

li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy. the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c - ax2 + b= x + c +

ax 2 + bx + c

number sumtiwith li contrasted with me'o number sumtiw= ith me'o contrasted with li LI selma'o me'o number sumtiwith me'o An alternative to=20 li is=20 me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions be= ginning with=20 me'o refer to the actual expression, rather tha= n its value. Thus=20 and=20 above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas commit b5db7c7b1572d2cd94727e0bfdad9f784512f3d8 Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com> Date: Sun Jan 16 14:15:08 2011 -0500 Chapter 18: <jbophrase>s. diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index e4f2b13..4614071 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -131,52 +131,52 @@ <gloss>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hund= red and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</gloss> =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>123</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported= "><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>greater than 9</secondary></indexter= m> Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 <quote>ten</quote>,=20 <quote>hundred</quote>, etc.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>number words</pri= mary><secondary>pattern in</secondary></indexterm> There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 <jbophrase>no</jbophrase>, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo fro= m 1 to 5 end in the vowels=20 - <quote>a</quote>,=20 - <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>,=20 - <quote>o</quote>,=20 - <quote>u</quote> respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end = in the vowels=20 - <quote>a</quote>,=20 - <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>,=20 - <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>, and=20 - <quote>o</quote> respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the = same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments.</par= a> + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">a</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">e</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">i</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">o</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">u</jbophrase> respectively; and the cmavo= from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">a</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">e</jbophrase>,=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">i</jbophrase>, and=20 + <jbophrase role=3D"letteral">o</jbophrase> respectively. None of the d= igit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart i= n noisy environments.</para> =20 </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section3"> <title>Signs and numerical punctuation PA selma'o The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + ma'u PA positive sign =20 ni'u PA negative sign =20 =20 pi PA decimal point =20 fi'u PA fraction slash =20 ra'e PA repeating decimal =20 ce'i PA percent sign =20 =20 ki'o PA comma between digits =20 - + ni'u mau negative num= bersexpressing positive numbersexplic= it expression signed numbersexpressing A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs= as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d1"/>

ni'u pa negative-sign 1 @@ -309,107 +309,107 @@ pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa =20 point one comma one two comma one .001012001

Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + ci'i PA infinity =20 =20 ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1) =20 pai PA =20 =CF=80, pi (approx 3.14159...) te'o PA exponential e (approx 2.71828...) fi'u PA golden ratio,=20 =20 =CE=A6, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.6180= 3...) - + fractionmeaning with elided numerator and denominator numbersspecial The last cmavo is the same as the fr= action sign cmavo: a fraction sign with neither numerator nor denominator r= epresents the golden ratio. Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-nu= mber cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d1"/> - + =20 4.1) ma'u ci'i =20 + =E2=88=9E =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d2"/> - + =20 4.2) ci ka'o re =20 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to=20 3 + 2i) - + ka'o ci'i infinityexample ka'oas special number compared w= ith as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 =20 - i) and a number punctuation mark (separating th= e real and the imaginary parts of a complex number). + i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d3"/> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> - + =20 4.3) ci'i no =20 infinity zero =20 =20 =E2=84=B5 0 (a transfinite cardinal) - + =20 The special numbers=20 pai and=20 te'o are mathematically important, which is why= they are given their own cmavo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d4"/> - + =20 4.4) pai pi,=20 =CF=80 =20 - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d5"/> - + =20 4.5) te'o e - + numerical punctua= tionundefined However, many co= mbinations are as yet undefined: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d6"/> pa pi re pi ci 1.2.3 @@ -429,97 +429,97 @@ It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 oddities do have a meaningful use in some restricted ar= ea of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for speci= alized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would= use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 to=20 .

Simple infix expressions and equations =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + du GOhA equals su'i VUhU plus vu'u VUhU minus pi'i VUhU times te'a VUhU raised to the power =20 ny. BY letter=20 n vei VEI left parenthesis ve'o VEhO right parenthesis - + VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i 1 += 1 =3D 2example mathematical notation= infix Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one e= quals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d1"/>

li pa su'i pa du li re The-number one plus one equals the-number two. 1 + 1 =3D 2

dugrammar of mathematical equalityexpressing=20 , a mekso sentence, is a reg= ular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features.=20 du is the predicate meaning=20 x1 is mathematically equal to x2. It is a cmavo for con= ciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathe= matical contexts,=20 du means=20 x1 is identical with x2 or=20 x1 is the same object as x2. li<= /indexterm> numbersusing for quantification contrasted with talking about numberstalking about contrasted with using for quantification number a= rticleexplanation of use thefor talki= ng about numbers themselves articlenumber The cmavo=20 - li is the number article. It is required whenever a sen= tence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quanti= fy things. For example: + li is the number article. It is required whenev= er a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers t= o quantify things. For example: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d2"/>

le ci prenu the three persons

requires no=20 - li article, because the=20 + li article, because the=20 =20 ci is being used to specify the number of=20 prenu. However, the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3"/>

levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. This fly has a mass of 3 grams.

3 grams= example units of measurementexpressing measurements= expressing requires=20 - li because=20 + li because=20 ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is = the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for = units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as t= he first place and a number as the second place. Using=20 =20 - li for=20 - le in=20 + li for=20 + le in=20 would produce <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d4"/>

li ci prenu The-number 3 is-a-person.

which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons. VUhU selma'o<= /primary> su= 'i add= ition operatorcontrasted with positive sign positive sign<= /primary>contrasted with addition operator additiona mathematical operator mathematical operators The cm= avo=20 - su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of math= ematical operators, and means=20 + su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed= of mathematical operators, and means=20 =20 addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from=20 ma'u which means the positive sign as an indica= tion of a positive number: =20 +1 + -1 =3D 0example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d5"/>

@@ -534,31 +534,31 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d6"/>

li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three= . 5 + 1 =3D 3 + 3

conversion into s= umti from mekso conversion of mekso into sumti lias converter of m= ekso into sumti general sumticontrasted with operands operands= contrasted with general sumti = VUhU operands operators of VUhUgrammar of operands duwith complex mekso= on both sides Why don't we say=20 - li mu su'i li pa rather than just=20 + li mu su'i li pa rather than just=20 li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU operator= s connect mekso operands (numbers, in=20 ), not general sumti.=20 =20 - li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which= then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 + li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumt= i, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in=20 , filling the places of a br= idi precedencemathematical default operator left-right groupingas Lojban default operator precedencein Lojban defaul= t ca= lculator mathematicsas default in Lojban By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathema= tics: there is no notion of=20 =20 operator precedence. Consider the following example, wh= ere=20 =20 - pi'i means=20 + pi'i means=20 times, the multiplication operator: =20 pi'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d7"/>

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two= -three. @@ -582,41 +582,41 @@

default operator = precedencecontrasted with mekso goal Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 =C3=97= 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simp= licity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of m= athematics. What can be done? operator preceden= ceeffect of pragmatic convention operator precedenceand mathematical notation mathematical notationand operator precedence There are three solutio= ns, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution i= s to ignore the problem. People will say=20 li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, becaus= e the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deep= ly ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores sema= ntics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in t= his one area. =20 operator preceden= ce in other languages operator precedencerationale for defau= lt left-grouping (Why not hard-wire the precedences= into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentiall= y because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of p= recedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13= levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. Fo= r Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired prece= dence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets = where the conventions are different.) operator preceden= cegeneralized explicit specification The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the preceden= ce of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be ex= plained in=20 . BIhE selma'o<= /primary> bi= 'e bi'= eeffect on following operator = operator precedencescope modification with bi'e The third = solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with = the cmavo=20 - bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of hig= her precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, + bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automaticall= y of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9"/>

li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci =20 The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two= -three. 3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 23

is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a=20 - bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple=20 + bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multip= le=20 =20 - bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allowed. + bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allo= wed. =20 ve'o vei parenthesis<= /primary>mathematical operator precedencespec= ifying by parenthesis In addition, of course, Lojba= n has the mathematical parentheses=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o, which can be used just like their written equival= ents=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o, which can be used just like their written= equivalents=20 ( and=20 ) to group expressions in any way desired: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d10"/>

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa =20 @@ -624,159 +624,159 @@ The-number (=20 n plus one) times (=20 n plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=20 n plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n

ny<= /indexterm> te'a (n + 1)(n + 1= ) =3D n^2 + 2n + 1example lerfu stringsinterpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation lerfu st= ringsin mathematical expressions There are several new usages in=20 :=20 - te'a means=20 + te'a means=20 =20 raised to the power, and we also see the use of the ler= fu word=20 ny, representing the letter=20 n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ord= inary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu word= s (called a=20 lerfu string) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word,= in agreement with computer-science conventions;=20 abc is a single variable, not the equivalent of=20 a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c. (Of course, a local convention cou= ld state that the value of a variable like=20 abc, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values o= f the variables=20 a,=20 b, and=20 c multiplied together.) The explicit operator=20 - pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form whereas mult= iplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 + pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form wher= eas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 =20 - ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator:= the first use of it in=20 + ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable ter= minator: the first use of it in=20 is required, but the second= use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first= =20 =20 - bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not necessary = to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the o= ther one. + bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not ne= cessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry wi= th the other one. =20 =20

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse pe'o PEhO forethought flag =20 ku'e KUhE forethought terminator py. BY letter=20 p xy. BY letter=20 x zy. BY letter=20 -z +z ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator fy. BY letter=20 f - + The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes,= but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators ha= ve exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from c= ontext or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.<= /para> But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or = which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression = in such cases is the use of=20 forethought operators, also known as Polish notation. I= n this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the opera= nds afterwards: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d1"/>

li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.<= /gloss> sum(1,2,3) =3D 6

Note that the normally elidable number terminator=20 - boi is required after=20 + boi is required after=20 pa and=20 re because otherwise the reading would be=20 pareci=3D 123. It is not required after=20 ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sak= e of symmetry. The only time=20 - boi is required is, as in=20 + boi is required is, as in=20 , when there are two consecu= tive numbers or lerfu strings. Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in=20 , three. How do we know how = many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban soluti= on is employed: an elidable terminator, namely=20 - ku'e. Here is an example: + ku'e. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d2"/>

li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy. The-number=20 p plus negative-of(=20 n) plus=20 - z equals the-number=20 + z equals the-number=20 x. p + -n + z =3D x

where we know that=20 - va'a is a forethought operator because there is no oper= and preceding it. + va'a is a forethought operator because there is= no operand preceding it. - va'a is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUh= U. In contrast,=20 + va'a is the numerical negation operator, of sel= ma'o VUhU. In contrast,=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but only for s= ubtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse=20 - va'a and=20 - vu'u, which are operators, with=20 + vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but on= ly for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse= =20 + va'a and=20 + vu'u, which are operators, with=20 ni'u, which is part of a number. In=20 , the operator=20 - va'a and the terminator=20 - ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regular paren= theses=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the=20 - ku'e were omitted, the=20 - su'i zy would be swallowed up by the=20 - va'a forethought operator, which would then appear to h= ave two operands,=20 + va'a and the terminator=20 + ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regul= ar parentheses=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the=20 + ku'e were omitted, the=20 + su'i zy would be swallowed up by the=20 + va'a forethought operator, which would then app= ear to have two operands,=20 ny and=20 - su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethought expres= sion. + su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethough= t expression. Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functiona= l notation. How do we represent=20 =20 z =3D f(x)? The answer is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d3"/>

li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy. The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x. z =3D f(x) =20

Again, no parentheses are used. The construct=20 - ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, and appea= rs in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular infix o= perator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes me= an variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept= the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special flag=20 - ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo= =20 + ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, a= nd appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular= infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and some= times mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses t= o accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special f= lag=20 + ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The= cmavo=20 xy. and=20 zy. are variables, but=20 fy. is an operator (a function) because=20 - ma'o marks it as such. The=20 - boi is required because otherwise the=20 + ma'o marks it as such. The=20 + boi is required because otherwise the=20 xy. would look like part of the operator name. = (The use of=20 - ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso= operand: see=20 + ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to a= ny mekso operand: see=20 .) When using forethought mekso, the optional marker=20 - pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. This usage= can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 + pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. Th= is usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 =20 - pe'o and=20 + pe'o and=20 =20 - ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 + ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 to=20 , respectively, with explici= t=20 - pe'o and=20 + pe'o and=20 =20 - ku'e: + ku'e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d4"/>

li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa =20

@@ -792,75 +792,75 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e6d6"/>

li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e =20

Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands re= ally are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless par= enthesized with=20 =20 - vei and=20 - ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief because I for= got this rule.

Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1"/>

li xy. mleca li mu The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi: - + du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...=20 dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimens= ion/quantity x3 =20 =20 mleca x1 is less than x2 zmadu x1 is greater than x2 dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equa= l or less] dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equa= l or greater] tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shap= e-equal] =20 turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, stru= cture-equal] =20 cmima x1 is a member of set x2 gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-= part] na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, numb= er-near] terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3 - + Note the difference between=20 dunli and=20 =20 du;=20 dunli has a third place that specifies the kind= of equality that is meant.=20 =20 du refers to actual identity, and can have any = number of places: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d2"/>

py. du xy.boi zy. p is-identical-to=20 x - z + z p =3D x =3D z =20

Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the=20 du is not repeated. Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with=20 na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indica= te that the relation is false: =20 @@ -1239,31 +1239,31 @@ many in the circumstances). both dogsexample=20 assumes a mostly monogamous= culture by stating that three is=20 many.

Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + ji'i PA approximately su'e PA at most =20 =20 su'o PA at least me'i PA less than =20 za'u PA more than =20 - + ji'i ji'i= effect of placement approximate numbersexpressi= ng The cmavo=20 ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to= indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of= a number, the whole number is approximate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1"/>

ji'i vo no approximation four zero @@ -1453,21 +1453,21 @@ pi'e PA compound base point =20 =20 radixdecimal (see also base) In normal contexts= , Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) sy= stem. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particul= ar circumstances. octal systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) binary systemspecifying numbers in (see also base) basespecify= ing To specify a number in a particular base, the V= UhU operator=20 - ju'u is suitable: + ju'u is suitable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d1"/>

li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.

basechanging permanently baseassumed Here, the final=20 @@ -1503,22 +1503,22 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d4"/>

li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5. =20

VUhU selma'o<= /primary> F.8 ba= se 16example basenon-constant ju'ugrammar of Since=20 - ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical = to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undef= ined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for makin= g=20 - ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which = is not a constant. + ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is gram= matical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it = is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason f= or making=20 + ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a bas= e which is not a constant. pi'e hoursminutesseconds: example compound basedefinition compound baseseparator for base varying= for each digitseparator for T= here are some numerical values that require a=20 base that varies from digit to digit. For example, time= s represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three=20 =20 digits: the first is base 24, the second and third are = base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator=20 =20 pi'e is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d5"/> @@ -1649,25 +1649,25 @@ =20 me'u MEhU terminator for ME MOI selma'o numeric= al selbrispecial Lojban posses= ses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kin= d of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number.= There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based= selbri with specific place structures. mei= cardinal selbri= definition cardinal selbriplace struc= ture The cmavo=20 - mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure = is: + mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place st= ructure is: =20 - + x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of wh= ich is/are x3 - + massexpressing relation with individuals forming masse= xpressing relation with set forming individualsexpressing = relation with mass formed individualsexpressing relation w= ith set formed setexpressing relation with individuals for= ming set setexpressing relation with mass formed from set<= /secondary> A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given n= umber of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which = make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenien= ce, not logical necessity. =20 Some examples: three rats<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1"/>

lei mi ratcu cu cimei @@ -1688,27 +1688,27 @@ mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.

In=20 ,=20 mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 - -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind expl= ained in=20 + -mei is an objective indefinite = number of the kind explained in=20 , a slightly different place= structure is required: individuals of setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites set= expressing measurement standard for indefinites massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meipl= ace structure formed for objective indefinites FIXM= E: TAG SPOT - + x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of whic= h is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4. - + An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/>

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. =20 The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. @@ -1727,31 +1727,31 @@ le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. =20 There are many rats in the park.

In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 - se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 i= s the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats a= re=20 + se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the = new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that th= e rats are=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. =20 More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . moi= ordinal selbri<= /primary>definition ordinal selbriplace structu= re The cmavo=20 - moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is: + moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure= is: =20 - + x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 - + Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5"/>

ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me. This is my first rat. =20 @@ -1775,62 +1775,62 @@ mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence =20 I am enough-th in the movie line. =20

enough-thexample all-thexample= first ratexample=20 means, in the appropriate c= ontext, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I wi= ll get a seat for the movie. si'e portion selbri= place structure portion selbridefinit= ion The cmavo=20 - si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is: + si'e creates portion selbri. The place structur= e is: =20 =20 - + x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 - + Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/>

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. This meal is one-third of my daily food.

cu'o probability se= lbriplace structure probability selbridefinition <= primary>one-third of food The cmavo=20 - cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is= : + cu'o creates probability selbri. The place stru= cture is: =20 =20 - + event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 - + probability selbr= ivalues The number must be bet= ween 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d9"/>

le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability = .5. =20

va'e coin headsexample probability .5example= scale selbriplace structure scale selbridefinition<= /secondary> The cmavo=20 - va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is: + va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structur= e is: =20 =20 - + x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 - + unreduced fractio= nsuse in granular scales scalegranula= r contrasted with continuous If the scale is granul= ar rather than continuous, a form like=20 =20 cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 i= s not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positio= ns is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here = is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d10"/>

le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. @@ -1852,21 +1852,21 @@

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-stan= dard me. There are too many rats in the park for me. =20

subjective number= srationale for effect on place structure too many ratsexample The extra place (which for= =20 - -mei is the x4 place labeled by=20 + -mei is the x4 place labeled by=20 fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag suc= h as=20 ma'i because a specification of the standard fo= r judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like=20 =20 enough. subjective number= sspecifying standard for standard for subjective numbersspecifying This place is not nor= mally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a numbe= r. Therefore,=20 du'e ratcu means=20 =20 too many rats without specifying any standard. =20 lerfu stringswith numerical selbri numerical selbrispe= cialwith lerfu strings It is a= lso grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number: @@ -1875,66 +1875,66 @@

ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. That is my nth rat.

nth rat= example numerical selbrirestriction on numbers = used for numerical selbrigrammar M= ore complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the res= ulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expr= ession is required. me'u ME selma'o= m= e nume= rical selbrialternative to compensate for restriction = on numbers "me"effect of MOI on numerical selbricomplex numerical selbriuse of "me&q= uot; with The cmavo=20 - me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti i= nto a selbri. A whole=20 - me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: + me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a= sumti into a selbri. A whole=20 + me construction can have a member of MOI added = to the end to create a complex mekso selbri: (n+1)-th ratexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13"/>

ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats. That is my (n+1)-th rat.

Here the mekso=20 - ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 - li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with=20 - me and=20 - me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 - me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 + ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with=20 + li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with= =20 + me and=20 + me'u moi. The elidable terminator=20 + me'u is required here in order to keep the=20 pa and the=20 - moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them i= nto the compound=20 + moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combin= e them into the compound=20 pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.= numerical selbri<= /primary>based on non-numerical sumti It= is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after=20 - me and before a member of MOI, producing strange result= s indeed: + me and before a member of MOI, producing strang= e results indeed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14"/>

le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o =20 The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability= . =20 I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. =20

PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u snowball's chanceexample boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 - boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. A= s a result, the=20 - me'u in=20 + boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MOI. As a result, the=20 + me'u in=20 could also be replaced by a= =20 - boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 + boi, which would serve the same function of pre= venting the=20 pa and=20 - moi from joining into a compound. + moi from joining into a compound.

Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xo =20 PA number question @@ -1999,22 +1999,22 @@

li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.<= /gloss> =20 x

XI selma'o xi x-sub-3= example subscriptsinternal grammar of= Subscripts always begin with the flag=20 - xi (of selma'o XI).=20 - xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a ge= neral mekso expression in parentheses: + xi (of selma'o XI).=20 + xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string,= or a general mekso expression in parentheses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d2"/>

xy.boixino x

@@ -2029,25 +2029,25 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d4"/>

xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] x

free modifierseffects on elidability of terminators subscriptseffects on elidability of terminators subscripts on lerfu wordseffect on elidability of boi Note that= subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a= =20 - boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which = subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an o= therwise elidable terminator. + boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, o= f which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence= of an otherwise elidable terminator. superscripts subscripts= before main expression There i= s no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as expone= nts) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression= . If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these pur= poses. =20 boi= sub-subscripts<= /primary> subscr= iptsmultiple as sub-subscript = subscriptsterminator for The elidable terminator for a sub= script is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely=20 - boi. By convention, a subscript following another subsc= ript is taken to be a sub-subscript: + boi. By convention, a subscript following anoth= er subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e13d5"/>

xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo x

See=20 @@ -2077,74 +2077,74 @@ VUhU exponential notation =20

ge'a tu'o The infix operators presented so far have always had exact= ly two operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has be= en required. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even= though it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair o= f tricks: the null operand=20 =20 tu'o and the null operator=20 =20 =20 - ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few oper= ands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to= express the numerical negation operator=20 + ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too = few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we w= anted to express the numerical negation operator=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 - va'a in infix form. We would use: + va'a in infix form. We would use: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d1"/>

li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny. =20 =20 The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero= minus n. -n =3D 0 =E2=88=92 n

operandstoo few for infix operation null operandfor in= fix operations with too few operands tu'ofor infix operati= ons with too few operands The=20 tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a= left operand for the infix use of=20 =20 - va'a, even though semantically none is needed or wanted= . + va'a, even though semantically none is needed o= r wanted. gei= exponential not= ationwith gei scientific notationwith= gei geias a binary operator Findi= ng a suitable example of=20 - ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternar= y operators are not common. The operator=20 - gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a= binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also ca= lled=20 + ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, an= d ternary operators are not common. The operator=20 + gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary u= se. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific = (also called=20 exponential) notation. The first operand of=20 - gei is the exponent, and the second operand is the mant= issa or fraction: + gei is the exponent, and the second operand is = the mantissa or fraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d2"/>

li cinonoki'oki'o du li bi gei ci The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals the-number eight scientific three. 300,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

3 ( 10^8example geirationale for order of places scientifi= c notationrationale for order of places Why are the arguments to=20 - gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic not= ation? So that=20 - gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specificat= ion of a large (or small) imprecise number: + gei in reverse order from the conventional symb= olic notation? So that=20 + gei can be used in forethought to allow easy sp= ecification of a large (or small) imprecise number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d3"/>

gei reno (scientific) two-zero 10

10^20example floating point numbersexpressing exponential = notationwith base other than 10 geias= a ternary operator operandstoo many for infix operation null = operatorfor infix operations with too many operands ge'afor infix operations with too many operands<= /indexterm> Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common= exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of=20 - gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default val= ue. Most computers internally store so-called=20 + gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the def= ault value. Most computers internally store so-called=20 floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (T= his has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integ= ers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating = point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here= is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4"/>

papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2 .1010 @@ -2173,52 +2173,52 @@ sa'i =20 VUhU matrix column combiner matrix<= secondary>definition vectordefinition A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix i= s a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vecto= rs, which are in turn built up out of operands. te'u JOhI selma= 'o jo'i = vector indicatorterminator for= vector= components of jo'iprecedence of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">vector indicator=20 - jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector ind= icator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very= high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full e= xpressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of componen= ts;=20 + jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the ve= ctor indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but = has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather tha= n full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of = components;=20 =20 - te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: + te'u is the elidable terminator. An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d1"/>

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals= the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6)

ge'a sa'i pi'a matrixwith ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns matrixas combination of vectors matrix column operator <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">matrix row operator<= /indexterm> Vectors can be combined into matrices using either=20 - pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 + pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 =20 =20 - sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first combines ve= ctors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors repr= esenting columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments:= additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 + sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first com= bines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vect= ors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of ar= guments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 =20 =20 =20 - ge'a. + ge'a. magic squareexample Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix =20 - + 8 1 6 3 5 7 4 9 2 - + can be represented either as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2"/> jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re =20 the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vecto= r (4 9 2) @@ -2228,106 +2228,106 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d3"/>

jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi = zeboi re =20 the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-ve= ctor (6 7 2)

matricesuse of parentheses with vectorsuse of parenthe= ses with matricesuse as operands = vectorsu= se as operands inner product outer product The regular mekso op= erators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both= of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices= when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are = no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but = appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word o= r string prefixed by=20 - ma'o. + ma'o. xi<= /indexterm> subscriptsto form matrices of more than 2 dimensions matrixwith more than 2 dimensions Matrices of more = than two dimensions can be built up using either=20 - pi'a or=20 + pi'a or=20 =20 - sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimens= ion. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 + sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering th= e dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 =20 =20 - pi'a and=20 + pi'a and=20 =20 - sa'i. + sa'i. =20

Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fu'a =20 FUhA reverse Polish flag

RPas abbreviation for reverse Polish notation S= o far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds = of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed= odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 f they appear as the usual functional notation. Now com= es a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complet= ely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses= of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation= of some programming languages.) =20 fu'a reverse Polish= notationterminator reverse Polish notationmarker = reverse Polish notationuse of parentheses in<= /secondary> reve= rse Polish notationdefinition = In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where = the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso o= f the kind explained in=20 .) The number of operands pe= r operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lo= jban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 - fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no te= rminator. Here is a simple example: + fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there = is no terminator. Here is a simple example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1"/>

li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu =20 the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.

The operands are=20 re and=20 ci; the operator is=20 - su'i. + su'i. Here is a more complex example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d2"/>

li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa =20 the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), = plus equals the-number two-six

Here the operands of the first=20 - pi'i are=20 + pi'i are=20 re and=20 ci; the operands of the second=20 - pi'i are=20 + pi'i are=20 vo and=20 mu (with=20 - boi inserted where needed), and the operands of the=20 - su'i are=20 - reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and=20 - voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get= lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is esp= ecially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doe= sn't get lost) to comprehend. + boi inserted where needed), and the operands of= the=20 + su'i are=20 + reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and=20 + voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it is eas= y to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, i= t is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack= and doesn't get lost) to comprehend. =20 =20 reverse Polish no= tationparentheses in operands of reverse Polish notationoperands of The operands of an R= P operator can be any legal mekso operand, including parenthesized mekso th= at can contain any valid syntax, whether more RP or something more conventi= onal. ge'a gei tu'o v= a'a ge'a tu'o reverse Polish notationwith too many operands reverse = Polish notationwith too few operands reverse Polish notati= onnumber of operands In Lojban= , RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operands. What about oper= ators which require only one operand, or more than two operands? The null o= perand=20 =20 tu'o and the null operator=20 =20 =20 - ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator = like=20 - va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context as=20 - tu'o va'a. The=20 + ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand o= perator like=20 + va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context= as=20 + tu'o va'a. The=20 =20 =20 tu'o provides the second operand, which is sema= ntically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand v= ersion of=20 =20 - gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 - ge'a gei, where the=20 + gei appears in reverse Polish as=20 + ge'a gei, where the=20 =20 - ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a= single operand. Here are some examples: + ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operand= s into a single operand. Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d3"/>

li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du =20 li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a =20 =20 @@ -2348,36 +2348,36 @@ =20 The-number 30-comma-comma equals the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.= 30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - + .abu BY letter=20 a by BY letter=20 b cy BY letter=20 c fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root) lo'o LOhO terminator for LI =20 - + GA selma'o A se= lma'o = afterthought connectionof operators afterthought connectio= nof operands forethought connectiono= f operators <= primary>forethought connectionof operands<= /indexterm> operator connect= ionforethought operator connectionaft= erthought operand connectionforethought operand connectionafterthought As befits a logical l= anguage, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both= operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connective= s are provided in=20 =20 . Operands are connected in aft= erthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumt= i. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethoug= ht with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no ac= cident. KE selma'o BO s= elma'o connection of operatorsgrouping connection of operandsgrouping In addition, A+BO and A+= KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and=20 - ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected= operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators. + ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the oper= ators. Despite the large number of rules required to support this featu= re, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.=20 exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. @@ -2389,43 +2389,43 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d2"/>

vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci ( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.

parenthesesfor complex mekso used as quantifier= meksoc= omplex used as quantifier Note that the mekso here = are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a = simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This ru= le prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using=20 - li. + li. lo'o lo'o= effect of logical connective on elidability of logical connectioneffect on elidability of lo'o literminat= or for By the way,=20 - li has an elidable terminator,=20 - lo'o, which is needed when a=20 + li has an elidable terminator,=20 + lo'o, which is needed when a=20 =20 - li sumti is followed by a logical connective that could= seem to be within the mekso. For example: + li sumti is followed by a logical connective th= at could seem to be within the mekso. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d3"/>

li re su'i re du li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu =20 The-number two plus two equals the-number four or else a non-known number.

Omitting the=20 - lo'o would cause the parser to assume that another oper= and followed the=20 + lo'o would cause the parser to assume that anot= her operand followed the=20 =20 .onai and reject=20 - lo as an invalid operand. + lo as an invalid operand. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d4"/> li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four. 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. @@ -2442,21 +2442,21 @@ the-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four. Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 =C3=97 2 =3D 4. Here is a classic example of operand logical connection: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/> - + =20 17.6) go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy. =20 su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve= 'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number=20 a-times-(=20 x power two ) plus=20 @@ -2473,31 +2473,31 @@ a. Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then x =3D -b =C2=B1=20 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88=92 4ac) =20 2a - + quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 - bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group= the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be= removed here in favor of simple=20 + bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added = to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses c= annot be removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 - fe'a and=20 - ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in= the operand. Getting=20 + fe'a and=20 + ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are pr= esent in the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 - bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules b= e understood. + bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence= rules be understood. =20 BIhI selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o non-logical connectionof operators non-logical connect= ionof operands Non-logical con= nection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between op= erators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with=20 bi'o to create intervals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7"/>

li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one @@ -2514,22 +2514,22 @@

li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu =20 the-number 0.5 =C2=B1 0.5

closed intervalexpressed with mi'i open intervalexpres= sed with mi'i which expresses the same interval as= =20 . Note that the=20 - ga'o and=20 - ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are n= ow implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:= + ga'o and=20 + ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although the= se are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the sam= e thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d9"/>

li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]

connection of ope= randsprecedence over operator = Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another in= terval centered on the number. As=20 @@ -2575,69 +2575,69 @@ MOhE sumti to operand

te'u TEhU terminator for all three

te'u mo'e= terminator for ni'eterminator for na'uterminator for One of the mekso design goal= s requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within = mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are th= ree relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator=20 - te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors marked wi= th=20 - jo'i) + te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors m= arked with=20 + jo'i) na'u operator deriv= ed from selbrieffect of selbri place structure on selbri p= lace structureeffect on operator formed by= conversion of s= elbri into operator operatorconverting selbri into selbriconverting into an operator The cmavo= =20 - na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In general, the f= irst place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the othe= r unfilled places specify the operands: + na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In genera= l, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and = the other unfilled places specify the operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d1"/> - + =20 18.1) li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i =20 The-number the-operator tangent (=20 -=CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. +=CF=80 / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. =20 tan( -=CF=80/2) =3D=20 -=E2=88=9E - +=CF=80/2) =3D=20 +=E2=88=9E + tan(pi/2) =3D inf= inityexample=20 tanjo is the gismu for=20 x1 is the tangent of x2, and the=20 - na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used = in forethought + na'u here makes it into an operator which is th= en used in forethought ni'e formulaeexpressing based on pure dimensions = conversion of selbri into op= erand = operandconverting selbri into = selbric= onverting into an operand The cmavo=20 - ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of th= e selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 + ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 pla= ce of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a=20 =20 - ni abstraction, since=20 - ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 - ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A = common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: + ni abstraction, since=20 + ni abstractions represent numbers. The=20 + ni'e makes that number available as a mekso ope= rand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d2"/>

li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i =20 ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu =20 The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times= quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume

mo'e Length ( Width= ( Depth =3D Volumeexample dimensioned numbersexpressing conversion of sumti into operand operandconv= erting sumti into sumticonverting into an operand The cmavo=20 - mo'e operates similarly to=20 + mo'e operates similarly to=20 =20 - ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an = operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensi= oned numbers: + ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) = into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving= dimensioned numbers: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d3"/>

li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu =20 The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four= animals. @@ -2689,27 +2689,27 @@ =20 roi =20 ROI quantified tense So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with=20 - li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI a= nd ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.<= /para> + li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and = in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within = Lojban. me'o mathematical e= xpressionreferring to licontrasted wi= th me'o me'ocontrasted with li The= cmavo=20 - me'o has the same grammatical use as=20 - li but slightly different semantics.=20 - li means=20 + me'o has the same grammatical use as=20 + li but slightly different semantics.=20 + li means=20 the number which is the value of the mekso ..., whereas= =20 - me'o just means=20 + me'o just means=20 the mekso ... So it is true that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d1"/> li re su'i re du li vo The-number two plus two equals the-number four. 2 + 2 =3D 4 @@ -2723,47 +2723,47 @@ me'o re su'i re du me'o vo The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four. 2 + 2=3D=20 4

me'orelation to li compared with la/zo relation= lirela= tion to me'o compared with la/zo relation since the= expressions=20 2 + 2 and=20 4 are not the same. The relationship between=20 - li and=20 - me'o is related to that between=20 + li and=20 + me'o is related to that between=20 la djan., the person named John, and=20 zo .djan., the name=20 John nu'a selbriplace structure of converted operator = conversion of operator into = selbri operatorconverting into selbri selbriconverting operator into The cmavo=20 - nu'a is the inverse of=20 - na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a norma= l selbri, with the place structure: - + nu'a is the inverse of=20 + na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as= a normal selbri, with the place structure: + x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ... - + for as many places as may be required. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d3"/>

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.

uses=20 - nu'a to make the operator=20 - va'a into a two-place bridi + nu'a to make the operator=20 + va'a into a two-place bridi nu'ause in answering operator questions na'uuse in ask= ing operator questions answersto operator questions questions<= /primary>operator Used together,=20 - nu'a and=20 - na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso oper= ators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor= is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 + nu'a and=20 + na'u make it possible to ask questions about me= kso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator quest= ion, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider=20 , to which=20 is one correct answer: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d4"/>

li re na'u mo re du li vo The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four. 2 ? 2 =3D 4 @@ -2773,39 +2773,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d5"/>

nu'a su'i plus

In=20 ,=20 - na'u mo is an operator question, because=20 + na'u mo is an operator question, because=20 mo is the selbri question cmavo and=20 - na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 + na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 makes the true answer=20 - su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with th= e inverse cmavo=20 - nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 + su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance)= with the inverse cmavo=20 + nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 into=20 produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d6"/>

li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals th= e-number four.

where the=20 - na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi + na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi= MAI selma'o mai= first= lyexample digit stringdefinition of secti= on numbering textsub-division numbering with -mai Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English=20 =20 firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7"/> @@ -2846,62 +2846,62 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d11"/>

pasomo'o nineteenthly (higher order)

MAI selma'o mo'= o firs= tlyexample chapter numbering mo'ocontrasted= with mai maicontrasted with mo'o = textdiv= ision numbering with -mai The difference between=20 - mai and=20 - mo'o is that=20 - mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 - mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and in= ternally numbered with=20 - mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 - mo'o. (See=20 + mai and=20 + mo'o is that=20 + mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. = Each=20 + mo'o subdivision can then be divided into piece= s and internally numbered with=20 + mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojba= n, each section would be numbered with=20 + mo'o. (See=20 for more on these words.) roi= once<= secondary>example tensenumerical A= numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with=20 =20 - roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to Engli= sh=20 + roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding = to English=20 =20 once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . boi= numerical tense= seffect on use of boi boiexception be= fore ROI boiexception before MAI = MAI selma'oexception on use of boi before ROI selma'oexception on= use of boi before Note: the elidable terminator=20 - boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or= ROI. + boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MAI or ROI.

Explicit operator precedence =20 As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. SEI selma'o ti'= o The declaration is made in the form of a metalingui= stic comment using=20 =20 - ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 + ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 =20 - sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalin= guistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse whic= h the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 - ti'o declaration has not been formally established, but= presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then giv= ing it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-established scal= e, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existi= ng operators. + sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert= metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discou= rse which the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 + ti'o declaration has not been formally establis= hed, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and = then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-establis= hed scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators an= d existing operators. =20 operator preceden= ceplans for future In future, = we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declaratio= ns of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Origin= ally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have= the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence lev= els. Complex operators formed with=20 - na'u,=20 - ni'e, or=20 + na'u,=20 + ni'e, or=20 =20 - ma'o would remain at the standard low precedence; decla= rations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is p= robable that such a parser would have a set of=20 + ma'o would remain at the standard low precedenc= e; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts.= It is probable that such a parser would have a set of=20 commonly assumed precedences built into it (selectable = by a special=20 - ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical intuiti= on: times higher than plus, and so on. + ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical= intuition: times higher than plus, and so on. =20

Miscellany A few other points: se<= /indexterm> seuse with operators conversionof operator places=20 - se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a s= elbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: + se can be used to convert an operator as if it = were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1"/>

li ci se vu'u vo du li pa The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one= . 3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.

@@ -2924,23 +2924,23 @@ li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5. =20 The sense in which=20 plus is the opposite of=20 minus is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one= ; negated operators are defined only loosely. bo<= /indexterm> lu'e la'e negationof operand symbolfor operand referentof operand=20 - la'e and=20 - lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics t= o get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of sel= ma'o NAhE followed by=20 - bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that so= me other operand would make the bridi true: + la'e and=20 + lu'e can be used on operands with the usual sem= antics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a membe= r of selma'o NAhE followed by=20 + bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying= that some other operand would make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d4"/> li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5. 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. @@ -2952,21 +2952,21 @@ la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named=20 Seven who attack that-named=20 Thebes [past] are-men. The Seven Against Thebes were men. Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 - zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative= which cannot be misconstrued is: + zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alt= ernative which cannot be misconstrued is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6"/>

la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.=

rafsiconventional meaning for frinu PA selma'omembers = with rafsi Certain other members of PA also have as= signed rafsi:=20 @@ -2987,44 +2987,44 @@ su'o,=20 pi, and=20 ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo=20 =20 fi'u does not have a rafsi as such, it is close= ly related to the gismu=20 =20 frinu, meaning=20 fraction; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you= can use any of the rafsi for=20 frinu to indicate a fraction slash. rafsiconventional meaning for cu'o A similar co= nvention is used for the cmavo=20 - cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to=20 + cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related t= o=20 =20 cunso (probability); use a rafsi for=20 cunso in order to create lujvo based on=20 - cu'o. The cmavo=20 - =20 - mei and=20 - moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact:=20 - mem/=20 - mei and=20 - mom/=20 - moi respectively. + cu'o. The cmavo=20 + =20 + mei and=20 + moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fa= ct:=20 + mem/=20 + mei and=20 + mom/=20 + moi respectively. ni'enu'a operandconverting from operator operatorconvert= ing into operand conversion of operator into operand algebra of functionsoperator and operand distinction in lambda calculusoperator and operand distinction in The grammar o= f mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators a= nd operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of funct= ions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the sam= e. An operator can be changed into an operand with=20 =20 =20 - ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a matching= selbri and then the selbri into an operand. + ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a = matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand. =20 te'u ma'o operatorconverting from operand operandconvertin= g into operator conversion of operand into operator To ch= ange an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 - ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu= string such as=20 + ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing= a lerfu string such as=20 fy. into an operator. In fact,=20 - ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, using the el= idable terminator=20 - te'u if necessary. + ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, usin= g the elidable terminator=20 + te'u if necessary. ma'opotential ambiguity caveat There is a poten= tial semantic ambiguity in=20 - ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 + ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 fy. is already in use as a variable: it comes t= o mean=20 the function whose value is always =E2=80=98f'. However= , mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as bot= h functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.

Four score and seven: a mekso problem =20 Four score and se= venexample Gettysburg Addressexample<= /secondary> meks= oand literary translation Abra= ham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 =20 =20 Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 @@ -3065,24 +3065,24 @@ li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze =20 the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven In=20 ,=20 voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four things= each of which are groups of twenty; the=20 - mo'e and=20 + mo'e and=20 =20 - te'u then make this sumti into a number in order to all= ow it to be the operand of=20 - su'i. + te'u then make this sumti into a number in orde= r to allow it to be the operand of=20 + su'i. base-20 arithmeti= cremnants of scoreas alternate base = for years Another approach is to think of=20 score as setting a representation base. There are remna= nts of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is= =20 =20 quatre-vingt-sept, literally=20 four-twenties-seven. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Ad= dress hard to translate into French!) If=20 =20 score is the representation base, then we have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e22d4"/> @@ -3095,21 +3095,21 @@ </example> <para>Overall,=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-iwba"/> probably captures the flavo= r of the English best.=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-DzMH"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-HNyL"/> are too simple, and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-2C3I"/> is too tricky. Nevertheless= , all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustra= te the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can prob= ably be said in more than one way.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter18-section23"> <title>mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo. - + BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings BY lerfu for variables and functions (see=20 ) FUhA reverse-Polish flag GOhA includes=20 du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmav= o =20 JOhI array flag KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso LI mekso articles (li and me'o) @@ -3125,27 +3125,27 @@ NUhA make operator into selbri PA numbers (see=20 ) PEhO optional forethought mekso marker TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI VEI left parenthesis VEhO right parenthesis VUhU operators (see=20 ) XI subscript flag - +

Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numb= ers. digitslist of decimal Decimal digits: - + no, pa, re, ci, vo, mu, xa, ze, bi, so 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 rafsi: non, pav, rel, cib, von, mum, xav, zel, biv, soz - + digitslist of hexadecimal Hexadecimal digit= s: - + dau, fei, gai, jau, rei, vai A/10, B/11, C/12, D/13, E/14, F/15 - + numberslist of special Special numbers: - + pai, ka'o, te'o, ci'i =20 =20 =20 =CF=80, imaginary i, exponential e, = infinity ( =20 =E2=88=9E) - + punctuationlist of numerical Number punctua= tion: - + pi, ce'i, fi'u =20 =20 decimal point, percentage, fraction (not division) =20 rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (from frinu; see=20 =20 ) =20 pi'e, ma'u, ni'u @@ -3227,21 +3227,21 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (fro= m frinu; see =20 =20 ki'o, ra'e =20 =20 thousands comma, repeating-decimal indicator =20 ji'i, ka'o =20 approximation sign, complex number separator - + numberslist of indefinite Indefinite number= s:

ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, =20 =20 =20 =20 @@ -3269,33 +3269,33 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (fro= m frinu; see rau, =20 du'e, =20 mo'a =20 enough, too many, too few

Miscellaneous: - + xo, tu'o =20 =20 number question, null operand =20 - +

Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures<= /title> - <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> + <xxx> mei x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard = x4] rafsi: mem, mei =20 moi x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 [by standard x4] rafsi: mom, moi =20 si'e x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3] =20 @@ -3305,13 +3305,13 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (fro= m frinu; see =20 [by standard x3] rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section20"/>) =20 va'e x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 =20 [by standard x3] rafsi: none -</programlisting> + </xxx> </section> </chapter> commit 37581c547e42d75c49509fd7a0a3c8f5f6a9a0f5 Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com> Date: Sun Jan 16 14:06:51 2011 -0500 Chapter 17: section titles. diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index efcd225..85923d1 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-letterals"> <title>As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses -

What's a letteral, anyway? letter<= secondary>alphabet letteraldefinition BrownJames Cookeand "letteral" James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the wo= rd=20 =20 letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 z. A typical example of its use might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1"/> @@ -30,21 +30,21 @@ <quote>fye</quote>, whereas=20 <quote>fee</quote> would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-= speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban= , in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that= can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other w= riting systems.</para> <para>Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and a= bbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti - the equivalent of= English pronouns.</para> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>letter</primary><= secondary>contrasted with word for the letter</secondary></indexterm> <ind= exterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lerfu word</primary><secondary>co= ntrasted with lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imp= orted"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>contrasted with lerfu word</secon= dary></indexterm> In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tenden= cy to use the word=20 <jbophrase>lerfu</jbophrase> for both the letterals themselves and for= the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will= be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term=20 <quote>lerfu word</quote> will invariably be used for the latter. The = Lojban equivalent would be=20 <jbophrase>lerfu valsi</jbophrase> or=20 <jbophrase>lervla</jbophrase>.</para> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section2"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-lerfu-liste"> <title>A to Z in Lojban, plus one lerfu wordsLojban coverage requirement The firs= t requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must= represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for Englis= h are a motley crew: the relationship between=20 doubleyou and=20 w is strictly historical in nature;=20 aitch represents=20 h but has no clear relationship to it at all; and=20 z has two distinct lerfu words,=20 zee and=20 zed, depending on the dialect of English in question. BY selma'o lerfu wo= rdfor "'" lerfu wordsfor co= nsonants lerfu wordsfor vowels lerfu wordsformation rules All of Lojban's basic lerfu words = are made by one of three rules: @@ -220,21 +220,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without Something unspecified is without a doctor. A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 y unless the next word is als= o a cmavo ending in=20 y. The safest and easiest gui= deline is to pause after all of them.

Upper and lower cases lower case letter= suse in Lojban capital lettersuse in = Lojban stressirregular marked with upper-case<= /indexterm> lower-case lette= rsEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban lower-case letters<= /primary>Lojban usage contrasted with English upper-case lettersEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban upper-case lettersLojban usage contrasted with English = Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) lett= ers in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper= -case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban = to mark irregular stress within names, thus: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1"/>

@@ -269,21 +269,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 =20 i [upper] V A N [lower]

The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called=20 shift words. shift wordscope How long does a shift word last= ? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the= end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is onl= y in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found. LAU selma'o shiftsingle-lettergrammar of= shift wordfor single letter It is often conve= nient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo=20 tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose.= A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equiv= alent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See=20 - for details.) + for details.) chemical elements= use of single-letter shift for= A likely use of=20 tau is in the internationally standardized symb= ols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a s= ingle upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case l= erfu: =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3"/> @@ -301,21 +301,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <interlinear-gloss> <jbo>tau sy. .ibu</jbo> <gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss> <en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>single-letter shi= ft</primary><secondary>as toggle</secondary></indexterm> If a shift to uppe= r-case is in effect when=20 =20 <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase> appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only= to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para> </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section4"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-bu"> <title>The universal=20 <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> lerfu word set ex= tensionwith bu bufor extension of ler= fu word set So far we have seen=20 bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce v= owel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of=20 bu. In developing the lerfu word system, howeve= r, it proved to be useful to allow=20 bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in or= der to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set. fa'o su sa si lo'u la'o= z= oi zo zei za'e ba'e fa'ointeraction with bu = suinter= action with bu sainteraction with bu siin= teraction with bu lo'uinteraction with bu la'ointeraction with bu zoiinteraction with bu zointeraction with bu zeiinteraction with bu za'einteraction with bu ba'einteraction with bu= bu<= /primary>interaction with ba'e buand compound c= mavo bugrammar of Formally,=20 bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. C= ompound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo=20 ba'e,=20 za'e,=20 @@ -349,21 +349,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not d= efined, but it is presumably different from=20 .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmav= o, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 bu are treated grammatically as if they were cm= avo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always n= ecessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene m= ay absorb preceding or following words. happy faceexample smiley faceexample logogramswords for smiley faceword for unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 bu to words has been used primarily to make nam= es for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Loj= ban name for the=20 =20 =20 happy face is=20 =20 .uibu, based on the attitudinal=20 - .ui that means=20 + .ui that means=20 happiness. Likewise, the=20 =20 smiley face, written=20 =20 :-) and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is= called=20 zo'obu The existence of these names does not me= an that you should insert=20 .uibu into running Lojban text to indicate that= you are happy, or=20 zo'obu when something is funny; instead, use th= e appropriate attitudinal directly. ampersandexample ampersand characterword for "&&q= uot;word for Likewise,=20 joibu represents the ampersand character,=20 @@ -381,24 +381,24 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. slaka bu (literally,=20 syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, beca= use=20 denpa and=20 slaka are normal gismu with normal stress:=20 denpabu would be a fu'ivla (= word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed=20 denPAbu. No pause is require= d between=20 denpa (or=20 slaka) and=20 bu, though.

Alien alphabets As stated in=20 - , Lojban's goal of cultural = neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many o= ther writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text = (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standa= rd Lojbanic way to pronounce them. + , Lojban's goal of cultural ne= utrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many oth= er writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (p= articularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard= Lojbanic way to pronounce them. There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing syst= ems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to cre= ate a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not= demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojba= n provides. alphaexample lettersnon-Lojbanre= presentation with names One possibility would be to = use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with= =20 bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek=20 alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily ha= ndled by calling it=20 =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 s and then into a Lojban lerf= u word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 @@ -445,21 +445,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. ty.bu=C3=BE (t= horn) dy.bu=C3=B0 (e= dh) However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thin= g, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with=20 bu added they become even longer: the worst-cas= e Greek lerfu word would be=20 .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two manda= tory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have se= parate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to ch= oose? letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with language-shi= ft la= nguage shiftchoice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart langua= ge shifteffect on following words language shift= rationale for lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-word + bu, drawback The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to thos= e introduced in=20 - . After the appearance of su= ch a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent th= e lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, fo= r example, the lerfu word=20 + . After the appearance of such a= shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the le= rfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for ex= ample, the lerfu word=20 =20 ty would represent not Latin=20 t but Greek=20 tau. Why=20 tau? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterp= art of=20 t within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would = be all right to map=20 ty. to=20 phi or even=20 omega, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extr= emely hard to remember. buinteraction with language shift language shiftintera= ction with bu Where no obvious closest counterpart = exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu m= ay simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back= on a=20 @@ -581,21 +581,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word = cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lowe= r-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than=20 =20 =20 =20 lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentia= lly leaving font and case shifts in place. =20 =20 =20 Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of pr= oposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.

Accent marks and compound lerfu words tildea diacritical mark cedillaa diacritical mark circumfl= exa diacritical mark umlauta diacriti= cal mark accent marka diacritical mark lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation of diacritical marks on= diac= ritical marksas lerfu Many lan= guages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the= lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels,= called (in English)=20 =20 =20 acute,=20 grave, and=20 circumflex. Likewise, German uses a mark called=20 =20 umlaut; a mark which looks the same is also used in Fre= nch, but with a different name and meaning. =20 @@ -633,24 +633,24 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 Spanish chexample Spanish llexample compound lettersnative languagerepresenting as distinc= t letters accented lettersconsidered as distinct from unacc= ented diacritical marksconsidered as forming distinct lett= ers Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consi= der certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented = equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the print= ed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters o= r not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (= like=20 ll and=20 ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may = be represented by enclosing the combination in=20 tei ... foi. lerfu wordsforming new for non-Lojban letters using bu In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible= to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally o= r well understood from context: thus Spanish=20 ll or Croatian=20 lj could be called=20 libu, but that usage would not necessarily be u= niversally understood. - contains a table of propos= ed lerfu words for some common accent marks. + contains a table = of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks. =20

Punctuation marks LAU selma'o lau= laueffect on following lerfu word = punctuation lerfu wordsmechanism for creating Lojban does n= ot have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really= a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks ex= tensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation mar= ks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo=20 =20 lau of selma'o LAU.=20 =20 lau must always be followed by a BY word; the i= nterpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark.= Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a=20 =20 bu suffix. punctuation lerfu= wordsrationale for lau Why is= =20 lau necessary at all? Why not just use a=20 @@ -664,21 +664,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 ce'a to signal a font shift.) =20 =20 punctuation lerfu= wordsinteraction with different alphabet systems Since different alphabets require different punctuation= marks, the interpretation of a=20 =20 lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the curren= t alphabet shift and the current font shift. =20 =20

What about Chinese characters? =20 =20 =20 Amharic writing syllaba= rieslerfu word representation = hiraganacontrasted with kanji kanjicontrasted with alphabets and = syllabaries <= primary>Chinese characterscontrasted with alphabets an= d syllabaries Chinese characters (=20 =20 =20 =20 han=20 4 zi=20 @@ -717,21 +717,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. a n 4=20 z i 4 han^{4}zi^{4} lerfu wor= ds with numeric digitsgrammar considerations numeric digit= s in lerfu wordsgrammar considerations The cmavo=20 vo is the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 =20 - . + . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2"/>

my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu @@ -749,21 +749,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.

Mitsubishiexample kanjirepresenting based on strokes Chine= se charactersrepresenting based on strokes= Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu= words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there ar= e about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about = 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character = with a=20 =20 =20 =20 tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of wri= ting (which is standardized for each character), and a=20 foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.<= /para>

lerfu words as pro-sumti lerfu stringdefinition So far, lerfu words have= only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several ot= her grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single l= erfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term=20 =20 lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -861,24 +861,24 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 X loves everybody. pro-sumtilerfu stringsinteraction with quantifier= s and boi boirequired between pro-sumti lerfu string and qu= antifier requires the first=20 boi to separate the lerfu string=20 xy. from the digit string=20 =20 ro.

References to lerfu pro-sumtilerfu stringeffect on reference to lerfu= itself lerfureference to The rules= of=20 - make it impossible to use u= nmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: + make it impossible to use = unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d1"/>

.abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral.

LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 @@ -945,21 +945,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.

la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu =20 The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.

which is correct.

Mathematical uses of lerfu strings lerfu stringsuses in mathematics mathematicsuse of ler= fu strings in This chapter is not about Lojban math= ematics, which is explained in=20 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu s= trings will be listed and exemplified but not explained. mathematical = variableslerfu strings as lerfu stringas mathematical variable A lerfu string as mathema= tical variable: @@ -1068,21 +1068,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 <quote><inlineequation><mathphrase>a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c</mathphrase></i= nlineequation></quote> but is the variable=20 <varname>abc</varname>. (Of course, a local convention could be employ= ed that made the value of a variable like=20 <varname>abc</varname>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the val= ues of the variables=20 <varname>a</varname>,=20 <varname>b</varname>, and=20 <varname>c</varname> multiplied together.)</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lerfu shift scope= </primary><secondary>exception for mathematical texts</secondary></indexter= m> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>mathematical texts</prima= ry><secondary>effect on lerfu shift scope</secondary></indexterm> There is = a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathem= atical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical= expressions, and vice versa.</para> =20 </section> - <section xml:id=3D"cll_chapter17-section12"> + <section xml:id=3D"section-acronyms"> <title>Acronyms acronym= definition An acronym is a name construc= ted of lerfu. English examples are=20 =20 DNA,=20 =20 NATO,=20 =20 CIA. In English, some of these are spelled out (like=20 =20 DNA and=20 @@ -1176,21 +1176,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. does not of course refer = to a bear (=20 le cribe or=20 lo cribe) but to something else, probably a p= erson, named=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can be used= as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the i= ndividual lerfu words. =20

Computerized character codes =20 BY selma'o se'e= lette= r encoding schemesapplication to lerfu words character enc= oding schemesapplication to lerfu words lerfu wordsusing computer encoding schemes with se'e charactersdefinition character codesdefinition Since the first application of computers to non-numerical inform= ation, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called=20 character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punct= uation marks (collectively called=20 =20 =20 characters). Historically, these character sets have on= ly covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. Inter= national efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can= represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's wr= iting systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using= the cmavo=20 =20 =20 se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventiona= lly followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, = and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized char= acter set: @@ -1224,21 +1224,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of bein= g-at-peace se'eand number base convention When a=20 se'e string appears in running discourse, some = metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or som= e other base, and which character set is in use. =20

List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

bu BU makes previous word into a lerfu word

ga'e =20 @@ -1328,30 +1328,30 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. foi FOI end compound lerfu word

LAU selma'ogrammar of following BY cmavo lerfu word cmavolist of auxiliary Note that LAU cmavo must be fo= llowed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where=20 equivalent means: either any Lojban word followed by=20 bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel)= , or a=20 tei ... foi compound cmavo.

Proposed lerfu words - introduction lerfu wordslist of proposednotation convention The following sections contain tables of proposed lerf= u words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu sy= stem. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabe= t name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-b= ased lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the sys= tem based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. proposed lerfu wo= rdsas working basis These tabl= es are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban= community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other = and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual u= sage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. P= robably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down= into a final, conventional form. =20 For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 - (for Lojban) and=20 - (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu). + (for Lojban) and=20 + (for non-Lojban Latin-alph= abet lerfu).

Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet =20 alpha @@ -1481,21 +1481,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu

Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet =20 aleph @@ -1834,21 +1834,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu

Proposed lerfu words for radio communication =20 Phonetic Alphabet= proposed lerfu words for ICAO Phonetic Alphabet<= secondary>proposed lerfu words for noisy environmentspropo= sed lerfu words for radio communicationproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for radio communication lerfu words<= /primary>proposed for noisy environments= There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement= , as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy sit= uations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as th= e=20 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet, and are used even in non-Englis= h-speaking countries. =20 This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed = Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of t= he English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings = of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus=20 carlis. bu, not=20 tcarlis. bu). diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 74ac11a..6a904f1 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -111,29 +111,29 @@ ) Elidable terminator for=20 or=20 . Used to terminate a number (string of numeric = cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immedia= tely follows. li re du li vu'u voboi re The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two. selma'o BU (=20 - ) + ) A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word rep= resenting a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a sym= bol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to singl= e-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters. .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu a, e, i, o, u, y. selma'o BY (=20 - ) + ) Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus vari= ous shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termi= nated by BOI. =20 .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. =20 A talks to B about IBM computers. =20 @@ -310,21 +310,21 @@ When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal = tag, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o=20 . Terminated by=20 . mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle I see you with eye the left-thing I see you with my left eye. selma'o FOI (=20 - ) + ) Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins w= ith=20 . Not an elidable terminator. tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent selma'o FUhA (=20 ) @@ -584,21 +584,21 @@ Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which= identify people or things by name. Similar to=20 =20 . May be terminated with=20 if followed by a description selbri. la kikeros. du la tulis. Cicero is Tully. selma'o LAU (=20 - ) + ) Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a sin= gle marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, e= tc.) =20 tau sy. .ibu [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D Si (chemical symbol for silicon) selma'o LAhE (=20 ) @@ -1014,21 +1014,21 @@ selma'o TAhE (=20 ) A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.). le verba ta'e klama le ckule =20 The child habitually goes to-the school. selma'o TEI (=20 - ) + ) Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 . tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent selma'o TEhU (=20 ) commit e75c9d3ce9e1509622231806e3e7ac60f99d62a6 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Sun Jan 16 11:03:12 2011 -0500 Chapter 17: tables and variablelists. diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 0e92546..efcd225 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -5,22 +5,22 @@ letter<= secondary>alphabet letteraldefinition BrownJames Cookeand "letteral" James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the wo= rd=20 =20 letteral (by analogy with=20 numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as=20 f or=20 z. A typical example of its use might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e1d1"/> - There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 - e in this sentence. + There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral=20 + e in this sentence. fourteen "e&= quot;s lerfudefinition (Don't forget= the one within quotation marks.) Using the word=20 letteral avoids confusion with=20 letter, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly= , there is a Lojban gismu for=20 letteral, namely=20 lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest o= f this chapter. alphabetLatin used for Lojban Latinalphabet of Lojban= Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English do= es, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, eve= ryone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold: =20 alphabetwords for letters inrationale<= /indexterm> First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to a= nd represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in Engl= ish and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphab= et to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in= spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalent= s of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow. =20 @@ -57,65 +57,112 @@ to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add=20 y; the lerfu word for=20 ' is=20 .y'y. lerfu wordstable of Lojban Therefore, the follo= wing table represents the basic Lojban alphabet: - =20 - - - ' a b c - d - e - .y'y. .abu by. cy. dy. .ebu=20 - - f g i j - k - l - - - fy. gy. .ibu jy. - ky. - ly. - - - m n o p - r - s - - - my. ny. .obu py. - ry. - sy. - - - t u v x - y - z - - - ty. .ubu vy. - xy. - .ybu zy. - + + + + '<= para>.y'y. + + + a<= para>.abu + + + b<= para>by. + + + c<= para>cy. + + + d<= para>dy. + + + e<= para>.ebu + + + f<= para>fy. + + + g<= para>gy. + + + i<= para>.ibu + + + j<= para>jy. + + + k<= para>ky. + + + l<= para>ly. + + + m<= para>my. + + + n<= para>ny. + + + o<= para>.obu + + + p<= para>py. + + + r<= para>ry. + + + s<= para>sy. + + + t<= para>ty. + + + u<= para>.ubu + + + v<= para>vy. + + + x<= para>xy. + + + y<= para>.ybu + + + z<= para>zy. + + BU selma'o bu bueffect on preceding word lerfu wordscompos= ed of compound cmavo lerfu wordscomposed of single cmavo lerfu= wordsvowel words contrasted with consonant words lerfu wo= rdsconsonant words contrasted with vowel words lerfu words= for vowelspause requirement before There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerf= u words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and=20 ' lerfu words are two syllabl= es and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Anoth= er fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that=20 by and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY,= as is=20 .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand,= are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All = of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sent= ence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when= =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1"/>

ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu t @@ -352,25 +399,31 @@ =20 .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been = made into a Lojbanized name by adding=20 s and then into a Lojban lerf= u word by adding=20 bu. Note that the pause after=20 .alfas. is still needed. letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-wo= rd + bu Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Lati= n letters=20 h,=20 q, and=20 w that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu w= ord with=20 bu attached. The following assignments have bee= n made: - - .y'y.bu h - ky.bu q - vy.bu w - + + + .y'y.buh + + + ky.buq<= /listitem> + + + vy.buw<= /listitem> + + quackexample As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1"/>

ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. @@ -380,57 +433,71 @@ c k

letters= symbol contrasted with sound for spelling letterssound contrasted with symbol for spelling Note th= at the fact that the letter=20 c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the = Lojban letter=20 c is irrelevant; we are spell= ing an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we= are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those l= etters. =20 A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: - - ty.bu =C3=BE (thorn) - dy.bu =C3=B0 (edh) - + + + ty.bu=C3=BE (t= horn) + + + dy.bu=C3=B0 (e= dh) + + However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thin= g, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with=20 bu added they become even longer: the worst-cas= e Greek lerfu word would be=20 .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two manda= tory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have se= parate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to ch= oose? letters= non-Lojbanrepresentation with language-shi= ft la= nguage shiftchoice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart langua= ge shifteffect on following words language shift= rationale for lettersnon-Lojbanrepresentation with consonant-word + bu, drawback The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to thos= e introduced in=20 . After the appearance of su= ch a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent th= e lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, fo= r example, the lerfu word=20 =20 ty would represent not Latin=20 t but Greek=20 tau. Why=20 tau? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterp= art of=20 t within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would = be all right to map=20 ty. to=20 phi or even=20 omega, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extr= emely hard to remember. buinteraction with language shift language shiftintera= ction with bu Where no obvious closest counterpart = exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu m= ay simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back= on a=20 bu form. Since a=20 bu form may mean different things in different = alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when=20 bu forms are in use. Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o= BY: - - lo'a Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet + + + lo'aLatin/Roma= n/Lojban alphabet + =20 =20 =20 - ge'o Greek alphabet + + ge'oGreek alph= abet + =20 - je'o Hebrew alphabet + + je'oHebrew alp= habet + =20 - jo'o Arabic alphabet + + jo'oArabic alp= habet + =20 - ru'o Cyrillic alphabet + + ru'oCyrillic a= lphabet + =20 - + LAU selma'o zai= langu= age shiftbased on name + bu <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">language shiftcompound language shiftformation of shift alphabet na= me C= yrillic alphabetlanguage shift word for Arabic alphabetlanguage shift word for Hebrew alphabetl= anguage shift word for Greek alphabetlanguage shift word f= or L= atin alphabetlanguage shift word for The cmavo=20 zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift wo= rds to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo w= ould typically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 =20 bu suffixed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2"/>

zai .devanagar. bu @@ -639,24 +706,24 @@ han=20 4 zi=20 4 is conventionally written with tw= o characters, but it may be spelled out as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1"/>

.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo - h - a - n 4=20 - z + h + a + n 4=20 + z i 4

han^{4}zi^{4} lerfu wor= ds with numeric digitsgrammar considerations numeric digit= s in lerfu wordsgrammar considerations The cmavo=20 vo is the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 =20 . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: @@ -691,21 +758,21 @@

lerfu words as pro-sumti lerfu stringdefinition So far, lerfu words have= only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several ot= her grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single l= erfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term=20 =20 lerfu string is introduced: it is short for=20 sequence of one or more lerfu words. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: - A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1"/>

.abu prami by. A loves B =20

@@ -733,38 +800,37 @@ le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani The dog is black. G goes to the house. (A less literal English translation would use=20 D for=20 dog instead.) Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings: - Alexander Pavlovitch = Kuznetsovexample Steven Mark Jonesexa= mple FIXME: TAG SPOT + Alexander Pavlovi= tch Kuznetsovexample Steven Mark Jonesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4"/>

- la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko - .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. + la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNI= ETsyf. rusko .i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban. Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznets= ov is-Russian. =20 =20 SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.

Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 ru'o.abupyky instead. lerfu stringsas pro-sumtifor multiple sumti separ= ated by boi What about - A gives BC<= secondary>example FIXME: TAG SPOT + A gives BCexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5"/>

.abu dunda by. cy. A gives B C

BOI selma'o boi= boieliding from lerfu strings Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 @@ -812,44 +878,41 @@ .abu. cu lerfu A is-a-letteral. LI selma'o me'o= lerfu= referring to with me'o the hea= rer would try to find what previous sumti=20 .abu refers to. The solution to this problem ma= kes use of the cmavo=20 me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string = into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 me'o is a special case of its mathematical use,= which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than= for its value. - "a" is lett= eralexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + "a" is = letteralexample FIXME: TAG SPO= T <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/>

me'o .abu cu lerfu The-expression=20 a is-a-letteral.

Now we can translate=20 into Lojban: - four "e"sexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + four "e"= ;sexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d3"/>

- dei vasru vo lerfu - po'u me'o .ebu - this-sentence contains four letterals - which-are the-expression=20 - e. + dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu + this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-express= ion e. This sentence contains four=20 e s.

Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 e lerfu rather than fourteen,= the translation is not a literal one - but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 @@ -861,28 +924,26 @@ lu .abu li'u cu lerfu [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral. (The single-word quote=20 zo cannot be used, because=20 .abu is a compound cmavo.) But=20 is false, because it says:<= /para> - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d5"/> - - The word=20 - .abu is a letteral - + The word=20 + .abu is a letteral word "abu&qu= ot;example which is not the ca= se; rather, the thing symbolized by the word=20 .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d6"/>

la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu =20 @@ -910,30 +971,30 @@ a =3D b + c

function name= lerfu string as lerfu stringas functi= on name A lerfu string as function name (preceded b= y=20 =20 ma'o of selma'o MAhO): - function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT + function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d2"/>

li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy. the-number y equals the number the-function f of x =20 - y =3D f(x) + y =3D f(x)

Note the=20 boi here to separate the lerfu strings=20 fy and=20 xy. selbrilerfu string as lerfu stringas selbri A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o = MOI): @@ -970,51 +1031,51 @@ Nthlyexample subscriptslerfu string as= lerfu stringas subscript A lerfu string as su= bscript (preceded by=20 xi of selma'o XI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d5"/>

xy. xi ky. - x sub k + x sub k

x sub kexample quantifierlerfu string as lerfu string<= /primary>as quantifier A lerfu string as= quantifier (enclosed in=20 vei ... ve'o parentheses): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d6"/>

vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu - (=20 - n) persons + (=20 + n) persons

vei= n peopleexample lerfu stringsas quantifiersavoiding interaction with sumti quantified The parentheses are required because=20 ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti,=20 ny. and=20 lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expressi= on other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantif= ier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo=20 ve'o, can usually be elided. lerfu juxtapositi= on interpretationcontrasted with mathematical interpre= tation lerfu stringinterpretationcon= trasted with mathematical interpretation All the exa= mples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in= accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu st= ring would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojba= n,=20 =20 .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication=20 =20 - a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c but is the variable=20 - abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employed t= hat made the value of a variable like=20 - abc, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values = of the variables=20 + a =C3=97 b =C3=97 c but is the variable=20 + abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employ= ed that made the value of a variable like=20 + abc, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the val= ues of the variables=20 a,=20 b, and=20 c multiplied together.) lerfu shift scope= exception for mathematical texts mathematical textseffect on lerfu shift scope There is = a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathem= atical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical= expressions, and vice versa. =20

Acronyms acronym= definition An acronym is a name construc= ted of lerfu. English examples are=20 =20 @@ -1036,83 +1097,59 @@ ess cue ell or=20 sequel. lerfu wordsas a basis for acronym names acronymsusing = names based on lerfu words In Lojban, a name can be= almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by = a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu wo= rds together, using=20 =20 ' wherever two vowels would c= ome together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1"/>

- la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. - .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl. - .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. - DNA. NATO. - =20 - =20 - CIA. SQL. - =20 - =20 - IBM. NYC. + la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la s= ykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

NYCexample SQLexample NATOexample IBMexample CIAexample DNAex= ample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final conson= ant There is no fixed convention for assigning the = final consonant. In=20 , the last consonant of the = lerfu string has been replicated into final position. buomitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words acronyms names based on l= erfu wordsomitting bu Some com= pression can be done by leaving out=20 bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compre= ssion is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without i= ntroducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2"/>

- la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. - .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. - .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. - DNA. NATO. - =20 - =20 - CIA. SQL. - =20 - =20 - IBM. NYC. + la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. = .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

In=20 , the final consonant=20 m stands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these a= cronyms. =20 "z" ins= tead of "'"in acronyms names based on lerfu = words acronyms names based on lerfu wordsusing "z&quo= t; instead of "'" in Another approach, wh= ich some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions= of the language that did not have a=20 ' character, is to use the co= nsonant=20 z instead of=20 ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3"/>

- la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. - .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. - .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. - DNA. NATO. - =20 - =20 - CIA. SQL. - =20 - =20 - IBM. NYC. + la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. = .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

me<= /indexterm> acronymsas lerfu strings using "me" = lerfu stringsas acronyms using "me" One more alt= ernative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed = with=20 me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4"/> @@ -1132,50 +1169,47 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d5"/>

la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bear writes. Bear is a writer.

- does not of course refer to= a bear (=20 - le cribe or=20 - lo cribe) but to something else, probably a per= son, named=20 - Bear. Similarly,=20 + does not of course refer = to a bear (=20 + le cribe or=20 + lo cribe) but to something else, probably a p= erson, named=20 + Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can be used= as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the i= ndividual lerfu words. =20

- me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. - loi merko rupnu - The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII - =20 - for-the-mass-of American currency-units. - The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.= + me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu + The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII for-the= -mass-of American currency-units. + The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars. =20 =20 $ represents American dollars. =20

$ American dollars ASCIIapplication to lerfu words Understa= nding=20 depends on knowing the valu= e in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the=20 =20 @@ -1306,197 +1340,714 @@ lerfu wordslist of proposednotation convention The following sections contain tables of proposed lerf= u words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu sy= stem. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabe= t name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-b= ased lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the sys= tem based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word. proposed lerfu wo= rdsas working basis These tabl= es are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban= community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other = and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual u= sage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. P= robably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down= into a final, conventional form. =20 For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see=20 (for Lojban) and=20 (for non-Lojban Latin-alpha= bet lerfu).

Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet =20 - - alpha .alfas. bu .abu=20 + + + + + + + + alpha + .alfas. bu + .abu + =20 - beta .betas. bu by - gamma .gamas. bu gy - delta .deltas. bu dy - epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu - zeta .zetas. bu zy - eta .etas. bu .e'ebu - theta .tetas. bu ty. bu - iota .iotas. bu .ibu - kappa .kapas. bu ky - lambda .lymdas. bu ly - mu .mus. bu my - nu .nus. bu ny - xi .ksis. bu ksis. bu - omicron .Omikron. bu .obu - pi .pis. bu py - rho .ros. bu ry - sigma .sigmas. bu sy - tau .taus. bu ty - upsilon .Upsilon. bu .ubu - phi .fis. bu py. bu - chi .xis. bu ky. bu - psi .psis. bu psis. bu - omega .omegas. bu .o'obu - rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y - smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu - + + beta + .betas. bu + by + + + gamma + .gamas. bu + gy + + + delta + .deltas. bu + dy + + + epsilon + .Epsilon. bu + .ebu + + + zeta + .zetas. bu + zy + + + eta + .etas. bu + .e'ebu + + + theta + .tetas. bu + ty. bu + + + iota + .iotas. bu + .ibu + + + kappa + .kapas. bu + ky + + + lambda + .lymdas. bu + ly + + + mu + .mus. bu + my + + + nu + .nus. bu + ny + + + xi + .ksis. bu + ksis. bu + + + omicron + .Omikron. bu + .obu + + + pi + .pis. bu + py + + + rho + .ros. bu + ry + + + sigma + .sigmas. bu + sy + + + tau + .taus. bu + ty + + + upsilon + .Upsilon. bu + .ubu + + + phi + .fis. bu + py. bu + + + chi + .xis. bu + ky. bu + + + psi + .psis. bu + psis. bu + + + omega + .omegas. bu + .o'obu + + + rough + .dasei,as. bu + .y'y + + + smooth + .psiles. bu + xutla bu + + + +

Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet =20 Cyrillic alphabet= proposed lerfu words for lerfu wordsp= roposed for Cyrillic alphabet The second column in = this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church = Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages req= uire more letters which can be devised as needed. - - a .azys. bu .abu=20 - b .bukys. bu by - v .vedis. bu vy - g .glagolis. bu gy - d .dobros. bu dy - e .iestys. bu .ebu - zh .jivet. bu jy - z .zemlias. bu zy - i .ije,is. bu .ibu - short i .itord. bu .itord. bu - k .kakos. bu ky - l .liudi,ies. bu ly - m .myslites. bu my - n .naciys. bu ny - o .onys. bu .obu - p .pokois. bu py - r .riytsis. bu ry - s .slovos. bu sy - t .tyvriydos. bu ty - u .ukys. bu .ubu - f .friytys. bu fy - kh .xerys. bu xy - ts .tsis. bu tsys. bu - ch .tcriyviys. bu tcys. bu - sh .cas. bu cy - shch .ctas. bu ctcys. bu - hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu - yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu - soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu - reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu - yu .ius. bu .iubu - ya .ias. bu .iabu - + + + + + + + + a + .azys. bu + .abu + + + b + .bukys. bu + by + + + v + .vedis. bu + vy + + + g + .glagolis. bu + gy + + + d + .dobros. bu + dy + + + e + .iestys. bu + .ebu + + + zh + .jivet. bu + jy + + + z + .zemlias. bu + zy + + + i + .ije,is. bu + .ibu + + + short i + .itord. bu + .itord. bu + + + k + .kakos. bu + ky + + + l + .liudi,ies. bu + ly + + + m + .myslites. bu + my + + + n + .naciys. bu + ny + + + o + .onys. bu + .obu + + + p + .pokois. bu + py + + + r + .riytsis. bu + ry + + + s + .slovos. bu + sy + + + t + .tyvriydos. bu + ty + + + u + .ukys. bu + .ubu + + + f + .friytys. bu + fy + + + kh + .xerys. bu + xy + + + ts + .tsis. bu + tsys. bu + + + ch + .tcriyviys. bu + tcys. bu + + + sh + .cas. bu + cy + + + shch + .ctas. bu + ctcys. bu + + + hard sign + .ier. bu + jdari bu + + + yeri + .ierys. bu + .y.bu + + + soft sign + .ieriys. bu + ranti bu + + + reversed e + .ecarn. bu + .ecarn. bu + + + yu + .ius. bu + .iubu + + + ya + .ias. bu + .iabu + + + +

Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet =20 - - aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu=20 - bet .bet. bu by - gimel .gimel. bu gy - daled .daled. bu dy - he .xex. bu .y'y - vav .vav. bu vy - zayin .zai,in. bu zy + + + + + + + + aleph + .alef. bu + .alef. bu + + + bet + .bet. bu + by + + + gimel + .gimel. bu + gy + + + daled + .daled. bu + dy + + + he + .xex. bu + .y'y + + + vav + .vav. bu + vy + + + zayin + .zai,in. bu + zy + =20 - khet .xet. bu xy. bu - tet .tet. bu ty. bu - yud .iud. bu .iud. bu - kaf .kaf. bu ky - lamed .LYmed. bu ly - mem .mem. bu my - nun .nun. bu ny - samekh .samex. bu samex. bu - ayin .ai,in. bu .ai,in bu - pe .pex. bu py - tzadi .tsadik. bu tsadik. bu - quf .kuf. bu ky. bu - resh .rec. bu ry - shin .cin. bu cy - sin .sin. bu sy - taf .taf. bu ty. - dagesh .daGEC. bu daGEC. bu - hiriq .xirik. bu .ibu - tzeirekh .tseirex. bu .eibu - segol .seGOL. bu .ebu - qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu - qamatz .kamats. bu .abu - patach .patax. bu .a'abu - sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu - kholem .xolem. bu .obu - shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu - + + khet + .xet. bu + xy. bu + + + tet + .tet. bu + ty. bu + + + yud + .iud. bu + .iud. bu + + + kaf + .kaf. bu + ky + + + lamed + .LYmed. bu + ly + + + mem + .mem. bu + my + + + nun + .nun. bu + ny + + + samekh + .samex. bu + samex. bu + + + ayin + .ai,in. bu + .ai,in bu + + + pe + .pex. bu + py + + + tzadi + .tsadik. bu + tsadik. bu + + + quf + .kuf. bu + ky. bu + + + resh + .rec. bu + ry + + + shin + .cin. bu + cy + + + sin + .sin. bu + sy + + + taf + .taf. bu + ty. + + + dagesh + .daGEC. bu + daGEC. bu + + + hiriq + .xirik. bu + .ibu + + + tzeirekh + .tseirex. bu + .eibu + + + segol + .seGOL. bu + .ebu + + + qubbutz + .kubuts. bu + .ubu + + + qamatz + .kamats. bu + .abu + + + patach + .patax. bu + .a'abu + + + sheva + .cyVAS. bu + .y.bu + + + kholem + .xolem. bu + .obu + + + shuruq + .curuk. bu + .u'ubu + + + +

Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters= =20 =20 multiple letters<= /primary>proposed lerfu words for diacritic marksproposed lerfu words for accent marksproposed lerfu word= s for lerfu wordsproposed for multiple letters= lerfu wordsproposed for diacritic marks lerfu wordsp= roposed for accent marks This list is intended to b= e suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish=20 dark l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.<= /para> - - acute .akut. bu=20 - or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu] - grave .grav. bu - or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu] - circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu - - or .midgal. bu [midju galtu] - tilde .tildes. bu + + + + + + + + acute + .akut. bu or .prity= gal. bu[pritu galtu] + + + grave + .grav. bu or .zulga= l. bu[zunle galtu= ] + + + circumflex + .cirkumfleks. bu or = .midgal. bu[midju galtu] + + + tilde + .tildes. bu + =20 - macron .makron. bu + + macron + .makron. bu + =20 - breve .brevis. bu - over-dot .gapmoc. bu [gapru mokca] + + breve + .brevis. bu + + + over-dot + .gapmoc. bu[gapru mokca] + =20 - umlaut/trema .relmoc. bu [re mokca] + + umlaut/trema + .relmoc. bu[re mokca] + =20 - over-ring .gapyjin. bu [gapru djine] + + over-ring + .gapyjin. bu[gapru djine] + =20 - cedilla .seDIlys. bu + + cedilla + .seDIlys. bu + =20 - double-acute .re'akut. bu [re akut.] - ogonek .ogoniek. bu - hacek .xatcek. bu - ligatured fi tei fy. ibu foi + + double-acute + .re'akut. bu [re akut.] + + + ogonek + .ogoniek. bu + + + hacek + .xatcek. bu + + + ligatured fi fi + tei fy. ibu foi + =20 - Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi - Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi + + Danish/Latin ae ae + tei .abu .ebu foi + + + Dutch ij ij + tei .ibu jy. foi + =20 - German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi - + + German es-zed es-zed + tei sy. zy. foi + + + +

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