Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tanru tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 091c66a..73d8192 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1271,21 +1271,21 @@ I [inchoative] fight. I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. selma'o ZEI () =20 A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo. ta xy. zei kantu kacma - That is-an-(X - ray) camera. + That is-an-(X =E2=80=93 ray) camera. That is an X-ray camera. selma'o ZEhA () =20 A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short). mi puze'a citka I [past] [short interval] eat. diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index 7b95525..e274759 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,25 +1,25 @@ Formal Grammars

YACC Grammar of Lojban The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojb= an. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to des= cribe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This = parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is = in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a mo= re human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is offi= cial.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for e= ach selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it. =20 /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. =20 - Step 1 - Lexing + Step 1 =E2=80=93 Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failure= s of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a tex= t file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules. The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm. =20 - Step 2 - Filtering + Step 2 =E2=80=93 Filtering From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict: If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) = is identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimite= d with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an ope= ning delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimit= er recurs=20 after a pause, as grammatically a single toke= n (labelled =E2=80=99=20 =E2=80=99 in this grammar). There = is no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the = closing delimiter. If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is= identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99= =20 =E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by= its normal grammatical function. @@ -34,42 +34,42 @@ If the word si (selma'o SI) is identi= fied, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has be= en condensed into a single token by one of the above rules). If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what= follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may r= eceive further definition later.) If the word su (selma'o SU) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first prece= ding token word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. How= ever, if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the = beginning of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginni= ng of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said somethi= ng, two adjacent uses of su are required to erase th= e entire conversation. - Step 3 - Termination + Step 3 =E2=80=93 Termination If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it. - Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens + Step 4 =E2=80=93 Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed). - Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where the= re may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRI= VLA. + Token sequences of the form any =E2=80=93 (ZEI =E2=80=93 any= ) ..., where there may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single toke= n of selma'o BRIVLA. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If = they occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors). Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabe= l the previous token as selma'o BY. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI= or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and C= AI into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted = following any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word=E2=80= =99s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpr= etation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text= are explicitly handled by the grammar. - Step 5 - Insertion of Lexer Lexemes + Step 5 =E2=80=93 Insertion of Lexer Lexemes Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical= function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YA= CC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings= of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either are replaced by a single specified =E2=80=99lexer token=E2= =80=99 for step 6, or the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to = identify it uniquely. The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generat= ion of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The str= ings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals= labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with t= he lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the = language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been perform= ed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented ou= t, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer token= s=20 @@ -98,21 +98,21 @@ F P R T S Y L Q . This ensures that the longest rules will be processed first; a PA+MA= I will not be seen as a PA with a dangling MAI at the end, for example. - Step 6 - YACC Parsing + Step 6 =E2=80=93 YACC Parsing YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance w= ith the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099= under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, an= d comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of= lexer tokens numbered from 900 up. */ %token=20 A_501 = /* eks; basic afterthought logical connectives */ %token=20 BAI_502 = /* modal operators */ %token=20 @@ -416,21 +416,21 @@ and relative clauses */ %token=20 XI_618 = /* subscripting operator */ %token=20 Y_619 = /* hesitation */ =20 %token=20 - ZAhO_621 = /* event properties - inchoative, etc. */ + ZAhO_621 = /* event properties =E2=80=93 inchoative, etc. */ %token=20 ZEhA_622 = /* time interval size tense */ =20 %token=20 ZEI_623 = /* lujvo glue */ %token=20 ZI_624 = /* time distance tense */ @@ -1630,31 +1630,31 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 operand_C_3= 85 : =20 | =20 - /* lerfu string as operand - classic math variable */ + /* lerfu string as operand =E2=80=93 classic math variable */ | =20 - /* quantifies a bridi - inverse of -MOI */ + /* quantifies a bridi =E2=80=93 inverse of -MOI */ | =20 - /* quantifies a sumti - inverse of LI */ + /* quantifies a sumti =E2=80=93 inverse of LI */ | =20 | =20 | =20 @@ -1946,21 +1946,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ ; =20 /* =E2=80=99words=E2=80=99 may be any Lojban words, with no claim of gramm= aticality; the preparser will not lex the individual words per their normal selma'o; used to quote ungrammatical Lojban, equivalent to the * or ? writing convention for such text. */ =20 /* The preparser needs one bit of sophistication for this rule. A - quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings - this is + quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings =E2=80=93 = this is only a problem for a LOhU quote itself, since the LEhU clossing this quote would otherwise close the outer quotes, which is incorrect. For this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since thi= s is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser). Use ZO to mark any nested quotation LOhU. The preparser then will absorb it by the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU. This is obviously not the standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a sumti. But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway= , it doesn=E2=80=99t matter. */ =20 @@ -3090,21 +3090,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ /* space defaults to time-space reference space */ =20 | =20 /* can include time if specified with VIhA; otherwise time defaults to = the time-space reference time */ =20 | =20 - /* time and space - If=20 + /* time and space =E2=80=93 If=20 is marked with VIhA for space-time the tense may be self-contradictory */ /* interval prop before space_time is for time distribution */ | =20 ; =20 lexer_P_980= : =20 diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index b6168e6..bb9baf5 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -616,21 +616,21 @@ y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized n= ames. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 =20 - .y'y. is so used - it is the Lojban name of the= apostrophe letter (see=20 + .y'y. is so used =E2=80=93 it is the Lojban nam= e of the apostrophe letter (see=20 ). vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> meiin. mei,in. @@ -1208,21 +1208,21 @@ stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 y or which contain a syllabic= consonant (=20 =20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 r) are never counted. (The Lo= jban term for penultimate stress is=20 da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 [=C9=AA], are not counted. - stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress - primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level,= so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables= containing=20 + stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress =E2=80=93 primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowes= t level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for s= yllables containing=20 y, a syllabic consonant, or a= buffer vowel. namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on an= y syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the s= yllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban stru= ctural words (called=20 cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none = at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just precedin= g a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run t= ogether. stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> @@ -1315,38 +1315,38 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja - These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener -= the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in r= ecognizing the word. + These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener = =E2=80=93 the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no im= port in recognizing the word. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>syllabication</prima= ry><secondary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexter= m> <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13"/> e'u bridi e'u BRI,di E'u BRI,di e'U.BRI,di In=20 ,=20 e'u is a cmavo and=20 bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pron= unciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 - e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. T= he third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable = of the cmavo, requires that - since the following word is a brivla - the tw= o words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases: + e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. T= he third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable = of the cmavo, requires that =E2=80=93 since the following word is a brivla = =E2=80=93 the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the followin= g two cases: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14"/> le re nobli prenu le re NObli PREnu diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index d4b6789..9e54728 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -112,21 +112,21 @@ C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is = permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voic= ed (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is = one of certain specified forbidden pairs. C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. - brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes - parts of speech - in contrast to the eight that are traditiona= l in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each= of these classes has uniquely identifying properties - an arrangement of l= etters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as = a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and = as belonging to a specific word-class. + brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes =E2=80=93 parts of speech =E2=80=93 in contrast to the eight tha= t are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla,= and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties =E2= =80=93 an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and un= ambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon eithe= r reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. =20 =20 They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 =20 and,=20 if,=20 the and=20 to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 come,=20 red,=20 @@ -346,21 +346,21 @@ This would probably be the most common usage.

brivla adverbs= brivla as Lojban equivalents verbsbrivla as Loj= ban equivalents adjectivesbrivla as Lojban equivalents nounsbrivla as Lojban equivalents brivladefi= nition Predicate words, called=20 brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry m= ost of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivale= nt of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part o= f speech. =20 =20 =20 =20 - subtypes of words= types= and subtypes of words Every brivla belongs to one of= three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morpholog= y, of the word - all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sig= ht or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Kno= wing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significa= nt clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never = heard the word before. + subtypes of words= types= and subtypes of words Every brivla belongs to one of= three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morpholog= y, of the word =E2=80=93 all words of a particular structure can be assigne= d by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subt= ype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, s= ignificant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you hav= e never heard the word before. =20 flexible vocabula= ry The same principle allows you, when speaking or wr= iting, to invent new brivla for new concepts=20 on the fly; yet it offers people that you are trying to= communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lo= jban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely. =20 brivla<= secondary>properties of All brivla have the followi= ng properties: always end in a vowel; @@ -514,21 +514,21 @@ ninmu woman A small number of gismu were formed differently; see=20 for a list.

lujvo modifying brivla = (see also seltau) seltaucompared with English adverb seltaucompared with English adjective tanruexpla= nation of When specifying a concept that is not fou= nd among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems to= o general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concep= t as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of=20 - metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the = broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or sp= ecific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English ad= verbs or adjectives. For example, + metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be = used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. T= his modification is usually restrictive =E2=80=93 the modifying brivla redu= ces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concret= e, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like En= glish adverbs or adjectives. For example, =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e5d1"/>

skami pilno

@@ -670,21 +670,21 @@ r making up the=20 rs consonant pair needed to= make the word a brivla. Without the=20 r, the word would break up in= to=20 soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no r= elation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in= this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended. =20 Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is c= learly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary= . lujvoinvention of Most important, it is possibl= e to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new = or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban wo= rd. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is = a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.

rafsi - rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever th= e reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most plea= sing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm w= hich is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms w= ill be the standard dictionary form (see=20 + rafsiselection considerations in making lujvo = gismulev= el of uniqueness of rafsi relating to rafsilevel of unique= ness of relation to gismu rafsimultiplicity of for single = gismu rafsiuniqueness in gismu referent of rafsiuse of Every gismu has from two to five rafs= i, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu.= It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo =E2=80=93 whic= hever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is m= ost pleasing =E2=80=93 subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a sco= ring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and leg= al lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see=20 ). unreduced lujvodefinition long rafsidefinition 4-letter ra= fsidefinition 5-letter rafsidefinitio= n gi= smubasic rafsi for lujvounreduced rafsilong rafsiforms of Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself= (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final = vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are re= presented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called=20 the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called=20 the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these r= afsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a = valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, k= nown collectively as=20 =20 long rafsi, they are called=20 =20 unreduced lujvo. =20 Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are: @@ -758,21 +758,21 @@ zmadu, corresponding in general to English comp= arative adjectives ending in=20 =20 -er such as=20 whiter (Lojban=20 labmau). On the other hand,=20 bakri (=20 chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo. There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form r= afsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form = and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of shor= t rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fa= irly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-for= m rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at th= e end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assi= gnment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu. =20 rafsirationale for assignments of rafsi space The int= ention was to use the available=20 - rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = - in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used luj= vo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while kee= ping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For = this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the = five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited s= et of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven pos= sible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three c= an be used, as explained above). + rafsi space- the set of all possible short rafsi forms = =E2=80=93 in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-= used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), w= hile keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gis= mu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from am= ong the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a l= imited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most s= even possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most= three can be used, as explained above). =20 =20 =20 rafsipossible forms for construction of Here ar= e the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form = CVC/CV, like sakli. The digits in the second column = represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi. @@ -935,21 +935,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d11"/> lerste from lerfu liste letter list or a list of letters - lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cm= avo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or = more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused= with gismu. + lujvorecognizing lujvo formnumber of letters in lujvo form= consonant cluster requirement in lujvo formfinal letter of lujvosummary of form characteristics= As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as th= e final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels= . As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the fir= st five letters =E2=80=93 this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for com= pound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have= two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be = confused with gismu. lujvo formrequirements for hyphen insertion in = hyphen letterdefinition hyphensuse of Whe= n attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen lett= er. In Lojban, the term=20 =20 hyphen always refers to a letter, either the vowel=20 y or one of the consonants=20 r and=20 n. (The letter=20 l can also be a hyphen, but i= s not used as one in lujvo.) lujvo formrequirements for y-hyphen insertion in The=20 y-hyphen is used after a CVC-= form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impe= rmissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into= two or more words (either cmavo or gismu). lujvoand consonant pairs Thus, the tanru=20 @@ -1118,21 +1118,21 @@ =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 3 borrowings borrowingsStage 3 borrowing= sfu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowe= d must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then u= sually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to = ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart. borrowingsmost common form for fu'ivlauniqueness of me= aning in rafsias fu'ivla categorizer fu'ivla categorizer The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla= ; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other langua= ges would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assig= ned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to = have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common = kind of fu'ivla. =20 =20 fu'ivla= as Stage 4 borrowings borrowingsStage 4 borrowing= sfu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and a= re used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must b= e made as short as possible. (See=20 for a proposal concerning St= age 4 fu'ivla.) fu'ivla= form of fu'ivlaconstruction of The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu= and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word = from a single non-Lojban language. The word is=20 borrowed (actually=20 copied, hence the Lojban tanru=20 - fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojban= ized - the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and mo= difications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'i= vla-form word. All fu'ivla: + fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojban= ized =E2=80=93 the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalen= t and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Loj= ban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla: fu'ivlainitial consonant cluster in fu'ivlarules f= or formation of must contain a consonant cluster in= the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the be= ginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longe= r cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a pe= rmissible initial consonant pair:=20 spraile is acceptable, but not=20 ktraile or=20 trkaile; must end in one or more vowels; @@ -1304,21 +1304,21 @@ letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lernd= jamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj". =20 fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing fu'ivla form fu'ivladisambiguation of The use of the prefix helps d= istinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending= on the field. As it happens,=20 spageti and=20 kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but=20 xaceru looks like a compound cm= avo, and=20 kobra like a gismu. fu'ivla categoriz= erfor distinguishing specialized meanings<= /indexterm> For another example,=20 integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But= the Lojban fu'ivla=20 =20 - integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, do= es not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even = one with an English-speaking background; its source - the English word=20 + integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, do= es not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even = one with an English-speaking background; its source =E2=80=93 the English w= ord=20 integral- has various other specialized meanings in oth= er fields. =20 Left uncontrolled,=20 integrale almost certainly would eventually com= e to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English asso= ciates with=20 integral, with only the context to indicate (possibly) = that the mathematical term is meant. =20 <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integrala= rchitectural conceptexample <= indexterm type=3D"example-imported">integralm= athematical conceptexample The= prefix method would render the mathematical concept as=20 cmacrntegrale, if the=20 i of=20 integrale is removed, or something like=20 @@ -1926,22 +1926,22 @@

Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 - is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary= .) - linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at= least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning= . Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the se= mantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is th= e most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguis= tic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that s= eems the most useful one may change. + is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo =E2=80=93 the version which would be entered into a di= ctionary.) + linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous =E2=80=93 it has several possible meanings. A lujv= o, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single= meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area o= f the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chos= en is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of= linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concep= t that seems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'euse to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeaning d= rift of You must also be aware of the possibility o= f some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for post= erity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is = in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a diff= erent place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily ba= d. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a mea= ning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dic= tionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 za'e (explained in=20 =20 ) before a newly coi= ned lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. =20 @@ -1994,22 +1994,22 @@ Put a=20 y-hyphen between the cons= onants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between= rafsi. tosmabru test= Put a=20 y-hyphen after any 4-lett= er rafsi form. - Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - with th= e pattern=20 - CVC ... CVC + X - for=20 + Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi =E2=80=93= with the pattern=20 + CVC ... CVC + X =E2=80=93 for=20 tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long= rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant clu= ster, or is something which has caused a=20 y-hyphen to be installed betw= een the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules. The test is as follows: Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in = case there are no y-hyphens. These consonant pairs are called "joints=E2=80=9D. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the tr= ial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word = will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed. diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index d19c8ea..69c9bb2 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -327,21 +327,21 @@ ta cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-small girl school. tanrudefault left-grouping of left-grouping ruledefin= ition of The rules of Lojban do not leave this sent= ence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with=20 . The choice made by the lan= guage designers is to say that=20 means the same as=20 . This is true no matter wha= t three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This= rule is called the=20 - left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common - though not universal - in other contexts in = Lojban. + left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common =E2=80=93 though not universal =E2=80=93 in ot= her contexts in Lojban. Another way to express the English meaning of=20 and=20 , using parentheses to mark = grouping, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d7"/>

ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). @@ -390,22 +390,22 @@

In=20 , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 mutce bo barda and tertau=20 gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once ag= ain that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban = tanru: the sense in which the=20 dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 =20 - to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g - it first appeared in Quine's book=20 - Word and Object (1960) - it is actually a mediocr= e example because of the ambiguity of English=20 + to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g =E2=80=93 it first appeared in Quine's book=20 + Word and Object (1960) =E2=80=93 it is actually a= mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English=20 pretty; it can mean=20 beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 very. Lojban=20 melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it mean= s only=20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/> @@ -720,21 +720,21 @@

ta blanu je zdani that is-blue and is-a-house

definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 - blanu je zdani has no such implication - the bl= ueness of a=20 + blanu je zdani has no such implication =E2=80= =93 the blueness of a=20 blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= With the addition of=20 je, many more versions of=20 pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 =20 for a complete lis= t. A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: @@ -1271,21 +1271,21 @@ =20 </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjVx"/> is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand.</para> <para> Note that in Lojban=20 <quote>trying to go</quote> is expressed using=20 <jbophrase>troci</jbophrase> as the tertau. The reason is that=20 <quote>trying to go</quote> is a=20 <quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a=20 - <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going - if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.</para> + <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going =E2=80=93 if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.= </para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</p= rimary><secondary>effect on sumti after the selbri</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><sec= ondary>effect on sumti before the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>unfilled places of inverted tanru</pri= mary></indexterm> Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru f= ill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordina= ry way. In=20 =20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjVx"/>,=20 <jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> fills the x1 place of=20 <jbophrase>troci co klama</jbophrase>, which is the x1 place of=20 <jbophrase>troci</jbophrase>. The other places of the selbri remain un= filled. The trailing sumti=20 <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>le zdani</jbophrase> do not occupy selbri places, despite a= ppearances.</para> <para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>) for referring to individu= al sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 @@ -1965,21 +1965,21 @@ <para>However, if we place a=20 <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjyW"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjyy"/>, we get different results:<= /para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjyz" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8"/>

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci - I ( (non- quickly) =E2=80=93 (walking using the arms) and s= lowly) go-to the market. + I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quic= kly, and also slowly.

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. @@ -3722,21 +3722,21 @@ The logical connective=20 je is associative: that is,=20 A and (B and C) is the same as=20 (A and B) and C. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, , , , , and all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 =20 je were replaced by=20 naja or=20 jo or most of the other logical connectives, th= e meanings would become distinct. - It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent onl= y one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence. + It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive =E2=80=93 they repre= sent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/>

melbi cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school school for girls who are beautifully small

diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index caef939..ffce490 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -424,21 +424,21 @@ The lion dwells in Africa. Lions dwell in Africa.

loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 lei and=20 loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individu= als which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of al= l those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 - to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa - they live in various zoos around the world.= On the other hand,=20 + to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa =E2=80=93 they live in various zoos around th= e world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/>

loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. The English dwell in Africa. @@ -509,21 +509,21 @@ LE the set of those which really are

la'i LA the set of those named

masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. - la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which - the superset =E2=80=93 contains all the = elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors=20 + la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which =E2=80=93 the superset =E2=80=93 contains = all the elements of the other =E2=80=93 the subset). The set descriptors=20 =20 =20 =20 le'i,=20 lo'i and=20 la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors= =20 lei,=20 loi, and=20 lai except that normally we talk of the whole o= f a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 lo,=20 @@ -555,41 +555,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. There are a lot of rats.

- The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge - it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some= of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats b= rown - brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess. + The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge =E2=80=93 it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, si= nce some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set o= f rats brown =E2=80=93 brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets pos= sess. =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 fadni is:

x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 am= ong the members of set x3

Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense fo= r an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typic= al of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place mu= st be filled with a set: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/>

mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. I am a typical Lojban user. =20

- Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or = interests, or something else. If=20 + Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical =E2=80=93 whether in language knowledge, or = age, or interests, or something else. If=20 lo'i were changed to=20 lo in=20 , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.

Descriptors for typical objects =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -701,21 +701,21 @@ . For the purposes of this chapter, a= simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the sim= ple Lojban numbers=20 pa,=20 re,=20 ci,=20 vo, and=20 mu, meaning=20 one,=20 two,=20 three,=20 four,=20 - five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the partic= ular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later= in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 + five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it =E2=80=93 which one or two depends on th= e particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifie= rs later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 piro and=20 pisu'o, are explained in=20 =20 .) Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1"/>

@@ -890,21 +890,21 @@

le ci gerku cu blabi The three dogs are-white. The three dogs are white.

outer quantifier<= /primary>implicit on descriptors inner quantifierimplicit on descriptors descriptorsimplicit quantifiers = for There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors = specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are= . They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent,= not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table list= s the implicit values: =20 - + @@ -988,31 +988,31 @@ =20 le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 =20 lo,=20 loi,=20 lo'i, and=20 lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of= =20 ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an imp= licit inner quantifier of=20 =20 su'o. - le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one. + le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind =E2=80=93 but never less than one. massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 piro, the whole of it. plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 pi? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal poin= t. Just as=20 =20 pimu means=20 .5, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five= tenths of a thing,=20 - piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness= =E2=80=93 the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,=20 + piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness= =E2=80=93 the entirety =E2=80=93 of a thing. Similarly,=20 pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at lea= st one part of a thing, i.e. some of it. =20 portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 =20 pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 half of the men; saying=20 pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 lu'a in=20 =20 @@ -1101,21 +1101,21 @@ indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 ku may still be used. The name=20 indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 =20 =20 lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced int= o the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural = languages. inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatica= l), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 - *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is als= o ungrammatical -=20 + *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is als= o ungrammatical =E2=80=93=20 re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 23 dogs are white). Note:=20 also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 =20 =20 su'o ci cutci; another version of that example = using an explicit=20 lo would be: @@ -1127,21 +1127,21 @@ <en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-sumti-based-descriptions"> <title>sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. =20 - sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it ca= nnot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required. + sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required =E2=80= =93 it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not require= d. =20 A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>the two of you</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/>

re do cu nanmu Two-of you are-men. diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index b197d62..ee488ac 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -1041,21 +1041,21 @@ and eliminates any possibil= ity of=20 ko'a being interpreted by the listener as refer= ring to Alice.

go'u go'a answersgo'i for yes/no questions questionsanswer= ing with go'i go'ias affirmative answer to yes/no question= go'= i-series pro-bridieffect of sumti of referent bridi on= go'= i-series pro-bridias main-bridi anaphora only go'i-series = pro-bridieffect of sub-clauses on go'i-series pro-bridireferent of go'i-series pro-bridicompare= d with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">go'i-series pro-bridi ri-series pro-= sumti = anaphorapro-bridi go'i-series as anaphorapro-sumti ri-series as pronounsas anaphora= anaphoradefinition The cmavo=20 go'i,=20 go'a, and=20 =20 go'u follow exactly the same rules as=20 =20 ri,=20 ra, and=20 - ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefo= re repeat bridi, not sumti - specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi t= hat are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractio= ns, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the g= o'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 + ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefo= re repeat bridi, not sumti =E2=80=93 specifically, main sentence bridi. Any= bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or ab= stractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo = of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 go'i by itself convenient for answering a quest= ion affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8"/>

xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i [True-false?] The-word=20 John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. Is John your name? Yes. diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index 9cbb32a..1c01632 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -556,22 +556,22 @@ le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu My friend associated-with the cup is small. My friend, the one with the cup, is small.

cup's friendexample friend's cupexample=20 is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 - possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive -=20 - the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense - but Lojb= an has no trouble doing so. + possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive =E2=80=93=20 + the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense =E2=80=93 = but Lojban has no trouble doing so. =20 incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 ne and=20 no'u stand to=20 =20 pe and=20 po'u, respectively, as=20 noi does to=20 poi- they provide incidental information: @@ -949,21 +949,21 @@ tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inne= r quantifier is=20 ro (meaning=20 all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 su'o (meaning=20 at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= =20 In=20 , the relative clause descri= bed the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, wh= o are white, are going. But in=20 , the relative clause actual= ly describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that = it ends up meaning=20 - First take all persons - by the way, they're all white.= But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is f= alse. + First take all persons =E2=80=93 by the way, they're all white<= /quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made h= ere is false. =20 relative clauses = on losyntax suggestion The saf= e strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 ku when attaching a=20 noi relative clause to a=20 lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming= far too much. relative clauses = and namesplacement considerations relative clauseson names relative clausesas part of name relative= clausesimpact of la on placement When the descriptor is=20 la, indicating that what follows is a selbri us= ed for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different sig= nificance. A relative clause inside the=20 ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reck= oned part of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 ku is not. Therefore, diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 74953d9..1f3f14b 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -765,21 +765,21 @@ BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban= sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided= in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 sepi'o. =20 SE selma'o BAI = selma'o conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagssh= ort forms as BAI cmavo fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI c= mavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs Here=20 se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning = of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of= =20 =20 fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag ba= sed on=20 se pilno rather than=20 - pilno- the tool, not the tool user - the gramma= r allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 + pilno- the tool, not the tool user =E2=80=93 th= e grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be rewritten = as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/>

mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla =20 I see you with-tool: the left eye I see you using my left eye. @@ -1208,22 +1208,22 @@ I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.

means the same as: nu'u nu'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d6"/>

- nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'= u dunda - [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money,= me [end] gives. + nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'= u dunda + [start] because John, the-mass-of money, me; I, the book, J= ohn [end] gives.

Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. bridi-tail modal = connection modal bridi-tail connection modal connection of selbriu= sing bridi-tail modal connection There is no modal = connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri ca= n be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail co= nstruct is more fully explained in=20 =20 , but es= sentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 is suitable for bridi-tail = connection, and could be shortened to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7"/> @@ -1239,21 +1239,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8"/>

mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book.

where=20 le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 - vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails -= see=20 + vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails = =E2=80=93 see=20 for mor= e explanations. shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 can be further rearranged t= o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/>

mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. @@ -1456,31 +1456,31 @@ mleca modal

Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 . However, there is a cons= truction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to= this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1"/>

- la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi + la .apasionatas. ku poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se n= elci mi The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is= -liked-by me. =20

- la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi + la .apasionatas. ku noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-b= y me. =20 =20

Beethovenexample Artur Rubensteinexample Appassionataexample In=20 ,=20 la .apasionatas. refers to a particular perform= ance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the = relative clause=20 poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of= =20 @@ -1495,31 +1495,31 @@ ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to= =20 poi and=20 noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rat= her than full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 and=20 to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3"/>

- la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi + la .apasionatas. ku pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. =20

- la .apasionatas ne la betovn. se nelci mi + la .apasionatas. ku ne la betovn. se nelci mi The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me. =20 =20

relative phrases<= /primary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: a= ll we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubin= stein (in=20 =20 ) and Beethoven (in=20 =20 ), and that the relationship= s are respectively restrictive and incidental. commit 28833950b5bd99b745accaab728a194f2f7eb0ae Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Wed Jan 26 18:37:41 2011 -0500 Chapter xrefs to chapter-section xrefs where possible. diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 3eead2c..d3e0765 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -810,21 +810,21 @@ The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-= frame the-x1-place. The child walks toward her right on the ice. =20 toward her right<= /primary>example=20 is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 =20 - ), and allows specifying a refe= rence frame. + ), and allows speci= fying a reference frame. =20 tenseorder of movement specification in movementorder = in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, wit= h the=20 mo'i construct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/>

le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli @@ -2230,21 +2230,21 @@ I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.

Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a ten= se-like relationship between nouns,=20 =20 cannot be expressed in Engl= ish without paraphrasing it either into=20 or else into=20 I go to the house before the market, which is ambiguous= - is the market going? gi<= /indexterm> bridi-tailsforethought tense connection of imaginary journeyorigin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection forethought tense conn= ection of bridi-tailsorder of = Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship be= tween bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a=20 bridi-tail is explained fully in=20 - ; roughly speaking, it is a sel= bri, possibly with following sumti.)=20 + ; roughl= y speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.)=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 and=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d8"/>

mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house. @@ -3259,21 +3259,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d7"/>

pu'o [inchoative] He hasn't yet done so.

or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8"/>

seka'a le briju With-destination the office.

modal-or-tense qu= estionspre-specifying some information tense-or-modal ques= tionspre-specifying some information cu'ecombining with other tense cmavo The only way t= o combine=20 @@ -3309,40 +3309,40 @@ both,=20 naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former.

Explicit magnitudes It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitu= des that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large.= In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban= construction called a=20 termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 - and=20 - .) It is grammatical for a term= set to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allo= ws both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specifie= d. Here is an example: + and=20 + .) It is gramm= atical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a = sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distan= ce to be specified. Here is an example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d1"/>

la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [= nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thi= ng-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset]. Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.

Here the termset extends from the=20 nu'i to the implicit=20 nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes t= he terms=20 la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point,= and the tagged sumti=20 lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 - ) marks as a quantity. Both ter= ms are governed by the tag=20 + ) marks as a quanti= ty. Both terms are governed by the tag=20 zu'a It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit= magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise ver= sion of=20 =20 =20 =20 =20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d2"/> diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index e7d6a38..26f0264 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -928,21 +928,21 @@ </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para>because=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-AX2I"/> claims that John actually s= aid the quoted words, whereas=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-hzd8"/> claims only that he said so= me words or other which were to the same purpose.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary= ></indexterm>=20 <jbophrase>le se du'u</jbophrase> is much the same as=20 <jbophrase>lu'e le du'u</jbophrase>, a symbol for the predication, but= =20 <jbophrase>se du'u</jbophrase> can be used as a selbri, whereas=20 <jbophrase>lu'e</jbophrase> is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti"/> for a discussion of=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-sumti-qualifiers"/> for a discu= ssion of=20 <jbophrase>lu'e</jbophrase>.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-indirect-questions"> <title>Indirect questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

kau =20 UI @@ -1295,22 +1295,22 @@

This must mean that something which John does, or which happens = to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to fig= ure out what. Note that without the=20 tu'a,=20 would mean that John consid= ered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some sor= t of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in = English, but the x1 place of=20 cafne is an event, and if something that does n= ot seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to = construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that=20 djan. is the name of a person, and not the name= of some event.) JAI selma'o jai= abstr= actionssimplification to sumti with jai abstractionsmaking concrete Logically, a counter= part of some sort is needed to=20 tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a = concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo=20 jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than = one function, discussed in=20 - and=20 - ; for the purposes of this chapter, = it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE= . This conversion changes + and=20 + ; for the purposes of th= is chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo o= f selma'o SE. This conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/>

tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead My action causes your death.

@@ -1340,39 +1340,39 @@ that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) the one who caused your death because=20 jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated= into the description - not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it= does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raise= d into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by = using the modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d10"/>

le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death)

Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses This section is a logical continuation of=20 . ZAhO selma'o<= /primary> NU= selma'o There exists a relationship between the four= types of events explained in=20 and the event contour tense cm= avo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually inte= rdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event t= ypes and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in=20 =20 - , and only summarized here. + , and only su= mmarized here. The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions o= f an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into = several groups: process abstr= actionsrelated tense contours = The cmavo=20 pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o represent spans of time: before an eve= nt begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively. The cmavo=20 diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 649f6c5..9d202cd 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -33,35 +33,35 @@ Although the lujvo=20 fagyfesti is derived from the tanru=20 fagri festi, it is not equivalent in meaning to= it. In particular,=20 fagyfesti has a distinct place structure of its= own, not the same as that of=20 festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the sa= me place structure as=20 festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the = places of=20 fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujv= o, there is no equivalent of=20 be ... bei ... be'o (described in=20 - ) to incorporate sumti into the midd= le of the lujvo. + ) to incorporate su= mti into the middle of the lujvo. lujvorationale for creative understanding So why have= lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there i= s a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding = further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing mor= e information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there a= re more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since l= ujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning,= encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of = the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shor= ter than the corresponding tanru. =20 lujvo place struc= tureguidelines lujvoguidelines for pl= ace structure absolute laws alternative guidelines There are no= absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The mak= er must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru an= d then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is sa= id in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standar= d, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may = well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in acc= ordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guideli= nes someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all i= s so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place s= tructure - one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by simil= ar consideration. =20 =20 lujvocmavo incorporation If the tanru includes = connective cmavo such as=20 bo,=20 ke,=20 ke'e, or=20 je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as= =20 se or=20 nu, there are ways of incorporating them into t= he lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, t= he cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one t= anru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the poss= ible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it. The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a = tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, a= re described in=20 - . + .

The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour =20 The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as= - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru= corresponding to a lujvo is called its=20 veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise= English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, t= he left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the=20 seltau, and the right (modified) part the=20 tertau, following the usage of=20 . For brevity, we will speak of the = seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the = veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting=20 modifier for=20 @@ -582,21 +582,21 @@

b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3 b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-s= tandard-b3

where=20 gi'e is the Lojban word for=20 and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained= in=20 - . + . veterinarianexample lujvo place orderasymmetrical lujv= o an= imal doctorexample Asymmetrica= l lujvo like=20 gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different r= ule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, = but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the fi= rst place of the seltau. Consider=20 dalmikce, meaning=20 veterinarian: its veljvo is=20 =20 danlu mikce, or=20 animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are= : =20 @@ -962,21 +962,21 @@ <jbophrase>terter-</jbophrase>,=20 <jbophrase>velvel-</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>xelxel-</jbophrase> work in the same way.</para> <para>Other SE combinations like=20 <jbophrase>selter-</jbophrase>, although they might conceivably mean= =20 <jbophrase>se te</jbophrase>, more than likely should be interpreted i= n the same way, namely as=20 =20 <jbophrase>se ke te</jbophrase>, since there is no need to re-order pl= aces in the way that=20 <jbophrase>se te</jbophrase> provides. (See=20 =20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.)</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-SE"/>.)</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-abstraction-lujvo"> <title>Abstract lujvo lujvo place struc= ture"nu" lujvo abstract lujvo lujvoabstract The cmavo of NU can participate in the c= onstruction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Cons= ider that old standard example,=20 klama: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d1"/> k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5. @@ -1065,39 +1065,37 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7"/>

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. I cause your death.

explained in=20 - , to be rendered with lujvo: + , to be rendered w= ith lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8"/>

mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.

In making a lujvo that contains=20 jax- for a selbri that contains= =20 jai, the rule is to leave the=20 fai place as a=20 fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate= in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of=20 - =20 - =20 - fai is also explained in=20 - .) + fai is explained in=20 + and .)

Implicit-abstraction lujvo =20 Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE ra= fsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from t= he tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about = from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from t= he seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result. A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision i= s that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient sh= ortenings. Eliding=20 nu, however, is extremely important in producin= g a class of lujvo called=20 implicit-abstraction lujvo. =20 =20 @@ -1327,21 +1325,21 @@ However, there is a further problem with=20 jdaselsku, not resolvable by using=20 seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gis= mu=20 lijda and=20 cusku can fully express the relationship implic= it in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a reli= gion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that reli= gion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or = using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the = religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical. As a result, both=20 seljdasku and=20 jdaselsku belong to the second class of anomalo= us lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires. Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the = tanru lists in=20 =20 - , is=20 + , is=20 lange'u, meaning=20 sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sh= eep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed= (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no ove= rlap in the places of=20 =20 =20 lanme and=20 gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog= which controls sheep flocks, a=20 terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is= =20 terlantroge'u with place structure: @@ -1703,21 +1701,21 @@ <para> <jbophrase>xekri</jbophrase>: xe1 is black</para> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>color standards</= primary></indexterm> Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced b= y one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of colo= r standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,=20 =20 <jbophrase>xekri</jbophrase> is explicitly subjective. Objective color= standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as=20 =20 <jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> (=20 =20 <quote>in system</quote>; see=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita"/>) or by making a lujvo.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-BAI"/>) or by making a lu= jvo.</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-cuYP"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e16d2"/> jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and locati= on j4 The gismu=20 jbena contains places for time and location, wh= ich few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something i= s done is supplied by a tense tag (see=20 ). However, providing these places m= akes=20 diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 765031d..a9f632a 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -1330,21 +1330,21 @@ .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the assistanc= e in your comfort. be'u The cmavo=20 be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the e= motion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, so= mething you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more o= r less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo=20 =20 mo'a,=20 =20 rau, and=20 =20 du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discu= ssed in=20 =20 - ). For example, + ). For exa= mple, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d8"/>

.uiro'obe'unai [Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]

large mealexample might be something you say af= ter a large meal which you enjoyed. @@ -1459,21 +1459,21 @@ mi .e nai .ui do I and [Not!] [Yay!] you means=20 I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal=20 nai expresses a=20 scalar negation, a concept explained in=20 - ; since every attitudinal word imp= lies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 + ; since ev= ery attitudinal word implies exactly one scale, the effect of=20 nai on each should be obvious. attitudinalsgrammar of internal compounding attitudinalsinternal grammarcomplete Thu= s, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part= optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it o= bviously would affect meaning. attitudinal nai intensity-word nai modifier nai intensity-word @@ -1487,27 +1487,27 @@ =20

The uses of indicators su<= /indexterm> sa= si attitudinalsexternal grammar attitudinalsgrammar of= placement in bridi The behavior of indicators in t= he=20 outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal s= tructure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metaling= uistic erasers=20 =20 si,=20 sa, and=20 su and some, though not all, kinds of quotation= s. The details of such interactions are discussed in=20 - . + . zo<= /indexterm> A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicat= or may, except in those few situations (as in=20 zo quotation, explained in=20 - ) where compound cmavo may not be= used. + ) where c= ompound cmavo may not be used. attitudinalsat beginning of text At the beginni= ng of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: suc= h a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't tur= n off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place i= n an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately t= o its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning t= he object or concept to which the word refers. attitudinalsaffecting whole grammatical structures If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo = which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertain= s to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discu= ssed in=20 - , for explicitly marking the rang= e of words to which an indicator applies. + , for e= xplicitly marking the range of words to which an indicator applies. attitudinalsreferent uncertainty More details a= bout the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specializ= ed cmavo, are given in=20 . It is worth mentioning that rea= l-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope = rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a m= inimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotio= nal expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide = a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive l= evel. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicato= r has some uncertainty. multiple indicato= rs For example, in cases of multiple indicators expre= ssed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It i= s possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude abou= t the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common = referent. For example, in =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e9d1"/>

mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi @@ -2042,21 +2042,21 @@ go'i po'o mi'u si'a= j= i'a ku'i tooexample butexample<= /indexterm> ditto<= secondary>example go'icontrasted with mi'u mi'ucontrasted with go'i discursives for consecutive discoursecontrasted These five discursives are mutuall= y exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The f= irst four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,=20 ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argume= nt. The second,=20 =20 ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The= third,=20 =20 si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, e= numerating an additional example. The fourth,=20 =20 mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argu= ment, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is = being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from=20 =20 go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in=20 - ), which is a non-discursiv= e version of=20 + ), w= hich is a non-discursive version of=20 ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous= bridi. =20 onlyexample Lastly,=20 po'o is used when there is no other comparable = case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of=20 =20 only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1"/> @@ -2521,21 +2521,21 @@ li'o was not part of the original quotation. In= practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalingu= istic expressions, such as=20 =20 sei (of selma'o SEI) or=20 to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except = where confusion might result. sa'aeditorial insertion of text already containing sa'a editorial insertion= of text already containing sa'a In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more in= stances of=20 sa'a, they can be changed to=20 =20 sa'asa'a. xu<= /indexterm> questionswith "xu" truth questions yes/no questions The cmavo=20 xu marks truth questions, which are discussed i= n detail in=20 - . In general,=20 + . In general,=20 xu may be translated=20 Is it true that ... ? and questions whether the attache= d bridi is true. When=20 xu is attached to a specific word or construct,= it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct. pau= questionsmarking in advance Lojban question w= ords, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of = the question. Placing the cmavo=20 pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the liste= ner realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning = of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. = The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word. =20 paunai questionsrhetorical rhetorical question pauplacement in= sentence Although=20 pau is grammatical in any location (like all in= dicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bri= di. Its scalar opposite,=20 =20 paunai, signals that a bridi is not really a qu= estion despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical quest= ion: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of=20 @@ -2622,21 +2622,21 @@ kau= indirect questi= on FIXME: TAG SPOT

kau

indirect question

=20 =20

This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 - . It marks the word it is atta= ched to as the focus of an indirect question: + . I= t marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3"/>

mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. I know who goes to the store. =20 @@ -2650,21 +2650,21 @@ =20 la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a= name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in = fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other description= s of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the = cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 negated with=20 nai to get the opposite part of the scale. vocativesrationale for redundancy redundancyeffect on = vocative design Because of the need for redundancy = in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives in= to a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant=20 =20 =20 nai too often vital to interpretation of a prot= ocol signal, as explained later in this section. =20 do'u DOhU selma= 'o voc= ativesgrammar overview The gra= mmar of vocatives is explained in=20 - ; but in brief, a vocative may be fol= lowed by a name (without=20 + ; but in brief, a v= ocative may be followed by a name (without=20 la), a description (without=20 le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or noth= ing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elid= able terminator,=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never re= quired unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vo= cative. =20 vocativesand definition of "you" youdefining= Using any vocative except=20 mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the m= eaning of the pro-sumti=20 do, as the whole point of vocatives is to speci= fy the listener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired = listener isn't listening! We will use the terms=20 speaker and=20 listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the ap= propriate terms would be=20 writer and=20 @@ -3234,21 +3234,21 @@

Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 sei, explained in=20 - , to create metalinguistic commen= ts that act like indicators. + , to create m= etalinguistic comments that act like indicators. indicatorsevolutionary development of We envisi= on an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more th= an a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with var= ious combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they ex= press and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expres= sion for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. = Why not, if it helps you express your feelings? =20 There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universal= ly =E2=80=93 mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity marke= rs. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious l= evel. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of= new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify wi= th those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.<= /para> =20 =20 Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of att= itudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are bu= ilt on some fairly nebulous root emotions - words that cannot be defined wi= th the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickl= y take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into = a true system of emotions. emotionsresearch using indicators emotionsrecording us= ing indicators There are several theories as to the= nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more abou= t ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an = accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for= expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of = human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They = also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recor= ding emotions. emotionscultural bias of expression The full li= st of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks t= he language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are = important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias - if a culture is = prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than others, i= ts members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If a cult= ure hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them. Sapir-Whorf effec= tsand emotional indicators Per= haps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emo= tions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than = others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference= from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have = devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may b= e the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the= type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools i= n existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having = such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf e= ffect will occur and will be recognized. It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system = like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-= cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in = the realm of emotional communication=20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index b5da6b6..5ff8c5b 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -462,21 +462,21 @@ la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. John is a man only if James is a woman. If John is a man, then James is a woman. se<= /indexterm> sein logical connective to exchange sentences = The following example illustrates the use of=20 se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. T= he normal use of=20 se is to (in effect) transpose places of a brid= i, as explained in=20 - . + . <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11"/>

la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.

se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 @@ -603,21 +603,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d7"/>

le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of= (it will grow).

Causality is discussed in far more detail in=20 - . + . and=20 illustrates a truth functio= n, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We alr= eady understand how to negate the first bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/>

gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman, @@ -1431,22 +1431,23 @@

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule = [nu'u] I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [jo= int] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].

Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one= =20 nu'i is used. The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical con= nectives are explained in=20 - and=20 - . + , + , and + .

Logical connection within tanru logical connectiv= es in tanru As noted at the beginning of=20 , there is no logical connec= tive in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is pos= sible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru = that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru=20 blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a= blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is b= oth blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of=20 blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say=20 blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within t= he tanru. (We saw jeks used in=20 also, but there they were always = prefixed by=20 pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Her= e is a pair of examples: @@ -1662,27 +1663,27 @@ xu la faidon. gerku Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog? and=20 are equivalent in meaning.<= /para> truth questionsanswering "no" truth questionsanswering "yes" truth questionsas yes-or-no que= stions A truth question can be answered=20 yes or=20 - no, depending on the truth or falsity, respecti= vely, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 + no, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of= the underlying statement. The standard way of saying=20 yes in Lojban is=20 go'i and of saying=20 - no is=20 + no is=20 nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explaine= d in=20 =20 - .) In answer to=20 + .) I= n answer to=20 , the possible answers are:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3"/>

go'i Fido is a dog.

@@ -1896,21 +1897,21 @@ If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, an= d if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me. If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me = coffee. UI selma'o ku'i= andcompared with but butcompared with and<= /secondary> In logical terms, however,=20 but is the same as=20 and; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 but is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sente= nce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive = cmavo=20 ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 =20 - , to the logical=20 + , to the l= ogical=20 .ije.)

Non-logical connectives andas non-logical connective Way back in=20 , the point was made that not = every use of English=20 and,=20 if ... then, and so on represents a Lojban logical conn= ective. In particular, consider the=20 =20 and of: @@ -1936,21 +1937,21 @@ la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. =20 components contra= sted with massin properties of= mass contrasted with compon= entsin properties of supervisingas a = contribution to mass action=20 covers the case mentioned, = where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all= the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because= the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can l= ead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then J= ohn-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in=20 =20 - . + . JA selma'o A se= lma'o JOI selma'o non-logical connectionin tanrudistinguishing from connection of sumti non-logical connection= of sumtidistinguishing from connection in = tanru joi grammarcontrasted with jeks joi grammarcontrasted with eks non-logical connectionand elida= bility of terminators Grammatically,=20 joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) o= r between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid = for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided: LE selma'o KU s= elma'o le ku terminatorseliding ku in non-logical connections FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d4"/>

le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci The man massed-with the woman go-to the market. @@ -2615,21 +2616,21 @@ 2, and operators, like=20 +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logical= ly connected. JOI selma'o GUh= A selma'o <= primary>JA selma'o GA selma'o A selma'o BO selma'o bo connecting operatorswith bo in connective boin joiks for operators boin jeks for operators guheksconnecting oper= ators jeksconnecting operators operatorsc= onnecting operandsconnecting geksconnecti= ng operands <= primary>eksconnecting operands= Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with ge= ks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterth= ought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components.= (However, jeks and joiks with=20 =20 bo are not allowed for operators.) This paralle= lism is no accident. ke'e ke bo BO selma= 'o KE selma'o operatorsanalogue of tanru in connecting operatorswith ke in connective connecting operandswith ke in connective connecting operandswith bo in conn= ective In addition, eks with=20 bo and with=20 ke ... ke'e are allowed for grouping logically = connected operands, and=20 ke ... ke'e is allowed for grouping logically c= onnected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operat= ors. Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be giv= en. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it = is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connec= tive scheme of things. These examples are drawn from=20 - , and contain many mekso features not= explained in this chapter. + , an= d contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter. exhibits afterthought logic= al connection between operands: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d1"/> vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci ( Three or four ) people go-to the market. @@ -2715,21 +2716,21 @@ is not elidable, because th= e=20 xi subscript needs something to attach to.

Tenses, modals, and logical connection PU selma'o The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the= logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simulta= neously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interacti= on with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of th= is chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of sel= ma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo=20 pu,=20 ca, and=20 ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the p= resent, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state = the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb= tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is= before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is= generally a=20 le nu abstraction; see=20 - ). + ). logically connect= ed tensesdefinition logical connectioninteraction with tenses The two types of interacti= on between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses an= d tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be use= d between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in te= nse: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1"/>

la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is= -a-noblest-governor. diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index b724d07..f4d3383 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -795,21 +795,21 @@ lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [f= alse] is-hair-without. It is false that the current King of France is bald.

Note:=20 lo is used in these sentences because negation = relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in= sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description ac= tually applies to the referent. A sentence using=20 le instead of=20 lo can be true even if there is no current king= of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe somet= hing as the current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 le in=20 - .) + .)

Expressing scales in selbri negation In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication = of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is b= eing dealt with in an assertion. As stated in=20 , the default is the set of plausible = alternatives. Thus if we say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d1"/>

@@ -1038,21 +1038,21 @@

Negation of minor grammatical constructs We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them = based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-co= mbining negator, which is=20 nai.=20 nai, by the way, is almost always written as a = compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regul= ar separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI. Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be = discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular = construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here. The following are places where=20 nai is used: When attached to tenses and modals (see=20 - ), the=20 + ), the nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory ne= gation of the tagged bridi. Thus=20 punai as a tense inflection means=20 not-in-the-past, or=20 not-previously, without making any implication about an= y other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result, <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d1"/>

mi na pu klama le zarci @@ -1083,52 +1083,52 @@

mi paroinai dansu le bisli I [once] [not] dance-on the ice

means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more ti= mes within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.=20 is very different from the = English use of=20 not once, which is an emphatic way of saying=20 - never- that is, exactly zero times. + never =E2=80=93 that is, exactly zero times. In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,=20 nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in= =20 - , most indicators have an impl= icit scale, and=20 + , most= indicators have an implicit scale, and=20 nai changes the indicator to refer to the oppos= ite end of the scale. Thus=20 .uinai expresses unhappiness, and=20 .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambivalence,= which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as=20 .iecu'i). Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator= , but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense wi= th about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For ex= ample,=20 =20 =20 co'o could be expressed as=20 coinai. However, this is not generally done. Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called proto= col situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversatio= ns, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protoco= l words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as= might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on= =20 =20 nai: negative acknowledgement, which is=20 je'enai (=20 I didn't get that). Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant = in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, i= n a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only=20 =20 =20 nai, he or she can presume it is a negative ack= nowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.=20 - provides more detail on this = topic. + provides mo= re detail on this topic. The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses a= nd modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstract= ions connected by logical connectives:=20 su'ujeninai, which corresponds to=20 su'u jenai ni just as=20 punai je ca corresponds to=20 pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logica= lly connected abstractors will be: see=20 - . + = . A=20 nai attached to a non-logical connective (of se= lma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false u= nder the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-= logical connectives are discussed in=20 - . + .

Truth questions One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (tho= se which expect the answers=20 Yes or=20 No). The truth question cmavo=20 xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of= a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d1"/> @@ -1456,30 +1456,31 @@ <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> need not be assumed to cancel each other. = Indeed, we can use the position of=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to indicate metalinguistically what is inc= orrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, = we give=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> the grammar of UI. The inclusion of=20 =20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-asse= rtion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.</para> <para>Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic e= rrors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked b= y devising analogies to these examples:</para> <para>Existential failure can be marked by attaching=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to the descriptor=20 <jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> or the=20 <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> in a=20 - <jbophrase>da poi</jbophrase>-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers"/> for details on these construct= ions.) Remember that if a=20 + <jbophrase>da poi</jbophrase>-form sumti. (See + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/> and=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-restricted-claims"/> for = details on these constructions.) Remember that if a=20 <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> sumti seems to refer to a non-existent refer= ent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate = response is then=20 <jbophrase>ki'a</jbophrase>, asking for clarification.</para> <para>Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposit= ion is overt; if not, one can insert a=20 <quote>mock presupposition</quote> to question with the sumti tcita (s= elma'o BAI) word=20 <jbophrase>ji'u</jbophrase>;=20 <jbophrase>ji'uku</jbophrase> thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed= assumption, and=20 <jbophrase>ji'una'iku</jbophrase> metalinguistically says that somethi= ng is wrong with that assumption. (See=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses"/>.)</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.)</para> <para>Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with= selma'o BAI.=20 <jbophrase>le'a</jbophrase> has meaning=20 <quote>of category/class/type X</quote>,=20 <jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> has meaning=20 =20 <quote>on scale X</quote>, and=20 <jbophrase>ci'e</jbophrase>, based on=20 <jbophrase>ciste</jbophrase>, can be used to talk about universes of d= iscourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-questions"/>.=20 <jbophrase>kai</jbophrase> and=20 @@ -1493,21 +1494,21 @@ <quote>good</quote> is=20 <quote>bad</quote>.</para> <para>This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmaticall= y, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write = dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some= of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these a= ssumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break dow= n (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation= , however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a= presumably obvious scale or category assumption.</para> =20 <para>Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by mar= king the offending word or phrase with=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). I= n this sense,=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> becomes equivalent to the English metaling= uistic marker=20 <quote>[sic]</quote>. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quote= s or=20 <jbophrase>sa'a</jbophrase>-marked corrections to avoid repeating a tr= uly unparsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/t= ext. See=20 =20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure"/> for explanations of these usages= .</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-parentheses"/> for explanat= ions of these usages.</para> <para>In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form= of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to indicate what metalinguistic errors hav= e been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References = to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma= 'o GOhA.=20 <jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> at the beginning of a statement merely say= s that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.= </para> =20 <para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected= statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible= to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without corr= ecting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguist= ic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, meta= linguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseles= s expression.</para> =20 <para>Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legit= imate negative answer to a=20 =20 <jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> question (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-questions"/>).=20 diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index 783b2cf..b217d85 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -1,17 +1,16 @@ <chapter xml:id=3D"chapter-quantifiers"> <title> <quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</t= itle> <section xml:id=3D"section-introduction"> <title>What's wrong with this picture? - nobody<= secondary>interpretation of The following brief dia= logue is from=20 - of=20 + nobody<= secondary>interpretation of The following brief dia= logue is from Chapter 7 of=20 Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d1"/> Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, holdi= ng out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay. @@ -102,21 +101,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d2"/>

[zo'e] viska mi Something-unspecified sees me.

zo'e somethingunspecified definite with "zo'e" zo'eas a translation for "something" The= cmavo=20 zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (i= ndeed, even=20 zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as exp= lained in=20 - ) and the listener must fil= l in the correct value from context. In other words,=20 + ) = and the listener must fill in the correct value from context. In other word= s,=20 means=20 =E2=80=98You-know-what' sees me. However,=20 is just as likely to assert= simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translat= ion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d3"/>

da zo'u da viska mi @@ -197,21 +196,21 @@

da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me Somebody's dog sees me

somebody's dogexample is perfectly correct even= though the=20 da is used only in a possessive construction. (= Possessives are explained in=20 - .) + .= ) logical variables= when not in main bridi It is v= ery peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable no= t to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8"/> da zo'u la ralf. gerku There is something such that Ralph is a dog. =20 @@ -382,21 +381,21 @@ =20 Each dog breathes. =20 All dogs breathe. =20 dog breathes=20 is a silly falsehood, but= =20 is an important truth (at l= east if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see=20 - ). Note the various colloquial trans= lations=20 + ). Note the various col= loquial translations=20 every dog,=20 each dog, and=20 all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, si= nce what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.=20 All dogs is treated as an English plural and the others= as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction. =20 If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a univers= al one, we get: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d5"/> @@ -490,21 +489,21 @@ <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d6"/>

ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-do= g.

using the conversion operator=20 se (explained in=20 - ) to change the selbri=20 + ) to change= the selbri=20 batci (=20 bites) into=20 se batci (=20 is bitten by). The translation given in=20 uses the corresponding stra= tegy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained= =20 logician's English). This implies that a sentence with = both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with= =20 =20 =20 se; one must be careful to preserve the order o= f the variables. poi= ro poi<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables ro<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables logical varia= bleswith poiin multiple appearan= ces l= ogical variableswith roin multip= le appearances If a variable occurs more than once, = then any=20 @@ -590,21 +589,21 @@ For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me. which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the spea= ker, but not otherwise. We note the=20 su'o here meaning=20 at least;=20 su'o by itself is short for=20 su'opa where=20 pa means=20 one, as is explained in=20 - . + . prenex<= secondary>removing when numeric quantifiers present= The prenex may be removed from=20 and=20 as from the others, leading= to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d4"/>

re da viska mi Two Xes see me. @@ -747,21 +746,21 @@

which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of t= wo men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The seco= nd Lojban version uses forethought; note that=20 nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this cas= e can be freely elided. roeffect of order when multiple in sentence indefinite sumticompared to sumti with lo sumti with locompared to i= ndefinite sumti quantified sumtidifferent types contrasted= for scope for distribution What about descriptors,= like=20 ci lo gerku,=20 le nanmu or=20 re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in term= sets, but usually need not be, except for the=20 lo case which functions like the case without a= descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,=20 le nanmu means=20 ro le nanmu, as is explained in=20 - . Two sumti with=20 + . Two= sumti with=20 ro quantifiers are independent of order, so: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d6"/>

[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu [All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.

@@ -903,21 +902,21 @@

Negation boundaries "there is a = Y"expressionnotation conven= tion This section, as well as=20 through=20 , are in effect a continuatio= n of=20 , introducing features of Lojban n= egation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the exa= mples below,=20 there is a Y and the like must be understood as=20 =20 there is at least one Y, possibly more. bridi negationtwo forms of As explained in=20 - , the negation of a bridi is usual= ly accomplished by inserting=20 + , the negat= ion of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting=20 na at the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1"/>

mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. I don't go to the store. @@ -1481,22 +1480,22 @@ naku negation, then quantified variables that c= ross the negation boundary must be inverted. negation manipula= tion"na" contrasted with "naku" in= difficulty of negation manipulation"naku" contr= asted with "na" in difficulty of Clearly,= if all of Lojban negation was built on=20 naku negation instead of=20 na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban wou= ld be as difficult as in natural languages. In=20 , for example, we'll discuss = DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connecti= on is moved across a negation boundary. nakuin linked sumti places Since=20 naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be plac= ed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including=20 be and=20 bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, an= d we recommend avoiding such constructs. double negationand naku nakumultiple in sentence You can put multiple=20 - naku s in a sentence, each forming a separate n= egation boundary. Two adjacent=20 - naku s in a bridi are a double negative and can= cel out: + nakus in a sentence, each forming a separate ne= gation boundary. Two adjacent=20 + nakus in a bridi are a double negative and canc= el out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d15"/>

mi naku naku le zarci cu klama

Other expressions using two=20 naku s may or may not cancel out. If there is n= o quantified variable between them, then the=20 @@ -1526,21 +1525,21 @@ nai,=20 na and=20 se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel= any double negatives that result. =20 =20 DeMorgan's Lawand moving a logical connective relative to "naku&qu= ot; = DeMorgan's Lawand distributing a negation<= /indexterm> distributing a n= egation When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we = wish to=20 distribute a negation over a logical connective; and, f= or internal=20 naku negation, whenever a logical connective mo= ves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation - when it crosses a negation = boundary. nai= gi ge ga DeMorgan's L= awsample applications Let us a= pply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of f= orethought logical connectives, which are explained in=20 =20 - . It suffices to know that=20 + . It suffices to know that=20 ga and=20 gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or brid= i, mean=20 either and=20 or respectively, and that=20 ge and=20 gi used similarly mean=20 both and=20 and. Furthermore,=20 ga,=20 ge, and=20 @@ -1587,21 +1586,21 @@

The=20 ga and=20 gi, meaning=20 either-or, have become=20 ge and=20 gi, meaning=20 both-and, as a consequence of moving the negators into = the individual bridi. DeMorgan's Lawand bridi-tail logical connection= bridi-tail logical connecti= onand DeMorgan's Law Here is a= nother example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical co= nnection (explained in=20 =20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d4"/>

la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.

@@ -1774,40 +1773,40 @@ What does=20 mean? The appearance of=20 ci da quantifies=20 da as referring to three things, which are rest= ricted by the relative clause to be cats. When=20 re da appears later, it refers to two of those = three things - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of=20 da alone, if there were any, would refer once m= ore to the three cats, so the requantification of=20 da is purely local. prenex scopein abstractions prenex scopein relative cl= auses prenex scopein embedded bridi prenex scopeinformal prenex scopefor sentences joined by .i prenex = scopefor sentences joined by ijeks In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to = following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in=20 - ) such as the=20 + ) such= as the=20 .ije in=20 . Theoretically, a bare=20 .i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informal= ly, however, variables may persist for a while even after an=20 .i, as if it were an=20 .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such= as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause,= as explained in=20 . A prenex preceding=20 tu'e ... tu'u long-scope brackets persists unti= l the=20 tu'u, which may be many sentences or even parag= raphs later. subscriptsuse with logical variables logical variables= creating more by subscripting If the variables=20 da,=20 de, and=20 di (or the selbri variables=20 =20 bu'a,=20 bu'e, and=20 =20 bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a= particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of th= em. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo= counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full = in=20 =20 - , but in general consist of the c= mavo=20 + , but in gener= al consist of the cmavo=20 xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or= more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expres= sion enclosed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2"/>

ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X Three people are led by one of them. diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 28823c0..1bf5b72 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1543,21 +1543,21 @@ , all of these cmavo may= be preceded by=20 pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for pa= rt of a whole. For example,=20 pisu'o means=20 =20 at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 su'o,=20 piro, and=20 pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as= they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of se= lma'o LA and LE, as explained in=20 =20 - . Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter. + . Des= criptions in general are outside the scope of this chapter.

Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ju'u VUhU to the base @@ -1871,21 +1871,21 @@ =20 There are many rats in the park. In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the = new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that th= e rats are=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. =20 More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 - . + . moi= ordinal selbri<= /primary>definition ordinal selbriplace structu= re The cmavo=20 moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure= is: =20 x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5"/> @@ -2074,21 +2074,21 @@ <cmavo-entry> <cmavo>xo</cmavo> =20 <selmaho>PA</selmaho> <description>number question</description> </cmavo-entry> </cmavo-list> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>xo</primary><= /indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>number questions= </primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>quest= ions</primary><secondary>number</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo=20 <jbophrase>xo</jbophrase>, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask ques= tions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills = the blank where the answer should go. (See=20 =20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure"/> for more on Lojban questions.)</= para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-questions"/> for more on Lo= jban questions.)</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qIiE" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1"/> li re su'i re du li xo =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what? What is 2 + 2? @@ -2184,21 +2184,21 @@

xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo

x b 4

See=20 for the standard method of = specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 - . + .

Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o =20 PA null operand @@ -2333,26 +2333,38 @@ pi'a, the matrix row operator, or=20 =20 =20 sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first com= bines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vect= ors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of ar= guments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator=20 =20 =20 =20 ge'a. magic squareexample Therefore, the=20 magic square matrix - =20 - - 8 1 6 - 3 5 7 - 4 9 2 - + + + + + + =20 + + 816 + + + 357 + + + 492 + + + + can be represented either as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e15d2"/> jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi = soboi re =20 the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vecto= r (4 9 2) @@ -2983,28 +2995,28 @@ nineteenthly (higher order) MAI selma'o mo'= o firs= tlyexample chapter numbering mo'ocontrasted= with mai maicontrasted with mo'o = textdiv= ision numbering with -mai The difference between=20 mai and=20 mo'o is that=20 mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. = Each=20 mo'o subdivision can then be divided into piece= s and internally numbered with=20 mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojba= n, each section would be numbered with=20 mo'o. (See=20 - for more on these words.) + for m= ore on these words.) roi= once<= secondary>example tensenumerical A= numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with=20 =20 roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding = to English=20 =20 once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 - . + . boi= numerical tense= seffect on use of boi boiexception be= fore ROI boiexception before MAI = MAI selma'oexception on use of boi before ROI selma'oexception on= use of boi before Note: the elidable terminator=20 boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MAI or ROI.

mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.

BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings

BY - lerfu for variables and functions (see ) + lerfu for variables and functions (see )

FUhA reverse-Polish flag

GOhA includes du (mathematical equa= lity) and other non-mekso cmavo =20 diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index a2f5bca..7a6f2ef 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -34,42 +34,42 @@ .i signals a new sentence on the same topic, no= t necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences i= s left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal= , and the following sentence states something that happened after the previ= ous sentence. =20 Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is ca= pitalized, the cmavo=20 .i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appr= opriate to place extra space before=20 .i to make it stand out better for the reader. = In some styles of Lojban writing, every=20 .i is placed at the beginning of a line, possib= ly leaving space at the end of the previous line. An=20 .i cmavo may or may not be used when the speake= r of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding = sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or no= t. An=20 .i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or no= n-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both:= these constructs are explained in=20 - ,=20 - , and=20 - . In all cases, the=20 + ,=20 + , and=20 + . In a= ll cases, the=20 .i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals ca= n also be attached to an=20 .i if they are meant to apply to the whole sent= ence: see=20 - . + . BO selma'o bo sentenc= esclose grouping There exist a= pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentences closely together. I= f the=20 .i (with or without connectives) is followed by= =20 bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences bein= g separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connec= ted by=20 .i alone. TUhU selma'o<= /primary> TU= hE selma'o = tu'u tu'e titlespecifying with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by=20 tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by=20 tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a sing= le unit. A common use of=20 tu'e ... tu'u is to group the sentences which c= ompose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from i= t by=20 .i. Another use might be a set of directions, w= here each numbered direction might be surrounded by=20 tu'e ... tu'u and contain one or more sentences= separated by=20 .i. Grouping with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u is analogous to grouping with=20 ke and=20 ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-l= ogical connectives (see=20 - ). + ).

Paragraphs: NIhO The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o NIhO new topic @@ -205,58 +205,54 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d5"/>

le finpe zo'u citka the fish : eat

Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The= Chinese equivalent of=20 is: - + <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d6"/> - - yu - + yu which is vague in exactly the same way. Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before= =20 zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comm= ent sentences, but is necessary in the other use of=20 =20 =20 zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a = bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion o= f quantifier logic in Lojban (see=20 - ), but an example would be: + ), but an e= xample would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d7"/>

roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y i= s the father of X. Every person has a father.

The string of sumti before=20 zo'u (called the=20 prenex: see=20 - ) may contain both a topic and = bound variables: + ) may conta= in both a topic and bound variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d8"/>

- loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o - su'ode zo'u de patfu da - For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, - there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. + loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da + For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-= exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X. As for fathers, every person has one.

topic/commentmultiple sentence To specify a top= ic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in=20 tu'e ... tu'u brackets and place the topic and = the=20 zo'u directly in front. This is the exception t= o the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d9"/> @@ -389,21 +385,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d1"/>

xu do klama le zarci [True or false?] You go to the store Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?

(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation mi= ght be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in=20 - . + . questionsfill-in-the-blank Fill-in-the-blank qu= estions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not k= nown to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a va= riety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds= of blanks. KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ma= quest= ionssumti Where a sumti is not= known, a question may be formed with=20 ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-su= mti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d2"/>

ma klama le zarci [What sumti?] goes-to the store @@ -477,24 +473,24 @@ la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju John, Marsha, the store, the office. =20 John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.<= /en> =20

(Note: A mechanical substitution of=20 into=20 produces an ungrammatical r= esult, because=20 - * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical L= ojban: the first=20 + * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is= ungrammatical Lojban: the first=20 le zarci has to be closed with its proper termi= nator=20 ku, for reasons explained in=20 - . This effect is not important:= Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both que= stion and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange = is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.) + . This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminator= s have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latte= r into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are e= ach separately grammatical.) GOhA selma'o<= /primary> mo= quest= ionsselbri Questions to be ans= wered with a selbri are expressed with=20 mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-brid= i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e5d9"/>

la lojban. mo Lojban [what selbri?] What is Lojban? @@ -528,36 +524,36 @@

Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical con= nectives (using cmavo=20 ji of A,=20 ge'i of GA,=20 =20 gi'i of GIhA,=20 =20 gu'i of GUhA, or=20 =20 - je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, o= r ijoik as an answer) - see=20 + je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, o= r ijoik as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 =20 =20 - ; attitudes (using=20 - pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an a= nswer) - see=20 - ; place structures (using=20 - fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an a= nswer) - see=20 + ; attitudes (= using=20 + pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an a= nswer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + ; place structures (using=20 + fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an a= nswer) =E2=80=93 see=20 =20 - ; tenses and modals (using=20 - cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cm= avo as an answer) - see=20 - and=20 + ; tenses and modals = (using=20 + cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cm= avo as an answer) =E2=80=93 see=20 + and=20 . Questions can be marked by placing=20 pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. = See=20 =20 - for details. + for det= ails. The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to que= stions is: linked argume= nts ut= terancesnon-bridi any number o= f sumti (with elidable terminator=20 vau, see=20 ) an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see=20 ) @@ -577,40 +573,40 @@ ) a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, s= ee=20 ) linked arguments (beginning with=20 =20 be or=20 - bei and attached to some previously express= ed selbri, often in a description,see=20 - ) + bei and attached to some previously express= ed selbri, often in a description, see=20 + ) At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also per= mitted: one or more names (to indicate direct address without=20 =20 doi, see=20 ) indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see=20 ) nai (to vaguely negate something or other= , see=20 - ) + ) Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these ar= e made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversat= ion, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely becaus= e most of them are vague.

Subscripts: XI The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi @@ -666,21 +662,21 @@ la'edi'u cu nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going = by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car. SE selma'o se FA selm= a'oafter 5th place SE selma'oafter 5t= h place subscriptsand sumti re-ordering=20 shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the eve= nt itself. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 - requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ():= + requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ()= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5"/>

le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'ed= i'u =20 The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.

@@ -1406,21 +1402,21 @@ mi klama la za'e. .albeinias =20 I go-to so-called Albania =20 marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropria= te standard form might be something like=20 =20 - la ctiipyris., reflecting the country's name in= Albanian. + la ckiipyris., reflecting the country's name in= Albanian. unabridged dictio= nary Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,=20 za'e indicates that the word has been made up o= n the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged d= ictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!). =20 =20

Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 0e66406..091c66a 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1212,21 +1212,21 @@ =20 A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval). le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. selma'o VUhO (=20 - ) + ) =20 Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connec= ted) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti. la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room. selma'o VUhU (=20 diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 6bbe930..b6168e6 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -322,23 +322,23 @@ [h]). The letter=20 h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 . In addition, the apostrophe vi= sually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differen= t ways) to separate syllables. unvoiced vowel gl= ideapostrophe as apostrophepurpose of= The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enabl= e a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a sin= gle word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an= unvoiced vowel glide. =20 apostrophevariant of As a permitted variant, an= y unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to= render the apostrophe: IPA=20 [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The conveni= ence of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a s= ubstitute for=20 [h]. pauserepresentation of in Lojban glottal stopas pause = in Lojban perioddefinition of The = period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal st= op (IPA=20 =20 - [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases - explained in detail in=20 + [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases =E2=80=93 explained in detail in=20 =20 - - must occur. In particular, a w= ord beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending= in a consonant is always followed by a pause. + =E2=80=93 must o= ccur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a = pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always followed by a pause. period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 =20 [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. =20 commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 l,=20 m,=20 n, or=20 @@ -617,21 +617,21 @@ y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 y appear only in Lojbanized n= ames. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 =20 .y'y. is so used - it is the Lojban name of the= apostrophe letter (see=20 - ). + ). vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> meiin. mei,in. @@ -1056,21 +1056,21 @@ xapcke =20 [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B] In=20 , we see that buffering vowe= ls can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the s= econd pronunciation buffers the=20 - pc consonan= t pair but not the=20 + pc consonant pair but not t= he=20 ck. The third pronunciation= buffers both. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> ponyni'u [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] @@ -1302,21 +1302,21 @@ bisydja BI,sy,dja BI,syd,ja This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 bis and=20 dja. When they are joined, an im= permissible consonant pair results:=20 sd. In acco= rdance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in=20 - , a=20 + , a=20 y is inserted to separate the= impermissible consonant pair; the=20 y is not counted as a syllabl= e for purposes of stress determination. <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> da'udja da'UD,ja da'U,dja diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml index 041cb43..d4b6789 100644 --- a/todocbook/4.xml +++ b/todocbook/4.xml @@ -105,21 +105,21 @@ ml mr pl pr sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st tc tr ts vl vr=20 xl xr zb zd zg zm zv - C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unles= s it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain spec= ified forbidden pairs. + C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is = permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voic= ed (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is = one of certain specified forbidden pairs. C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes - parts of speech - in contrast to the eight that are traditiona= l in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each= of these classes has uniquely identifying properties - an arrangement of l= etters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as = a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and = as belonging to a specific word-class. =20 =20 They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 @@ -869,32 +869,32 @@ au; and a CCV-form rafsi is = possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pa= ir (see=20 ). Thus=20 mamta, which has the same form as=20 salci, can only have=20 mam,=20 mat, and=20 ma'a as possible= rafsi: in fact, only=20 =20 mam is assigned to it. numbers= rafsi for rafsi for numbers Some cmavo also ha= ve associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerica= l digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by= adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used = in composing tanru (for a complete list, see=20 - ). + ). fully reduced luj= vodefinition lujvofully reduced The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is= =20 fully reduced lujvo. Here are some examples of fully re= duced lujvo: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d6"/> cumfri from cumki lifri - possible experiglossce + possible experience <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e6d7"/> klezba from klesi zbasu category make @@ -1084,21 +1084,21 @@ quark,=20 =20 integral, or=20 =20 iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for= concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The= vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific= terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowe= d (actually=20 =20 copied) into Lojban from the original language. borrowingsStage 1 borrowingsusing foreign-language name= bor= rowingfour stages of There are= four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified= (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quot= ed with the cmavo=20 =20 la'o (explained in full in=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e7d1"/>

me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly. =20

spaghetti is a predicate with the place structure=20 @@ -1646,21 +1646,21 @@ =20 do'i, respectively. scientific names<= /primary>rules for Linnaean namesrules for There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the sci= entific names (technically known as=20 =20 Linnaean binomials after their inventor) which are inte= rnationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is = essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted= into Lojban text using the cmavo=20 =20 =20 la'o, explained in=20 - . Using this cmavo makes the alre= ady lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and le= aves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomple= te, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They= can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words= of the international scientific vocabulary. The term=20 + . Using t= his cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables= longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following sugg= estions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to = valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean = binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The te= rm=20 =20 =20 =20 back vowel in the following list refers to any of the l= etters=20 a,=20 o, or=20 u; the term=20 front vowel correspondingly refers to any of the letter= s=20 e,=20 i, or=20 @@ -1915,40 +1915,40 @@ pauseand final-syllable stress final syllable stressrules for pause after stressfinal syllablerules for pause after If the last syllable o= f a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated = by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In = this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual st= ress (which already ends with a pause, of course). pauseand Cy-form cmavo cmavorules for pause after = Cy-form Cy-form cmavorules for pause after A cmavo of the form=20 Cy must be followed by a pause unless another=20 Cy-form cmavo follows. non-Lojban te= xtrules for pause with pauseand non-L= ojban text When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojb= an, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban te= xt is explained in=20 =20 - .) + .)

Considerations for making lujvo Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it = can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is= given in=20 . In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu wit= h a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attache= d together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognize= d as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way. There are three other complications; only one is serious. rafsimultiple for each gismu The first is that = there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The o= ne to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker o= r writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They= all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The s= coring algorithm given in=20 is used to choose the standa= rd form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary= .) linguistic drift = in Lojbanpossible source of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">lujvocons= ideration in choosing meaning for lujvounambiguity of The second complication is the serious one. Remember t= hat a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at= least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning= . Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the se= mantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is th= e most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguis= tic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that s= eems the most useful one may change. =20 =20 za'euse to avoid lujvo misunderstandings lujvomeaning d= rift of You must also be aware of the possibility o= f some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for post= erity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is = in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a diff= erent place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily ba= d. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a mea= ning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dic= tionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo=20 =20 za'e (explained in=20 =20 - ) before a newly coined lujvo to = indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. + ) before a newly coi= ned lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning. lujvoultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure The essential nature of human communication is that if the l= istener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline f= or choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo. lujvodropping elements of Zipf's Law The third compli= cation is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implicati= ons. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inve= rsely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are u= sed more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concept= s will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acr= onyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often = by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more informatio= n more rapidly. =20 =20 =20 Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abst= raction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous= , the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop = some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then= use that tanru to make the lujvo. =20 =20 lujvobased on multiple tanru This doesn't lead = to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one mean= ing and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing f= or the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already comp= eting for the=20 right to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has t= o use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the other= s. diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 2c03987..d19c8ea 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -774,21 +774,21 @@ does not. This is a kind of= semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The= way in which the school is said to be of type=20 beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a b= eautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, th= at the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Sti= ll another interpretation is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12"/> That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 - for further details. + for further deta= ils. JA selma'o The logical connective=20 je is only one of the fourteen logical connecti= ves that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/> le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). @@ -958,21 +958,21 @@ leaves=20 mlatu outside the=20 gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of the=20 gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to tw= o or more brivla connected with=20 bo or=20 ke ... ke'e.

=20

- Linked sumti: <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">be=E2=80=93bei=E2= =80=93be'o</jbophrase> + Linked sumti: <jbophrase glossary=3D"false">be-bei-be'o</jbophr= ase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be BE linked sumti marker =20

bei @@ -982,21 +982,21 @@

be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator =20

The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 . One grammatical structure rel= ated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 - , the place structure of the se= lbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu=20 + , the place structure of the se= lbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu mamta. What about more complex selbri? tanruplace structures of For tanru, the place s= tructure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place= structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of=20 blanu zdani is that of=20 zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the= x2 place is its occupants. What about the places of=20 blanu? Is there any way to get them into the ac= t? In fact,=20 blanu has only one place, and this is merged, a= s it were, with the x1 place of=20 zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that i= s being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 blanu with=20 xamgu, we get: @@ -1031,20 +1031,21 @@ be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or m= ore sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place stru= cture, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting wit= h x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is = terminated by the elidable terminator=20 be'o (of selma'o BEhO). linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in:= <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/> +

ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o nixli be li mu be= i lo merko be'o bo ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci le mela nu,IORK. prenu le je= cta This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some = American-thing) school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems for-audience New-Yor= k persons with-operator the state. This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical scho= ol, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,= teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.

Here the three places of=20 cmalu, the three of=20 nixli, and the four of=20 ckule are fully specified. Since the places of= =20 @@ -1082,21 +1083,21 @@ is simply that of=20 ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is disc= ussed in=20 .) FA selma'o FA tags = and linked sumti linked sumti and FA tags It is possible to= precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags=20 =20 fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 - ), which serve to explicitly sp= ecify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place follo= wing the=20 + ), which serve to ex= plicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the = place following the=20 be is the x2 place and the other places follow = in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be ac= complished as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7"/>

ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.

@@ -1522,21 +1523,21 @@ mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. I understand addition problems. =20 MOI selma'o More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathemati= cal expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numeric= al selbri. Details are available in=20 =20 - . Here are a few tanru: + . Here are a few= tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6"/>

la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. =20 Preem Palver is the first speaker. =20 @@ -1687,25 +1688,25 @@ =20 That is a Chrysler car. =20

logical connect= ivesrelative precedence with me'u me'urelative precedence with logical connectives elidability of me'u The elidable terminator=20 me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely r= equired only if the=20 me selbri is being used in an indefinite descri= ption (a type of sumti explained in=20 =20 =20 - ), and if the indefinite description = is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 + ), an= d if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained= in=20 =20 =20 ) or a sumti logical conne= ctive (explained in=20 - ). Without a=20 + ). Wit= hout a=20 me'u, the relative clause or logical connective= would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of se= ntences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8"/>

re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi Two of the group=20 the three kings and John are white. @@ -1779,21 +1780,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2"/>

do se prami mi You [swap x1 and x2] love me. You are loved by me.

Conversion is fully explained in=20 - . For the purposes of this chap= ter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the fo= llowing simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is nec= essary to be careful! Consider=20 + . For the purposes o= f this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies onl= y to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore= , it is necessary to be careful! Consider=20 : <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>walk to market</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/>

la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. @@ -1847,21 +1848,21 @@

la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. tense conversion<= /primary>with jai jaifor modal conversion There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cm= avo=20 jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a mod= al or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly= like conversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 - . + .

=20

Scalar negation of selbri NAhE selma'o<= /primary> selbri= scalar negation of scalar negationeff= ect on selbri Negation is too large and complex a t= opic to explain fully in this chapter; see=20 . In brief, there are two main typ= es of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1"/> diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index 1a3460c..caef939 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -326,26 +326,26 @@ <en>Some human beings wrote the story.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><seco= ndary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with= lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 <jbophrase>le remna</jbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to = that person.=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author= is human.</para> <para><indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secon= dary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported">= <primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></in= dexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><second= ary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elid= able terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable termi= nator for all descriptions is=20 <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>. It can almost always be omitted with no dan= ger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative claus= es, which are discussed in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses"/>, and in the case of a des= cription immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an ex= plicit=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-descriptors"/>, and = in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latt= er case, using an explicit=20 <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> before the selbri makes the=20 <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses= of=20 <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>: in the compound negator=20 <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> (discussed in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation"/>) and to terminate place-structure= , tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers"/>) and to terminate place-struct= ure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in= =20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses"/>).</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-masses"> <title>Individuals and masses The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lei LE @@ -1356,21 +1356,21 @@ mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.

which is equivalent to=20 , but longer. sequence= contrasted with set vu'iuse for creating sequen= ce t= u'ause for forming abstractions vu'ie= ffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meaning lu'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of on meaning tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sum= ti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is ex= plained more fully in=20 - . The triplet=20 + . = The triplet=20 lu'a,=20 =20 lu'i, and=20 =20 lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and mas= ses;=20 =20 vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates= a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set o= f John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequ= ences are different.) Here are some examples: =20 @@ -1380,21 +1380,21 @@ <jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo> <gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss> <en>I try (to open) the door.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><se= condary>as being deliberately vague</secondary></indexterm>=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-ioCu"/> might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para> <para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 <jbophrase>ri</jbophrase>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means= =20 <quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para> + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</p= ara> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qLbv" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title>  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu =20 The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small. @@ -1455,32 +1455,32 @@ =20

(In=20 , the sumti=20 ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti ot= her than that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 ri here, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sumti ava= ilable to=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 - .) + .)

The syntax of vocative phrases vocative phrases<= /primary>as a free modifier Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter becaus= e their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative = phrase is one of the so-called=20 =20 free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 =20 . They can be placed after many, = but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t= erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and= ends of sentences, and in many other places. DOI selma'o COI= selma'o vocative phrasepurpose of T= he purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or t= o indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative = phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explaine= d in more detail in=20 =20 - . Sometimes that is all there = is to the phrase: + . Sometimes = that is all there is to the phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1"/>

coi [greetings] Hello.

@@ -1574,25 +1574,23 @@

doi la djan. The-one-named John!

DOhU selma'o<= /primary> vocati= ve phrase terminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the e= lidable terminator for vocative phrases is=20 do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed = except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi= . It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its= relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 =20 - free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls - see=20 - =20 - =20 - - metalinguistic comments - see=20 - - or reciprocals - see=20 + free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls =E2=80=93 see=20 + =E2=80=93 metalinguistic comments = =E2=80=93 see=20 + =E2=80=93 or= reciprocals =E2=80=93 see ) which must be properly separate= d. vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10"/>

@@ -1714,21 +1712,21 @@ doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. =20 =20

name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 - ). Thus=20 + ). Thus=20 djeimz. is not a valid version = of=20 James (because=20 mz is inval= id):=20 djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 la may be replaced by=20 ly,=20 lai by=20 ly'i,=20 doi by=20 do'i or=20 diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index d99de1a..b197d62 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -102,21 +102,21 @@ do mi foreman of a juryexample personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener(s) pro-sumtifor speaker(s)= pro= -sumtimi-series mi-seriesof pro-sumti= The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, t= he listener, and others in various combinations.=20 mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for= whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither= =20 mi nor=20 do is specific about the number of persons refe= rred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the= jury as=20 =20 mi, since in speaking officially he represents = all of them. COI selma'o mi'= e COI = selma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect o= n referent of "mi" The referents of=20 mi and=20 do are usually obvious from the context, but ma= y be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 - . The vocative=20 + . The vocati= ve=20 mi'e assigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign= =20 do. <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/>

mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u @@ -296,35 +296,35 @@ le ti bloti the this boat =20

thisadjective expression with vi vias adjective express= ion for English this does not mean=20 this boat but rather=20 =20 this one's boat,=20 the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 - . A correct Lojban transla= tion of=20 + .= A correct Lojban translation of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2"/>

le vi bloti the here boat the nearby boat

using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 bloti to express that the boat is near the spea= ker. (Tenses are explained in full in=20 - .) Another correct translation= would be: + .) Another correct translation would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3"/>

ti noi bloti =20 this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat

@@ -476,21 +476,21 @@ The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 dei in the current utterance is the same as the= referent of=20 di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 utterance is used rather than=20 sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. la'edi'u LAhE s= elma'o la'e Note one very common construction with=20 di'u and the cmavo=20 la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 - ) which precedes a sumti and means=20 + ) which prec= edes a sumti and means=20 the thing referred to by (the sumti): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6"/> mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= I love Jane, and I like that. @@ -678,21 +678,21 @@

la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue= .

ge'u in other words,=20 goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always = elidable. The details are in=20 - . + .= goi assignment of= ko'a-series pro-sumtiuse in speech contrasted with wr= iting The afterthought form of=20 goi shown in=20 and=20 is probably most common in = speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we w= ill want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice i= s first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 goi is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> @@ -755,21 +755,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7"/>

broda ke brode brodi a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)

represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) lerfu as pro-sumt= iimplicit assignment of antecedent ko'a-series pro-sumticontrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignmen= t of lerfu as pro-sumticontrasted with ko'a-series in expl= icit assignment of pro-sumtilerfu as lerfuas assignable pro-sumti As is explained in=20 - , the words for Lojban letters, b= elonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assi= gnable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-ser= ies pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters ar= e taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning wit= h the same letter: + , the wor= ds for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o,= are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between lette= r pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explici= t assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or descrip= tion sumti beginning with the same letter: =20 =20 =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8"/>

@@ -957,21 +957,21 @@ John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.

Here the second=20 ri has as antecedent the first=20 ri, which has as antecedent=20 le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a = tree. To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained= in=20 - ): + ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5"/>

lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pil= no riximu A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice use= s [repeat fifth-from-last].

Here=20 @@ -1087,39 +1087,39 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10"/> A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'= e =20 A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [= repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one]. A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A:= You'll go, too. - Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n Chapter 11):=20 + Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n ):=20 le si'o mi go'i means=20 le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the w= ord=20 mi explicitly to replace the x1 of=20 mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like=20 mi is replacing=20 mi? Because B's=20 mi refers to B, whereas A's=20 mi refers to A. If B said: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d11"/>

mi nelci le si'o go'i

that would mean: - I like the idea of your going to the store. + I like the idea of your going to the store. The repetition signalled by=20 go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts= . Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 do, meaning B. Note that in=20 , the tense=20 ba (future time) is carried along by both=20 go'i and=20 go'e. =20 Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: @@ -1422,21 +1422,21 @@ =20 The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. co'erationale for word form The form of=20 co'e was chosen to resemble=20 =20 zo'e; the cmavo=20 do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 =20 - ) also belongs to the same grou= p of cmavo. + ) also belongs to t= he same group of cmavo. zo'e-seriescompared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti do'icompared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti Note that=20 do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of ind= efinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to refer= ring only to an utterance. =20

Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series =20 =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1588,21 +1588,21 @@ KOhA sumti question

mo GOhA bridi question

ma<= /indexterm> questionssumti maas sumti question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 - , but=20 + , but=20 ma and=20 mo are listed in this chapter for completeness.= The cmavo=20 ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/>

do klama ma You go to-what-destination? @@ -1720,21 +1720,21 @@ =20 ri cannot be used in place of=20 ke'a in=20 and=20 , because the relativized su= mti is not yet complete when the=20 =20 ke'a appears.

subscriptson ke'a for nested relative clauses = ke'asubs= cripting for nested relative clauses ke'aand abstract desc= riptions Note that=20 ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and no= t with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of r= elative clauses within relative clauses,=20 ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference = clear (see=20 - ). + ).

Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 <jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ce'u KOhA abstraction focus @@ -1842,37 +1842,37 @@ =20 DAhO cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

pro-bridi assignm= entstability of pro-sumti assignments= tability of How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi = remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or = pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have = the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the = cmavo belongs to. cei= goi bound variabl= e pro-sumtistability of assignable pro-sumtiexplicit cancellation of by rebinding assignable pro-sumtistability of personal pro-sumtistability of personal pr= o-sumtiimplicit cancellation of by change of speaker/l= istener Personal pro-sumti are stable until there i= s a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assigna= ble pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 goi or=20 cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi als= o generally last until re-bound; details are available in=20 =20 - . + . anaphoric pro-bri= distability of anaphoric pro-sumtista= bility of ke'astability of reflexive pro-sumtistability of utterance pro-sumtistability of Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in= which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within t= he bridi in which they appear; and=20 =20 ke'a is stable only within its relative clause.= Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits dep= ending on the rules for the particular cmavo. indefinite pro-br= idistability of indefinite pro-sumtis= tability of <= primary>demonstrative pro-sumtistability of Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, = and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they = are used. =20 =20 DAhO selma'o<= /primary> da= 'o da'= osyntax of da'ofor cancellation of pr= o-sumti/pro-bridi assignment cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignmentwith da'o pro-bridi assignmentexplicit ca= ncellation of with da'o pro-sumti assignmentexplicit cance= llation of with da'o However, there are ways to can= cel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents.= (Some, such as=20 mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as t= hey are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel ever= ything is with the cmavo=20 da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for = this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of t= exts containing it. One use of=20 =20 da'o is when entering a conversation, to indica= te that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments= already made by other participants in the conversation. =20 pro-bridi assignm= entno'i effect on pro-sumti assignmentno'i effect on no'ieffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignme= nts = ni'oeffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments In addition, the cmavo=20 ni'o and=20 no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily = to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumt= i and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. Mor= e explanations of NIhO can be found in=20 - . + .

The identity predicate: du =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du GOhA identity @@ -1954,21 +1954,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3"/>

fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.

zi'o beverageexample zi'o raf= sieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi effect on place structure of Fin= ally, lujvo involving=20 zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed= in=20 - . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for=20 + . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the ra= fsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a bever= age (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 =20 =20 se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to th= is is=20 zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of=20 se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashio= n would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as=20 zilrelselpinxe, and=20 lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and no= t to a non-existent drinker. diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index ec4c7de..9cbb32a 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -628,21 +628,21 @@ le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket. hands in pockets<= /primary>example is very natural. Of cou= rse, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or ano= ther's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified. GEhU selma'o<= /primary> goirationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter ge'ueffect of following logical connective on elidability logica= l connectiveseffect on elidability of ge'u from preced= ing relative phrase ge'uelidability of from relative phras= es Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo i= s=20 ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never requir= ed. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified b= y a relative phrase, then an explicit=20 ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affec= t the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What= about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 =20 - , as it is not semantically= akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the sa= me.) + ,= as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, alt= hough the syntax is the same.)

Multiple relative clauses:=20 <jbophrase>zi'e</jbophrase>

zi'e ZIhE relative clause joiner @@ -845,21 +845,21 @@ will seem most natural to= speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses aft= er the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 , on the other hand, may s= eem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative claus= e first. Note that in=20 , the elidable terminator= =20 ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relati= ve clause (=20 blabi) will merge with the selbri of the desc= ription (=20 gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentenc= e. The purpose of the form appearing in=20 will be apparent shortly. As is explained in detail in=20 - , two different numbers (known as the= =20 + , two= different numbers (known as the=20 inner quantifier and the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4"/>

re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. @@ -912,21 +912,21 @@ ku, then the relative clause is understood to a= pply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.

What about=20 ? By convention, it means th= e same as=20 , and it requires no=20 ku, but it does typically require a=20 ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause com= es before the inner quantifier. When=20 le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti = has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood t= o be=20 ro (meaning=20 all), as is explained in=20 - . Thus=20 + . Thu= s=20 le gerku is taken to mean=20 all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is= =20 lo, the difference is quite important: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8"/>

lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci @@ -1125,21 +1125,21 @@ The of-me car which sleeps isn't going.

ku'oeffect of vau on elidability vaueffect on elidabil= ity ku'o Note that=20 uses=20 vau rather than=20 ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this te= rminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this cas= e, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 =20 ku'o.

Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 <jbophrase>vu'o</jbophrase> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

vu'o VUhO relative clause attacher

@@ -1166,21 +1166,21 @@ lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I = express IT) is-a-sentence. I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. =20 NAhE selma'o<= /primary> LA= hE selma'o NAhE selma'oeffect of relative clause placement w= ith = LAhE selma'oeffect of relative clause placement with relat= ive clauses and NAhEplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of NAhE on placement= relative clauses and LAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact of LAhE on placement In addition, sumti wi= th attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explaine= d in detail in=20 =20 - ) can have a relative clause appearin= g after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: + ) can have a= relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sum= ti, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3"/>

la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. An old=20 The Red Pony is in the far room. =20 @@ -1278,21 +1278,21 @@ (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. =20

Relative clauses in vocative phrases DOI selma'o COI= selma'o Vocative phrases are explained in more detai= l in=20 - . Briefly, they are a method of indic= ating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the inten= ded listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from = selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 + . Briefly, they are= a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of ide= ntifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginnin= g with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1"/>

coi. frank. Hello, Frank.

@@ -1418,21 +1418,21 @@ le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a = goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. is more verbose than=20 , but may be clearer, sinc= e it explicitly spells out the two=20 ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assign= s them to the assignable cmavo=20 ko'a and=20 ko'e (explained in Chapter=20 - ). + )= .

Index of relative clause cmavo relative clauses<= /primary>list of cmavo for Relative clau= se introducers (selma'o NOI):

noi incidental clauses

diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index b531aa1..74953d9 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -626,21 +626,21 @@ se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 Consequently,=20 means:

I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.

Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 - . + . multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 an= d x2 place of=20 =20 te klama, producing: se te FIXME: TAG SPOT

x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using = x5 =20

On the other hand,=20 @@ -900,21 +900,21 @@ A man of the north came to the city. modal placeon description = selbri "of"in Englishcompa= red with do'e = do'ecompared with English "of" Here=20 le berti is provided as a modal place of the se= lbri=20 nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and= is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English prepositi= on=20 of.=20 also illustrates a modal pl= ace bound into a selbri with=20 be. This construction is useful when the selbri= of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 be are more fully explained in=20 - . + .

Modal sentence connection: the causals =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ni'i mu'i ki'u ri'a= FIXME: TAG SPOT

ri'a BAI @@ -1190,21 +1190,21 @@ mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. means exactly the same as= =20 through=20 , but there is no idiomatic = English translation that will distinguish it from them. termset modal con= nection modalstermset connection If = the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termse= t may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 - , but are essentially a mechani= sm for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. + , but are esse= ntially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simulta= neously. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5"/>

mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.

@@ -1215,21 +1215,21 @@

nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'= u dunda [start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money,= me [end] gives.

Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. bridi-tail modal = connection modal bridi-tail connection modal connection of selbriu= sing bridi-tail modal connection There is no modal = connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri ca= n be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail co= nstruct is more fully explained in=20 =20 - , but essentially it consists o= f a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 + , but es= sentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 is suitable for bridi-tail = connection, and could be shortened to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7"/>

mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta I, because saw the book, took the book.

@@ -1240,21 +1240,21 @@

mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta I because saw, therefore took, the book.

where=20 le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails -= see=20 - for more explanations. + for mor= e explanations. shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 can be further rearranged t= o: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/> mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna I, the book, because saw, therefore took. @@ -1407,21 +1407,21 @@ Here the=20 bai is spread over both=20 klama le zarci and=20 cadzu le bisli, and the=20 ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 both-and between the two. modalsexpanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentenc= es that have been combined with=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 - : + : <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9"/>

bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the = ice [end].

means the same thing as=20 @@ -1837,21 +1837,21 @@ fai behaves like=20 fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the o= ther places around it. =20 modal conversions= in descriptions Like SE conver= sions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may re= fer to=20 the language of an expression as=20 le jai bau cusku, for example. modal conversion<= /primary>with no modal specified jai without modalmeaning In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 jai without a following modal. This usage is no= t related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of= =20 jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which sh= ould be an abstraction, into the=20 fai position, and to raise one of the sumti fro= m the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature = is discussed in more detail in=20 - . The following two examples m= ean the same thing: + . The following tw= o examples mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/>

le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.

diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO index 58c91be..c7a8458 100644 --- a/todocbook/TODO +++ b/todocbook/TODO @@ -4,21 +4,21 @@ =3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D =20 Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it actually is; you'll get used to it. =20 SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed (like index work). =20 Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 -Zort: 3 to 19 (they contain FIXMEs, though) +Zort: All chapters except 2 excepting index stuff (plenty of FIXMEs, thoug= h) Matthew Walton: 3 =20 ------ =20 Ignore Chapter 2 for now. =20 ------ =20 If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so: =20 commit 8efd40db4c231f470a1c962c4c3808e2f0a75071 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Tue Jan 25 15:47:05 2011 -0500 Chapter 21: lists. diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index a8cf4a6..7b95525 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -7,52 +7,111 @@ /* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine G= rammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,T= he Logical Language Group, Inc. grammar.300 */ /* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process.= The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, conc= atenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the gramm= ar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which i= s LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process = successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using som= e language-coded processing. =20 Step 1 - Lexing From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojb= an unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech w= ill have to have some way to deal with =E2=80=99non-Lojban=E2=80=99 failure= s of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a tex= t file using Lojban=E2=80=99s phonetic spelling rules. The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-= Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojb= an text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allo= ws the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize su= ch portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interferen= ce with the parsing algorithm. =20 Step 2 - Filtering From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing= tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict: - a. If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) i= s identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited= with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an open= ing delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimite= r recurs=20 - =20 - after a pause, as grammatically a single token (l= abelled =E2=80=99=20 - =E2=80=99 in this grammar). There is n= o need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the clos= ing delimiter. - b. If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is = identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99= =20 - =E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by its= normal grammatical function. - c. If the Lojban word lo'u (selma'o LOhU)= is identified, search for the closing delimiter le'u (selma'o LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the prev= ious two steps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the si= ngle token =E2=80=99=20 - =E2=80=99. - d. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o cate= gory, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In = all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each= word. - e. If the word si (selma'o SI) is identif= ied, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has bee= n condensed into a single token by one of the above rules). - f. If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identif= ied, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what = follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may re= ceive further definition later.) - g. If the word =E2=80=99su=E2=80=99 (selma'o SU) is identified, = erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding t= oken word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, = if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginn= ing of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of = a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, tw= o adjacent uses of su are required to erase the enti= re conversation. + + + If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) = is identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimite= d with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an ope= ning delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimit= er recurs=20 + after a pause, as grammatically a single toke= n (labelled =E2=80=99=20 + =E2=80=99 in this grammar). There = is no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the = closing delimiter. + + + If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is= identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled =E2=80=99= =20 + =E2=80=99, instead of lexing it by= its normal grammatical function. + + + If the Lojban word lo'u (selma'o LOhU= ) is identified, search for the closing delimiter le'u (selma'o LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the pre= vious two steps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the s= ingle token =E2=80=99=20 + =E2=80=99. + + + Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o cat= egory, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In= all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for eac= h word. + + + If the word si (selma'o SI) is identi= fied, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has be= en condensed into a single token by one of the above rules). + + + If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what= follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may r= eceive further definition later.) + + + If the word su (selma'o SU) is identi= fied, erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first prece= ding token word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. How= ever, if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the = beginning of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginni= ng of a speaker=E2=80=99s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said somethi= ng, two adjacent uses of su are required to erase th= e entire conversation. + + Step 3 - Termination If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and i= gnore everything that follows it. Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption mea= ns that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following s= teps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after par= sing is completed). - a. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where ther= e may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIV= LA. - b. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If t= hey occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors). - c. Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabel= the previous token as selma'o BY. - d. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI = or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token. - e. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and CA= I into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted f= ollowing any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word=E2=80= =99s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpr= etation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text= are explicitly handled by the grammar. + + + Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where the= re may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRI= VLA. + + + Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If = they occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors). + + + Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabe= l the previous token as selma'o BY. + + + If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI= or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token. + + + Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and C= AI into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted = following any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word=E2=80= =99s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpr= etation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text= are explicitly handled by the grammar. + + Step 5 - Insertion of Lexer Lexemes Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical= function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YA= CC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings= of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either - =20 - a. are replaced by a single specified =E2=80=99lexer token=E2=80= =99 for step 6, or - b. the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to i= dentify it uniquely. + + + are replaced by a single specified =E2=80=99lexer token=E2= =80=99 for step 6, or + + + the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to = identify it uniquely. + + The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generat= ion of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The str= ings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals= labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with t= he lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the = language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been perform= ed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented ou= t, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer token= s=20 =20 without the strings of defining tokens. Two sets = of lexer tokens are defined in the token set so as to be compatible with ei= ther option. In this step, the strings must be labelled with the appropriate = lexer tokens. Order of inserting lexer tokens=20 IS significant, since some shorter strings that w= ould be marked with a lexer token may be found inside longer strings. If th= e tokens are inserted before or in place of the shorter strings, the longer= strings cannot be identified. - If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works c= orrectly (it is not the only possible order): A, C, D, B, U, E, H, I, J, K,= M, N, G, O, V, W, F, P, R, T, S, Y, L, Q. This ensures that the longest ru= les will be processed first; a PA+MAI will not be seen as a PA with a dangl= ing MAI at the end, for example. + If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works c= orrectly (it is not the only possible order): + + A + C + D + B + U + E + H + I + J + K + M + N + G + O + V + W + F + P + R + T + S + Y + L + Q + + . This ensures that the longest rules will be processed first; a PA+MA= I will not be seen as a PA with a dangling MAI at the end, for example. Step 6 - YACC Parsing YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance w= ith the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099= under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, an= d comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of= lexer tokens numbered from 900 up. */ %token=20 A_501 = /* eks; basic afterthought logical connectives */ %token=20 BAI_502 = /* modal operators */ @@ -1861,21 +1920,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ =20 ZOI_quote_4= 34 : =20 /*pause*/ =20 /*pause*/ =20 ; =20 -/* =E2=80=99pause=E2=80=99 is morphemic, represented by =E2=80=99.=E2=80= =99 The lexer assembles=20 +/* =E2=80=99pause=E2=80=99 is morphemic, represented by . The lexer assembles=20 */ =20 ZO_quote_43= 5 : =20 ; =20 /* =E2=80=99word=E2=80=99 may not be a compound; but it can be any valid L= ojban selma'o value, including ZO, ZOI, SI, SA, SU. The preparser will not lex the word per = its diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml index 6e20e63..6bbe930 100644 --- a/todocbook/3.xml +++ b/todocbook/3.xml @@ -39,21 +39,21 @@ w. alphabetic order<= /primary> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII= coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetic= al order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban te= xt is facilitated. =20 =20 stress<= secondary>showing non-standard capital lettersuse of Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard = stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Th= us the English name=20 Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 DJOsefin., pronounced=20 ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 for an explanation of the = symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitaliz= e the vowel letter, in this case=20 =20 - O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the who= le syllable. + O, but it is easier on the re= ader to capitalize the whole syllable. Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 =20 se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names ar= e meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with a= s little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the re= gular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter= .

Basic Phonetics bracketsuse in IPA notation phonetic alphabet IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (see = also IPA) Lojban pronunciations are defined using the= International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing= pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square= brackets: for example, the word=20 =20 cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 =20 commit bcacdb645be573910870fb23a531c9ccd9e11077 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Tue Jan 25 15:23:17 2011 -0500 Chapter 19: example tags. Chapter 21: quotes and section IDs. diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index fba392a..a2f5bca 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -200,21 +200,21 @@ means the same as=20 , and it is simpler. However= , often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri with= in the comment is vague: fish eatexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d5"/>

le finpe zo'u citka - the fish : eat + the fish : eat

Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The= Chinese equivalent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d6"/>

yu @@ -658,75 +658,67 @@ to=20 all mean the same thing. = But consider the lujvo=20 nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction op= erator=20 nu to=20 klama:

- la'edi'u cu nunkla - =20 - mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce - The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going<= /gloss> - by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the c= ar. + la'edi'u cu nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce + The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going = by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.

SE selma'o se FA selm= a'oafter 5th place SE selma'oafter 5t= h place subscriptsand sumti re-ordering=20 shows that=20 nunkla has six places: the five places of=20 klama plus a new one (placed first) for the eve= nt itself. Performing transformations similar to that of=20 requires an additional conv= ersion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use an= y cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ():= <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d5"/>

- le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi - le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u + le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi le zarci le zdani le dargu la'ed= i'u =20 - The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me - to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last= -sentence. + The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-= me to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.

Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of= FA with a subscript: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d6"/>

- fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u - =20 - fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla - Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, - to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going. + fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u fi le zarci faxixa = le karce cu nunkla + Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-la= st-sentence, to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.

to=20 also all mean the same th= ing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite = the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member o= f SE or FA could be substituted into=20 sexixa and=20 faxixa without change of meaning:=20 vexixa means the same thing as=20 sexixa. ko'a-seriesafter tenth da-seriesafter third subscriptsand pro-sumti Lojban provides two = groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo = are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bou= nd using=20 goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are exis= tentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explaine= d more fully in=20 .) There are ten ko'a-series cm= avo and 3 da-series cmavo available. da<= /indexterm> DA selma'o If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or = the da-series can be subscripted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d7"/>

daxivo - X sub 4 + X sub 4

is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, = and <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d8"/>

ko'ixipaso something-3 sub 18 @@ -759,21 +751,21 @@ boi after each=20 xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript= to be attached without ambiguity.) subscriptsand names Names, which are similar to= pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the= same name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e6d10"/>

la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire =20 - John + John1 expresses ``I-am-not you'' to = John2.

subscriptsand tense Subscripts on tenses allow = talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same gen= eral cmavo. For example,=20 puxipa could refer to one point in the past, an= d=20 puxire a second point (earlier or later). subscriptsand fuzzy truths You can place a subs= cript on the word=20 ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to e= xpress so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (stateme= nts whose truth value is not merely=20 true or=20 false, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1= ) in Lojban is the abstractor=20 jei: @@ -1034,24 +1026,22 @@

is grammatical even thoug= h the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,=20 =20 lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text wh= ich themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d3"/>

- lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u - cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u - [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] visk= a le [unquote] - is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. + lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu= selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u + [quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [= unquote] : [quote] viska le [unquote] is-replaced-by= [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote]. In the sentence=20 le mlatu viska le finpe,=20 viska le should be replaced by=20 viska lo.

Note the topic-comment formulation (=20 =20 ) and the indicator applying= to the selbri only (=20 ). Neither=20 @@ -1059,43 +1049,37 @@ viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both = require=20 lo'u quotation. Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can= refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when=20 lu ... li'u is used, but not when=20 lo'u ... le'u is used: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d4"/>

- la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u - .iku'i ri jmive - Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. - However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. - Charlie says=20 - The woman is dead, but she is alive. + la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u .iku'i ri jmive + Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. However, = the-last-mentioned is-alive. + Charlie says The woman is dead, but she is aliv= e.

In=20 ,=20 ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most rece= nt previous sumti, namely=20 le ninmu. Compare: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e9d5"/>

- la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u - .iku'i ri jmive - Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote]. - However, the-last-mentioned is-alive. - Charlie says=20 - le ninmu cu morsi, but he is alive. + la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u .iku'i ri jmive= + Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote]. However, = the-last-mentioned is-alive. + Charlie says le ninmu cu morsi, but he = is alive.

In=20 ,=20 ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged = sumti=20 le ninmu, because=20 le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted seque= nce of Lojban words. Instead,=20 =20 ri ends up referring to the referent of the sum= ti=20 la tcarlis., and so it is Charlie who is alive.= diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml index fa6e496..a8cf4a6 100644 --- a/todocbook/21.xml +++ b/todocbook/21.xml @@ -1,38 +1,38 @@ Formal Grammars -

EBNF Grammar of Lojban Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain = by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization a= t: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273= ) Explanation of notation: All rules have the form: name=20 number=3D bnf-expression - which means that the grammatical construct =E2=80=9Cname=E2=80= =9D is defined by =E2=80=9Cbnf-expression=E2=80=9D. The number cross-refere= nces this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are = the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled wit= h A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. I= n addition, rule 971 is =E2=80=9Csimple_tag=E2=80=9D in the YACC grammar bu= t =E2=80=9Cstag=E2=80=9D in this grammar, because of its frequent appearanc= e. + which means that the grammatical construct name i= s defined by bnf-expression. The number cross-references thi= s grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same= as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, = C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In additi= on, rule 971 is simple_tag in the YACC grammar but st= ag in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance. =20 Names in lower case are grammatical constructs. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are term= inals. Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator= symbol. | represents alternation (choice). [] represents an optional element. - & represents and/or (=E2=80=9CA & B=E2=80=9D is the = same as =E2=80=9CA | B | A B=E2=80=9D). + & represents and/or (A & B is the sam= e as A | B | A B). - ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the l= eft. Left-grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-ref= erential recursion with no =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D + ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the l= eft. Left-grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-ref= erential recursion with no ... - () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. O= therwise, =E2=80=9C...=E2=80=9D binds closer than &, which binds closer= than |. + () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. O= therwise, ... binds closer than &, which binds closer th= an |. - # is shorthand for =E2=80=9C[free ...]=E2=80=9D, a construct= which appears in many places. + # is shorthand for [free ...], a construct wh= ich appears in many places. // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (wi= thout change of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results. @@ -7888,43 +7888,43 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */ word=20 1100=3D [BAhE] any-word [indicators] any-word =3D - =E2=80=9Cany single word (no compound cmavo)=E2=80=9D + any single word (no compound cmavo) anything =3D - =E2=80=9Cany text at all, whether Lojban or not=E2=80=9D= =20 + any text at all, whether Lojban or not=20 null=20 1101=3D any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable i= nput.

EBNF Cross-Reference A 802 commit 93899e5b79dbe5bfcad00fc7e0cdaf16d83eaee9 Author: Eitan Postavsky Date: Mon Jan 24 19:12:36 2011 -0500 Chapter 18: s and section IDs (titles). Invented fo= r s. diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index 569b2da..765031d 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -857,21 +857,21 @@ virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts= . But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful em= otions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, whil= e their counterparts are less commonly expressed. attitudinal scale= srationale for assignment (Why= the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be d= ifficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we = give the monosyllable=20 nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a n= ovice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indica= tor, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were=20 random orientation, which would have unknown biases and= be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which sc= ale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be bias= ed in favor of American perceptions of=20 usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it= might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might a= s well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.) CAI selma'o nai= cai naisai nairu'e cu'i ru'e sai cai attitudinal scaleseven-position emotion= al scale In fact, though, each emotional scale has se= ven positions defined, three=20 =20 positive ones (shown below on the left), three=20 negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral= one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The foll= owing chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated c= mavo. All of these cmavo, except=20 nai, are in selma'o CAI. - +

cai

carmi

sai

tsali

ru'e diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index 5da4f58..28823c0 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban -

Introductory lojbau mekso (=20 Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lo= jban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical = character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statemen= ts. Its formal design goals include: mekso goalfor mathematical writing meksodesign goa= ls representing all the different forms of expressi= on used by mathematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reade= r can unambiguously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effo= rt and expect a listener to understand it; mekso goalfor common use mekso goalexpandable providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical = terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the= full resources of Lojban; @@ -32,21 +32,21 @@ mathematical nota= tionand omitted operators cont= ains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpr= etations for the strings=20 =20 3x and=20 2y than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the = Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of=20 =20 must not omit the multiplic= ation operators. =20 mekso chaptercompleteness mekso chaptertable notation = convention The remainder of this chapter explains (= in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter = is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive a= bout uses of those components - as of now, there has been no really compreh= ensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test o= f usage to be fully clarified.

Lojban numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pa PA 1

re @@ -95,21 +95,21 @@

PA selma'o hundred<= /primary>expressing as number tenexpressing as = number numbersas compound cmavo <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">digitscma= vo for numbersexpressing simple Th= e simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. Th= ere are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9= are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1"/>

pa re ci one two three -

123 ignore

123 ignore

one hundred and twenty three =20

pa no @@ -140,21 +140,21 @@ e,=20 i,=20 o,=20 u respectively; and the cmavo= from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels=20 a,=20 e,=20 i, and=20 o respectively. None of the d= igit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart i= n noisy environments. =20

Signs and numerical punctuation PA selma'o The following cmavo are discussed in this section: ma'u PA positive sign =20 @@ -205,21 +205,21 @@ ni'u pa negative-sign 1

-1

pa<= /indexterm> -1example signs on numbersgrammar Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are atta= ched. It is also possible to use=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of t= hese numbers is explained in=20 - . + . decimal pointas numerical punctuation punctuationin nu= mbers numerical punctuation Various numerical punctuation= marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following exa= mples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e3d2"/>

ci pi pa vo pa mu three point one four one five

3.1415

@@ -332,21 +332,21 @@

pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa =20 point one comma one two comma one

.001012001

Special numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ci'i PA infinity =20 =20 @@ -449,24 +449,24 @@ pa ni'u re 1 negative-sign 2 subtraction opera= torcontrasted with negative sign negative signcontrasted with subtraction operator=20 is not=20 1 minus 2, which is represented by a different cmavo se= quence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a mean= ing. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they m= ay be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban = number system. It is possible, of course, that some of these=20 oddities do have a meaningful use in some restricted ar= ea of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for speci= alized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would= use the structure differently. More information on numbers may be found in=20 - to=20 - . + to=20 + .

Simple infix expressions and equations =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

du GOhA equals

@@ -639,21 +639,21 @@ The-number three plus four times five equals the-number thr= ee-five.

3 + 4 =C3=97 5 =3D 35

default operator = precedencecontrasted with mekso goal Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 =C3=97= 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simp= licity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of m= athematics. What can be done? operator preceden= ceeffect of pragmatic convention operator precedenceand mathematical notation mathematical notationand operator precedence There are three solutio= ns, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution i= s to ignore the problem. People will say=20 li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, becaus= e the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deep= ly ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores sema= ntics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in t= his one area. =20 operator preceden= ce in other languages operator precedencerationale for defau= lt left-grouping (Why not hard-wire the precedences= into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentiall= y because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of p= recedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13= levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. Fo= r Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired prece= dence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets = where the conventions are different.) operator preceden= cegeneralized explicit specification The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the preceden= ce of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be ex= plained in=20 - . + . BIhE selma'o<= /primary> bi= 'e bi'= eeffect on following operator = operator precedencescope modification with bi'e The third = solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with = the cmavo=20 bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automaticall= y of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d9"/>

li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci =20 @@ -700,21 +700,21 @@ The explicit operator=20 pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form wher= eas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that=20 =20 ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable ter= minator: the first use of it in=20 is required, but the second= use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first= =20 =20 bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not ne= cessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry wi= th the other one. =20 =20

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions) The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator

va'a @@ -837,21 +837,21 @@ Again, no parentheses are used. The construct=20 ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, a= nd appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular= infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and some= times mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses t= o accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special f= lag=20 ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The= cmavo=20 xy. and=20 zy. are variables, but=20 fy. is an operator (a function) because=20 ma'o marks it as such. The=20 boi is required because otherwise the=20 xy. would look like part of the operator name. = (The use of=20 ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to a= ny mekso operand: see=20 - .) + .) When using forethought mekso, the optional marker=20 pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. Th= is usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked=20 =20 pe'o and=20 =20 ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list.=20 to=20 , respectively, with explici= t=20 pe'o and=20 =20 @@ -882,21 +882,21 @@ li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e =20 Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands re= ally are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless par= enthesized with=20 =20 vei and=20 ve'o. An earlier version of the complex=20 came to grief because I for= got this rule.

Other useful selbri for mekso bridi So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to hav= e a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving=20 du. What about inequalities such as=20 x < 5? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropri= ate selbri, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e7d1"/>

li xy. mleca li mu @@ -989,21 +989,21 @@

li re su'i re na du li mu the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.

2 + 2 =E2=89=A0 5

As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not = say anything about what might be true.

Indefinite numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro PA all

so'a @@ -1262,21 +1262,21 @@ All rats can eat all other rats. eat themselvesexample (The use of=20 da'a means that=20 does not require that all r= ats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot e= at, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictate= s that=20 =20 itself is, indeed, the=20 other rat.) ni'u ma'u ni'uwith elided number ma'uwith elided number<= /secondary> As mentioned in=20 - ,=20 + ,=20 ma'u and=20 ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean=20 some positive number and=20 some negative number respectively. <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d14"/>

li ci vu'u re du li ma'u @@ -1357,21 +1357,21 @@ mi speni so'ici prenu I am-married-to many/three persons. I am married to three persons (which is=20 many in the circumstances).

both dogsexample=20 assumes a mostly monogamous= culture by stating that three is=20 many.

Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ji'i PA approximately

su'e @@ -1533,33 +1533,33 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d10"/>

mi catlu su'o prenu I look-at at-least [one] person

is a meaningful claim. pi<= /indexterm> inexact portions= with bounds Like the numbers in=20 - , all of these cmavo may be = preceded by=20 + , all of these cmavo may= be preceded by=20 pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for pa= rt of a whole. For example,=20 pisu'o means=20 =20 at least some part of. The quantifiers=20 ro,=20 su'o,=20 piro, and=20 pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as= they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of se= lma'o LA and LE, as explained in=20 =20 . Descriptions in general are outside= the scope of this chapter.

Non-decimal and compound bases The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ju'u VUhU to the base

dau @@ -1739,21 +1739,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d11"/>

dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. This is Sentence 10.11.

Special mekso selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mei MOI cardinal selbri =20

@@ -1830,21 +1830,21 @@ mi poi pamei cu cusku dei I who am-an-individual express this-sentence. In=20 ,=20 mi refers to a mass,=20 the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague = between masses, sets, and individuals. However, when the number expressed before=20 -mei is an objective indefinite = number of the kind explained in=20 - , a slightly different place= structure is required: + , a slightly different p= lace structure is required: individuals of se= texpressing measurement standard for indefinites setexpressing measurement standard for indefinites<= /indexterm> massexpressing measurement standard for indefinites meiplace structure formed for objective indefinites = FIXME: TAG SPOT

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which= is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.

An example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/>

@@ -2060,21 +2060,21 @@

PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u snowball's chanceexample boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MOI. As a result, the=20 me'u in=20 could also be replaced by a= =20 boi, which would serve the same function of pre= venting the=20 pa and=20 moi from joining into a compound.

Number questions The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xo =20 PA number question

@@ -2114,21 +2114,21 @@ li remu pi'i xa du li paxono The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0 number questions<= /primary>answers to numbersas grammatically com= plete utterances to which the correct reply would b= e=20 mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as = grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to=20 xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for c= ounting off physical objects one by one.) =20

Subscripts The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi XI subscript

subscriptsexternal grammar of Subscripting is a= general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that= can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modi= fier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (le= rfu strings) can be subscripted: @@ -2186,21 +2186,21 @@ xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo

x b 4

See=20 for the standard method of = specifying multiple subscripts on a single object. More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in=20 .

Infix operators revisited The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o =20 PA null operand =20 @@ -2280,21 +2280,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e14d4"/>

papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re (one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero b= ase 2) with-base 2

.1010

Vectors and matrices The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jo'i JOhI start vector

te'u @@ -2374,37 +2374,37 @@ pi'a or=20 =20 sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering th= e dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between=20 =20 =20 pi'a and=20 =20 sa'i. =20

Reverse Polish notation The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fu'a =20 FUhA reverse Polish flag

RPas abbreviation for reverse Polish notation S= o far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds = of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed= odd when applied to=20 +, but when applied to=20 f they appear as the usual functional notation. Now com= es a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something complet= ely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses= of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation= of some programming languages.) =20 fu'a reverse Polish= notationterminator reverse Polish notationmarker = reverse Polish notationuse of parentheses in<= /secondary> reve= rse Polish notationdefinition = In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where = the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso o= f the kind explained in=20 - .) The number of operands pe= r operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lo= jban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 + .) The number of operands per o= perator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojba= n, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a=20 fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there = is no terminator. Here is a simple example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d1"/>

li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu =20 the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five. @@ -2469,21 +2469,21 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e16d4"/>

li cinoki'oki'o du li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei The-number 30-comma-comma equals the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10= , null-op), exponential-notation.

30,000,000 =3D 3 =C3=97 10

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

.abu BY letter a

by @@ -2684,21 +2684,21 @@ xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o] =20 x sub (=20 b sequence=20 d)

x b,d

Using Lojban resources within mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

na'u NAhU selbri to operator

ni'e @@ -2788,21 +2788,21 @@ mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo =20 I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. I see a pride of lions. =20

Other uses of mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me'o LI the mekso

nu'a @@ -2994,41 +2994,41 @@ roi= once<= secondary>example tensenumerical A= numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with=20 =20 roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding = to English=20 =20 once,=20 twice, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed disc= ussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in=20 . boi= numerical tense= seffect on use of boi boiexception be= fore ROI boiexception before MAI = MAI selma'oexception on use of boi before ROI selma'oexception on= use of boi before Note: the elidable terminator=20 boi is not used between a number and a member o= f MAI or ROI.

Explicit operator precedence =20 As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the preceden= ces of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not= understand these declarations. SEI selma'o ti'= o The declaration is made in the form of a metalingui= stic comment using=20 =20 ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI.=20 =20 sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert= metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discou= rse which the bridi comprises. The format of a=20 ti'o declaration has not been formally establis= hed, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and = then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-establis= hed scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators an= d existing operators. =20 operator preceden= ceplans for future In future, = we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declaratio= ns of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Origin= ally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have= the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence lev= els. Complex operators formed with=20 na'u,=20 ni'e, or=20 =20 ma'o would remain at the standard low precedenc= e; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts.= It is probable that such a parser would have a set of=20 commonly assumed precedences built into it (selectable = by a special=20 ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical= intuition: times higher than plus, and so on. =20

Miscellany A few other points: se<= /indexterm> seuse with operators conversionof operator places=20 se can be used to convert an operator as if it = were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1"/>

li ci se vu'u vo du li pa @@ -3143,21 +3143,21 @@ te'u ma'o operatorconverting from operand operandconvertin= g into operator conversion of operand into operator To ch= ange an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo=20 ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing= a lerfu string such as=20 fy. into an operator. In fact,=20 ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, usin= g the elidable terminator=20 te'u if necessary. ma'opotential ambiguity caveat There is a poten= tial semantic ambiguity in=20 ma'o fy. [te'u] if=20 fy. is already in use as a variable: it comes t= o mean=20 the function whose value is always =E2=80=98f'. However= , mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as bot= h functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.

Four score and seven: a mekso problem =20 Four score and se= venexample Gettysburg Addressexample<= /secondary> meks= oand literary translation Abra= ham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words=20 =20 =20 Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits s= everal different ways of saying the number=20 =20 four score and seven. (A=20 score, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it = is analogous to a=20 dozen for 12.) The trivial way: @@ -3221,21 +3221,21 @@ four ; seven base 20

47

Overall,=20 probably captures the flavo= r of the English best.=20 and=20 are too simple, and=20 is too tricky. Nevertheless= , all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustra= te the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can prob= ably be said in more than one way.

mekso selma'o summary Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.

BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings

BY lerfu for variables and functions (see ) @@ -3252,420 +3252,443 @@ JOhI array flag

KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso

LI - mekso articles (li and me'o) + mekso articles (li and me'o) =20 MAhO make operand into operator

MOI - creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see <= xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section11"/>) + creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see )

MOhE make sumti into operand

NAhU make selbri into operator

NIhE make selbri into operand

NUhA make operator into selbri

PA - numbers (see ) + numbers (see )

PEhO optional forethought mekso marker

TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and J= OhI

VEI left parenthesis

VEhO right parenthesis

VUhU - operators (see ) + operators (see )

XI subscript flag

Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a,= b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethough= t operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules= apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU. operatorslist of simple FIXME: TAG SPOT +

su'i - plus + plus

(((a + b) + c) + ...= )

pi'i - times + times

(((a =C3=97 b) =C3= =97 c) =C3=97 ...)

vu'u - minus + minus

(((a =E2=88=92 b) = =E2=88=92 c) =E2=88=92 ...)

fe'i - divided by + divided by

(((a / b) / c) / ...= )

ju'u - number base + number base

numeral string a interpreted = in the base b

pa'i - ratio - the ratio of a to b, a:b + ratio + the ratio of a to b<= /varname> a:b

fa'i - reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse - 1 / a + reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse + 1 / a

gei - scientific notation + scientific notation

b =C3=97 (c [default 10] to the a power)

ge'a - null operator + null operator

(no operands)

=20 de'o - logarithm + logarithm

log a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate)

te'a - to the power/exponential + to the power/exponential

a to the b= power

fe'a - nth root of/inverse power + nth root of/inverse power

bth root of a (defaul= t square root: b =3D 2)

cu'a - absolute value/norm - | a | + absolute value/norm + | a |

ne'o - factorial + factorial

pi'a - matrix row vector combiner + matrix row vector combiner

(all operands are row vectors)

=20 sa'i - matrix column vector combiner + matrix column vector combiner

(all operands are column vectors)

=20 ri'o - integral - integral of a with respect to b over range c + integral + integral of a with respect to b over range c =20 sa'o - derivative + derivative

derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (d= efault 1)

fu'u - non-specific operator + non-specific operator

(variable)

si'i - sigma (=CE=A3) summation + sigma (=CE=A3) summation

summation of a using variable b over range c

va'a - negation of/additive inverse + negation of/additive inverse

-a

re'a - matrix transpose/dual - a* + matrix transpose/dual + a*

Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numb= ers. digitslist of decimal Decimal digits: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - rafsi - - - - - no - pa - re - ci - vo - mu - xa - ze - bi - so - - - 0 - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - - - non - pav - rel - cib - von - mum - xav - zel - biv - soz - - - - + + + no + non + 0 + + + pa + pav + 1 + + + re + rel + 2 + + + ci + cib + 3 + + + vo + von + 4 + + + mu + mum + 5 + + + xa + xav + 6 + + + ze + zel + 7 + + + bi + biv + 8 + + + so + soz + 9 + + digitslist of hexadecimal Hexadecimal digit= s: - - - - - - - - - - - dau - fei - gai - jau - rei - vai - - - A/10 - B/11 - C/12 - D/13 - E/14 - F/15 - - - - + + + dau + A/10 +

+ fei + B/11 +

+ gai + C/12 +

+ jau + D/13 +

+ rei + E/14 +

+ vai + F/15 + + numberslist of special Special numbers: - - - - - - - - - pai - ka'o - te'o - ci'i - - - =CF=80 - imaginary i - exponential e - infinity (=E2=88=9E) - - - - + + + pai + =CF=80 + + + ka'o + imaginary i + + + te'o + exponential e + + + ci'i + infinity (=E2=88=9E) + + punctuationlist of numerical Number punctua= tion: - - - - - - - - pi - ce'i - fi'u - - - decimal point - percentage - fraction (not division) - - - piz - cez - fi'u (from frinu; see ) - - - pi'e - ma'u - ni'u - - - mixed-base point - plus sign (not addition) - minus sign (not subtraction) - - - ki'o - ra'e - - - thousands comma - repeating-decimal indicator - - - ji'i - ka'o - - - approximation sign - complex number separator - - - - + + + pi + piz + decimal point + + + ce'i + cez + percentage + + + fi'u + fi'u (from frinu; see ) + fraction (not division) + + + pi'e + mixed-base point + + + ma'u + plus sign (not addition) + + + ni'u + minus sign (not subtraction) + + + ki'o + thousands comma + + + ra'e + repeating-decimal indicator + + + ji'i + approximation sign + + + ka'o + complex number separator + + numberslist of indefinite Indefinite number= s:

- ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, - so'u, - da'a + ro + all + rol

- all, almost all, most, many, several, - few, - all but + so'a + soj + almost all + + + so'e + sop + most - rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos, - sot, - daz + so'i + many + sor or so'i + + + so'o + sos + several + + + so'u + sot + few + + + da'a + daz + all but

Subjective numbers: - rau, - du'e, - mo'a - enough, too many, too few + rau + enough + + + du'e + too few + + + mo'a + too many + + Miscellaneous: - - xo, tu'o - number question, null operand - + + + xo + number question + + + tu'o + null operand + +

Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures<= /title> - <place-structure> - mei x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more = of - which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4] - rafsi: mem, mei - moi x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 - [by standard x4] - rafsi: mom, moi - si'e x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3] - rafsi: none - cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x= 2 - [by standard x3] - rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter1= 8-section20"/>) - va'e x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 - [by standard x3] - rafsi: none - </place-structure> + <cmavo-list> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>mei</cmavo> + <rafsi>mem, mei</rafsi> + <description>x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one o= r more of which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4]= </description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>moi</cmavo> + <rafsi>mom, moi</rafsi> + <description>x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule= x3 [by standard x4]</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>si'e</cmavo> + <rafsi>none</rafsi> + <description>x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]</d= escription> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>cu'o</cmavo> + <rafsi>cu'o (borrowed from <jbophrase>cunso</jbophrase>; see <xref= linkend=3D"section-explicit-operator-precedence"/>)</rafsi> + <description>event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under condi= tions x2 [by standard x3]</description> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>va'e</cmavo> + <rafsi>none</rafsi> + <description>x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 [by stand= ard x3]</description> + </cmavo-entry> + </cmavo-list> </section> </chapter> diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 9916119..0e66406 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -70,21 +70,21 @@ =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE"/>. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru = unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama be le zarci be'o troci I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier. I try to go to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE"/> selma'o BIhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-simple-infix"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priorit= y than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI"/> selma'o BIhI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-non-logical-continued-continued"/>) @@ -94,33 +94,33 @@ <xref linkend=3D"GAhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BO"/> selma'o BO (=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-three-part-tanru"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-sumti-negation"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-connectives-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to b= ind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> is always high precedence and right-grouping.</= para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). That is a small school for girls. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"BOI"/> selma'o BOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-forethought"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PA"/> or=20 <xref linkend=3D"BY"/>. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric = cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immedia= tely follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li re du li vu'u voboi re The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two. </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -332,21 +332,21 @@ =20 <para>Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins w= ith=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEI"/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA"/> selma'o FUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section16"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-reverse-polish-notation"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four 2 + 2 =3D 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE"/> selma'o FUhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-attitudinal-scope"/>) @@ -493,21 +493,21 @@ =20 <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>, provides forethought non-logical connection an= alogous to=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno John massed-with Alice carry the piano. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI"/> selma'o JOhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-vectors-matrices"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list termi= nated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional = array).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du li jo'i voboi xaboi The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals the-number array (four, six). (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) @@ -577,21 +577,21 @@ <xref linkend=3D"LA"/>. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also= used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the = compound=20 <xref linkend=3D"NA"/>+=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU"/> to indicate natural language-style negation.</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> le prenu ku le zdani ku klama The person, to-the house, goes. The person goes to the house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE"/> selma'o KUhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-forethought"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PEhO"/>: indicates the end of a forethought mathemati= cal expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-num= ber six. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO"/> selma'o KUhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-rel= ative-clauses-section-poi"/>) @@ -654,21 +654,21 @@ =20 <para>Indicates the end of a quotation begun with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhU"/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LI"/> selma'o LI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-simple-infix"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -676,21 +676,21 @@ </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LU"/>. Indicates the end of a text quotation.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO"/> selma'o LOhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-connectives-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI"/>. Indicates the end of a mathematical expression= used in a=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI"/> description.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. 4 > 3 </programlisting> @@ -723,47 +723,47 @@ <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE"/>+=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/>. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]= . </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI"/> selma'o MAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-other-mekso-uses"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-introduction"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> pamai mi pu klama le zarci 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. First, I went to the market. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO"/> selma'o MAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-forethought"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand.= Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ma'o fy. boi xy. [operator] f x <emphasis>f(x)</emphasis> </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"ME"/> selma'o ME (=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-me-selbri"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-introduction"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the t= hings referenced by the sumti. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"MEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta me la ford. karce That is-a-Ford-type car That=E2=80=99s a Ford car. </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -772,32 +772,32 @@ =20 <para>The elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"ME"/>. Indicates the end of a sumti converted to a ta= nru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta me mi me'u zdani That=E2=80=99s a me type of house. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI"/> selma'o MOI (=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-place-conversion"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-lojban-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various n= umerically-based selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome. John and Frank are two brothers. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE"/> selma'o MOhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-lojban-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimen= sioned units. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. </programlisting> <bridgehead> @@ -838,36 +838,36 @@ <para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other = than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with fo= llowing=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> ta na'e blanu zdani That is-a-non- blue house. That is a house which is other than blue. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU"/> selma'o NAhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-lojban-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i The-number the-operator tangent (=20 <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase> / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. tan( <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE"/> selma'o NIhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-lojban-within-mekso"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a =E2=80= =9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume @@ -893,21 +893,21 @@ </bridgehead> =20 <para>Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction = selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-other-mekso-uses"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (=20 @@ -926,21 +926,21 @@ </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhI"/>. Marks the end of a termset.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house = from-the school. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PA"/> selma'o PA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section2"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-numbers"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminat= ed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi speni re ninmu I am-married-to two women. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE"/> selma'o PEhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-termsets"/>) @@ -948,21 +948,21 @@ =20 <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two term= sets. Termsets (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"CEhE"/>) are used to associate several terms for logi= cal connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in t= enses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO"/> selma'o PEhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-forethought"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhE"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"PU"/> selma'o PU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-= section-temporal-tenses"/>) @@ -1081,21 +1081,21 @@ =20 <para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"FOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU"/> selma'o TEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-vectors-matrices"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOhI"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MOhE"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhU"/>, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"NIhE"/>. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion c= onstruct.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du @@ -1168,21 +1168,21 @@ </bridgehead> =20 <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 <xref linkend=3D"GIhA"/> logical connection.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI"/> selma'o VEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-simple-infix"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. T= erminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D= plus one) equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n @@ -1223,33 +1223,33 @@ </bridgehead> =20 <para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connec= ted) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room. </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU"/> selma'o VUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-simple-infix"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>Mathematical operators (e.g. +, =E2=88=92). See=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> li mu vu'u re du li ci The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3. 5 =E2=88=92 2 =3D 3 </programlisting> <bridgehead> <anchor xml:id=3D"XI"/> selma'o XI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section13"/>) + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-section-subscripts"/>) </bridgehead> =20 <para>The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a = subscript for whatever precedes it.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> xy. xi re x sub 2 x <subscript>2</subscript> </programlisting> <bridgehead> commit a2cbb0a4f260557e1e422861caced687899adebc Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com> Date: Sun Jan 16 20:43:57 2011 -0500 Chapter 20 section title and neatening. diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index 37d5770..b5da6b6 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -478,23 +478,23 @@ <jbo>la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo> <en>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</en> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary><= /indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primar= y></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>na</primary><= secondary>order in logical connectives with se</secondary></indexterm> <in= dexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>order in = logical connectives with na</secondary></indexterm> If both=20 <jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and=20 <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> are present, which is legal but never necess= ary,=20 <jbophrase>na</jbophrase> would come before=20 <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>I se= lma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>= ijeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is:</para> - <xxx> + <place-structure> .i [na] [se] JA [nai] - </xxx> + </place-structure> <para>where the cmavo in brackets are optional.</para> </section> <section xml:id=3D"section-forethought-bridi-connection"> <title>Forethought bridi connection =20 =20 forethought conne= ctivescontrasted with afterthought connectives afterthough= t connectivescontrasted with forethought connectives Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two diffe= rent ways, generally referred to as=20 afterthought and=20 forethought.=20 discussed what is called= =20 diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml index 2146e9c..9916119 100644 --- a/todocbook/20.xml +++ b/todocbook/20.xml @@ -1,1271 +1,1344 @@ A Catalogue of selma'o -

+ <h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br /> + mkhtml: 1.1</h6> + --> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary>= <secondary>cross-reference list of</secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</te= rtiary></indexterm> The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban= , with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the = chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o na= mes are given in capital letters (with =E2=80=9Ch=E2=80=9D serving as the c= apital of =E2=80=9C'=E2=80=9D) and are the names of a representative cmavo,= often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example i= s given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most comm= on use is shown.</para> - =20 - <bridgehead> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>A</prim= ary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</seconda= ry><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives= -section-sumti-connection"/>)</bridgehead> + <bridgehead> + <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>A</primary><second= ary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imp= orted"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiar= y>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectiv= es-section-sumti-connection"/>) + </bridgehead> <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D), usually between sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci - John and/or Jane goes to the store. -</programlisting> + la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci + John and/or Jane goes to the store. + </programlisting> + =20 <para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with =E2=80= =9Cbu=E2=80=9D.</para> - <bridgehead> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI</pr= imary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>sumti place</primary><secondary>additional</= secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"BAI"/> selma'o BAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-BAI"/>)</bridgehead> + <bridgehead> + <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI</primary><seco= ndary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-i= mported"><primary>sumti place</primary><secondary>additional</secondary><te= rtiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"BAI"/> selma'o BAI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti= -tcita-section-BAI"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not o= therwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a s= ingle place of some other selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi tavla bau la lojban. - I speak in-language Lojban. -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAhE</p= rimary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>nonce word</primary><secondary>marking</seco= ndary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>emphasis</primary><secondary>marking</secondary>= <tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE"/> selma'o BAhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-bahe"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (on= e invented for the occasion).</para> + mi tavla bau la lojban. + I speak in-language Lojban. + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAhE</primary><sec= ondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-= imported"><primary>nonce word</primary><secondary>marking</secondary><terti= ary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-impo= rted"><primary>emphasis</primary><secondary>marking</secondary><tertiary>se= lma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"BAhE"/> selma'o BAhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-bahe"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (on= e invented for the occasion).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci - =20 -<emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store. - It is George who goes to the store. -</programlisting> + la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci + <emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store. + It is George who goes to the store. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BE"/> selma'o BE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-be-sumti"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BE"/> selma'o BE (<xref linkend=3D"section-be-sumt= i"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit m= aking up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, an= d successive places in that order.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE"/> is most useful in descriptions formed with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEI"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"BEhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama be ta troci - I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier. - I try to go to that place. - -</programlisting> + mi klama be ta troci + I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier. + I try to go to that place. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BEI"/> selma'o BEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-be-sumti"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BEI"/> selma'o BEI (<xref linkend=3D"section-be-su= mti"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Separates multiple sumti attached by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE"/> to a tanru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci - I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier. - I try to go from the home to the market. - -</programlisting> + mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci + I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier. + I try to go from the home to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO"/> selma'o BEhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-be-sumti"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BEhO"/> selma'o BEhO (<xref linkend=3D"section-be-= sumti"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"BE"/>. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru = unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama be le zarci be'o troci - I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier. - I try to go to the market. - -</programlisting> + mi klama be le zarci be'o troci + I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier. + I try to go to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE"/> selma'o BIhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priorit= y than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</pa= ra> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhE"/> selma'o BIhE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priorit= y than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze - - - The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. - 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 -</programlisting> + li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze + The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17. + 3 =C3=97 4 + 5 =3D 17 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI"/> selma'o BIhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-con= tinued"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BIhI"/> selma'o BIhI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-non-logical-continued-continued"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to for= m intervals. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GAhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. - I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. - -</programlisting> + mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. + I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt. + I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BO"/> selma'o BO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-three-part-tanru"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-sumti-negation"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BO"/> selma'o BO (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-three-part-tanru"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-sumti-negation"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to b= ind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> is always high precedence and right-grouping.</= para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta cmalu nixli bo ckule - That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). - That is a small school for girls. -</programlisting> + ta cmalu nixli bo ckule + That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). + That is a small school for girls. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BOI"/> selma'o BOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BOI"/> selma'o BOI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PA"/> or=20 <xref linkend=3D"BY"/>. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric = cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immedia= tely follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li re du li vu'u voboi re - The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two. -</programlisting> + li re du li vu'u voboi re + The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BU"/> selma'o BU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-section-bu"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BU"/> selma'o BU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-lettera= ls-section-bu"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word rep= resenting a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a sym= bol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to singl= e-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu - a, e, i, o, u, y. -</programlisting> + .abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu + a, e, i, o, u, y. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"BY"/> selma'o BY (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-section-lerfu-liste"/>)</bridgehead= > - <para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus vari= ous shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termi= nated by BOI.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"BY"/> selma'o BY (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-lettera= ls-section-lerfu-liste"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus vari= ous shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Termi= nated by BOI.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami - A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. - - A talks to B about IBM computers. - -</programlisting> + .abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami + A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers. + A talks to B about IBM computers. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CAI"/> selma'o CAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-intensity-scale"/>)</bri= dgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CAI"/> selma'o CAI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-attit= udinals-section-intensity-scale"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or= not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion= .</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .ei cai mi klama le zarci - - [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. - I must go to the market. -</programlisting> + .ei cai mi klama le zarci + [Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market. + I must go to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA"/> selma'o CAhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-caha"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential = (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CAhA"/> selma'o CAhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-caha"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential = (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ro datka ka'e flulimna - - All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers. - All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating. -</programlisting> + ro datka ka'e flulimna + All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers. + All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CEI"/> selma'o CEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-koha-broda-series"/>)= </bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CEI"/> selma'o CEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaph= oric-cmavo-section-koha-broda-series"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: = =E2=80=9Cbroda=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrode=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cbrodi=E2=80=9D, = =E2=80=9Cbrodo=E2=80=9D, or =E2=80=9Cbrodu=E2=80=9D, for later use.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda - - .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu - This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. - - The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. - -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE"/> selma'o CEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses.</para> + ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda + .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu + This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy. + The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small. + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CEhE"/> selma'o CEhE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associ= ate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or f= or special constructs in tenses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo - - I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. - I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. -</programlisting> + mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo + I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. + I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CO"/> selma'o CO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-co-inversion"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CO"/> selma'o CO (<xref linkend=3D"section-co-inve= rsion"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so = that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani - I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). - I try to go to the market from the house. - -</programlisting> + mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani + I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). + I try to go to the market from the house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"COI"/> selma'o COI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-vocatives"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-vocatives"/>)</bridgehea= d> - <para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"COI"/> selma'o COI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-vocatives"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-vocatives"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocat= ive: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). = Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewel= l, and radio communication. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOhU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - coi .djan. - Greetings, John. -</programlisting> + coi .djan. + Greetings, John. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CU"/> selma'o CU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-cu"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it.= Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable t= erminators.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CU"/> selma'o CU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-t= cita-section-cu"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it.= Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable t= erminators.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le gerku cu klama le zarci - The dog goes to-the store. -</programlisting> + le gerku cu klama le zarci + The dog goes to-the store. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE"/> selma'o CUhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-tense-questions"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"CUhE"/> selma'o CUhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-tense-questions"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the res= t of the bridi is true. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"PU"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"CAhA"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE"/>, and=20 <xref linkend=3D"BAI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - do cu'e klama le zarci - You [When/Where?] go to-the store? - When are you going to the store? -</programlisting> + do cu'e klama le zarci + You [When/Where?] go to-the store? + When are you going to the store? + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO"/> selma'o DAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-daho"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"DAhO"/> selma'o DAhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ana= phoric-cmavo-section-daho"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o= =20 <xref linkend=3D"KOhA"/>) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOhA"/>).</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DOI"/> selma'o DOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-vocatives"/>)</bridgehea= d> - <para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"DOI"/> selma'o DOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-attit= udinals-section-vocatives"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without= =20 <xref linkend=3D"COI"/>. No pause is required between =E2=80=9Cdoi=E2= =80=9D and a following name. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - doi frank. mi tavla do - O Frank, I speak-to you. - Frank, I=E2=80=99m talking to you. -</programlisting> + doi frank. mi tavla do + O Frank, I speak-to you. + Frank, I=E2=80=99m talking to you. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU"/> selma'o DOhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-vocatives"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"DOhU"/> selma'o DOhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-att= itudinals-section-vocatives"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"COI"/> or=20 <xref linkend=3D"DOI"/>. Signals the end of a vocative.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - coi do'u - - Greetings [terminator] - Greetings, O unspecified one! -</programlisting> + coi do'u + Greetings [terminator] + Greetings, O unspecified one! + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FA"/> selma'o FA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-FA"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FA"/> selma'o FA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-t= cita-section-FA"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place= structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce - x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car. - I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car. -</programlisting> + fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce + x1=3D I go x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x4=3D the road x5=3D the car. + I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhA"/> selma'o FAhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhA"/> selma'o FAhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-spatial-tenses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked w= ith=20 <xref linkend=3D"MOhI"/>) or along which (when prefixed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhA"/> or=20 <xref linkend=3D"VIhA"/>) the action of the bridi takes place.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku - The man [left] bites the dog. - To my left, the man bites the dog. -</programlisting> + le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku + The man [left] bites the dog. + To my left, the man bites the dog. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhO"/> selma'o FAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-faho"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FAhO"/> selma'o FAhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-faho"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there = is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE"/> selma'o FEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-fehe"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhE"/> selma'o FEhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-fehe"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using=20 <xref linkend=3D"TAhE"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"ROI"/>, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"ZAhO"/>) refers to space rather than time.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni - - You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain. - Sow the grain in a line and evenly! -</programlisting> + ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni + You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain. + Sow the grain in a line and evenly! + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU"/> selma'o FEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-selbri-modals"/>)</bridge= head> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FEhU"/> selma'o FEhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sum= ti-tcita-section-selbri-modals"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"FIhO"/>. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: th= e tagged sumti immediately follows.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle - I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing - I see you with the left eye. -</programlisting> + mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle + I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing + I see you with the left eye. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FIhO"/> selma'o FIhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-selbri-modals"/>)</bridge= head> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FIhO"/> selma'o FIhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sum= ti-tcita-section-selbri-modals"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal = tag, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"BAI"/>. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"FEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle - I see you with eye the left-thing - I see you with my left eye. -</programlisting> + mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle + I see you with eye the left-thing + I see you with my left eye. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FOI"/> selma'o FOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-section-accents"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FOI"/> selma'o FOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-lette= rals-section-accents"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins w= ith=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEI"/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - tei .ebu .akut. bu foi - ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) - the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent -</programlisting> + tei .ebu .akut. bu foi + ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) + the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA"/> selma'o FUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section16"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhA"/> selma'o FUhA (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section16"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be in= terpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators fo= llow their operands.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo - - the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four - 2 + 2 =3D 4 -</programlisting> + li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo + the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four + 2 + 2 =3D 4 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE"/> selma'o FUhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-attitudinal-scope"/>)</brid= gehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhE"/> selma'o FUhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-attitudinal-scope"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI"/> affect not the preceding word, as usual, but ra= ther all following words until a=20 <xref linkend=3D"FUhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse - - - I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor - I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one. -</programlisting> + mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse + I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor + I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO"/> selma'o FUhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-attitudinal-scope"/>)</brid= gehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"FUhO"/> selma'o FUhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-attitudinal-scope"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Cancels all indicators of selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"UI"/> which are in effect.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse - - - I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. - I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. -</programlisting> + mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse + I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor. + I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GA"/> selma'o GA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connect= ion"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-= tails, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth .= .. and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2= =80=9D, and so on. See=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"GA"/> selma'o GA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connect= ives-section-forethought-bridi-connection"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-= tails, or various other things. Logical connections include =E2=80=9Cboth .= .. and=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Ceither ... or=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif ... then=E2= =80=9D, and so on. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu - Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). -</programlisting> + ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu + Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO"/> selma'o GAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-con= tinued"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"GAhO"/> selma'o GAhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-non-logical-continued-continued"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies whether an interval specified by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI"/> includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in p= airs before and after the=20 <xref linkend=3D"BIhI"/> cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left= - and the right-hand endpoints.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. - I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt= . - I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. - -</programlisting> + mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. + I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfu= rt. + I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU"/> selma'o GEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)= </bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"GEhU"/> selma'o GEhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-rel= ative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI"/>. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu - John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. -</programlisting> + la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu + John (referred to as it-1) is-blue. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GI"/> selma'o GI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connect= ion"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru = units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought conne= ctive involving=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"GI"/> selma'o GI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connect= ives-section-forethought-bridi-connection"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru = units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought conne= ctive involving=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"GUhA"/>, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu - (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. -</programlisting> + ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu + (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA"/> selma'o GIhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"GIhA"/> selma'o GIhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-six-types"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies a logical connective (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-t= ail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any = preceding sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. - I go-to the market and like John. -</programlisting> + mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. + I go-to the market and like John. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GOI"/> selma'o GOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)= </bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"GOI"/> selma'o GOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-relat= ive-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a= subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"GEhU"/> See=20 <xref linkend=3D"NOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu - John (referred to as it-1) is blue. -</programlisting> + la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu + John (referred to as it-1) is blue. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GOhA"/> selma'o GOhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>)</b= ridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"GOhA"/> selma'o GOhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ana= phoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of briv= la. There are several groups of these.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - A: mi klama le zarci - B: mi go'i - - A: I=E2=80=99m going to the market. - B: Me, too. -</programlisting> + A: mi klama le zarci + B: mi go'i + A: I=E2=80=99m going to the market. + B: Me, too. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA"/> selma'o GUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"GUhA"/> selma'o GUhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-six-types"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. = Takes the place of=20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/> when forming logically-connected tanru. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu - Alice is both rich and blue. -</programlisting> + la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu + Alice is both rich and blue. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"I"/> selma'o I (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-i"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"I"/> selma'o I (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure= -section-i"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Separates two sentences from each other.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani - I go-to the market. I go-to the office. -</programlisting> + mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani + I go-to the market. I go-to the office. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JA"/> selma'o JA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"JA"/> selma'o JA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-connect= ives-section-six-types"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, =E2= =80=9Cor=E2=80=9D, =E2=80=9Cif=E2=80=9D) between two tanru units, mathemati= cal operands, tenses, or abstractions.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ti blanu je zdani - This is-blue and a-house. -</programlisting> + ti blanu je zdani + This is-blue and a-house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JAI"/> selma'o JAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-jai"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"JAI"/> selma'o JAI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti= -tcita-section-jai"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator= attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place o= f the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place = of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of= the abstracted-over bridi.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari - I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. - I act so as to modify the wall color. - I change the color of the wall. -</programlisting> + mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari + I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color. + I act so as to modify the wall color. + I change the color of the wall. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI"/> selma'o JOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-connectives"/= >)</bridgehead> - <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"JOI"/> selma'o JOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-conne= ctives-section-non-logical-connectives"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, = -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things= . When immediately followed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"GI"/>, provides forethought non-logical connection an= alogous to=20 - =20 <xref linkend=3D"GA"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno - John massed-with Alice carry the piano. - -</programlisting> + la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno + John massed-with Alice carry the piano. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI"/> selma'o JOhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"JOhI"/> selma'o JOhI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list termi= nated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional = array).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du - li jo'i voboi xaboi - The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals - the-number array (four, six). - (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) -</programlisting> + li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du + li jo'i voboi xaboi + The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals + the-number array (four, six). + (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KE"/> selma'o KE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-ke-grouping"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KE"/> selma'o KE (<xref linkend=3D"section-ke-grou= ping"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Groups everything between itself and a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEhE"/> for purposes of logical connection, tanru con= struction, or other purposes.=20 <xref linkend=3D"KE"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEhE"/> are not used for mathematical (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEI"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhO"/>) or discursive (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"TO"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"TOI"/>) purposes.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule - That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. - That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. -</programlisting> + ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule + That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. + That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KEI"/> selma'o KEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-abstractions-section-syntax"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KEI"/> selma'o KEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-abstr= actions-section-syntax"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NU"/>. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.</para> - =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica - John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. - John wants to be a soldier. -</programlisting> + la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica + John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. + John wants to be a soldier. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE"/> selma'o KEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-ke-grouping"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KEhE"/> selma'o KEhE (<xref linkend=3D"section-ke-= grouping"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"KE"/>. Marks the end of a grouping.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule - That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. - That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. -</programlisting> + ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule + That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. + That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KI"/> selma'o KI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-sticky-tenses"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KI"/> selma'o KI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-= section-sticky-tenses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it =E2=80=9Csticky=E2= =80=9D, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appe= arance of=20 <xref linkend=3D"KI"/>. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.</par= a> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KOhA"/> selma'o KOhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-introduction"/>)</bri= dgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KOhA"/> selma'o KOhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ana= phoric-cmavo-section-introduction"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute = for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti - The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-than= this-thing. -</programlisting> + le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti + The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-th= an this-thing. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KU"/> selma'o KU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-introduction"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KU"/> selma'o KU (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-introduction"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE"/> and some uses of=20 <xref linkend=3D"LA"/>. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also= used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the = compound=20 <xref linkend=3D"NA"/>+=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU"/> to indicate natural language-style negation.</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le prenu ku le zdani ku klama - The person, to-the house, goes. - The person goes to the house. -</programlisting> + le prenu ku le zdani ku klama + The person, to-the house, goes. + The person goes to the house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE"/> selma'o KUhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhE"/> selma'o KUhE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"PEhO"/>: indicates the end of a forethought mathemati= cal expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa - - The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-numbe= r six. -</programlisting> + li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa + The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-num= ber six. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO"/> selma'o KUhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-poi"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"KUhO"/> selma'o KUhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-rel= ative-clauses-section-poi"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NOI"/>. Indicates the end of a relative clause.</para= > <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda - The house which is-blue is-big. -</programlisting> + le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda + The house which is-blue is-big. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LA"/> selma'o LA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/>)</bridgehe= ad> - <para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which= identify people or things by name. Similar to=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"LA"/> selma'o LA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-s= ection-basic-descriptors"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which= identify people or things by name. Similar to=20 <xref linkend=3D"LE"/>. May be terminated with=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU"/> if followed by a description selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la kikeros. du la tulis. - Cicero is Tully. -</programlisting> + la kikeros. du la tulis. + Cicero is Tully. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LAU"/> selma'o LAU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-section-lerfu-cmavo-summary"/>)</br= idgehead> - <para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a sin= gle marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, e= tc.)</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LAU"/> selma'o LAU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-lette= rals-section-lerfu-cmavo-summary"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a sin= gle marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, e= tc.)</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - tau sy. .ibu - [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D - Si (chemical symbol for silicon) -</programlisting> + tau sy. .ibu + [single-shift] =E2=80=9Cs=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Ci=E2=80=9D + Si (chemical symbol for silicon) + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE"/> selma'o LAhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-sumti-qualifiers"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LAhE"/> selma'o LAhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sum= ti-section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into anoth= er sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from = selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE"/> plus=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/>. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska la'e zoi kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot - I see that-represented-by the-text =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80= =9D. - I see the book =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80=9D. -</programlisting> + mi viska la'e zoi kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot + I see that-represented-by the-text =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2= =80=9D. + I see the book =E2=80=9CA Tale of Two Cities=E2=80=9D. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LE"/> selma'o LE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/>)</bridgehe= ad> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LE"/> selma'o LE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-s= ection-basic-descriptors"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or speci= fy things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"LA"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le gerku cu klama le zdani - The dog goes-to the house. -</programlisting> + le gerku cu klama le zdani + The dog goes-to the house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LEhU"/> selma'o LEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-quotations"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LEhU"/> selma'o LEhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates the end of a quotation begun with=20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhU"/>. Not an elidable terminator.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani - [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. - =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. -</programlisting> + lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani + [quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct. + =E2=80=9Cmi du do du mi=E2=80=9D is not correct Lojban. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LI"/> selma'o LI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"LI"/> selma'o LI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressio= ns into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by= =20 <xref linkend=3D"LOhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo - The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. - 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 -</programlisting> + li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo + The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4. + 2 - 2 =E2=89=A0 4 + 4 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU"/> selma'o LIhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-quotations"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LIhU"/> selma'o LIhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LU"/>. Indicates the end of a text quotation.</para> - =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u - I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. -</programlisting> + mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u + I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO"/> selma'o LOhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhO"/> selma'o LOhO (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section17"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI"/>. Indicates the end of a mathematical expression= used in a=20 <xref linkend=3D"LI"/> description.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu - - The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. - 4 > 3 -</programlisting> + li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu + The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater. + 4 > 3 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU"/> selma'o LOhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-quotations"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LOhU"/> selma'o LOhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they= form a text or not. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u - You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote]. - You said, =E2=80=9Cmi du do du ko'a=E2=80=9D. -</programlisting> + do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u + You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote]. + You said, =E2=80=9Cmi du do du ko'a=E2=80=9D. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LU"/> selma'o LU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-quotations"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LU"/> selma'o LU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is gramma= tical only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Ter= minated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"LIhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u - I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. -</programlisting> + mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u + I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote]. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU"/> selma'o LUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-section-sumti-qualifiers"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"LUhU"/> selma'o LUhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-sum= ti-section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhE"/>+=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/>. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u - - - I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] - I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]. -</programlisting> + mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u + I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref] + I saw =E2=80=9CBig Dog=E2=80=9D [not the words, but a book or movie]= . + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI"/> selma'o MAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-introduction"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MAI"/> selma'o MAI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-introduction"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a = free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - pamai mi pu klama le zarci - 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. - First, I went to the market. -</programlisting> + pamai mi pu klama le zarci + 1-thly, I [past] go to-the market. + First, I went to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO"/> selma'o MAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MAhO"/> selma'o MAhO (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand.= Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ma'o fy. boi xy. - [operator] f x - =20 -<emphasis>f(x)</emphasis> -</programlisting> + ma'o fy. boi xy. + [operator] f x + <emphasis>f(x)</emphasis> + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ME"/> selma'o ME (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-me-selbri"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ME"/> selma'o ME (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-me-selbri"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section1"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the t= hings referenced by the sumti. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"MEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta me la ford. karce - That is-a-Ford-type car - That=E2=80=99s a Ford car. -</programlisting> + ta me la ford. karce + That is-a-Ford-type car + That=E2=80=99s a Ford car. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MEhU"/> selma'o MEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-place-conversion"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MEhU"/> selma'o MEhU (<xref linkend=3D"section-pla= ce-conversion"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>The elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"ME"/>. Indicates the end of a sumti converted to a ta= nru unit.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta me mi me'u zdani - That=E2=80=99s a me type of house. -</programlisting> + ta me mi me'u zdani + That=E2=80=99s a me type of house. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI"/> selma'o MOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-place-conversion"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOI"/> selma'o MOI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-place-conversion"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various n= umerically-based selbri.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei - John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome. - John and Frank are two brothers. - - -</programlisting> + la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei + John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome. + John and Frank are two brothers. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE"/> selma'o MOhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhE"/> selma'o MOhE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimen= sioned units. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu - - The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. - 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. -</programlisting> + li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu + The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals. + 2 rats + 2 rabbits =3D 4 animals. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI"/> selma'o MOhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-movement"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"MOhI"/> selma'o MOhI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-movement"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specif= ied by a following=20 <xref linkend=3D"FAhA"/> cmavo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli - The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. - The child walks toward my right on the ice. - -</programlisting> + le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli + The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. + The child walks toward my right on the ice. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NA"/> selma'o NA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>)</bridgehe= ad> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NA"/> selma'o NA (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (o= r true).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi na klama le zarci - It is not true that I go to the market. -</programlisting> + mi na klama le zarci + It is not true that I go to the market. + </programlisting> + =20 <para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAI"/> selma'o NAI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>)</bridgehe= ad> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAI"/> selma'o NAI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain sel= ma'o as specified by the grammar.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE"/> selma'o NAhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-negation-section-nahe"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhE"/> selma'o NAhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-neg= ation-section-nahe"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other = than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with fo= llowing=20 <xref linkend=3D"BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see=20 <xref linkend=3D"LAhE"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta na'e blanu zdani - That is-a-non- blue house. - That is a house which is other than blue. -</programlisting> + ta na'e blanu zdani + That is-a-non- blue house. + That is a house which is other than blue. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU"/> selma'o NAhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NAhU"/> selma'o NAhU (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i - - The-number the-operator tangent (=20 -<phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase> / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. - - tan( -<phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE"/> selma'o NIhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>)</bridgehead> + li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i + The-number the-operator tangent (=20 + <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase> / 2 ) =3D the-number infinity. + tan( + <phrase role=3D"IPA">=CF=80</phrase>/2) =3D =E2=88=9E + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhE"/> selma'o NIhE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section18"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a =E2=80= =9Cni=E2=80=9D abstraction. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i - - ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu - - The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times - quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. - Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO"/> selma'o NIhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-niho"/>)</bridgehead> + li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i + ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu + The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times + quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume. + Length =C3=97 Width =C3=97 Depth =3D Volume + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NIhO"/> selma'o NIhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-niho"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it= contains old or new subject matter.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NOI"/> selma'o NOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-poi"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NOI"/> selma'o NOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-relat= ive-clauses-section-poi"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the pr= eceding sumti. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhO"/>. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu - The house which is blue is small. -</programlisting> + le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu + The house which is blue is small. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NU"/> selma'o NU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-abstractions-section-syntax"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NU"/> selma'o NU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-abstrac= tions-section-syntax"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction = selbri. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KEI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] - John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. -</programlisting> + la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] + John desires the event-of being-a-soldier. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section19"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See=20 <xref linkend=3D"VUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu - The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 -</programlisting> + li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu + The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultan= eous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated = by=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] - I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. -</programlisting> + mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] + I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house = from-the school. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU"/> selma'o NUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"NUhU"/> selma'o NUhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-termsets"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"NUhI"/>. Marks the end of a termset.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] - I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house fr= om-the school. -</programlisting> + mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u] + I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house = from-the school. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PA"/> selma'o PA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section2"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"PA"/> selma'o PA (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section2"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminat= ed by=20 <xref linkend=3D"BOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi speni re ninmu - I am-married-to two women. -</programlisting> + mi speni re ninmu + I am-married-to two women. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE"/> selma'o PEhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhE"/> selma'o PEhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-con= nectives-section-termsets"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two term= sets. Termsets (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"CEhE"/>) are used to associate several terms for logi= cal connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in t= enses.</para> - =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo - - I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. - I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. -</programlisting> + mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo + I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of. + I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO"/> selma'o PEhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"PEhO"/> selma'o PEhO (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section6"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which = precede their operands. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"KUhE"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re - - The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. -</programlisting> + li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re + The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"PU"/> selma'o PU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-temporal-tenses"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"PU"/> selma'o PU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-= section-temporal-tenses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</pa= ra> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi pu klama le zarci - I [past] go-to the market. - I went to the market. -</programlisting> + mi pu klama le zarci + I [past] go-to the market. + I went to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO"/> selma'o RAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>)</b= ridgehead> - <para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicit= ly attached to a pro-bridi (see=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"RAhO"/> selma'o RAhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ana= phoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicit= ly attached to a pro-bridi (see=20 <xref linkend=3D"GOhA"/>) to fit the current context rather than the o= riginal context.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - A: mi ba lumci le mi karce - B: mi go'i - - A: I [future] wash my car. - B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A=E2=80=99s car). - - A: mi ba lumci le mi karce - B: mi go'i ra'o - - - A: I [future] wash my car. - B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=E2=80=99s car). -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ROI"/> selma'o ROI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-interval-properties"/>)</bridg= ehead> + A: mi ba lumci le mi karce + B: mi go'i + A: I [future] wash my car. + B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A=E2=80=99s car). + A: mi ba lumci le mi karce + B: mi go'i ra'o + A: I [future] wash my car. + B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B=E2=80=99s car). + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ROI"/> selma'o ROI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tense= s-section-interval-properties"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once= , twice, many times).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi reroi klama le zarci - I twice go-to the market. -</programlisting> + mi reroi klama le zarci + I twice go-to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SA"/> selma'o SA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-erasure"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"SA"/> selma'o SA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-erasure"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Erases the previous phrase or sentence.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi klama sa do klama le zarci - I go, er, you go-to the market. -</programlisting> + mi klama sa do klama le zarci + I go, er, you go-to the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SE"/> selma'o SE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"section-brivla"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-SE"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"SE"/> selma'o SE (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"section-brivla"/>,=20 + <xref linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-section-SE"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging= the x1 place with a specified numbered place.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le zarci cu se klama mi - The market is-gone-to by me. -</programlisting> + le zarci cu se klama mi + The market is-gone-to by me. + </programlisting> + =20 <para>Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.</= para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SEI"/> selma'o SEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-parentheses"/>)</bridgehead= > - <para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment o= n the main bridi. Terminated by=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"SEI"/> selma'o SEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-struc= ture-section-parentheses"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment o= n the main bridi. Terminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"SEhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein. - Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. -</programlisting> + la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein. + Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU"/> selma'o SEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-parentheses"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"SEhU"/> selma'o SEhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-parentheses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"SEI"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"SOI"/>. Ends metalinguistic insertions.</para> - =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein. - Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. -</programlisting> + la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein. + Frank loves (he is happy) Jane. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SI"/> selma'o SI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-erasure"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"SI"/> selma'o SI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-erasure"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Erases the previous single word.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi si do klama le zarci - I, er, you go to-the market. -</programlisting> + mi si do klama le zarci + I, er, you go to-the market. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SOI"/> selma'o SOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-voha-series"/>)</brid= gehead> - <para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2= =80=9D in English).</para> - =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"SOI"/> selma'o SOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-anaph= oric-cmavo-section-voha-series"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like =E2=80=9Cvice versa=E2= =80=9D in English).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi prami do soi mi - I love you [reciprocally] me. - I love you and vice versa. -</programlisting> + mi prami do soi mi + I love you [reciprocally] me. + I love you and vice versa. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"SU"/> selma'o SU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-erasure"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"SU"/> selma'o SU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-erasure"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE"/> selma'o TAhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-interval-properties"/>)</bridg= ehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"TAhE"/> selma'o TAhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-interval-properties"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of ti= me or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le verba ta'e klama le ckule - - The child habitually goes to-the school. -</programlisting> + le verba ta'e klama le ckule + The child habitually goes to-the school. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TEI"/> selma'o TEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-section-accents"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"TEI"/> selma'o TEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-lette= rals-section-accents"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts gram= matically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elid= able selma'o=20 <xref linkend=3D"FOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - tei .ebu .akut. bu foi - ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) - the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent -</programlisting> + tei .ebu .akut. bu foi + ( =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D =E2=80=9Cacute=E2=80=9D ) + the letter =E2=80=9Ce=E2=80=9D with an acute accent + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU"/> selma'o TEhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"TEhU"/> selma'o TEhU (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section15"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"JOhI"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"MOhE"/>,=20 <xref linkend=3D"NAhU"/>, or=20 <xref linkend=3D"NIhE"/>. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion c= onstruct.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du - li jo'i voboi xaboi - The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals - the-number array( four, six). - (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) -</programlisting> + li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du + li jo'i voboi xaboi + The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals + the-number array( four, six). + (1,2) + (3,4) =3D (4,6) + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TO"/> selma'o TO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-parentheses"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"TO"/> selma'o TO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-parentheses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Term= inated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TOI"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu - O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. - Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. -</programlisting> + doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mla= tu + O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you se= e the cat. + Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TOI"/> selma'o TOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-parentheses"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"TOI"/> selma'o TOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-struc= ture-section-parentheses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"TO"/>. The right discursive parenthesis.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu - O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see = the cat. - Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. -</programlisting> + doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mla= tu + O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you se= e the cat. + Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhE"/> selma'o TUhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-i"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhE"/> selma'o TUhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-i"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Ter= minated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"TUhU"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu= 'u] - Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. - As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [i= s best]. -</programlisting> + lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [= tu'u] + Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old. + As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old = [is best]. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhU"/> selma'o TUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-i"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"TUhU"/> selma'o TUhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-i"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"TUhE"/>. Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.<= /para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"UI"/> selma'o UI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-section-introduction"/>)</bridge= head> + <anchor xml:id=3D"UI"/> selma'o UI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-attitud= inals-section-introduction"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Particles which indicate the speaker=E2=80=99s emotional state o= r source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - .ui la djan. klama - [Happiness!] John is-coming. - Hurrah! John is coming! -</programlisting> + .ui la djan. klama + [Happiness!] John is-coming. + Hurrah! John is coming! + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VA"/> selma'o VA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"VA"/> selma'o VA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-= section-spatial-tenses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</p= ara> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le nanmu va batci le gerku - The man [medium distance] bites the dog. - Over there the man is biting the dog. -</programlisting> + le nanmu va batci le gerku + The man [medium distance] bites the dog. + Over there the man is biting the dog. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU"/> selma'o VAU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-section-compound-bridi"/>)</bridg= ehead> - <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"VAU"/> selma'o VAU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-conne= ctives-section-compound-bridi"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail o= f a=20 <xref linkend=3D"GIhA"/> logical connection.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] - I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. -</programlisting> + mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau] + I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI"/> selma'o VEI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. T= erminated by=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEI"/> selma'o VEI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. T= erminated by=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du - li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa - - The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals - the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. - (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n -<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 -</programlisting> - <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA"/> selma'o VEhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-interval-sizes"/>)</bridgehead= > + li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du + li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa + The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D= plus one) equals + the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. + (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n + <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 + </programlisting> + <bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhA"/> selma'o VEhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-interval-sizes"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, mediu= m, or short).</para> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO"/> selma'o VEhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-questions"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"VEhO"/> selma'o VEhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-str= ucture-section-questions"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Elidable terminator for=20 <xref linkend=3D"VEI"/>: right mathematical parenthesis.</para> - =20 <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du - li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa - - The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D p= lus one) equals - the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. - (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n -<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 -</programlisting> + li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du + li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa + The-number (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus one) times (=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D= plus one) equals + the-number n-power-two plus two-times-=E2=80=9Cn=E2=80=9D plus 1. + (n + 1)(n + 1) =3D n + <superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA"/> selma'o VIhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-dimensionality"/>)</bridgehead= > - <para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval).</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"VIhA"/> selma'o VIhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-dimensionality"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume,= or space-time interval).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli - - The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. - In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. -</programlisting> + le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli + The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice. + In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO"/> selma'o VUhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhO"/> selma'o VUhO (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter8-section8"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connec= ted) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa - Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. - Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room. -</programlisting> + la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa + Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room. + Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU"/> selma'o VUhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"VUhU"/> selma'o VUhU (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section5"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Mathematical operators (e.g. +, =E2=88=92). See=20 <xref linkend=3D"MAhO"/>.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - li mu vu'u re du li ci - The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3. - 5 =E2=88=92 2 =3D 3 -</programlisting> + li mu vu'u re du li ci + The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3. + 5 =E2=88=92 2 =3D 3 + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"XI"/> selma'o XI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section13"/>)</bridgehead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"XI"/> selma'o XI (=20 + <xref linkend=3D"cll_chapter18-section13"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a = subscript for whatever precedes it.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - xy. xi re - x sub 2 - x -<subscript>2</subscript> -</programlisting> + xy. xi re + x sub 2 + x + <subscript>2</subscript> + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"Y"/> selma'o Y (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-hesitation"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"Y"/> selma'o Y (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure= -section-hesitation"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues= the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be inte= rpreted as having nothing more to say.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - doi .y. .y. .djan - O, uh, uh, John! -</programlisting> + doi .y. .y. .djan + O, uh, uh, John! + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO"/> selma'o ZAhO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-event-contours"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZAhO"/> selma'o ZAhO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-event-contours"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginn= ing, ending, continuing).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi pu'o damba - I [inchoative] fight. - I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. -</programlisting> + mi pu'o damba + I [inchoative] fight. + I=E2=80=99m on the verge of fighting. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI"/> selma'o ZEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-morphol= ogy-section-rafsi"/>)</bridgehead> - <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEI"/> selma'o ZEI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-morph= ology-section-rafsi"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands b= etween into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - ta xy. zei kantu kacma - That is-an-(X - ray) camera. - That is an X-ray camera. - -</programlisting> + ta xy. zei kantu kacma + That is-an-(X - ray) camera. + That is an X-ray camera. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA"/> selma'o ZEhA (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-interval-sizes"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZEhA"/> selma'o ZEhA (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-ten= ses-section-interval-sizes"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium= , or short).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi puze'a citka - I [past] [short interval] eat. - I ate for a little while. -</programlisting> + mi puze'a citka + I [past] [short interval] eat. + I ate for a little while. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZI"/> selma'o ZI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-section-temporal-tenses"/>)</bridgehea= d> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZI"/> selma'o ZI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-= section-temporal-tenses"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short tim= e ago or in the future).</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi puzi citka - I [past] [short distance] eat. - I ate a little while ago. -</programlisting> + mi puzi citka + I [past] [short distance] eat. + I ate a little while ago. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZIhE"/> selma'o ZIhE (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-section-zihe"/>)</bridgehead= > + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZIhE"/> selma'o ZIhE (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-rel= ative-clauses-section-zihe"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the sa= me sumti. Although generally translated with =E2=80=9Cand=E2=80=9D, it is n= ot considered a logical connective.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a - I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love = it. - I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love. - I own a white dog, which I love. -</programlisting> + mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a + I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I lov= e it. + I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love. + I own a white dog, which I love. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZO"/> selma'o ZO (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-more-quotations"/>)</bridge= head> - <para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.<= /para> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZO"/> selma'o ZO (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-structu= re-section-more-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> =20 + <para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.<= /para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - zo si cu lojbo valsi - The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word. -</programlisting> + zo si cu lojbo valsi + The-word =E2=80=9Csi=E2=80=9D is-a-Lojbanic word. + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI"/> selma'o ZOI (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-more-quotations"/>)</bridge= head> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOI"/> selma'o ZOI (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-struc= ture-section-more-quotations"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (w= hich can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The d= elimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the = text by pauses.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra - - The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence. - -</programlisting> + zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra + The-text =E2=80=9CSocrates is mortal=E2=80=9D is-an-English sentence= . + </programlisting> <bridgehead> - <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU"/> selma'o ZOhU (=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-section-da-and-zohu"/>,=20 - <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section-topic-comments"/>)</bridgeh= ead> + <anchor xml:id=3D"ZOhU"/> selma'o ZOhU (<xref linkend=3D"chapter-qua= ntifiers-section-da-and-zohu"/>, <xref linkend=3D"chapter-structure-section= -topic-comments"/>) + </bridgehead> + =20 <para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to= which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment s= entences.</para> <programlisting xml:space=3D"preserve"> - su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de - For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves= Y - There is a man who loves all fish. -</programlisting> + su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de + For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X lov= es Y + There is a man who loves all fish. + </programlisting> </section> </chapter> --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.