<anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1"/>

to diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index eb9ab5a..0c2020c 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -656,23 +656,23 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d1"/>

mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market.

really means: - + At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the e= vent I went to the market was in progress. - + tense direction= implications on scope of event= past eventpossible extension into present The vague or un= specified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, ther= e is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's pa= st! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the= -market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future. tense= Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness=20 points up a fundamental d= ifference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense s= entence like=20 I went to the market generally signifies that the goi= ng-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is comple= te at the time of speaking. Lojban=20 pu has no such implication. tense= aorist aoristdefinition= Classical Greek aorist tens= ecompared with Lojban tense Th= is property of a past tense is sometimes called=20 aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tens= e system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same propert= y, however: =20 =20 @@ -1550,23 +1550,23 @@ mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the= house. The second=20 pu is simply the past tense marker for the event of you= r going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. Ho= w are we to understand the first=20 pu, the sumti tcita? imaginary journey= starting at a different point = imaginary journey<= secondary>starting point All of our imaginary journ= eys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we= are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, n= amely at the event of your going to the house.=20 then says that my going to = the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, bu= t instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.=20 can therefore be translated= : - + I had gone to the market before you went to the house. - + sumti tcitabased on tense distance tense distanceas su= mti tcita spatial tensesas sumti tcita (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present contex= t.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d3"/>

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. The rat eats the cheese near the park. =20 @@ -1830,23 +1830,23 @@ pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku [past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites = the dog.

What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not=20 puba, but only=20 pu, since only=20 pu was made sticky with=20 ki. So the translation is: - + I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog. - + sumti with tense<= /primary>effect of main bridi tense on = embedded bridi tenseseffect of main bridi tense on tense on main bridieffect on embedded sumti with tenses tense on main bridieffect on embedded bridi tenses tenseon embedded bridi<= /secondary> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within= another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, = descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these = subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted re= lative to the tense of the main bridi: former marketexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10"/>

mi pu klama le ba'o zarci I [past] go-to the [perfective] market I went to the former market. diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index 0efb902..7a97453 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -214,43 +214,43 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11"/>

le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. The thing which I like happens often.

which in this context means - + My swimming happens often. - + Event descriptions with=20 le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and = lujvo place structures: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12"/>

la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study= Lojban is easy for me when I study.

under conditions<= /primary>example (The=20 when of the English would also be appropriate for a con= struction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than = that the studying is concurrent with the ease.) nuplace structure eventsplace structure The place structure of a=20 nu abstraction selbri is simply: - + x1 is an event of (the bridi) - +

Types of event abstractions =20 NU selma'o za'i= z= u'o pu'u mu'e event abstractionstypes Th= e following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mu'e =20 NU @@ -375,21 +375,21 @@ =20 Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens (the orig= inal marathon). =20 =20 =20 Further information on types of events can be found in=20 . The four event type abstractors have the following place structu= res: - + + I like the idea of your going to the store. = + zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 = living thingsexample Consider the sentence - Living things are made from cells. = + Living things are made from cells. This cannot be correctly expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2"/>

loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-m= ass-of cells

@@ -1877,21 +1877,21 @@ The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du GOhA identity

du<= /indexterm> identity predica= te The cmavo=20 du has the place structure: - du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... + du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... durationale for selection of selma'o for and ap= pears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.=20 du serves as mathematical=20 =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 . mintucontrasted with du ducontrasted with mintu The main difference between <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1"/>

@@ -1933,36 +1933,36 @@ for a complete list.) The obv= ious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place = of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually sta= nd as the first rafsi in their lujvo.

you-talkexample pro-sumti r= afsieffect of on place structure of lujvo<= /indexterm> lujvo<= secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 donta'a, meaning=20 you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 tavla be do, and would have the place str= ucture =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1"/> - t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 + t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4 since t2 (the addressee) is already known to = be=20 do. you-cmavoexample On the other hand, the lujvo=20 donma'o, literally=20 you-cmavo, which means=20 =20 a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 cmavo be zo do, and have the place struct= ure: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2"/> - c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 + c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 =20 since both the c2 place (the grammatical clas= s) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the c= ontext=20 do. fo'a pro-sumti rafs= ianticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient form= s An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 =20 fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expresse= d in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are = formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:<= /para> =20 =20 =20 diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index 8149bba..f40ac76 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -4,23 +4,23 @@ Introductory relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 selbri. sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. goexample = x1in place structure notation place structurenotation conventions klamaplace structure= of The stock example of a place structure is that = of the gismu=20 klama: - + klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3= via route x4 employing means of transport x5. - + The=20 x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. place structureinstability of The place structu= res of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work d= one so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all = users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the indi= vidual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of chan= ge to the brivla place structures.

Standard bridi form:=20 <valsi>cu</valsi> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

@@ -156,23 +156,23 @@

mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.

le karce occupies the x4 place, and the= refore=20 means: - + I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. - + This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7"/>

mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using= -the car.

@@ -417,23 +417,23 @@ fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu =20 [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? In=20 , the speaker uses the selbr= i=20 dunda, whose place structure is: - + dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3 - + answers= to place structure questions The tagged = sumti=20 fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes= to know whether the sumti=20 =20 do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is alr= eady occupied by=20 le rozgu). The listener can reply with a = sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 fa if the listener is the giver,=20 fi if he/she is the receiver. fi'aeffect on subsequent untagged sumti I have = inserted the tag=20 fe in brackets into=20 , but it is actually not nec= essary, because=20 @@ -469,39 +469,39 @@ 5th place conversion

SE selma'o SE selma'= ofor converting place structure SE selma'oeffect on selbri place structure converted selbrias d= ifferent selbri from unconverted converted selbriplace s= tructure of <= primary>converted selbriforming with SE converted selbridefinition So far we have seen w= ays to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of = the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o S= E are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (call= ed a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, aft= er the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places r= emain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and anoth= er. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thu= s, for example, when=20 =20 se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.<= /para> SE selma'oword formation of cmavo in SE selma'orationa= le for no 1st place conversion Note that the cmavo = of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no= =20 1st place conversion cmavo, because exchanging the x1 p= lace with itself is a pointless maneuver. se klamaplace structure of Here are the place s= tructures of=20 se klama: - + x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5 - + te<= /indexterm> and=20 te klama: - + x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5 - + ve<= /indexterm> and=20 ve klama: =20 - + x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 - + xe<= /indexterm> and=20 xe klama: - + x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5 - + SE selma'oeffect on place structure numbering N= ote that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in = the usual order, x1 to x5. Consider the following pair of examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1"/>

la bastn. cu se klama mi Boston is-the-destination of-me. Boston is my destination. @@ -612,50 +612,50 @@ mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing

The place structure of=20 blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as t= hat of=20 zdani, by the rule given in=20 . The place struct= ure of=20 zdani is: - + zdani: x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2 - + The place structure of=20 se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: - + x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 - + Consequently,=20 means: - + I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. - + Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 . multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 se te klama is achieved by exchanging the= x1 and x2 place of=20 =20 te klama, producing: se te FIXME: TAG SPOT - + x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using = x5 =20 - + On the other hand,=20 te se klama has a place structure derived= from swapping the x1 and x3 places of=20 se klama: - + x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5 - + multiple conversi= onavoiding which is quite diff= erent. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitra= ry scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligib= ly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a descripti= on. conversionswapping non-first places (Although no= one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound = conversions of the form=20 setese, where the first and third cmavo a= re the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others= , including x1, alone:=20 =20 setese (or equivalently=20 =20 tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, wherea= s=20 texete (or=20 xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)

@@ -669,23 +669,23 @@ modal place prefix

fe'u FEhU modal terminator

Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 viska, whose place structure is: - + viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 - + Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. FEhU selma'o<= /primary> fe= 'u FIhO selma'o fi'o see with left eyeexample fi'ouse in adding places to place structure place structure= adding new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and ar= e talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 viska such as=20 with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/>

@@ -695,23 +695,23 @@

fi'o with selbri<= /primary>meaning of modal tagfi'o with selbri a= s fi= 'oeffect on following selbri T= he three-place relation=20 viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the ey= e used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo=20 fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this ca= se the gismu=20 kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filli= ng the new place, namely=20 le zunle. The semantics of=20 fi'o kanla le zunle is that=20 le zunle fills the x1 place of=20 kanla, whose place structure is - + kanla: x1 is an/the eye of body x2 - + modal sumtias first place of modal tag selbri = modal place relationimportance of first place in fi'o tagrelation = of modal sumti following to selbri modal placerelation of = to selbri Thus=20 le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of=20 kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the cont= ext. It is important to remember that even though=20 le zunle is placed following=20 fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in th= e x1 place of=20 kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is= rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting= =20 fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the = selbri). modal sumtiand FA marking modal sumtieffect on place s= tructure modal sumtiposition in bridi seltcita sumti= definition (see also modal sumti) sumti tcitade= finition (see also modal tag) modal sumtidefinition (see a= lso seltcita sumti) modal tagdefinition (see also sumti tc= ita) modal placerationale for term name modal place<= secondary>definition The term for such an added pla= ce is a=20 modal place, as distinguished from the regular numbered= places. (This use of the word=20 @@ -720,23 +720,23 @@ modal tag, and the sumti which follows it a=20 modal sumti; the purely Lojban terms=20 =20 =20 sumti tcita and=20 seltcita sumti, respectively, are also co= mmonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any or= der; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi= to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. =20 Consider=20 again. Another way to view = the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for s= eeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 pilno, whose place structure is - + pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 - + and we can rewrite=20 as <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d2"/>

mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. I see you using my left eye. @@ -752,23 +752,23 @@ se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 fi'o pilno would mean=20 with tool user, leaving the tool unspecified.

Modal tags: BAI There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 pilno is one of them. The place structure of=20 pilno is: - + pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 - + BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 fi'o se pilno frequently would make many = Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is pr= ovided in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 sepi'o. =20 SE selma'o BAI = selma'o conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagssh= ort forms as BAI cmavo fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI c= mavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs Here=20 se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 =20 fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a = tag based on=20 se pilno rather than=20 @@ -951,33 +951,33 @@ with agent and=20 tezu'e means=20 with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) =20 =20 causals= gismu There are four causal gismu in Loj= ban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in Engli= sh as=20 causal: rinka -

>event x1 physically causes event x2

+ >event x1 physically causes event x2 krinu -

>event x1 is the justification for even= t x2

+ >event x1 is the justification for event x2<= /definition> mukti -

>event x1 is the (human) motive for eve= nt x2

+ >event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2= nibli -

>event x1 logically entails event x2

+ >event x1 logically entails event x2 modal causalsimplication differences causalsmodal modalsfor causal gismu Each of these g= ismu has a related modal:=20 ri'a,=20 ki'u,=20 =20 mu'i, and=20 =20 ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: =20 @@ -1565,25 +1565,25 @@ "less"English= wordexpressing with relative phrases "more"English wordexpressing with relative= phrases Modal relative phrases are often used with = the BAI cmavo=20 mau and=20 =20 me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 =20 zmadu (more than) and=20 mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures ar= e: zmadu: -

>x1 is more than x2 in property/quantit= y x3 by amount x4

+ >x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 = by amount x4 mleca: -

>x1 is less than x2 in property/quantit= y x3 by amount x4

+ >x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 = by amount x4 Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/>

la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. @@ -2611,17 +2611,17 @@ zukte

with actor

with means to goal

with goal =20 The lujvo=20 tamsmi on which=20 tai is based is derived from the tanru=20 tarmi simsa and has the place structure:<= /para> - + tamsmi: x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4 - + This lujvo is employed because=20 tarmi does not have a place structure useful for the mo= dal's purpose.

commit 5d38b598d6cb8f84ccd5aa5a0f2f597d1406dab0 Author: Robin Lee Powell Date: Sat Mar 19 00:12:44 2011 -0700 Automated conversion of to diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml index 68a2708..fd0074c 100644 --- a/todocbook/1.xml +++ b/todocbook/1.xml @@ -78,21 +78,21 @@ Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> this bookexamples of examples in this book The reader= will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book.= One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>go to the store</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1"/>

mi klama le zarci I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. - I go to the store. + I go to the store.

will become wearisomely familiar before=20 is reached. This method is delibe= rate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples whereve= r possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. = Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a tex= tbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). R= ather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-b= e Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the= usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. examplesstructure of structure of examples example of examples It is useful to talk further about=20 for what it illustrates abo= ut examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of= these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of th= e Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and = third lines are sometimes called the=20 =20 literal translation and the=20 colloquial translation respectively. Sometimes, when cl= arity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more = than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meanin= g. square bracketsuse of in notation Words are som= etimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose option= al grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example= ) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose word= s that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but = don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest= . In=20 diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml index 23f1a24..eb9ab5a 100644 --- a/todocbook/10.xml +++ b/todocbook/10.xml @@ -47,54 +47,54 @@ past time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d2"/>

mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci I in-the-past go-to the market. - I went to the market. + I went to the market.

ku kuwith tense tensewith ku = tensepos= ition in sentence alternative It is also possible t= o put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding=20 ku after it. This=20 ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never p= ossible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e1d3"/>

puku mi klama le zarci In-the-past I go-to the market. - Earlier, I went to the market. + Earlier, I went to the market.

mi klama puku le zarci I go-to in-the-past the market. - I went earlier to the market. + I went earlier to the market.

mi klama le zarci pu [ku] I go-to the market in-the-past. - I went to the market earlier. + I went to the market earlier.

tense= emphasizing by position in sentence tenseeffect= of different position in sentence=20 through=20 are different only in emp= hasis. Abnormal order, such as=20 through=20 exhibit, adds emphasis to= the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo=20 pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be mo= re noticeable.

@@ -164,21 +164,21 @@ temporal tense = elisioncompared with spatial tense elision in meaning<= /secondary> temp= oral tensecompared with spatial tense in elidability spati= al tensecompared with temporal tense in elidability spatia= l tenseas optional in English = English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of= ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no = need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what th= e optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, spac= e and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.<= /para> =20 VA selma'o<= /primary> FA= hA selma'o spatial tensedistance distancesp= ecification with VA VA selma'oand distance spatial tenseas an imaginary journey imaginary journeyan= d spatial tense spatial tensedefinition Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it = occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary jo= urney from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the dir= ection taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. Fo= r example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d1"/>

le nanmu va batci le gerku The man [medium distance] bites the dog. - Over there the man is biting the dog. + Over there the man is biting the dog.

va spatial tense<= /primary>reference frame spatial tensereferent = of i= maginary journeyending point = imaginary journeystarting point man biting dog What is at a mediu= m distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. Wha= t is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can u= nderstand the=20 va as saying:=20 If you want to get from the speaker's location to the locatio= n of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecifie= d). This=20 imaginary journey can be used to understand not only= =20 , but also every other spa= tial tense construct. directionspecification with FAhA FAhA selma'oand dir= ection spatial tensedirection Supp= ose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with = a VA cmavo: zu'a<= /indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -210,34 +210,34 @@ that-there, and=20 that-yonder.) distanceorder of relative to direction in spatial tenses<= /indexterm> directionorder of relative to distance in spatial tenses spatial tensesorder of direction and distance specifications tenseorder of distance specification in tenseorder = of direction specification in What about specifying= both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must = come before the distance: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d3"/>

le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog. - Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. + Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

As explained in=20 , it would be perfect= ly correct to use=20 ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of = the sentence to emphasize it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e2d4"/>

zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku [Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog. - Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog. + Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

Compound spatial tenses compound tense<= /primary>definition Humph, says the read= er: this talk of=20 imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the p= oint of it? –=20 zu'a means=20 on the left and=20 vi means=20 @@ -266,59 +266,59 @@ above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. Thi= s effect is typical of what happens when we=20 unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equi= valents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of L= ojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents. The opposite order also makes sense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d2"/>

le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku The man [left] [up] bites the dog. - Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog. + Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.=

compound spatia= l tenseeffect of different ordering In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the= same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship doe= s not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then eas= t, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the No= rth Pole. compound spatia= l tensewith direction and distance Each direction can have a distance following: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d3"/>

le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bite= s the dog. - Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites = the dog. + Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man b= ites the dog.

compound spatia= l tensebeginning with distance only A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, wit= hout any specified direction. (=20 , with VA alone, is really= a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d4"/>

le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog. - Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog. + Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.

compound spatia= l tenseas direction with-or-without distance Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, wi= th or without specified distances for each: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e3d5"/>

le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [w= ithin] bites the dog. - Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which= is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me= , the man bites the dog. + Within a place a long distance to the right of a place = which is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front = of me, the man bites the dog.

Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having = to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter= the Lojban version of=20 is than the English versi= on.

Temporal tenses: PU and ZI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -355,21 +355,21 @@ ZI selma'o<= /primary> PU= selma'o temporal tenseorder relative to spatial= spatial tenseorder relative to temporal tenserationa= le for relative order of temporal and spatial in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tenseorde= r of temporal and spatial in ZI selma'ocompared with VA PU sel= ma'ocompared with FAhA temporal tensescompared with spatial tenses Now that the reader u= nderstands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand abou= t temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o = PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal t= ense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is exp= ressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, th= en certain constructions would be ambiguous.) =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d1"/>

le nanmu pu batci le gerku The man [past] bites the dog. - The man bit the dog. + The man bit the dog.

means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary= journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of= course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in = the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.) ba ca pu spacecontrasted with time in number of directions timecontrasted with space in number of directions = Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:=20 pu for the past,=20 ca for the present, and=20 ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from= the corresponding gismu=20 purci,=20 cabna, and=20 balvi. See=20 @@ -394,67 +394,67 @@ point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they d= o not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, s= till less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subject= ive but also observer-based.) Here are some examples of temporal tenses: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d2"/>

le nanmu puzi batci le gerku The man [past] [short distance] bites the dog. - A short time ago, the man bit the dog. + A short time ago, the man bit the dog.

le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku The man [past] [past] bites the dog. Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the do= g. - The man had bitten the dog. - The man had been biting the dog. + The man had bitten the dog. + The man had been biting the dog.

le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog. Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man wi= ll bite the dog. Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog. - The man will have just bitten the dog. - The man will just have been biting the dog. + The man will have just bitten the dog. + The man will just have been biting the dog.

compound tempor= al tensebeginning with distance only What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban= does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d5"/>

le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku The man [short] [past] bites the dog. - Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will = bite the dog. + Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or = will bite the dog.

le nanmu zu batci le gerku The man [long] bites the dog. - A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the= dog. + A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bi= t the dog.

unspecified dir= ectiontemporal contrasted with in spatial<= /indexterm>=20 and=20 are perfectly legitimate,= but may not be very much used:=20 zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time = close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the f= uture. A rough translation might be=20 about now, but not exactly now. nearby in time<= /primary>example Because we can move in = any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happenin= g in an unspecified space direction (=20 nearby or=20 far away), but we live only from past to future, and = the idea of an event which happens=20 @@ -462,32 +462,32 @@ =20 tense= with both temporal and spatial Finally, = here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense: long ago and far aw= ayexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d7"/>

le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog. - Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog. + Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.

Alternatively, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e4d8"/>

le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space]. - The man bit the dog long ago and far away. + The man bit the dog long ago and far away. =20

Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ve'i @@ -525,131 +525,131 @@ mi vasxu (I breathe) is something which= is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the enti= re part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) a= nd ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have alre= ady studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over whi= ch the bridi is claimed to be true. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d1"/>

le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice. In a small space, the child walks on the ice. - The child walks about a small area of the ice. + The child walks about a small area of the ice.

child on iceexample means that her walking wa= s done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classifi= ed only roughly as=20 small, medium, large, and are relative to the context= : a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room. Here is an example using a time interval: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d2"/>

le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice. - For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the i= ce. + For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on = the ice.

intervalrelative order with direction and distance in tense tenseorder of directiondistance and interval = in Note that with no time direction word,=20 does not say when the wal= king happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to speci= fy both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval= always comes afterward: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d3"/>

le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.= For a medium time, the child walked on the ice. - The child walked on the ice for a while. + The child walked on the ice for a while.

interval direct= ionspecifying cameaning when followin= g interval specification directionfollowing interval in te= nse construct intervalfollowed by direction in tense const= ruct tensespecifying relation of interval to point specifi= ed by direction and distance intervalspecifying relation t= o point specified by direction and distance tenserelation = of point specified by direction and distance to interval tenserelation of interval to point specified by direction and distance interval<= /primary>relation to point specified by direction and distance In=20 , the relationship of the = interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the= interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the po= int? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this quest= ion can be conclusively answered: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d4"/>

mi ca ze'ica cusku dei I [present] [short time interval - present] express this-= utterance. - I am now saying this sentence. + I am now saying this sentence.

interval sizeas context-dependent means that = for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short = time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is=20 . Of course,=20 short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long s= entence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context,= the era of=20 Homo sapiens would only be a=20 ze'i interval. By contrast, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d5"/>

mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei I [present] [short time interval - past] express this-utt= erance. - I have just been saying this sentence. + I have just been saying this sentence.

imaginary journ= eywith interval direction pumeaning w= hen following interval specification means that for= a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been e= xpressing=20 . Here the imaginary journ= ey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves in= to the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d6"/>

mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal. For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal. - I ate my meal for a while. + I ate my meal for a while.

With=20 ca instead of=20 ba,=20 becomes=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d7"/>

mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal. For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal. - I ate my meal for a while. + I ate my meal for a while.

because the interval would then be centered on the past moment= rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial Engl= ish translations are the same – English is not well-suited to represe= nting this distinction. Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and = without specified directions: fish on rightexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d8"/>

ta ri'u ve'i finpe That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish. - That thing on my right is a fish. + That thing on my right is a fish.

In=20 , there is no equivalent i= n the colloquial English translation of the=20 small interval which the fish occupies. Neither the L= ojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e5d9"/>

ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe That-there [right] [short space interval - front] is-a-fi= sh. - That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish. + That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.

Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a po= int on my right to another point in front of the first point.

Vague intervals and non-specific tenses interval sizevague interval sizeunspecified What is the significance of failing to specify an interval = size of the type discussed in=20 =20 ? The Lojban rule is that = if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is lef= t vague by the speaker. For example: =20 @@ -675,21 +675,21 @@ aorist, in reference to a similar concept in the tens= e system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same propert= y, however: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e6d3"/>

le tricu ba crino The tree [future] is-green. - The tree will be green. + The tree will be green.

future eventpossible extension into present d= oes not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is= not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, g= reen may have already started. This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of= indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there a= re several ways of expressing that concept: see=20 (event contours) and=20 =20 =20 (logical connection bet= ween tenses).

@@ -728,21 +728,21 @@ through=20 ? Given the nature of ice,= probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumpt= ion explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e7d1"/>

le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli =20 The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-o= n the ice. - In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice. + In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.

vi'a sizeorder with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals dimensionalit= yorder with size in spatial tense intervals spatial tense = intervalsorder of size and dimensionality in spatial tense= intervalsorder of VEhA and VIhA in Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both,= VEhA must come first, as=20 shows. dimensionality<= /primary>of walking dimensionality of intervala= s subjective The reader may wish to raise a philoso= phical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.)= The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but= since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjec= tive nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essenti= ally planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walk= ing. Even walking on a mountain could be called=20 =20 =20 vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is ass= ociated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not co= nfined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensio= nal network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single= mountain) would be properly described with=20 =20 vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dim= ensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo. @@ -775,85 +775,85 @@ mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and o= ptional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather = than a static direction from the speaker. on rightcontrasted with toward right toward rightcontrast= ed with on right FIXME: TAG SPOT <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>toward my right<secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d1"/>

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice. - The child walks toward my right on the ice. + The child walks toward my right on the ice. =20

This is quite different from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d2"/>

le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [right] walks-on the ice. - To the right of me, the child walks on the ice. + To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.

BAI selma'o= m= a'i re= ference framespecifying for direction tenses directionreference frame for reference frame for directions in tenses In either case, however, the reference frame for defin= ing=20 =20 right and=20 left is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be c= hanged thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d3"/>

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a =20 The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-referenc= e-frame the-x1-place. - The child walks toward her right on the ice. + The child walks toward her right on the ice. =20

toward her righ= texample=20 is analogous to=20 . The cmavo=20 ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in=20 =20 ), and allows specifying a reference = frame. =20 tense= order of movement specification in movementorde= r in tense constructs Both a regular and a=20 mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the= =20 mo'i construct coming last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d4"/>

le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-= on the ice. - Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance towa= rd my right on the ice. + Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance= toward my right on the ice. =20

movementwith multiple directions directionsmultiple = with movement complex movementsexpressing It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like=20 zu'a ca'u after=20 mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a sep= arate bridi. =20 Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherent= ly involving movement: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e8d5"/>

mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal. - While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal. + While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.

eat in airplane= example (Perhaps I am eating i= n an airplane.) time travel movement<= /primary>time There is no parallel facil= ity in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time trave= l – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful. =20

Interval properties: TAhE and=20 <valsi>roi</valsi> =20 @@ -933,33 +933,33 @@ TAhE selma'= o inte= rvalsspread of actions over <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">discreteo= f tense intervals continuousof tense intervals= Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in tim= e. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is in= volved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. = Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous = or non-continuous actions. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d1"/>

mi puzu ze'u velckule I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-atte= ndee (pupil). - Long ago I attended school for a long time. + Long ago I attended school for a long time.

attend schoolexample probably does not mean t= hat I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago in= terval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. = More explicitly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d2"/>

mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule =20 I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a= -pupil. - Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time. + Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.

ta'e na'o di'i<= /primary> ru= 'i reg= ularlyexample interval spreadmutually= contrasted The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated = as follows:=20 ru'i covers the entirety of the interval,=20 =20 di'i covers the parts of the interval which are syste= matically spaced subintervals;=20 =20 na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which p= art is determined by context;=20 =20 ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with refer= ence to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in th= e x1 place of the bridi). @@ -967,50 +967,50 @@ interval spread= with unspecified interval Usin= g TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the= time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For e= xample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d3"/>

mi ba ta'e klama le zarci =20 I [future] [habitually] go-to the market. I will habitually go to the market. - I will make a habit of going to the market. + I will make a habit of going to the market.

specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is inde= finite. Similarly, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d4"/>

mi na'o klama le zarci =20 I [typically] go-to the market. - I typically go/went/will go to the market. + I typically go/went/will go to the market.

illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no di= stance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there i= s no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these going= s-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine= these vague values. nai intermittentl= yexample interval spreadexpressing En= glish "intermittently"=20 Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to=20 continuously, and is expressed not with its own cmavo= , but by adding the negation suffix=20 -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to= =20 ru'i. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d5"/>

le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice. - The child intermittently walks on the ice. + The child intermittently walks on the ice. =20

interval spread= negation with nai As shown in = the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with=20 -nai;=20 ru'inai and=20 di'inai are probably the most useful. ROI selma'o= r= oi onc= eexample tensequantified<= /indexterm> quantified tempo= ral tensedefinition An intermi= ttent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during th= e interval that it takes place. The cmavo=20 roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a= number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English= , but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs=20 =20 @@ -1025,59 +1025,59 @@ too many times, and so on. All of these are handled in = Lojban by a number plus=20 -roi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d6"/>

mi paroi klama le zarci I [one time] go-to the market. - I go to the market once. + I go to the market once.

mi du'eroi klama le zarci I [too-many times] go-to the market. - I go to the market too often. + I go to the market too often.

temporal tensequantified with direction With th= e quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past, the present, or t= he future is intended, but of course the quantified tense need not stand al= one: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d8"/>

mi pu reroi klama le zarci I [past] [two times] go-to the market. - I went to the market twice. + I went to the market twice.

quantified tempor= al tense with directionLojban contrasted with English = in implications The English is slightly over-specif= ic here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which = may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval i= s vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the = present or even the future. quantified tempor= al tensenegating with nai Addi= ng=20 -nai to=20 roi is also permitted, and has the meaning=20 =20 other than (the number specified): rat eats cheeseexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d9"/>

le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese. - The rat eats the cheese other than twice. + The rat eats the cheese other than twice.

This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more = times, or not at all. ze'e only onceexample whole time intervalexpressing quantifi= ed temporal tenses"once" contrasted with &qu= ot;only once" quantified temporal tensescaveat on imp= lication of It is necessary to be careful with sent= ences like=20 and=20 , where a quantified tense a= ppears without an interval. What=20 really says is that during = an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past= , the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says noth= ing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often les= s than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and = only once, we can use the cmavo=20 =20 ze'e which represents the=20 =20 @@ -1109,21 +1109,21 @@ =20 whole of time interpretation just given. These compound= forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without= asserting that it never will. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e9d11"/>

mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci =20 I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market. - I have never gone to the market. + I have never gone to the market. =20

says nothing about whether I might go in future. ve'e quantified spa= ce The space equivalent of=20 ze'e is=20 =20 ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a quantif= ied space tense: see=20 =20 =20 @@ -1215,42 +1215,42 @@ pu'o,=20 ca'o, and=20 ba'o (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer t= o an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, = respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d1"/>

mi pu'o damba I [inchoative] fight. - I'm on the verge of fighting. + I'm on the verge of fighting.

la stiv. ca'o bacru Steve [continuitive] utters. - Steve continues to talk. + Steve continues to talk. =20

le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli The child [perfective] walks-on the ice. - The child is finished walking on the ice. + The child is finished walking on the ice. =20

finishedexample continuesexample on vergeexample <= primary>tense directioncontrasted with event contours = in implication of extent event contourscontrasted with ten= se direction in implication of extent event contoursimplic= ations on scope of event event contoursperfective event contou= rscontinuitive event contoursinchoati= ve As discussed in=20 , the simple PU cmavo make no ass= umptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extend= s into one of the other tenses as well.=20 =20 through=20 illustrate that these ZAhO = cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begu= n, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over. ba'oas futureward of event pu'oas pastward of event ba'oexplanation of derivation pu'oexplanati= on of derivation Note that in=20 and=20 @@ -1280,60 +1280,60 @@ co'u marks the boundary between the=20 ca'o and=20 ba'o parts: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d4"/>

mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi I [future] [initiative] eat my meal. - I will begin to eat my meal. + I will begin to eat my meal.

mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi I [past] [cessitive] eat my meal. - I ceased eating my meal. + I ceased eating my meal.

Compare=20 with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d6"/>

mi ba di'i co'a bajra =20 I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run. - I will regularly begin to run. + I will regularly begin to run.

which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO. event contourscompletitive stopcontrasted with finish<= /secondary> fini= shcontrasted with stop actual stopcon= trasted with natural end natural endcontrasted with actual= stop A process can have two end points, one reflec= ting the=20 natural end (when the process is complete) and the othe= r reflecting the=20 =20 actual stopping point (whether complete or not).=20 may be contrasted with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d7"/>

mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi I [past] [completitive] eat my meal. - I finished eating my meal. + I finished eating my meal. =20

In=20 , the meal has reached its n= atural end; in=20 =20 , the meal has merely ceased= , without necessarily reaching its natural end. =20 di'a de'a event conto= ursresumptive event contourspausative= eve= nt contoursresumption event contoursi= nterruption <= primary>begincontrasted with resume resumecontrasted with begin pausecontrasted with stop stopcontrasted with pause A process suc= h as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is int= errupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before t= he interruption, marked by=20 de'a, and the point just after the interruption, marked= by=20 @@ -1341,100 +1341,100 @@ di'a. Some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d8"/>

mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi =20 I [past] [pausative] eat my meal. - I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming). + I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming)= .

mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi =20 I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal. - I will resume eating my meal. + I will resume eating my meal. =20

za'o event contours= superfective natural endcontinuing b= eyond In addition, it is possible for a process to = continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and t= he actual end points is represented by=20 =20 za'o: =20 too longexample kept on too longexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d10"/>

le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri =20 The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics= problem to the student-group. - The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the = class too long. + The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to= the class too long. =20

That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already = understood the problem. co'i pointevent considered as event contoursachievative<= /secondary> An entire event can be treated as a single moment u= sing the cmavo=20 co'i: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d11"/>

la djan. pu co'i catra la djim =20 John [past] [achievative] kills Jim. - John was at the point in time where he killed Jim. + John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.

ROI selma'o re'= u cycl= es ord= inal tense Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an= individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by=20 re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d12"/>

mi pare'u klama le zarci I [first time] go-to the store. - I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval)= . + I go to the store for the first time (within a vague inte= rval).

Note the difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d13"/>

mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci I [first time] [one time] go-to the store. - For the first time, I go to the store once. + For the first time, I go to the store once.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e10d14"/>

mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci I [one time] [first time] go-to the store. - There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first= time. + There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the = first time.

Space interval modifiers: FEhE The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fe'e FEhE @@ -1449,62 +1449,62 @@ =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d1"/>

ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni =20 You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the= grain. - Sow the grain in a line and evenly! + Sow the grain in a line and evenly!

mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta I [space:] [three places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredi= ents. - I buy salad ingredients in three locations. + I buy salad ingredients in three locations. =20

always and everywhere= example salad ingredientsexample sow grai= nexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d3"/>

ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo [whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places= ] The-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4. - Always and everywhere, two plus two is four. + Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.

As shown in=20 , when a tense comes first i= n a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this ca= se=20 du), it is emphasized. be'a ZAhO selma= 'o fe'e = spatial contoursexpressing The= =20 fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose befor= e members of ZAhO. (The cmavo=20 be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction= meaning=20 =20 north of.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e11d4"/>

tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci That-yonder [medium space interval - north] [space] [initia= tive] is-a-rock. That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north. - That is the south face of a rock. + That is the south face of a rock. =20

rock faceexample south faceexample event contourstemporal contrasted with spatial spatial contourscontrasted with temporal event contours beginning point= spatial Here the notion of a=20 beginning point represented by the cmavo=20 =20 co'a is transferred from=20 beginning in time to=20 beginning in space under the influence of the=20 fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike tim= e, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientati= on is necessary, and the=20 @@ -1523,21 +1523,21 @@ ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as= sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or tempo= ral information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d1"/>

mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the hou= se. - I go to the market when you go to the house. + I go to the market when you go to the house.

ca<= /indexterm> sumti tcitabased on tense direction tense directionas= sumti tcita = cameaning as a sumti tcita Here=20 ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with=20 ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, the=20 le nu construct. What=20 asserts is that the action = of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by t= hat sumti. So=20 ca, which means=20 now when used with a selbri, means=20 simultaneously-with when used with a sumti. Consider an= other example: @@ -1561,57 +1561,57 @@ I had gone to the market before you went to the house. sumti tcitabased on tense distance tense distanceas su= mti tcita spatial tensesas sumti tcita (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present contex= t.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d3"/>

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. - The rat eats the cheese near the park. + The rat eats the cheese near the park. =20

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the [long distance= ] park - The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park. + The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance= ] park - The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park. + The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.

fe'e rat eats chees= eexample near the parkexample sumti tcita= based on event contoursrelation of main bridi to sumt= i process in = sumti tcitaevent contours contrasted with dir= ection/distance as basis for tense direction/distance as sumti tcita<= secondary>contrasted with event contours event contours as sumti tcitacontrasted with direction and distance = ZAhO selma'o sumti tcita= based on spatial contours spatial contoursas su= mti tcita sumti tcitabased on event contours event contoursas sumti tcita The event contours= of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with=20 =20 =20 fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretatio= n of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. T= he event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of t= he main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, = or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is= seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the = main bridi is intended. For example: in the aftermathexample die after livingexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d6"/>

mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live. - I die in the aftermath of my living. + I die in the aftermath of my living. =20

Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my liv= ing-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast=20 with: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d7"/>

@@ -1646,64 +1646,64 @@ =20 Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and sp= atial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita): too longexample boat sailedexample= FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d10"/>

le bloti pu za'o xelklama fe'e ba'o le lalxu The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism [sp= ace] [perfective] the lake. - The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake. + The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.

Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification:= although=20 xelklama appears to mean simply=20 is-a-mode-of-transport, it does not – the bridi o= f=20 has four omitted arguments,= and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its = meaning. =20 sumti tcita based= on quantified tenses quantified tensesas sumti tcita sumti tcit= a based on interval properties interval propertiesmeaning as= sumti tcita = sumti tcita based on interval continuousness= interval continuousnessmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on dimension dimensionmeaning as sumti tcita sumti tcita based on interval size interval si= zemeaning as sumti tcita The r= emaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and c= ontinuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify th= e particular interval over which the main bridi operates: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d11"/>

mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day. - I go/went/will go to the market twice today. + I go/went/will go to the market twice today. =20

twice todayexample tense inside sumticontrasted with t= ense as sumti tcita tense as sumti tcitacontrasted with te= nse inside sumti Be careful not to confuse a tense = used as a sumti tcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d12"/>

loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [pr= esent] winter. - Snow falls during this winter. + Snow falls during this winter.

snow fallsexample claims that the interval spec= ified by=20 this winter is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e12d13"/>

loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] wi= nter. - Snow falls in the long winter. + Snow falls in the long winter.

claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as win= ters go, snow falls. =20

Sticky and multiple tenses: KI =20 The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

@@ -1719,21 +1719,21 @@ unstuck. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the = place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way= -station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses= are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than= from the speaker. KI selma'o ki To make a tense sticky, suffix=20 ki to it: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d1"/>

mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.<= /gloss> - I went to the market. The man bit the dog. + I went to the market. The man bit the dog.

Here the use of=20 puki rather than just=20 pu ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence= as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be= no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might ha= ppen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence. (The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form p= art of a narrative. See=20 for an explanation of=20 story time, which employs a different set of convention= s.) =20 What if the second sentence has a tense anyway? @@ -1768,61 +1768,61 @@ compound tensecompared with multiple tenses in sentence tensesmultiple in sentence compared with compound tense tensesmultiple in sentence The point has not been d= iscussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tens= e construct in a sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d5"/>

puku mi ba klama le zarci [past] I [future] go-to the market. - Earlier, I was going to go to the market. + Earlier, I was going to go to the market.

Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating = free and specified by=20 puku, the second in the usual place and s= pecified by=20 ba. They are considered cumulative in the same way as t= he two tenses in separate sentences of=20 .=20 is therefore equivalent in = meaning, except for emphasis, to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d6"/>

mi puba klama le zarci I [past] [future] go-to the market. - I was going to go to the market. + I was going to go to the market.

multiple tenseseffect of order in sentence Comp= are=20 and=20 , which have a different mea= ning from=20 and=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d7"/>

mi ba klama le zarci puku I [future] go-to the market [past]. - I will have gone to the market earlier. + I will have gone to the market earlier.

mi bapu klama le zarci I [future] [past] go-to the market. - I will have gone to the market. + I will have gone to the market.

So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved= , order counts – the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if = there were only one tense to worry about. sticky tensesfrom part of a multiple tense But = why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate= portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part= of a tense sticky. Consider=20 , which adds a second bridi = and a=20 ki to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d9"/> @@ -1842,41 +1842,41 @@ </place-structure> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>sumti with tense<= /primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> = <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>embedded bridi tenses</primar= y><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indext= erm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><second= ary>effect on embedded sumti with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondar= y>effect on embedded bridi tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type= =3D"general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>on embedded bridi<= /secondary></indexterm> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within= another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, = descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these = subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted re= lative to the tense of the main bridi:</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>former market</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-yxFP"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d10"/>

mi pu klama le ba'o zarci I [past] go-to the [perfective] market - I went to the former market. + I went to the former market. =20

The significance of the=20 ba'o in=20 is that the speaker's desti= nation is described as being=20 in the aftermath of being a market; that is, it is a ma= rket no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market = is in the speaker's past, because the=20 =20 ba'o is interpreted relative to the=20 pu tense of the main bridi. Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e13d11"/>

mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead. - I now believe that I will be dead. + I now believe that I will be dead.

Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with re= spect to the opinion, which is in the present. =20 kiwith no tense sticky tensescanceling=20 ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels = all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker= 's location in both space and time. tensehandling multiple episodes tensesubscripting subscrip= tsfor sticky tense In complex = descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscr= ipt to=20 =20 ki. A time made sticky with=20 kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by s= pecifying=20 @@ -1894,84 +1894,84 @@ what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setti= ng is advanced by each sentence. The following mini-story illustrates the important features of s= tory time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e14d1"/>

puzuki ku ne'iki le kevna le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci [past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave, the = woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock - Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock. + Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock. =20

.i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu She-1 [tenseless] eat some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh. - She was eating goat's meat. + She was eating goat's meat.

.i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method the wood-fire.= - She had cooked the meat over a wood fire. + She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.

.i lei rectu cu zanglare The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm. - The meat was pleasantly warm. + The meat was pleasantly warm.

.i le labno goi ko'e bazaki nenri klama le kevna The wolf defined-as it-2 [future] [medium] [sticky] within-= came to-the cave. =20 - A while later, a wolf came into the cave. + A while later, a wolf came into the cave. =20

.i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a It-2 [tenseless] takes the-mass-of flesh from-her-1. - It took the meat from her. + It took the meat from her.

.i ko'e bartu klama It-2 out ran - It ran out. + It ran out.

caveexample story tenseLojban convention contrasted wi= th English convention=20 sets both the time (long ag= o) and the place (in a cave) using=20 =20 ki, just like the sentence sequences in=20 . No further space cmavo are = used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged.= The English translation of=20 is marked for past tense al= so, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all o= ther English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't no= tice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past= tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narrativ= es. =20 @@ -2105,53 +2105,53 @@ ). Here is a convoluted se= ntence with several nested bridi which uses=20 nau at the lowest level: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e15d9"/>

la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la = djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the s= tatement-that George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to the = market. - John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said tha= t Mary is now going to the market. + John said that Alice had said that George had earlier sai= d that Mary is now going to the market. =20

sticky tenseseffect of nau on naueffect on sticky ten= ses The use of=20 nau does not affect sticky tenses. =20

Tense relations between sentences tense with sumti = tcitaasymmetry of The sumti tc= ita method, explained in=20 , of asserting a tense relationship b= etween two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d1"/>

le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le ge= rku The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bite= s the dog. - The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites = the dog. + The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man b= ites the dog.

bo<= /indexterm> .i= sentencesconnecting with tense tenseconnecting sente= nces in with which specifies an imaginary journey l= eftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims= only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of=20 le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely= referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, ea= ch event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of= =20 i connecting them: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d2"/>

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisl= i The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. - The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice= . + The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on th= e ice.

.izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the=20 i separates the sentences and the=20 zu'a is the tense. The=20 bo is required to prevent the=20 zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, namely=20 le verba. tensesumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences tense connection = of sentencescontrasted with sumti tcita form imaginary jou= rneyorigin of in tense-connected sentences= tense connectio= n of sentencesorder of Note th= at the bridi in=20 @@ -2162,69 +2162,69 @@ means the same thing as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d3"/>

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu= le bisli =20 The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sent= ence the child walks-on the ice. - The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the chil= d walks on the ice. + The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the= child walks on the ice.

tense connected s= entencesimportance of bo in If= the=20 bo is omitted in=20 , the meaning changes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d4"/>

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli= The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-o= n the ice. - The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something wal= ks on the ice. + The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, somethin= g walks on the ice.

Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, beca= use=20 zu'a has absorbed the sumti=20 le verba. Do not confuse either=20 or=20 with the following: separately tensed sen= tencescontrasted with tense connected sentences tense conn= ected sentencescontrasted with separately tensed sente= nces FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d5"/>

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bis= li The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice. - The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.= + The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the= ice.

In=20 , the origin point is the sp= eaker, as is usual with=20 zu'aku.=20 makes the origin point of t= he tense the event described by the first sentence. tense connected s= entencesforethought mode Two s= entences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just= like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims bo= th sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship sp= ecified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe. gi<= /indexterm> imaginary journe= yorigin in tense forethought sentence connection sentences= forethought tense connection of forethought tense connecti= on of sentencesorder of The or= igin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus=20 gi. Another=20 gi is used to separate the sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d6"/>

pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani [past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house. - Before I go to the market, I go to the house. + Before I go to the market, I go to the house.

A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relations= hip between sumti: gi sumtiforethought tense connection of imaginary journeyori= gin in tense forethought sumti connection forethought tense connection of sumti= order of FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e16d7"/>

mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani @@ -2242,21 +2242,21 @@ is equivalent in meaning to= =20 and=20 :

mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house. - I, before going to the market, go to the house. + I, before going to the market, go to the house.

tense connection = of bridi-tailsmeaning of tense connection of sumtimeaning of In both=20 and=20 , the underlying sentences= =20 mi klama le zarci and=20 mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only t= he relationship in time between them is claimed. tense afterthough= t connection formsselma'o allowed tense forethought connec= tion formsselma'o allowed tense connectionexpansions of tense connectionequivalent meanings Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are ap= propriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equival= ent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cma= vo): @@ -2278,70 +2278,70 @@ tensed logical co= nnectives logical connectivestensed = The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system= . That system is a separate topic, explained in=20 =20 and touched on only in summary= here. By the rules of the logical connective system,=20 through 17.3 are equivalent= in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d1"/>

la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. satre le ractu - Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.

la teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu - Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.

la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu - Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.

bo<= /indexterm> stoke cat then r= abbitexample and thenexample Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical= connective=20 and? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later stroke= s the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective b= y placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo= =20 bo, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d4"/>

la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu =20 - Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.=

la teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu - Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.

la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu - Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit. + Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.

tensed logically = connected sumti tensed logically connected bridi-tails tensed logically connected sente= nces=20 through 17.6 are equivalent= in meaning. They are also analogous to=20 through=20 respectively. The=20 bo is required for the same reason as in=20 : to prevent the=20 ba from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following = sumti (or, in=20 , from being attached to the= following selbri). @@ -2357,186 +2357,186 @@ tu'e ... tu'u for sentences). The logical= connective system makes=20 through=20 equivalent in meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d7"/>

mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri l= e mlatu tu'u I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the = cat). - I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or = I carry both. + I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat= , or I carry both.

mi bevri le dakli gi'eke bevri le gerku gi'a bevri le mlatu I carry the sack and (carry the dog and/or carry the cat).<= /gloss> - I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or c= arry both. + I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat= or carry both.

carry sack and dogexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d9"/>

mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat). - I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both. + I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.

Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variet= y of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all ca= ses, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat o= r the dog or both. To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and th= en the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form= =20 through=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e17d10"/>

mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijacabo mi = bevri le mlatu tu'u I carry the sack. And [future] (I carry the dog. And/or [pr= esent] I carry the cat.) - I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carr= y the cat or I will carry both at once. + I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will= carry the cat or I will carry both at once.

mi bevri le dakli gi'ebake bevri le gerku gi'acabo bevri le m= latu I carry the sack and [future] (carry the dog and/or [presen= t] carry the cat). - I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat = or carry both at once. + I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the= cat or carry both at once.

mi bevri le dakli .ebake le gerku .acabo le mlatu I carry the sack and [future] (the cat and/or [present] the= dog). - I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.= + I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at = once.

tensed logically = connected sumtiwith grouping = tensed logically connected br= idi-tailswith grouping tensed logically connected sentence= swith grouping=20 through=20 are equivalent in meaning t= o each other, and correspond to the tenseless=20 through=20 respectively.

Tense negation nai= ZAhO selma'ocontradictory negation of FAhA selma'oco= ntradictory negation of PU selma'ocontradictory negation o= f ne= gationof tenses tensesnegating Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or Z= AhO can be contradicted by a=20 -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some ex= amples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d1"/>

mi punai klama le zarci I [past] [not] go-to the market. - I didn't go to the market. + I didn't go to the market.

nai= negation of ten= sesmeaning of tensescontradictory neg= ation of with nai As a contradictory negation,=20 implies that the bridi as a= whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negate= d tense is a sumti tcita,=20 -nai negation indicates that the stated r= elationship does not hold: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d2"/>

mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to t= he house. - It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that= you went to the house. + It is not true that I went to the market at the same time= that you went to the house.

le nanmu batci le gerku ne'inai le kumfa The man bites the dog [within] [not] the room. - The man didn't bite the dog inside the room. + The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.

mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive I am-dead [continuitive - negated] the event-of I live. - It is false that I am dead during my life. + It is false that I am dead during my life.

NAhE selma'o<= /primary> tense<= /primary>contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation = of t= ensescalar negation contrasted with contradictory nega= tion of tensescalar negation of with NAhE It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense const= ructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negatio= n, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense = other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation analo= gues of=20 to=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d5"/>

mi na'e pu klama le zarci I [non-] [past] go-to the market. - I go to the market other than in the past. + I go to the market other than in the past.

le nanmu batci le gerku to'e ne'i le kumfa The man bites the dog [opposite-of] [within] the room. - The man bites the dog outside the room. + The man bites the dog outside the room.

mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu do klama le zdani I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of you go-to = the house. - I went to the market at a time other than the time at which yo= u went to the house. + I went to the market at a time other than the time at whi= ch you went to the house.

mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live. - I am dead other than during my life. + I am dead other than during my life.

FAhA selma'o<= /primary> PU= selma'o scalar negation of tensesselma'o allowed with contradic= tory negation of tensesselma'o allowed with Unlike=20 -nai contradictory negation, scalar negat= ion of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e18d9"/>

le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice - The child walks on the ice other than to my right. + The child walks on the ice other than to my right.

ROI selma'oscalar negation of TAhE selma'oscalar nega= tion of The use of=20 -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already= been discussed in=20 ; this use is also a sc= alar negation.

Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -2568,130 +2568,130 @@ innate capabiliti= esexpressing implicitly potential eventsexpressing implicitly Lojban bridi without tense= markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to= capabilities or potential events. For example: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d1"/>

ro datka cu flulimna All ducks are-float-swimmers. - All ducks swim by floating. + All ducks swim by floating. =20

ducks swimexample actualityLojban contrasted with Engl= ish in implying tenseLojban contrasted with English in imp= lying actuality is a Lojban truth, even though the = colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is becau= se the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is = swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we ad= d a tense marker to=20 , <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d2"/>

ro datka ca flulimna All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers. - All ducks are now swimming by floating. + All ducks are now swimming by floating.

the resulting=20 might still be considered a= truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be fal= se. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercisin= g that potential at present. To get the full flavor of=20 All ducks are now swimming, we must append a marker fro= m selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d3"/>

ro datka ca ca'a flulimna =20 All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers. - All ducks are now actually swimming by floating. + All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.

ki<= /indexterm> CAhA selma'o= c= a'a st= icky tensesand CAhA CAhA selma'omakin= g sticky CAhA selma'oorder in tense construct<= /indexterm> actual eventsexplicitly expressing A CAhA cmav= o is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for spa= ce. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before=20 ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky. is false in both Lojban and= English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, tru= e of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck tha= t is not swimming now. ka'e innate capabil= ityexpressing explicitly Furth= ermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatc= hed (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by pr= edators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless= , all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming – it is part= of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo=20 =20 ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d4"/>

ro datka ka'e flulimna =20 All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers. - All ducks are innately capable of swimming. + All ducks are innately capable of swimming.

innate properties= extension of from mass to individuals Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in ord= er to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals be= long to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselve= s not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d5"/>

la djan. ka'e viska =20 John [capable] sees. John is innately capable of seeing. - John can see. + John can see. =20

can see= example innate propertiesextension to individua= ls not actually capable might be true about a human= being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the a= bility to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is the= oretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to s= ee (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d6"/>

le cukta ka'e viska =20 The book [capable] sees. - The book can see. + The book can see. =20

is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is = not part of the innate nature of a book. undemonstrated po= tentialexpressing Consider onc= e again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential = of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expr= essed using=20 nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d7"/>

ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna =20 All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers. All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimm= ing by floating. =20 =20 - Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet. + Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.

nu'o infant ducksexample demonstrated potentialexpressin= g Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, t= hen=20 pu'i is appropriate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d8"/>

la frank. pu'i viska =20 Frank [can and has] sees. Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing. - Frank can see and has seen. + Frank can see and has seen. =20

pu'i actualityexpressing in past/future potentialexpress= ing in past/future Note that the glosses given at t= he beginning of this section for=20 ca'a,=20 =20 nu'o, and=20 =20 pu'i incorporate=20 =20 @@ -2703,33 +2703,33 @@ ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perf= ectly meaningful with other tenses than the present: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d9"/>

mi pu ca'a klama le zarci =20 I [past] [actual] go-to the store. - I actually went to the store. + I actually went to the store.

la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani =20 Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store. Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store - (at some understood moment in the future). + (at some understood moment in the future).

tenses with elide= d CAhAmeaning As always in Loj= ban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the contex= t can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d11"/>

ta jelca That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn. @@ -2740,86 +2740,86 @@ That is inflammable. The first demands immediate action= (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be= disambiguated with:

=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d12"/>

ta ca ca'a jelca =20 That [present] [actual] burns. - That is on fire. + That is on fire.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d13"/>

ta ka'e jelca =20 That [capable] burns. That is capable of burning. - That is inflammable. + That is inflammable. =20

observative with = elided CAhAconvention When no = indication is given, as in the simple observative =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e19d14"/>

jelca - It burns! + It burns!

the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning=20 Fire!

Logical and non-logical connections between tenses Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; l= ogical connection is explained in more detail in=20 . Some of the terminology in th= is section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives= . JA selma'o logicall= y connected tensesexpansion to sentences tenses<= secondary>logically connected with JA logically connected tenseswith JA The appropriate logical connectives b= elong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expa= nded to one between sentences: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d1"/>

mi pu je ba klama le zarci I [past] and [future] go-to the market. - I went and will go to the market. + I went and will go to the market.

means the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d2"/>

mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi ba klama le zarci I [past] go-to the market. And I [future] go-to the market.= - I went to the market, and I will go to the market. + I went to the market, and I will go to the market.

tenses<= secondary>connectedwith negation Tense connection and tense negation are combined in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d3"/>

mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci I [past] [not] and [present] [not] and [future] go-to the m= arket. - I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future. + I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.

is far more specific than <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d4"/>

mi ba klama le zarci @@ -2831,46 +2831,46 @@ punai or=20 canai; to compel that interpretation, eit= her a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.

connected tenses<= /primary>negation of compared with negation in connective Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation = in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in = meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d5"/>

mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk. - I walk not leftward but rightward. + I walk not leftward but rightward.

mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk. - I walk not leftward but rightward. + I walk not leftward but rightward.

tenses<= secondary>possible groupings of tensesforethought logical = connections There are no forethought logical connec= tions between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is= there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Loj= ban default. GAhO selma'o<= /primary> BI= hI selma'o = JOI selma'o intervalsexpressing by endpoints with b= i'o = tensesnon-logical connection of The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permi= tted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, b= ut by their end-points (=20 bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-poin= ts of an ordered interval, like English=20 from ... to): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e20d7"/>

mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe. =20 - I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come. + I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come= . =20

(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.) One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is d= iscussed in=20 . Other uses will probably be id= entified in future.

Sub-events six-shooterexample tensesnon-logical connection of for= sub-events Another application of non-logical tens= e connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter:= a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire= off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus: @@ -2878,21 +2878,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d1"/>

mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti =20 I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-= launcher. =20 - On two occasions, I fire the gun six times. + On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.

pi'u on two occasio= nsexample cross productwith tenses Cartes= ian productwith tenses pi'uuse in con= necting tenses It would be confusing, though gramma= tical, to run the=20 reroi and the=20 xaroi directly together. However, the non= -logical connective=20 pi'u expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cro= ss product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each o= f which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (henc= e the name=20 =20 =20 =20 product: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifi= es very precisely what occurs. @@ -2900,32 +2900,32 @@ =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e21d2"/>

la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska George [continuitive] [initiative] writes. - George continues to start to write. + George continues to start to write. =20

mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum. - On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times. + On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.<= /natlang>

Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai JAI @@ -2959,31 +2959,31 @@ jai= jai with tense<= /primary>as equivalent of SE in grammar = tense conversionaccessing tense of bridi with jai conversionacces= sing tense of bridi with jai It is also possible to= bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this= chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using=20 jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d3"/>

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park. - The rat eats the cheese in the park. + The rat eats the cheese in the park.

le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat. - The park is where the rat eats the cheese. + The park is where the rat eats the cheese.

FA selma'o fai<= /primary> rat ea= ts cheese in parkexample tense conversionaccessing original first place with fai In=20 , the construction JAI+tense= converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place= has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; howev= er, it can be inserted back into the bridi with=20 fai, the indefinite member of selma'o FA. (The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc= . places of a bridi explicitly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d5"/> @@ -3030,82 +3030,82 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e22d9"/>

mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan. I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called=20 John. I know the time of John's death. - I know when John died. + I know when John died.

Tenses versus modals modals<= secondary>contrasted with tenses in semantics tensescontra= sted with modals in semantics modalscompared with tenses i= n syntax tensescompared with modals in syntax<= /indexterm> Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paral= leled by some use of modals as explained in=20 . Modals and tenses alike can b= e followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and = mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is p= erfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense const= ructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the = two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in e= arlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically in= terchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be mainta= ined. modals<= secondary>importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d1"/>

mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi =20 I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me. - I like you because you like me. + I like you because you like me.

places the=20 le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu= =20 mukti (which underlies the modal=20 mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d2"/>

mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi I like you after the event-of you like me. - I like you after you like me. + I like you after you like me.

tenses<= secondary>importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use places the=20 le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu= =20 balvi (which underlies the tense=20 ba), namely the point of reference for the future tense= . Paraphrases of=20 and=20 , employing the brivla=20 mukti and=20 balvi explicitly, would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d3"/>

le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci do The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.= - Your liking me is the motive for my liking you. + Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d4"/>

le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu do nelci mi The event-of I like you is after the event of you like me.<= /gloss> - My liking you follows (in time) your liking me. + My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.

(Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference i= n what is claimed;=20 and=20 claim only the causal and t= emporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the events t= hemselves.) afterthought sent= ence connectionmodal contrasted with tense= As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of=20 and=20 are, respectively: @@ -3115,21 +3115,21 @@ <jbo>mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi</jbo> <gloss>I like you. [That is] Because you like me.</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qEWp" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d6"/>

do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do - You like me. Afterward, I like you. + You like me. Afterward, I like you.

In=20 , the order of the two bridi= =20 mi nelci do and=20 do nelci mi is the same as in=20 . In=20 , however, the order is reve= rsed: the origin point=20 do nelci mi physically appears before the= future-time event=20 mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi cha= racterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizi= ng the event in the x1 place of=20 @@ -3138,31 +3138,31 @@ afterthought tens= e connectioncontrasted with forethought in likeness to= modal connection forethought tense connectioncontrasted w= ith afterthought in likeness to modal connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">forethought connectionsmodal compared with tense in semantics In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and ten= ses is not found. The forethought equivalents of=20 =20 and=20 are <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d7"/>

mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do - Because you like me, I like you. + Because you like me, I like you.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e23d8"/>

bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do - After you like me, I like you. + After you like me, I like you.

respectively. modal sentence co= nnectiontable of equivalent schemata The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sente= nces) all have the same meaning:

X .i BAI bo Y

BAI gi Y gi X @@ -3203,86 +3203,86 @@ At what place? In these forms, their Lojban equivalents= simply involve a tense plus=20 ma, the Lojban sumti question:

do klama le zdani ca ma You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?]. You go to the house at what time? - When do you go to the house? + When do you go to the house?

le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the i= ce. The child at/near what place walked on the ice? - Where did the child walk on the ice? + Where did the child walk on the ice?

whereexample whenexample modal-or-tense question= with cu'e tense-or-modal questionswith cu'e There is also a non-specific tense and modal question,= =20 cu'e, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used where= ver a tense or modal construct can be used. <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d3"/>

le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku The man [what tense?] bites the dog. - When/Where/How does the man bite the dog? + When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?

when/where/howexample answersto tense-or-modal questio= ns Possible answers to=20 might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d4"/>

va [medium space]. - Some ways from here. + Some ways from here.

puzu [past] [long time]. - A long time ago. + A long time ago.

vi le lunra [short space] The moon. - On the moon. + On the moon.

pu'o [inchoative] - He hasn't yet done so. + He hasn't yet done so.

or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see=20 ): <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d8"/>

seka'a le briju @@ -3292,35 +3292,35 @@ modal-or-tense qu= estionspre-specifying some information tense-or-modal ques= tionspre-specifying some information cu'ecombining with other tense cmavo The only way t= o combine=20 cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical connecti= on, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information: when elseexample sowed grainexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d9"/>

do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain? - You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow i= t? + You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you = sow it? =20

Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a= question word: tense questionsby using logical connective question FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e24d10"/>

la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru =20 Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king - Was Arthur a king or will he be? + Was Arthur a king or will he be?

Answers to=20 would be logical connective= s such as=20 je, meaning=20 both,=20 naje meaning=20 the latter, or=20 jenai meaning=20 the former. @@ -3331,21 +3331,21 @@ termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in= =20 and=20 .) It is grammatical fo= r a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, wh= ich allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be = specified. Here is an example:

la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [= nu'u] Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thi= ng-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset]. - Frank is standing five meters to the left of George. + Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.

Here the termset extends from the=20 nu'i to the implicit=20 nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms= =20 la djordj., which is the unmarked origin = point, and the tagged sumti=20 lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo=20 la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning=20 with quantity; see=20 ) marks as a quantity. Both terms are g= overned by the tag=20 @@ -3356,21 +3356,21 @@ =20 =20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e25d2"/>

la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u lo mitre be li mu Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity] a thing-measuring-= in-meters the-number 5. - Frank stands five meters to the left. + Frank stands five meters to the left.

Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader) <anchor xml:id=3D"c10e26d1"/>

diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml index d4a0507..0efb902 100644 --- a/todocbook/11.xml +++ b/todocbook/11.xml @@ -38,21 +38,21 @@ tanruand abstractions abstractionsgrammatical uses The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exac= tly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri= may be used as observatives, as in=20 =20 , or used in tanru: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d3"/>

la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer. - John wants to be a soldier. + John wants to be a soldier.

want to be a sold= ierexample descriptionsand abstractio= ns Abstraction selbri may also be used in descripti= ons, preceded by=20 le (or any other member of selma'o LE): <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e1d4"/>

la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei] @@ -88,68 +88,68 @@ =20 le description built on a=20 nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on=20 le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d1"/>

le klama - the comer, that which comes + the comer, that which comes

le se klama - the destination + the destination =20

le te klama - the origin + the origin

le ve klama =20 - the route + the route

le xe klama - the means of transportation + the means of transportation

le nu klama - the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by som= e route using some means + the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere b= y some route using some means

through=20 are descriptions that iso= late the five individual sumti places of the selbri=20 klama.=20 describes something associa= ted with the bridi as a whole: the event of it. events<= secondary>duration In Lojban, the term=20 event is divorced from its ordinary English sense of so= mething that happens over a short period of time. The description: @@ -182,21 +182,21 @@ that ellipsis of sumti is v= alid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sen= tence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure o= ut from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that t= he proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for=20 =20 nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place el= lipsized: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d9"/>

mi nelci le nu limna I like the event-of swimming. - I like swimming. + I like swimming.

is elliptical, and most probably means: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d10"/>

mi nelci le nu mi limna I like the event-of I swim. @@ -210,38 +210,38 @@ , the appearance of=20 le se nelci (=20 that which is liked) is in effect an abstraction: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d11"/>

le se nelci cu cafne The liked-thing is-frequent. - The thing which I like happens often. + The thing which I like happens often.

which in this context means

My swimming happens often.

Event descriptions with=20 le nu are commonly used to fill the=20 under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and = lujvo place structures: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e2d12"/>

la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei] Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study= - Lojban is easy for me when I study. + Lojban is easy for me when I study.

x1 is an event of (the bridi)

@@ -289,70 +289,70 @@ =20 point-event-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d1"/>

le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri =20 The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime. - John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.= + John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a c= rime. =20

pu'u killing Jimexample abstractionsprocess<= /indexterm> process abstract= ionsdefinition process abstractor <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">killing Jim An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginnin= g, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a=20 process. The abstractor=20 pu'u means=20 =20 process-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d2"/>

ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu se= lcatra =20 [continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaki= ng-up ) many state-rulers were-killed - During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed= . + During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were k= illed.

zu'o Roman Empireexample abstractionsactivity activity abstr= actionsdefinition activity abstractor Roman Empire An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive i= s called an=20 activity. The abstractor=20 zu'o means=20 =20 activity-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d3"/>

mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe =20 I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump). - I am tired because I jump. + I am tired because I jump.

za'i abstractionsstate state abstractionsdefinition state ab= stractor An event considered as something that is eit= her happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a=20 state. The abstractor=20 za'i means=20 =20 state-of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e3d4"/>

le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do =20 The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you. - My being alive is dangerous to you. + My being alive is dangerous to you. =20

being aliveexample event typesdescribed The abstractors in=20 through=20 could all have been replace= d by=20 nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allow= s every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways: state eventdescribed the=20 @@ -450,67 +450,67 @@ intensions. If John has a heart, then=20 =20 the property of having a heart is an abstract object wh= ich, when applied to John, is true. In fact, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d1"/>

la djan. cu se risna zo'e John has-as-heart something-unspecified. - John has a heart. + John has a heart. =20

has a heartexample has the same truth condition= s as <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d2"/>

la djan. cu ckaji le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei] John has-the-property the property-of having-as-heart somet= hing. - John has the property of having a heart. + John has the property of having a heart.

having<= secondary>of properties (The English word=20 have frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban pro= perties: things are said to=20 have properties, but this is not the same sense of=20 have as in=20 I have money, which is possession.) Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted= to fill places in brivla place structures: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d3"/>

do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei] You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-r= ed. - You are new to me in redness. + You are new to me in redness.

-ity -ness (The English suffix=20 -ness often signals a property abstraction, as does the= suffix=20 =20 =20 -ity.) property descript= ion We can also move the property description to the = x1 place of=20 =20 , producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d4"/>

le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi The property-of your being-red is-new to me. - Your redness is new to me. + Your redness is new to me.

beachexample sunburnexample It= would be suitable to use=20 and=20 to someone who has returned= from the beach with a sunburn. =20 =20 property abstract= ionsspecifying determining place by sumti ellipsis propert= y abstractionssumti ellipsis in There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi= , depending on which place of the bridi is=20 understood as being specified externally. Thus: @@ -535,32 +535,32 @@ In particular, sentences like=20 and=20 are quite different in mean= ing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d7"/>

la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X) - I love John more than I love George. + I love John more than I love George.

KOhA selma'o<= /primary> ce= 'u lov= e moreexample FIXME: TAG SPOT<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d8"/> =20 la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me). - John loves me more than George loves me. + John loves me more than George loves me. property abstract= ionsspecifying determining place with ce'u= The=20 X used in the glosses of=20 through=20 as a place-holder cannot be= represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there = must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in=20 =20 . Instead, the cmavo=20 ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti= is wanted. (The form=20 X will be used in literal translations.) @@ -599,33 +599,33 @@ giving the horse<= /primary>example into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d12"/>

le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei] the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse to someone-unspe= cified) - the property of being a giver of the horse + the property of being a giver of the horse

which is the most natural interpretation of=20 , versus <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e4d13"/>

le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei] the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the hors= e to X) - the property of being one to whom the horse is given + the property of being one to whom the horse is given

which is also a possible interpretation. property abstract= ionsuse of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction<= /secondary> rela= tionship abstraction It is also possible to have more= than one=20 ce'u in a=20 ka abstraction, which transforms it from a property abs= traction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions=20 =20 =20 =20 package up a complex relationship for future use; such = an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2= place of the selbri=20 @@ -656,21 +656,21 @@ Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property = abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted b= ridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d1"/>

le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the amount-of (the picture being-blue) - the amount of blueness in the picture + the amount of blueness in the picture

because=20 blueness could be measured with a colorimeter or a simi= lar device. However, =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d2"/>

@@ -686,48 +686,48 @@ le ni is a number; however, it cannot be = treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the math= ematical cmavo=20 mo'e:

=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d3"/>

li pa vu'u mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei] the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture b= eing-blue) - 1 - B, where B =3D= blueness of the picture + 1 - B, where B =3D blueness of the picture

Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is = explained more fully in=20 . There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions = make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of= =20 ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus, <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d4"/>

le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue). The picture varies in being blue. - The picture varies in blueness. + The picture varies in blueness.

is not the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e5d5"/>

le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei] The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue). The picture varies in how blue it is. - The picture varies in blueness. + The picture varies in blueness.

conveys that the blueness= comes and goes, whereas=20 conveys that its quantity c= hanges over time. Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort= of scale, and so the place structure of=20 ni abstraction selbri is: ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2 @@ -745,47 +745,47 @@ jei, which is closely related semantically to=20 ni. In the simplest cases,=20 le jei produces not a number but a truth = value: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d1"/>

le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 4 - the truth of 2 + 2 being 4 + the truth of 2 + 2 being 4

2 + 2example is equivalent to=20 truth, and <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d2"/>

le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei] the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 =3D the-number 5 - the truth of 2 + 2 being 5 + the truth of 2 + 2 being 5

is equivalent to=20 falsehood. However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply tr= ue or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and=20 jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of g= rey intended: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e6d3"/>

mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei] I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime= doer)). - I will decide whether George is a criminal. + I will decide whether George is a criminal.

whether criminal<= /primary>example jeiplace structure= truth-value abs= tractionsplace structure legal system=20 does not imply that George = is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am us= ing, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,=20 =20 jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of=20 ni: jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2 @@ -818,118 +818,118 @@ I know that Frank is a fool. =20 How's that in Lojban? Let us try: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d2"/>

mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I know the event of Frank being a fool. + I know the event of Frank being a fool.

mental activity Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially ph= ysical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thin= king, feeling, and the like;=20 comes close to claiming tha= t Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speak= er. (In fact,=20 =20 is an instance of improperl= y marked=20 sumti raising, a concept discussed further in=20 =20 ). Try again: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d3"/>

mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool. + I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.

Closer.=20 says that I know whether or= not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as=20 =20 does. To catch that nuance,= we must say: NU selma'o du'u= FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d4"/>

mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I know the predication that Frank is a fool. + I know the predication that Frank is a fool. =20

Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion=20 Frank is a fool is not a property of=20 =20 le du'u abstraction, but of=20 djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a res= ult,=20 djuno like=20 jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how w= e know.)=20 has no such implied asserti= on: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d5"/>

mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. + I am curious about whether Frank is a fool. =20 =20

Frank is a foolexample curiousexample curious and here=20 du'u could probably be replaced by=20 jei without much change in meaning: FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d6"/>

mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei] - I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. + I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool. =20 =20

truth-value abstr= actionsplace structure As a ma= tter of convenience rather than logical necessity,=20 du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (p= iece of language) expressing the bridi:

du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2

abstractionsspeakingwriting, etc. se du'u linguistic behavio= r and=20 le se du'u ... is very useful in filling = places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic beha= vior regarding bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d7"/>

la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei] John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to = the store - John says that George goes to the store. + John says that George goes to the store.

quotationcontrasted with sentence abstraction = abstraction of sentencescontrasted with quotation=20 differs from <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e7d8"/>

la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote. - John says=20 - George goes to the store. + John says=20 + George goes to the store.

because=20 claims that John actually s= aid the quoted words, whereas=20 claims only that he said so= me words or other which were to the same purpose. lu'e=20 le se du'u is much the same as=20 lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predicatio= n, but=20 se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas= =20 lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See=20 @@ -999,23 +999,23 @@ da or even=20 la djan.. Using=20 la djan. would suggest that it was John w= ho I knew had gone to the store, however: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d4"/>

mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu klama le zarci I know the predication-of/fact-that John [indirect question= ] [past] going to the store. - I know who went to the store, namely John. + I know who went to the store, namely John. =20 - I know that it was John who went to the store. + I know that it was John who went to the store.

Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as=20 =20 ma,=20 zo'e, or=20 da does not suggest any particular value. Why does Lojban require the=20 kau marker, rather than using=20 =20 @@ -1042,35 +1042,35 @@ kau at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; t= here is generally a paraphrase of the type: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d7"/>

mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci I know about the [past] goer to-the store. - I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, = his identity). + I know something about the one who went to the store (nam= ely, his identity).

because the x3 place of=20 djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fa= ct that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a= logical connection, then there is no good alternative to=20 kau: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e8d8"/>

mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le pan= ka I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [conne= ctive indirect question] George is-at the park. - I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park. + I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the par= k.

In addition,=20 is only a loose paraphrase = of=20 , because it is left to the = listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-stor= e is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.

Minor abstraction types The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1121,21 +1121,21 @@ su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasp= ed from context: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d3"/>

ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three m= ice running =20 - See how the three mice run! + See how the three mice run! =20

miceexample experience abstractionsplace structure All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An ex= perience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of=20 li'i is: =20 li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experien= ced by x2 =20 =20 @@ -1174,21 +1174,21 @@ and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:<= /para> bicycle raceexample Jesusexample intersect Jesus FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e9d6"/>

le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke= nalmatma'e sutyterjvi the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape type-of= -killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-= competition - The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race= + The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle= Race =20

Note the importance of using=20 kei after=20 su'u when the x2 of=20 su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specified; othe= rwise, the=20 be lo ends up inside the abstraction brid= i. =20

@@ -1294,48 +1294,48 @@ jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one func= tion, discussed in=20 and=20 ; for the purposes of this chapter, it = operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. T= his conversion changes <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d7"/>

tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead - My action causes your death. + My action causes your death.

cause deathexample into <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d8"/>

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. - I cause your death. + I cause your death.

In English, the subject of=20 cause can either be the actual cause (an event), or els= e the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the= x1 of=20 rinka is always an event.=20 and=20 look equally convenient (or= inconvenient), but in making descriptions,=20 can be altered to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e10d9"/>

le jai rinka be le nu do morsi that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your de= ath) - the one who caused your death + the one who caused your death

because=20 jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into th= e description – not so for=20 tu'a. The weakness of=20 jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does no= t specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into t= he x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using th= e modal form of=20 jai explained in=20 : @@ -1449,21 +1449,21 @@ le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu = xlali The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of = Frank's writing is bad. <anchor xml:id=3D"c11e12d2"/>

le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali - The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. + The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. =20

This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody kno= ws what uses it may eventually have.

Table of abstractors The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for = it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the a= ssociations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks th= an for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the fo= llowing line) its place structure.

diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml index 64ac227..43805f7 100644 --- a/todocbook/12.xml +++ b/todocbook/12.xml @@ -378,68 +378,68 @@

z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=3Dg1

Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happ= ens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing= not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d2"/>

la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. - Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. + Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot. =20

Mon Reposexample really means <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d3"/>

la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku - Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. + Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog. =20

since that is the interpretation we have given=20 gerzda. But that in turn means unspecified breed= example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d4"/>

la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e - Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified bree= d. + Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified= breed. =20 =20

Specifically, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d5"/>

la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNAR= D. - Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernar= d. + Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. B= ernard. =20

and in that case, it makes little sense to say <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e6d6"/>

la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNA= RD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD. - Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Ber= nard, of breed St. Bernard. + Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St= . Bernard, of breed St. Bernard.

supplementary inf= ormation employing the over-ample place structure of= =20 . The dog breed is redundant= ly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitive= ly speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplem= entary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse. =20 beetle<= secondary>example As a further example, take=20 cakcinki, the lujvo for=20 beetle, based on the tanru=20 =20 calku cinki, or=20 @@ -838,21 +838,21 @@ zernerkla, meaning=20 to sneak in, almost certainly was formed from the veljv= o =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d3"/>

zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e] crime ( inside go ) - to go within, criminally + to go within, criminally

because the alternative, <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e11d4"/>

[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama (crime inside) go @@ -1053,21 +1053,21 @@ There is also a rafsi for the cmavo=20 jai, namely=20 jax, which allows sentences like <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d7"/>

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death. - I cause your death. + I cause your death.

explained in=20 , to be rendered with lujvo:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e12d8"/>

mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi @@ -1473,42 +1473,42 @@ citno zmadu, meaning=20 young more-than).

mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six. =20 - I am six years younger than you. + I am six years younger than you. =20

The place structure for=20 citmau is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d4"/>

z1=3Dc1 is younger than z2=3Dc1 by amount z4<= /place-structure>

=20 Similarly, in Lojban you can say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d5"/>

do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six. - You are six years less young than me. + You are six years less young than me.

In English,=20 more comparatives are easier to make and use than=20 =20 less comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equa= lly easy. =20 Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in= =20 -mau and=20 =20 @@ -1585,21 +1585,21 @@ I now am-stronger.

which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (th= e elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d8"/>

mi ca tsaze'a - I increase in strength. + I increase in strength.

Finally, lujvo with a tertau of=20 traji are used to build superlatives. The place structu= re of=20 traji is <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d9"/>

t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t= 3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4

@@ -1640,31 +1640,31 @@ traji is compared is not the t2 place (which would make= the place structure of=20 traji fully parallel to that of=20 zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a spe= cial exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of=20 traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo= . Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c12e15d13"/>

la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli - Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists. + Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists. =20

la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka - Einstein was the greatest of all scientists. + Einstein was the greatest of all scientists. =20

Notes on gismu place structures place structuregismu gismuplace structures= Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of = gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by= -case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu lis= t is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, = certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the o= rdering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, = and which are therefore discussed here. gismuplace structuresrationale The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four di= fferent pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regula= rity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo pl= ace structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications = of each are roughly as follows: diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml index fd9b3e7..23023c6 100644 --- a/todocbook/13.xml +++ b/todocbook/13.xml @@ -445,21 +445,21 @@ Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d15"/>

.ii smacu [Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse - Eek! A mouse! + Eek! A mouse!

<anchor xml:id=3D"c13e2d16"/> la djan. .iu klama John [love!] is coming. @@ -575,87 +575,87 @@ Some examples (of a parental kind): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d1"/>

.a'a do zgana le veltivni =20 [attentive] you observe the television-receiver. =20 - I'm noticing that you are watching the TV. + I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.

.a'enai do ranji bacru =20 [exhaustion] you continuously utter. - I'm worn out by your continuous talking. + I'm worn out by your continuous talking. =20

.ai mi benji do le ckana [intent] I transfer you to-the bed. - I'm putting you to bed. + I'm putting you to bed.

.a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo =20 [effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-= ly become. - It'll be hard for me to wake you up. + It'll be hard for me to wake you up.

.a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei =20 [hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-da= y. - I hope I feel better tomorrow! + I hope I feel better tomorrow! =20

.au mi sipna [desire] I sleep. - I want to sleep. + I want to sleep.

.a'ucu'i do pante =20 [no interest] you complain - I have no interest in your complaints. + I have no interest in your complaints.

.a'ucu'i .au .a'o= .= a'i .ai .a'enai .a'a (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.= 1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly= including=20 .oicai, but probably also=20 .iucai.) attitudinalsrationale for attitudinalscontrasted with = bridi Splitting off the attitude into an indicator = allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relat= ionships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whateve= r. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri wou= ld make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar. Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with=20 e, which stand roughly in the relation to those b= eginning with=20 a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with= =20 o do to those beginning with=20 @@ -696,64 +696,64 @@ after sleepexample More examples (after a good = night's sleep): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d8"/>

.e'a do sazri le karce =20 [permission] You drive the car. - Sure, you can drive the car. + Sure, you can drive the car.

.e'e mi lifri tu'a do =20 [competence] I experience something-related-to you - I feel up to dealing with you. + I feel up to dealing with you.

.ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau [obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container. - I should fill the car's gas tank. + I should fill the car's gas tank. =20

.e'o ko ko kurji =20 [request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care. - Please take care of yourself! + Please take care of yourself!

.e'u do klama le panka [suggestion] You go to-the park. - I suggest going to the park. + I suggest going to the park.

.e'u .e'o .ei .e'e<= /primary> .e= 'a Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beg= inning with=20 i, which are the overflow from the other sets:

.ia

belief

skepticism

disbelief @@ -777,72 +777,72 @@

Still more examples (much, much later): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d13"/>

.ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi =20 [disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me. - I can't believe you thought you could fool me. + I can't believe you thought you could fool me.

do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani =20 You [blame] did-not return you to-the house - I blame you for not coming home. + I blame you for not coming home.

.ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika be le nu xruti [agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day = of the event-of (you return) - It's true I didn't tell you when to come back. + It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.

.i'enai do .i'e zukte =20 =20 [disapproval] you [approval] act - I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you. + I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.

.i'e .i'enai .ie<= /primary> .i= 'anai .ianai=20 illustrates the use of a pr= opositional attitude indicator,=20 i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the b= ridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to=20 =20 do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapprov= ed of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely= the listener) is approved of. attitudinalsignaling as non-propositional To in= dicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indica= te a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitud= inal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of=20 which actually claimed that= the listener was or would be driving the car might be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e3d17"/>

do sazri le karce .i .e'a =20 You drive the car. [Permission]. - You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine. + You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.<= /natlang>

Attitudes as scales attitudinalsneutral attitudinalsnegative attitudinalspositive attitudinalsscale of<= /indexterm> In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales = run from some extreme value (which we'll call=20 positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call=20 negative). In the tables above, we have seen three poin= ts on the scale:=20 positive, neutral, and=20 negative. The terms=20 @@ -904,73 +904,73 @@ =20 pei (see=20 ) to indicate th= at the emotion is not felt. attitudinalexample of scale effect The followin= g shows the variations resulting from intensity variation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e4d1"/>

.ei - I ought to (a non-specific obligation) + I ought to (a non-specific obligation)

.eicai =20 - I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a= formal one) + I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possi= bly a formal one)

.eisai =20 - I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implie= d but not formal requirement) + I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an i= mplied but not formal requirement) =20

.eiru'e =20 - I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed with= permission and desire) + I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed= with permission and desire) =20

.eicu'i =20 - No matter (no particular obligation) + No matter (no particular obligation)

.einai =20 - I need not (a non-obligation) + I need not (a non-obligation)

.einai .eicu'i<= /primary> .e= iru'e .eisai = .eicai .ei formal requirementexample attitudinal scalestand-alone usage You can also ut= ter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the= language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you= mark what you are saying with the scale indicator=20 cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using= =20 =20 cu'i by itself. =20

The space of emotions @@ -1174,67 +1174,67 @@ doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a s= tatement addressed to a social superior. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d1"/>

ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani =20 You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.<= /gloss> - I would be honored if you would enter my residence. + I would be honored if you would enter my residence.

imperativesattitude Note that imperatives in Lo= jban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with=20 =20 ga'icu'i and=20 ga'inai: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d2"/>

ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house= . - Come on in to my place. + Come on in to my place.

ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani =20 You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.= - You! Get inside! + You! Get inside!

Since=20 ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the= referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to=20 =20 mi, unless the speaker is using=20 mi to refer to a group (as in English=20 we), or a past or future version of himself with a diff= erent rank. It is also possible to attach=20 ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the s= peaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d4"/>

ga'i le xarju pu citka =20 [High-rank!] the pig [past] eats - The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice). + The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).

ga'icai When used without being attached to any bridi,=20 ga'i expresses the speaker's superiority to things in g= eneral, which may represent an absolute social rank:=20 =20 ga'icai is an appropriate opening word fo= r an emperor's address from the throne. =20 le'o The cmavo=20 le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom = overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps = in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express t= hese feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their = coach using=20 =20 @@ -1258,31 +1258,31 @@ se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and g= enerosity, for example (in combination with=20 =20 .au): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d5"/>

.ause'i [desire] [self] - I want it! + I want it!

.ause'inai [desire] [other] - I want you to have it! + I want you to have it!

In both cases, the English=20 it is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi.=20 and=20 are pure expressions of att= itude. Analogously,=20 .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas=20 .uuse'inai is pity for someone else. =20 ri'e The modifier=20 @@ -1346,59 +1346,59 @@ se'a Lastly, the modifier=20 se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-= sufficiency or with dependence on others. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d10"/>

.e'ese'a [I can!] [self-sufficient!] - I can do it all by myself! + I can do it all by myself!

is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other han= d, <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d11"/>

.e'ese'anai [I can!] [dependent] - I can do it if you help me. + I can do it if you help me.

from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss = of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the=20 e'e in=20 =20 and=20 , leading to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d12"/>

.e'enaise'a [I can't!] [self-sufficient] - I can't do it if you insist on=20 - helping me! + I can't do it if you insist on=20 + helping me!

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e7d13"/>

.e'enaise'anai [I can't!] [dependent] - I can't do it by myself! + I can't do it by myself!

attitudinalscomplexity Some of the emotional ex= pressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumsta= nces. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one p= erson uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unam= biguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most p= robably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speaker= s, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions= (if not cliches) of emotion.

Compound indicators indicatorsmeaning when compounded indicatorsgrammar fo= r compounding The grammar of indicators is quite si= mple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any ord= er, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; th= us the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, alt= hough the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every = possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning. ge'e attitudinal in= dicatorunspecified attitudinal indicatorsconventions of interpretation unspecified emotion Wi= thin a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation wh= ich amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is= presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an= =20 unspecified emotion word,=20 =20 @@ -1537,41 +1537,41 @@ attitudinal quest= ionsasking intensity Most ofte= n, however, the asker will use=20 pei as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a re= sult,=20 pei is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would= have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference bet= ween UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usag= es in natural languages: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d1"/>

.iepei [agreement] [question] - Do you agree? + Do you agree?

.iare'epei [belief] [spiritual] [question] - Are you a Believer? + Are you a Believer?

.aipei [intention] [question] - Are you going to do it? + Are you going to do it?

might appear at the end of = a command, to which the response <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d4"/>

.aicai @@ -1580,54 +1580,54 @@

corresponds to=20 Aye! Aye! (hence the choice of cmavo). <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d5"/>

.e'apei [permission] [question] - Please, Mommy! Can I?? + Please, Mommy! Can I??

attitudinal quest= ionsasking about specific attitude Additionally, when=20 pei is used at the beginning of an indicator construct,= it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respon= dent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain): <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d6"/>

pei.o'u =20 [question] [comfort] - Are you comfortable? + Are you comfortable?

pei.o'ucu'i [question] [comfort] [neutral] - Are you no longer in pain? + Are you no longer in pain?

pei.o'usai [question] [comfort] [strong] - Are you again healthy? + Are you again healthy? =20

.uuse'inai dai<= /primary> sympat= hyexample empathyexample<= /indexterm> attitudesempathy contrasted with sympathy attitudinalsattributing emotion to others Empathy, which is no= t really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator=20 dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is=20 =20 =20 =20 .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a= story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course ma= ke a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can = also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator=20 =20 @@ -1636,34 +1636,34 @@ dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someon= e else's emotion as if it were your own: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d9"/>

.oiro'odai [Pain!] [physical] [empathy] =20 - Ouch, that must have hurt! + Ouch, that must have hurt!

It is even possible to=20 empathize with a non-living object: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d10"/>

le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean= -floor. =20 - Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank. + Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.

ship sankexample suggesting that the ship felt = fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker= 's pity for it. =20 attitudinalsnon-speaker attitudes attitudinalsexceptio= ns Both=20 pei and=20 dai represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitu= dinals reflect the speaker's attitude. =20 bu'onai bu'o attitude= sceasing attitudesbeginning attitudescontinuing attitudinalscontours attitudesexpressing changes in Finally, we = often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has no= t changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore,=20 .ui .ui .ui is not the same as=20 @@ -1678,44 +1678,44 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d11"/>

.o'onai bu'o =20 =20 [Anger!] [start emotion] - I'm getting angry! + I'm getting angry!

.iu bu'onai .uinai =20 [Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!] - I don't love you any more; I'm sad. + I don't love you any more; I'm sad.

Note the difference in effect between=20 and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e10d13"/>

mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (= I am-sad). - I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad. + I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.

which is a straightforward bridi claim.=20 states that you have (or ha= ve had) certain emotions;=20 expresses those emotions di= rectly.

Evidentials The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1832,21 +1832,21 @@ =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d2"/>

ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu =20 [I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain. - My leg hurts. + My leg hurts.

su'a inductionexample evidentialsja'o contrasted with su= 'a e= videntialssu'a contrasted with ja'o A bridi marked by=20 su'a is a generalization by the speaker based on other = (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between=20 su'a and=20 ja'o is that=20 ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not = necessarily rigorous), whereas=20 =20 su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern recogni= tion from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous). =20 @@ -1869,21 +1869,21 @@ ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.= =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d3"/>

ti'e la .uengas cu zergau =20 [I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer. - I hear that Wenga is a crook. + I hear that Wenga is a crook.

ka'u cultural knowl= edgeexample mythexample= A bridi marked by=20 ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural c= ontext, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should = be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your = own cultural context – although=20 =20 objectivity in the sense of actual correspondence with = the facts is certainly not required. ka'u se'o dreamexample revelationexample evidentials= ka'u contrasted with se'o evidentialsse'o contr= asted with ka'u On the other hand,=20 se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speak= er as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, = such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line= between=20 =20 =20 @@ -1900,21 +1900,21 @@ =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d4"/>

za'a do tatpi =20 [I observe!] You are-tired. - I see you are tired. + I see you are tired.

pe'ipei pe'i opinion<= /primary>example A bridi marked by=20 pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form=20 =20 =20 pe'ipei is common, meaning=20 =20 Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be=20 =20 @@ -1922,37 +1922,37 @@ pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference= between the two orders.) =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d5"/>

pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo =20 [I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed. - In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. + In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed. =20

e'u= ru'a assumptionexample Carthage destroyedexample e'ucompared with ru'a ru'acompared with e'u A bridi marked by=20 ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is simi= lar to one possible use of=20 =20 e'u. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e11d6"/>

ru'a doi livinston. =20 Dr. Livingstone, I presume? - (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) + (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.) =20

ju'apei ju'a basisexample Livingstonexample Finally, the evidential=20 ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a st= atement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is = not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using=20 =20 =20 ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but i= n question form it can be useful:=20 =20 ju'apei means=20 @@ -2019,54 +2019,54 @@ =20 only, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d1"/>

mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi =20 I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose. - Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose. + Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.

mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi =20 I hit [only] my cousin at-locus the nose. - I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).<= /en> + I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to h= im).

mi darxi le mi tamne po'o fo le nazbi =20 I hit my cousin [only] at-locus the nose. - I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else). + I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).

mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o =20 I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only]. - I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else). + I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).

hit noseexample hit cousinexample po'oplacement in sentence Note that=20 only can go before or after what it modifies in English= , but=20 po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward. =20 Next, the=20 commentary on words group:

@@ -2333,33 +2333,33 @@ According to the facts). A common use of=20 da'i is to distinguish between:

=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d5"/>

ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'= u ri pazvau If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] y= ou know that she is-pregnant. - If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know= she is pregnant. + If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly= know she is pregnant. =20

pregnant sisterexample sister pregnantexample hypothetical= worldcontrasted with real world= example real worldcontrasted with hypothetical worldexample and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d6"/>

ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le = du'u ri pazvau If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you = know that she is-pregnant. - If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is = pregnant. + If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know sh= e is pregnant. =20

It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, = and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese alw= ays leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e12d7"/>

ru @@ -2422,22 +2422,22 @@ .uanai). The confusion may be about the m= eaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a = sumti. One of the uses of English=20 which corresponds to=20 ki'a:

mi nelci le ctuca .i le ki'a ctuca - I like the teacher - Which teacher? + I like the teacher + Which teacher?

Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the= sumti=20 le ctuca, and so echoes back the sumti wi= th the confusion marker. jo'a na'i invalid spe= echmarking as error with na'i = error markingmetalinguistic The metalinguistic negation cm= avo=20 =20 na'i and its opposite=20 jo'a are explained in full in=20 =20 . In general,=20 @@ -2494,22 +2494,22 @@ =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d2"/>

mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani =20 I see the blue [figurative] house. - I see the=20 - blue house. + I see the=20 + blue house.

Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some ot= her sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of=20 pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference:=20 =20 blanu in=20 could mean=20 sad (as in English) or something completely different.<= /para> pe'anai literally The negated form,=20 pe'anai, indicates that what has been sai= d is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-lang= uage intuition is to be ignored. @@ -2576,21 +2576,21 @@ This cmavo is explained in detail in=20 . It marks the word it i= s attached to as the focus of an indirect question: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e13d3"/>

mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the= store. - I know who goes to the store. + I know who goes to the store. =20

Vocative scales COI selma'o direct = address "la"contrasted with vocatives<= /indexterm> vocativescontrasted with "la" vocativesdefi= nition=20 Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; t= hey precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as=20 =20 la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name us= ed to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators – in fa= ct, discursives – but the need to tie them to names and other descrip= tions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like = the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be=20 @@ -2876,280 +2876,280 @@ The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitud= inals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in=20 =20 sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each= sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c13e15d1"/>

la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar. - Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar. + Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.

.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ta'a ro zvati be ti mi baza speni t= i .iu [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Interrupt] all at this-= place, I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love]. - Rick said,=20 - Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting marri= ed to my love here. + Rick said,=20 + Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting marri= ed to my love here.

.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u .a'o ko gleki doi ma =20 [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Hope] [You-imperative= ] are-happy, O [who?]. - George said,=20 - I hope you'll be happy, um, ...? + George said,=20 + I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?

.i sei la pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis. xu mi ba terfriti le nu= nspenybi'o [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice, [Is it tr= ue?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-becoming? - Pam said,=20 - Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding? + Pam said,=20 + Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?

.i sei la mark. cusku se'u coi baza speni a'o le re do lifri = le ka gleki =20 [Comment] Mark says, [end-comment] [Greetings] [future] [me= dium] spouse(s), [Hope] the two of-you experience the-property-of being-hap= py - Mark said,=20 - Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy= . + Mark said,=20 + Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy= .

.i sei la rik. cusku se'u mi'e .rik. doi terpreti [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [I am] Rick, O questione= rs. - Rick said,=20 - My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.= + Rick said,=20 + My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.=

.i sei la .alis. cusku se'u nu'e .pam. .o'ero'i do ba zvati =20 [Comment] Alice says, [end-comment] [Promise-to] Pam, [clos= eness] [emotional] you [future] are-at. - Alice said,=20 - I promise you'll be there, Pam honey. + Alice said,=20 + I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.

.i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i mi ji'a prami la .al= is. fe'o .rik. =20 [Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic]= [emotional] I [additionally] love Alice. [Over and out to] Rick. - + I love Alice too, said Fred miserably.=20 - Have a nice life, Rick. + Have a nice life, Rick.

.i la fred. cliva Fred leaves. - And he left. + And he left.

.i sei la rik. cusku se'u fi'i ro zvati ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'= o pleji mi =20 [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Welcome-to] all at-plac= e, [You-imperative] drink one coffee with-payer me. - Rick said, raising his voice,=20 - A cup of coffee for the house, on me. + Rick said, raising his voice,=20 + A cup of coffee for the house, on me.

.i sei la pam. cusku se'u be'e selfu =20 [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Request to speak to] ser= ver. - Pam said,=20 - Waiter! + Pam said,=20 + Waiter!

.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i [end-comment] =20 [Comment] The server says, [Ready to receive]. - The waiter replied,=20 - May I help you? + The waiter replied,=20 + May I help you?

.i sei la pam. cusku se'u .e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi = le baza speni fi'o pleji mi =20 [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Petition] [You-imperativ= e] serve the (superlatively good) coffee to-the [future] [medium] spouse wi= th-payer me. - Pam said,=20 - One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.= + Pam said,=20 + One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.=

.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o [Comment] The server says, [end-comment] [Will comply]. - - Gotcha, said the waiter. + + Gotcha, said the waiter.

.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam. =20 [Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks O] Pam. - - Thanks, Pam, said Rick. + + Thanks, Pam, said Rick.

.i sei la pam. cusku se'u je'e =20 [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge]. - - Sure, said Pam. + + Sure, said Pam.

.i sei la djan. cusku se'u .y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y. le nu l= e speni si .y. ba speni .y. .y. su .yyyyyy. mu'o =20 [Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Uh] I [uh] very [nonexi= stent gismu] [uh] the event-of the spouse [erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh]= [uh] [erase all] [uh] [over] - John said,=20 - I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, f= orget it. Er, later. + John said,=20 + I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, f= orget it. Er, later.

.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u ke'o .djan. zo'o =20 =20 [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Repeat O] John [humor= ]. - - How's that again, John? said George. + + How's that again, John? said George.

.i sei la pam. cusku se'u ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi= farlu =20 [Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Attention] George, [Warn= ing] the cup [future] [short] falls - + George, watch out! said Pam.=20 - The cup's falling! + The cup's falling!

.i le kabri cu je'a farlu The cup indeed falls. - The cup fell. + The cup fell.

.i sei la djan. cusku se'u e'o doi djordj. zo'o rapygau =20 =20 [Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Petition] O George [hum= or] repeat-cause. - John said,=20 - Try that again, George! + John said,=20 + Try that again, George!

.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. = ga'i =20 [Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Partings] all at-plac= e without John [superiority] - + Goodbye to all of you, said George sneeringly,=20 - except John. + except John.

.i la djordj. cliva George leaves. - George left. + George left.

Tentative conclusion indicatorsramifications alienscommunication with Kzinticommunication with The exact rami= fications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has ne= ver been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides g= reat potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which signi= ficant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cu= ltural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same e= motion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien rac= e, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic exam= ple, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking = Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile= bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for commun= icating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals i= nvolved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are al= so cultural), a system like this is needed. =20 =20 =20 indicatorsrationale for selection We have tried= to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this sy= stem that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more ne= utral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and= constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the curren= t indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo=20 diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml index d30b75b..1a0f1a6 100644 --- a/todocbook/14.xml +++ b/todocbook/14.xml @@ -411,21 +411,21 @@ John is a man or James is a woman, but not both. Here is another example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d8"/>

la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman. - John is a man if James is a woman. + John is a man if James is a woman.

ifEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective ifmeaning in logical connections How's that aga= in? Are those two English sentences in=20 really equivalent? In Engli= sh, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed=20 A if B, but the=20 if does not quite have its English sense.=20 is true so long as John is = a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because Jame= s is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of=20 if-then is technically known as a=20 material conditional. Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in=20 @@ -433,21 +433,21 @@ John is a man if James is a woman seems to be neither t= rue nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out t= o be most convenient to treat this=20 if as TTFT, which on investigation means that=20 is true.=20 , however, is equally true:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d9"/>

la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu - John is a woman if James is a woman. + John is a woman if James is a woman.

false statementimplications of principle of consistencyof logical-if statements This can be thought of as= a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows:=20 =20 If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it. All uses of English=20 =20 if must be considered very carefully when translating i= nto Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold. only if= compared with if =E2=80=A6 then if =E2=80=A6 thencompared with only if=20 , which uses the TFTT truth = function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as=20 only if works naturally only when the right-hand bridi = is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. T= he last gloss of=20 @@ -455,35 +455,35 @@ if ... then as a more natural substitute for=20 =20 only if. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d10"/>

la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman. - John is a man only if James is a woman. - If John is a man, then James is a woman. + John is a man only if James is a woman. + If John is a man, then James is a woman.

se<= /indexterm> sein logical connective to exchange sentences = The following example illustrates the use of=20 se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The norma= l use of=20 se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as ex= plained in=20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e4d11"/>

la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu - Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman. + Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.

se<= /indexterm> nai na na<= secondary>order in logical connectives with se seorder in = logical connectives with na If both=20 na and=20 se are present, which is legal but never necessary,=20 na would come before=20 se. JA selma'o I se= lma'o = ijekssyntax of The full syntax= of ijeks, therefore, is:

.i [na] [se] JA [nai] @@ -510,33 +510,33 @@ is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to ma= ke =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d2"/>

la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu - John is a man or James is a woman (or both) + John is a man or James is a woman (or both)

provides additional information without requiring any change in = the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or prac= tical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the= use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible t= o construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety o= f ways. I selma'o JA se= lma'o GA selma'o = afterthought bridi connectivescontrasted with= forethought bridi connectives forethought bridi connectivescontrasted with afterthought bridi connectives <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">gek bridi connectivescontrasted with ijeks ijek bridi connectivesc= ontrasted with geks gekdefinition = In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the = first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and a= fterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethough= t logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d3"/>

ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu - Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both). + Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).

GI selma'o GA s= elma'o=20 ga is the cmavo which represents the=20 A truth function in selma'o GA= . The word=20 gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its ow= n selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any cont= ent of its own. The English translation of=20 ga ... gi is=20 either ... or, but in the English form the truth functi= on is specified both by the word=20 either and by the word=20 or: not so in Lojban. @@ -546,48 +546,48 @@ Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d4"/>

ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu - (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman. + (It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman= .

GU selma'o gu FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d5"/>

gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu - It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman= . + It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a = woman.

It is worth emphasizing that=20 does not assert that James = is (or is not) a woman. The=20 gu which indicates that=20 la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is= unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected. Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expre= ssed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as=20 if ... then ...: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d6"/>

ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu Either John is not a man, or James is a woman. - If John is a man, then James is a woman. + If John is a man, then James is a woman.

GA selma'o gana= i nai<= /primary>placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted w= ith forethought naiplacement in forethought bridi connecti= on contrasted with afterthought Note the placement = of the=20 nai in=20 . When added to afterthought= selma'o such as JA, a following=20 nai negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. = Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following=20 nai negates the first bridi instead. logical connectiv= esnegated first sentence as a potential problem for un= derstanding Why does English insist on forethought = in the translation of=20 ? Possibly because it would = be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (w= hich, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which= involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic= understanding, when expressed using afterthought. if =E2=80=A6 then= logical connectives contrasted with other translations= It must be reiterated here that not every use of E= nglish=20 @@ -614,34 +614,34 @@ and=20 illustrates a truth functio= n, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We alr= eady understand how to negate the first bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d8"/>

gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman. - Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. + Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.

GI selma'o gina= i How can the second bridi be negated? By adding=20 -nai to the=20 gi. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e5d9"/>

go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman. - Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both. + Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.

GI selma'o gikdefinition A compound cmavo based o= n=20 gi is called a gik; the only giks are=20 =20 gi itself and=20 ginai. Further examples: @@ -676,21 +676,21 @@ <section xml:id=3D"section-sumti-connection"> <title>sumti connection =20 bridi logical con= nectioncompared with sumti logical connections sumti logic= al connectioncompared with bridi logical connections sumti= logical connectionrationale for sumti logical connection<= /primary> Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible= logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that t= wo bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d1"/>

la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci - John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market. + John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.

Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban d= oes not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bri= di can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logic= al connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d2"/>

la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci John and Alice go-to the market. @@ -713,21 +713,21 @@

leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all. Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct Eng= lish equivalent: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d4"/>

la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market. - John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does. + John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.

The second line of=20 is highly stilted English, = but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojb= an. GA selma'o geksin forethought sumti connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">sumti connectionforethought What about forethought sumti con= nection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They ar= e not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most= commonly used ones. =20 =20 =20 @@ -742,21 +742,21 @@ <valsi>na</valsi> or=20 <valsi>se</valsi> is part of an ek, a special writing convention is in= voked, as in the following example:</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</pr= imary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>na.a<= /primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-caoY"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e6d6"/>

la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci John only if Alice goes-to the market. - John goes to the market only if Alice does. + John goes to the market only if Alice does.

Note the period in=20 na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, a= nd therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to writ= e all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause= must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the=20 na and=20 a would tend to run together.

More than two propositions logical connectiv= esmore than 2 sentences So far= we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. Ho= w about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is= yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions. @@ -810,21 +810,21 @@ without repeating one of th= e bridi. See=20 . There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two = sentences. What is the meaning of: logical connectio= n of more than 2 sentencesmixed "and" and &q= uot;or" FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d4"/>

mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la m= eris. - I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary. + I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.

Does this mean: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d5"/> I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both. Or is the correct translation: @@ -836,32 +836,32 @@ logical connectio= nof more than 2 sentencesforetho= ught = logical connectivespairing from left=20 is the correct translation = of=20 . The reason is that Lojban = logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the lan= guage. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especia= lly when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not sub= ject to this problem: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d7"/>

ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. - Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary. + Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mar= y.

is equivalent in meaning to=20 , whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e7d8"/>

ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la= meris. - Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary). + Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary= ).

is not equivalent to=20 , but is instead a valid tra= nslation into Lojban, using forethought, of=20 .

Grouping of afterthought connectives BO selma'o bo boin logical connectives logical connectionw= ith boprecedence logical connectivesg= rouping with bo There are several ways in Lojban to= render=20 using afterthought only. Th= e simplest method is to make use of the cmavo=20 @@ -869,21 +869,21 @@ bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatical= ly distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Co= nnections marked with=20 bo are interpreted before connections not so marked.=20 is equivalent in meaning to= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d1"/>

mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la= meris. - I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary. + I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.

The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the L= ojban marks far more clearly: the=20 I like Martha and=20 I like Mary sentences are joined by=20 .ija first, before the result is joined t= o=20 I like John by=20 .ije. =20 Eks can have=20 @@ -940,21 +940,21 @@ bo<= /indexterm> BO selma'o complex= logical connectivesgrouping with bo where the semantics tells us that the instances of=20 and are meant to have higher precedence than that of=20 if. If we wish to express=20 in afterthought, we can say= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d5"/>

mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo d= o prami mi - I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me. + I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me= .

marking two of the ijeks with=20 bo for high precedence. (The first=20 bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-group= ing rule, and is shown here in brackets.) complex logical c= onnectivesgrouping with parentheses But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e8d6"/> @@ -1031,21 +1031,21 @@ compound brididefinition Surprise! Lojban provi= des no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing els= e. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose= mechanism called=20 compound bridi. Compound bridi result from logically co= nnecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their s= umti. =20 compound bridione sumti in common The simplest = cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d1"/>

mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan. - I go to the market, and I like John. + I go to the market, and I like John.

is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e9d2"/>

mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan. @@ -1189,21 +1189,21 @@ Multiple compound bridi =20 compound bridimultiple with bo Giheks can be co= mbined with=20 bo in the same way as eks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d1"/>

mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris= . - I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ). + I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).

compound bridimultiple with ke=E2=80=A6ke'e is = equivalent in meaning to=20 and=20 . Likewise,=20 ke ... ke'e grouping can be used after gi= heks: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d2"/> @@ -1261,34 +1261,34 @@ <gloss>To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give = or take the book.</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>logical connectio= n</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tert= iary></indexterm> Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bri= di-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban gra= mmar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a sing= le bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their= selbri. For example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-4gJC"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d6"/>

mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan. - I both go to the market and like John. + I both go to the market and like John.

is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:= =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d7"/>

mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan. - I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like Joh= n. + I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and lik= e John.

negating a foreth= ought-connected bridi-tail pair negating a forethought-connected sentence pair The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated a= s a whole by prefixing=20 na: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d8"/>

mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani @@ -1319,21 +1319,21 @@

Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both= shared and unshared terms before their selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e10d11"/>

mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.= - I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).<= /en> + I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not bo= th).

Termset logical connection So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and= require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and per= mit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly = one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connec= tives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not= in the selbri, such as: =20 =20 =20 @@ -1534,33 +1534,33 @@ BO selma'o bo logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= bo It suffices to note here, then, a few purely gra= mmatical points about tanru logical connection.=20 =20 bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rul= es: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d8"/>

la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi =20 - Terry is rich and ( male or female ). + Terry is rich and ( male or female ).

KE selma'o ke logical= connectionin tanrugrouping with= ke=20 The components of tanru may be grouped with=20 ke both before and after a logical connective: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d9"/>

la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi= [ke'e] - Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female). + Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).

where the first=20 ke ... ke'e pair may be omitted altogethe= r by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, t= he last instance of=20 ke'e may be elided. JA selma'o nai<= /primary> se= n= a jeks= syntax of The syntax of jeks i= s:

[na] [se] JA [nai]

parallel to eks and giheks. @@ -1574,21 +1574,21 @@ logical connectio= nof tanru as opposed to bridi-tail logical connectionof bridi-tail as opposed to tanru = guheks for tanru connectionrationale Using guheks in tanru = connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unaccepta= ble ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d10"/>

la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi - Alice is both rich and female. + Alice is both rich and female.

JA selma'o GUhA= selma'o tanru connection groupingguheks unmarked tanru tanru gr= oupingguheks compared with jeks=20 Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are u= sed with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grou= ping does: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d11"/> @@ -1599,42 +1599,42 @@ is the forethought version of=20 . sumti logical con= nectioncontrasted with tanru logical connection tanru logi= cal connectioncontrasted with sumti logical connection= tan= rureducing logically connected sumti tocaveat = logical connectionof tanrucaveat A word of caution about the use of logical= ly connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead th= e speaker astray. In correctly reducing <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d12"/>

mi viska pa nanmu .ije mi viska pa ninmu - I see a man, and I see a woman. + I see a man, and I see a woman.

to <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d13"/>

mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu - I see a man and a woman. + I see a man and a woman.

there is a great temptation to reduce further to: man-womanexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e12d14"/>

mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu - I see a man and woman. + I see a man and woman.

But=20 means that you see one thin= g which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A=20 nanmu je ninmu is a manwoman, a presumabl= y non-existent creature who is both a=20 nanmu and a=20 ninmu.

Truth questions and connective questions @@ -1677,32 +1677,32 @@ nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are ex= plained in=20 =20 .) In answer to=20 , the possible answers are:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d3"/>

go'i - Fido is a dog. + Fido is a dog.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d4"/>

nago'i =20 - Fido is not a dog. + Fido is not a dog.

truth questionscontrasted with connection questions Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth quest= ions so far discussed. Consider dog or catexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d5"/> Is Fido a dog or a cat? @@ -1783,65 +1783,65 @@ Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat? Here are some plausible answers: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d9"/>

nagi'e - Alice is not a dog and is a cat. + Alice is not a dog and is a cat.

gi'enai - Alice is a dog and is not a cat. + Alice is a dog and is not a cat.

nagi'enai - Alice is not a dog and is not a cat. + Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.

nagi'o gi'onai - Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which)= . + Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying w= hich).

is correct but uncooperativ= e. afterthought conn= ectivesas complete grammatical utterance connectivesas complete grammatical utterance As= usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the q= uestion. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is gramma= tical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it = to connect. The answer=20 gi'e, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impo= ssible in the real world, but for: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d13"/>

do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function= ?] a-mass-of tea? - Do you want coffee or tea? + Do you want coffee or tea? =20

coffee or teaexample the answer=20 e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if= not necessarily polite. afterthought conn= ectioncontrasted with forethought for grammatical utte= rances forethought connectioncontrasted with afterthought = for grammatical utterances forethought connectivesas ungra= mmatical utterance connectivesas ungrammatical utterance The forethought questions=20 ge'i and=20 =20 gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids th= e use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound lik= e the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although=20 =20 @@ -1888,21 +1888,21 @@ ko, which means=20 you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the= command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may= be translated thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e13d17"/>

ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati g= i ko bevri loi ckafi mi If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, an= d if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me. - If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me = coffee. + If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, brin= g me coffee.

UI selma'o ku'i= andcompared with but butcompared with and<= /secondary> In logical terms, however,=20 but is the same as=20 and; the difference is that the sentence after a=20 but is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sente= nce before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive = cmavo=20 ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in=20 =20 , to the logical=20 .ije.) @@ -1968,21 +1968,21 @@ joi has the connotation=20 mixed with, as in the following example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d5"/>

ti blanu joi xunre bolci This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball. - This is a blue and red ball. + This is a blue and red ball. =20

Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly = blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue so= mething has to be to count as=20 wholly blue is an unsettled question, though. A=20 blanu zdani may be so even though not eve= ry part of it is blue.) There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used i= n the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as y= et in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those = definitions are shown in the following table: @@ -2037,38 +2037,38 @@ JOI selma'o se<= /primary> se= pi'u pi'u ku'a = jo'e sefa'u fa'u jo'u sece'o ce'o ce joi JOI selma'o joiksuse of &= quot;se" in seas grammatical in JOI compounds The cmavo=20 se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful= with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d6"/>

mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz. I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James= . - I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James. + I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.

choose fromexample masscontrasted with set in distribu= tion of properties setcontrasted with mass in distribution= of properties setas specified by members The x3 place of=20 cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A s= et is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unl= ike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' = properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the r= ats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theo= ry (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional log= ic is quite enough for one chapter! =20 ce<= /indexterm> setby listing members with ce In=20 we specify that set by list= ing the members with=20 ce joining them. <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d7"/>

ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan. =20 This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John. - This is a list of you, me, and John. + This is a list of you, me, and John.

listexample setcontrasted with ordered sequence masscontrasted with ordered sequence ordered sequencecontrasted with mass ordered sequencecontrasted with= set ordered sequenceby listing members sequenceas an abstract list listas a physical object sequencecontrasted with list listcontrasted wit= h sequence The x2 place of=20 liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned i= n the list. (It is worth pointing out that=20 lo liste means a physical object such as = a grocery list: a purely abstract list is=20 lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sum= ti connected by=20 ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together = in a set or a mass. =20 jo'u jo'u= result of connection with jo'ucontrasted with c= e'o = jo'ucontrasted with ce jo'ucontrasted= with joi individuals into setby non-logical connection indivi= duals into massby non-logical connection non-logical conne= ctionof individuals into set = non-logical connectionof individuals into mass So=20 joi,=20 @@ -2134,45 +2134,45 @@ fa'u respectivelyexample respectivelyspecifying with fa'= u co= nnectionnon-distributed Likewi= se,=20 fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where = order matters. Typically, there will be another=20 fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d12"/>

la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas. James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-or= der-with Martha. - James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively. + James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.

.econtrasted with fa'u fa'ucontrasted with .e Here the information carried by the English adverb=20 respectively, namely that James loves Mary and George l= oves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of=20 fa'u. If both uses of=20 fa'u were to be changed to=20 e, we would get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d13"/>

la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas. - James and George love Mary and Martha. + James and George love Mary and Martha.

which can be transformed to four bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d14"/>

la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris. .= ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la martas. - James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Marth= a, and George loves Martha. + James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves = Martha, and George loves Martha.

which represents quite a different state of affairs from=20 . The meaning of=20 can also be conveyed by a t= ermset: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e14d15"/>

@@ -2315,40 +2315,40 @@

respectivelywith different relationships tagged sumti termsetsconnecting with non-logical forethought connectives non-logical foretho= ught termsetsconnecting tagged sumti Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to = be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tag= s: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d9"/>

la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u b= ai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u] John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-lan= guage Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George. - John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, = respectively. + John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compuls= ion, respectively.

associates speaking in Lojb= an with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not = know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compul= sion. =20 JOI selma'o I s= elma'o sequence of eventsexpressing non-time-related sequenc= es i= ce'ocontrasted with .ibabo sentencesc= onnecting non-logically non-logical connectivessentence ijoik<= /primary>definition Joiks may be prefixe= d with=20 i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically conne= ct sentences. The ijoik=20 =20 .ice'o indicates that the event of the se= cond bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time re= lationship (which is handled with a tense): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d10"/>

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci l= e karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u =20 I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the = quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the = dog. ) - List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog. + List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.

tu'e tu'u di'e TUhU= selma'o TUhE selma'o list of things to doexample<= /indexterm> to-do listexample tu'euse in lists tu'eeffect on di'e di'eeffect of tu'e/tu'u on listsuse of tu'e/tu'u in=20 represents a list of things= to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a= sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the = dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of=20 tu'e and=20 tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is= related to, but distinct from, their use in=20 , because= there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase=20 mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The br= ackets effectively show how large an utterance the word=20 di'e, which means=20 =20 @@ -2377,32 +2377,32 @@ =20 joi would be the correct connective. connective answer= snon-logical connective questionsnon= -logical There is no joik question cmavo as such; h= owever, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logic= al connective question, as in the following exchange: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e15d12"/>

do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [what connectiv= e?] a-mass-of tea? - Do you want coffee or tea? + Do you want coffee or tea? =20

joi Mixed-mass-and. - Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together). + Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).

ughexample coffee mixed with teaexample Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)=

Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</ti= tle> =20 <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary= ></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</prim= ary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI= selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><prima= ry>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as endpoints</secondary></indext= erm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives= </primary><secondary>intervals</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the n= on-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-connectives"/> and=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-non-logical-continued"/>, there are three oth= er connectives which can appear in joiks:=20 @@ -2417,39 +2417,39 @@ <para>An example of=20 <valsi>bi'i</valsi> in sumti connection:</para> =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-sHhA"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d1"/>

mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.<= /gloss> - I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. + I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt. =20

bi'i between Dresde= n and Frankfurtexample non-logical connectivesun-ordered intervals In=20 , it is all the same whether= I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresd= en, so=20 =20 bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti= =20 la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into = the x2 place of=20 sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval sp= ecifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the wh= ole of the interval; the x2 place of=20 sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in = extent than just the size of the stander's feet.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d2"/>

mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac. I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Seco= nd-hour. - I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock. + I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.

bi'o from one to tw= o o'clockexample non-logical connectivesordered intervals In=20 , on the other hand, it is e= ssential that=20 la pacac. comes before=20 la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (= or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an int= erval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it. is equivalent to: sebi'o FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -2470,69 +2470,69 @@ =20 bomb destroyed fi= fty milesexample FIXME: TAG SP= OT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d4"/>

le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno =20 The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measur= ed-in-miles by 50. - The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around. + The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.

Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose di= stance, or radius, is fifty miles. GAhO selma'o<= /primary> ke= 'i ga'o = endpointsinclusion in interval= intervalinclusion of endpoints intervalopen intervalclosed <= primary>open interval closed interval In=20 , is it possible that I am s= tanding in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o B= IhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or= excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo=20 ga'o and=20 ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of= the endpoints:=20 ga'o means that the endpoint is included,=20 ke'i that it is excluded: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d5"/>

mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both= . + I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of= both. =20

mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclu= sive). + I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (= exclusive).

mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ga'o la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [inclusive= ] Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). + I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (= inclusive).

mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt. I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive= ] Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both= . + I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of= both. =20

between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO selma'ogramm= ar of As these examples should make clear, the GAhO= cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically a= djacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and= the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have ju= st one GAhO. ke'ietymology of ga'oetymology of (Etymologically,=20 ga'o is derived from=20 ganlo, which means=20 closed, and=20 ke'i from=20 kalri, which means=20 @@ -2543,21 +2543,21 @@ -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate a= n interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with= respect to some understood scale): except from 10 to= 12example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d9"/>

do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac. =20 You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12 - You can contact me except from 10 to 12. + You can contact me except from 10 to 12. =20

The complete syntax of joiks is: GAhO selma'o<= /primary> BI= hI selma'o = JOI selma'o nai se joikssyntax of FIXME: TAG SPOT

[se] JOI [nai] @@ -2627,21 +2627,21 @@ gi is the regular gik that separates the two things bei= ng connected in all forethought forms. can be expressed in foretho= ught as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e16d11"/>

mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt. I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden a= nd Frankfurt. - I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclu= sive). + I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (= inclusive).

between Dresden a= nd Frankfurtexample GAhO position in forethought intervals= foret= hought intervalsGAhO position = In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from t= he endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first= endpoint.

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso mathematical expr= essionsconnectives in non-logical connectionin mathematical expressions logical connectionin ma= thematical expressions Lojban has a separate gramma= r embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expression= s (or mekso in Lojban) such as=20 =20 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in= =20 . The basic components of mekso are o= perands, like=20 @@ -2687,48 +2687,48 @@ ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right p= arenthesis mark,=20 ve'o, is an elidable terminator. Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard= to come by. A contrived example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d3"/>

li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4. - 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D= 4. + 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x = 2 =3D 4.

The forethought form of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d4"/>

li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number fo= ur. - Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x = 2 =3D 4. + Both 2 + 2 =3D 4 and 2 x 2 =3D 4.

ke'i ga'o bi'i mathemat= ical intervals Non-logical connection with joiks or j= oigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use fo= r this construct is to connect operands with=20 =20 bi'i to create mathematical intervals: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d5"/>

li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one

[0,1)

- the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one + the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not incl= uding one =20

ce'o zero to oneexample compound subscript You can also= combine two operands with=20 ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a= compound subscript: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e17d6"/> @@ -2759,48 +2759,48 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>logically connect= ed tenses</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexter= m type=3D"general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary= >interaction with tenses</secondary></indexterm> The two types of interacti= on between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses an= d tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be use= d between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in te= nse:</para> =20 =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-g6iT"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d1"/>

la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is= -a-noblest-governor. - Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king. + Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.

once and future k= ingexample can be reduced to:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d2"/>

la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor. - Arthur was and will be king. + Arthur was and will be king.

and=20 are equivalent in meaning; = neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now. non-logically con= nected tenses Non-logical connection with joiks is al= so possible between tenses: breathe= example FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d3"/>

mi pu bi'o ba vasxu I [past] from ... to [future] breathe. =20 - I breathe from a past time until a future time. + I breathe from a past time until a future time. =20

The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals exp= ressible, such as=20 =20 from a medium time ago until a long time from now. tenses<= secondary>grouping of connectives in groupingof connection= in tenses tensesforethought connection in forethought connect= ionin tenses No forethought co= nnections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way= to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed = to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or moda= ls can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode expl= icitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications. =20 tensed logical co= nnection Tensed logical connections are both more com= plex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider t= he English sentence: went and boughtexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -2852,96 +2852,96 @@ BO selma'o A se= lma'o = tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6bo= Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is p= ermitted only in the following situations: Between an ek (or joik) and=20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d7"/>

la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market. - John and Alice go to the market simultaneously. + John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.

KE selma'o JOI = selma'o KE selma'o A selma'o simultaneouslyexample tensed logical co= nnectivesin joik=E2=80=A6ke <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed logical connectivesin ek=E2=80=A6ke Between an ek (or= joik) and=20 ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d8"/>

mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the schoo= l ). - I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the sch= ool. + I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or th= e school.

BO selma'o GIhA= selma'o and earlierexample tensed logical connectives= in gihek=E2=80=A6bo Between a gihek and= =20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d9"/>

mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/t= o you. - I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) f= rom you. + I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, y= en) from you.

KE selma'o GIhA= selma'o and then tensed logical connectivesin gihek=E2=80=A6ke Between a gihek and=20 ke, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d10"/>

mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e] I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something t= o-John. - I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John. + I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.

BO selma'o I se= lma'o JA selma'o = and simultaneouslyexample tensed logical connecti= vesin ijoik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6bo Between an ijek (or = ijoik) and=20 =20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d11"/>

mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu =20 I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. - I see a man, and then I see a woman. + I see a man, and then I see a woman.

TUhE selma'o<= /primary> I = selma'o JOI selma'o JA selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connec= tivesin ijoik=E2=80=A6tu'e tensed logical connectivesin ijek=E2=80=A6tu'e Between an ije= k (or ijoik) and=20 =20 tu'e, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d12"/>

mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u] I see a man. And [later] I see a woman. - I see a man, and then I see a woman. + I see a man, and then I see a woman.

BO selma'o JA s= elma'o JOI selma'o and thenexample tensed logical connectivesin joik=E2=80=A6bo tensed logical connectivesin jek=E2=80=A6bo And finally, between a jek (or= joik) and=20 bo, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d13"/>

mi mikce jebabo ricfu I-am-a doctor and [later] rich - I am a doctor and future rich person. + I am a doctor and future rich person.

tu'e ke bo TUhE sel= ma'o KE selma'o BO selma'o doctor and then richexample tu'econtrasted with bo for tensed logical connection bocontrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection ke= contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bocontras= ted with ke for tensed logical connection As can be= seen from=20 and=20 , the choice between=20 bo and=20 ke (or=20 tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be= connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neithe= r would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always= be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following=20 bo,=20 ke, or=20 @@ -2952,34 +2952,34 @@ mathematical expr= essionstensed connection in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">tensed connectivesin mathematical expressions tensed non-logical connectivesforethought tensed logical connectivesforethought= for= ethought connectiveswith tense= tensed non-logical connecti= ves no= n-logical connectivesincluding tense Non-logical connectives with=20 bo and=20 ke can include tense information in exactly the same wa= y as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted= below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathemat= ical operands and operators can also include tense information in their log= ical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanr= u components respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d14"/>

vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa ( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room. - Three and, later, four students were in the room. + Three and, later, four students were in the room.

forethought bridi= -tail connectionspecial rule for tense tensein forethought bridi-tail connectionspecial ru= le is a simple example. There is a special grammatic= al rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought= bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be pre= ceded by a tense. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e18d15"/>

mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja =20 I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food - I went to the market and bought some food. + I went to the market and bought some food.

pu ge went and boug= htexample=20 is similar to=20 . There is no time relations= hip specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the = past.

Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title= > <para> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</p= rimary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU s= elma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary= >jeks</primary><secondary>connecting abstractors</secondary></indexterm> <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><seconda= ry>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"genera= l-imported"><primary>logical connection of abstractors</primary></indexterm= > Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed bet= ween abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be exp= anded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstract= ion marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.=20 =20 @@ -2994,34 +2994,34 @@ <jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu = xlali</jbo> <gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of = Frank's writing is bad.</gloss> </interlinear-gloss> </example> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qgVR" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d2"/>

le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali - The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. + The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad. =20

quality and quant= ityexample abstractionsgrouping of co= nnectives in = groupingof connection in abstractions abstraction= sforethought connection in forethought connectionin abstractions As with tenses and moda= ls, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.<= /para> logical connectio= ninside abstractionscontrasted w= ith outside logical connectionin abstractionsinner bridi contrasted with outer bridi Logi= cal connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though.= Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connec= tion inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined = by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d3"/>

mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .= iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-els= e isn't-at) Jupiter. - I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter. + I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.

Jupiter lifeexample is true, since the embedded= sentence is a tautology, but: <anchor xml:id=3D"c14e19d4"/>

mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi j= invi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter= or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml index 1f6c413..ee86de8 100644 --- a/todocbook/15.xml +++ b/todocbook/15.xml @@ -154,41 +154,41 @@ Because of the ambiguity of English=20 not, we will use=20 [false] in the translation of Lojban examples to remind= the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more = examples of bridi negation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d5"/>

mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci I [false] now am-a-go-er to the market. - I am not going to the market now. + I am not going to the market now.

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau The-actual present noblest-governor of the French country [= false] is-hair-without. - The current king of France isn't bald. + The current king of France isn't bald.

ti na barda prenu co melbi mi This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me). - This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me. + This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me. =20

Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's i= nternal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, es= pecially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo= =20 =20 =20 da,=20 de, and=20 di of selma'o KOhA, explained in=20 ) in the bridi, you can indeed = translate Lojban=20 @@ -200,44 +200,44 @@ In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain = bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of=20 na. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d8"/>

mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the= event-of dancing). It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the c= ase that I am going to the dance. - I am not happy about not going to the dance. + I am not happy about not going to the dance.

In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstracti= on bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. Fo= r example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d9"/>

mi nelci le na melbi I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful). - I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful. + I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.

A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d10"/>

mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the Fr= ench-country). - I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France. + I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.

The claim of=20 could apply to anyone excep= t a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the desc= ription is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations = in colloquial English. =20 Negation with=20 na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of = a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put=20 na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does = not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs invol= ving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you m= ight want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. Th= is grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separat= e from other forms of negation. =20 The grammar of=20 @@ -264,21 +264,21 @@

When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with= =20 na is permitted in two positions: before or after the t= ag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but th= is is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals = and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains = to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d13"/>

mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci =20 - I habitually go to the market. + I habitually go to the market.

mean the same thing with=20 na before the=20 ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let= future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other= . =20 A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if= you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With Englis= h causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this prob= lem is more likely. Thus, if you translate the English: @@ -288,35 +288,35 @@ </example> <para>as:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-q8su"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d15"/>

mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu =20 I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken. - It is false that:=20 - I go to the market because the car is broken. + It is false that:=20 + I go to the market because the car is broken.

you end up negating too much. Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compou= nded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation o= f the normal interpretation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d16"/>

lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu lenu le karce cu spofu<= /jbo> The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified = by the event-of (the car being broken). - My not going to the market is because the car is broken. + My not going to the market is because the car is broken.<= /natlang>

In=20 , the negation is clearly co= nfined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the= whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate= sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here). =20 The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e2d17"/> @@ -506,21 +506,21 @@ <para>All the scalar negations illustrated in=20 <xref linkend=3D"section-scalar-negation"/> are expressed in Lojban us= ing the cmavo=20 <valsi>na'e</valsi> (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of=20 <valsi>na'e</valsi> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qh42" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d1"/>

mi klama le zarci - I go to the market. + I go to the market.

<anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d2"/> mi na'e klama le zarci I non-go to the market. @@ -740,45 +740,45 @@ non-, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were= a noun. Since Lojban=20 klama is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the = difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. Th= e English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly differe= nt English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation. Consider the following highly problematic sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d15"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-hair-without. - The current King of France is bald. + The current King of France is bald.

The selbri=20 krecau negates with=20 na'e as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d16"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-other-than hair-without. - The current King of France is other-than-bald. + The current King of France is other-than-bald.

or, as a lujvo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d17"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country = is-non-hair-without. - The current King of France is a non-bald-one. + The current King of France is a non-bald-one.

and=20 express the predicate neg= ation forms using a negation word (=20 na'e) or rafsi (=20 -nal-); yet they make positive assertions about the c= urrent King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This fo= llows from the close binding of=20 na'e to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by = absorbing the negative marker into the word. =20 =20 @@ -787,21 +787,21 @@ =20 Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say tha= t he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him= . Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri ne= gation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbr= i negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is in= variably=20 false, since no affirmative statement about the current= King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce= a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e4d18"/>

lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [f= alse] is-hair-without. - It is false that the current King of France is bald. + It is false that the current King of France is bald.

Note:=20 lo is used in these sentences because negation relates = to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentenc= es carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually a= pplies to the referent. A sentence using=20 le instead of=20 lo can be true even if there is no current king of Fran= ce, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as = the current king of France. (See the explanations of=20 le in=20 .)

@@ -927,41 +927,41 @@ <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e5d10"/>

ta na'e melbi That is-non-beautiful. That is other than beautiful. - That is ugly [in one sense]. + That is ugly [in one sense].

ta no'e melbi That is-neutrally beautiful. - That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful). + That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautifu= l).

ta to'e melbi That is-opposite-of beautiful. - That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive. + That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.

The cmavo=20 to'e has the assigned rafsi=20 -tol- and=20 -to'e-; the cmavo=20 no'e has the assigned rafsi=20 -nor- and=20 -no'e-. The selbri in=20 through=20 @@ -986,55 +986,55 @@ na'ebo forms a scalar negation. =20 Let us show examples of each. <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d1"/>

no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the Fr= ench country are-hair-without. - No current king of France is bald. + No current king of France is bald.

Is=20 true? Yes, because it merel= y claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, no= ne are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings o= f France. Now let us look at the same sentence using=20 na'ebo negation: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d2"/>

na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau =20 [Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the= French country) is-hair-without. - Something other than the current King of France is bald. + Something other than the current King of France is bald.<= /natlang>

is true provided that som= ething reasonably describable as=20 other than a current King of France, such as the King o= f Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald. In place of=20 na'ebo, you may also use=20 =20 no'ebo and=20 to'ebo, to be more specific about the sum= ti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples a= re hard to come by, but here's a valiant try: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e6d3"/>

mi klama to'ebo la bastn. I go to the-opposite-of Boston. - I go to Perth. + I go to Perth.

(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. I= n a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better=20 opposite.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, b= ecause attaching=20 to'ebo to a description sumti is usually = the same as attaching=20 to'e to the selbri of the description. It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type i= nto bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be = used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations lo= gically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natu= ral languages attempt corresponding manipulations.

Negation of minor grammatical constructs @@ -1050,32 +1050,32 @@ punai as a tense inflection means=20 not-in-the-past, or=20 not-previously, without making any implication about an= y other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result, <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d1"/>

mi na pu klama le zarci I [false] [past] go-to the store. - I didn't go to the store. + I didn't go to the store.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e7d2"/>

mi punai klama le zarci I [past-not] go-to the store. - I didn't go to the store. + I didn't go to the store.

mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference = of emphasis. Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical c= onnectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses a= nd modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus=20 punai je ca means the same thing as=20 pu naje ca. As a special case, a=20 -nai attached to the interval modifiers o= f selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in=20 ) signals a scalar negation: @@ -1143,32 +1143,32 @@ =20 na immediately after the=20 cu (and before any tense/modal): <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d2"/>

na go'i [false] [repeat previous] - No. + No.

which means <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d3"/>

la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome. - It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome. + It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.

The respondent can change the tense, putting the=20 na in either before or after the new tense: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d4"/>

na ba go'i @@ -1176,21 +1176,21 @@

meaning <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d5"/>

la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom. John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome. - It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome. + It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.

or alternatively <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e8d6"/>

ba na go'i [false] [future] [repeat previous] @@ -1261,21 +1261,21 @@ Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to [both] Par= is and Rome.]

The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative q= uestion is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d3"/>

go'i - [repeat previous] + [repeat previous]

A plain=20 go'i does not mean=20 Yes it is; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous= statement unmodified, including any negators present; and=20 actually states that it is = false that John went to both Paris and Rome. When considering: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d4"/> @@ -1305,21 +1305,21 @@ </example> <para> <valsi>ja'a</valsi> can replace=20 <valsi>na</valsi> in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:</pa= ra> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-mrtu"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d6"/>

mi ja'a klama le zarci - I indeed go to the store. + I indeed go to the store.

je'a can replace=20 na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negat= ion does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the ab= sence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e9d7"/>

@@ -1523,40 +1523,40 @@ Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-= spouse?

Responses could include: <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d16"/>

na'i go'i - The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way. + The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.

go'i na'i - The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way= . + The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in som= e way.

One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, b= y explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguis= tically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c15e10d18"/>

go'i ji'una'iku - Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi. + Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.

Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with=20 jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for=20 =20 jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction,= though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage woul= d be to disagree with – by overriding – a respondent's metaling= uistic negation. =20

Summary – Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now A= nswered? diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml index e337987..1d30ee5 100644 --- a/todocbook/16.xml +++ b/todocbook/16.xml @@ -71,21 +71,21 @@ =20 logical. In particular, the use of=20 le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the = description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you canno= t conclude from my statement that <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e1d6"/>

mi viska le nanmu I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man. - I see the man/men. + I see the man/men.

that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is t= hat there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You ca= nnot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although comm= unication is served if you already know from the context). attitudinalsand logic logicand attitudinals In addition, the use of attitudinals (see=20 ) often reduces or removes the= ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are= applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can c= onclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.

Existential claims, prenexes, and variables Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the di= alogue: something sees me= example FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -142,21 +142,21 @@ Z respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbol= ic logic, these cmavo are called=20 variables. Here is an example of a prenex with two variables: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d4"/>

da de zo'u da prami de There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y. - Somebody loves somebody. + Somebody loves somebody.

somebody loves so= mebodyexample logical variableseffect= of using multiple different somebodycontrasted with someb= ody else In=20 , the literal interpretation= of the two variables=20 da and=20 de as=20 there-is-an-X and=20 there-is-a-Y tells us that there are two things which s= tand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case tha= t the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself;= nothing in the Lojban version of=20 rules out that interpretati= on, which is why the colloquial translation does not say=20 Somebody loves somebody else. The things referred to by= different variables may be different or the same. (We use=20 @@ -164,21 +164,21 @@ something for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usua= lly persons, though the Lojban does not say so.) logical variables= with multiple appearances in bridi It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once i= n the main bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d5"/>

da zo'u da prami da =20 There-is-an-X such that X loves X - Somebody loves himself/herself. + Somebody loves himself/herself.

somebody loves se= lfexample da prami decontrasted with = da prami da <= primary>da prami dacontrasted with da prami de What=20 claims is fundamentally dif= ferent from what=20 claims, because=20 da prami da is not structurally the same = as=20 =20 da prami de. However, @@ -192,34 +192,34 @@ <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>logical variables= </primary><secondary>effect of global substitution</secondary></indexterm> = means exactly the same thing as=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-wBYE"/>; it does not matter which v= ariable is used as long as they are used consistently.</para> <para>It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bri= di directly:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-ArXX"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d7"/>

da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me - Somebody's dog sees me + Somebody's dog sees me

somebody's dogexample is perfectly correct even= though the=20 da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessi= ves are explained in=20 .) logical variables= when not in main bridi It is v= ery peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable no= t to appear in the main bridi at all: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e2d8"/>

da zo'u la ralf. gerku - There is something such that Ralph is a dog. + There is something such that Ralph is a dog. =20

Ralphexample has a variable bound in a prenex w= hose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecifie= d.

Universal claims What happens if we substitute=20 everything for=20 something in=20 @@ -253,21 +253,21 @@ everything on faith. Here is a universal claim with two variables: everything loves = everythingexample FIXME: TAG S= POT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d3"/>

ro da ro de zo'u da prami de For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y. - Everything loves everything. + Everything loves everything.

Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so=20 does not mean=20 Everything loves everything else. Furthermore, because = the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, s= o we cannot use=20 everyone or=20 everybody in the translation. universalmixed claim with existential existentialmixed= claim with universal mixed claimdefinition Note that=20 ro appears before both=20 da and=20 @@ -275,31 +275,31 @@ ro is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed cl= aim, partly existential like those of=20 =20 , partly universal. <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e3d4"/>

ro da de zo'u da viska de For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y. - Everything sees something. + Everything sees something.

da ro de zo'u da viska de There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y. - Something sees everything. + Something sees everything.

something sees ev= erythingexample everything sees somethingexample <= primary>logical variableseffect of order in prenex=20 and=20 mean completely different t= hings.=20 says that for everything, t= here is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for ev= ery seer.=20 , on the other hand, says th= at there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (incl= uding itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds= of silliness. =20 There are various possible translations of universal claims in E= nglish: sometimes we use=20 =20 @@ -326,32 +326,32 @@ poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminate= d with=20 ku'o or=20 vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the differe= nce between <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d1"/>

da zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X : X sees Jim. - Something sees Jim. + Something sees Jim.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d2"/>

da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim. There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim. - Someone sees Jim. + Someone sees Jim.

somethingcontrasted with someone In=20 , the variable=20 da can refer to any object whatever; there are no restr= ictions on it. In=20 ,=20 da is restricted by the=20 poi prenu relative clause to persons only= , and so=20 da poi prenu translates as=20 someone. (The difference between=20 @@ -360,36 +360,36 @@ is true, then=20 must be true, but not neces= sarily vice versa. universal claims<= /primary>restricting relative clausesuse in res= tricting universal claims Universal claims benefit = even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d3"/>

ro da zo'u da vasxu For-every X : X breathes - Everything breathes + Everything breathes

everything breath= esexample and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d4"/>

ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes. Every dog breathes. =20 Each dog breathes. =20 - All dogs breathe. + All dogs breathe. =20

dog breathes=20 is a silly falsehood, but= =20 is an important truth (at l= east if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see=20 ). Note the various colloquial transla= tions=20 every dog,=20 each dog, and=20 all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, si= nce what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.=20 @@ -397,51 +397,51 @@ =20 If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a univers= al one, we get: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e4d5"/>

da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes. - Some dog breathes. + Some dog breathes. =20

Dropping the prenex prenex<= secondary>considerations for dropping It isn't real= ly necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on= the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenex= es at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables app= ear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the = prenex is superfluous. However, any=20 ro or=20 poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the = first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,=20 becomes just: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d1"/>

da viska mi There-is-an-X-which sees me. - Something sees me. + Something sees me.

and=20 becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d2"/>

ro da poi gerku cu vasxu For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes. - Every dog breathes. + Every dog breathes. =20

prenex<= secondary>effect of order of variables in prenexpurpose of= You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of = the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order t= han the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider everyone bitten b= y dog FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d3"/>

@@ -462,21 +462,21 @@

If we tried to omit the prenex and move the=20 ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we wou= ld get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d5"/>

de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-= person - Some dog bites everyone. + Some dog bites everyone.

dog bitesexample Fidoexample w= hich has the structure of=20 : it says that there is a do= g (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has= ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that=20 is false, while agreeing to= =20 . universal claims<= /primary>dangers of using Even so,=20 is most probably false, sin= ce some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4 (might t= here be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?)= indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In= English we are prone to say that=20 =20 =20 @@ -510,21 +510,21 @@ poi= ro poi<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables ro<= secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables logical varia= bleswith poiin multiple appearan= ces l= ogical variableswith roin multip= le appearances If a variable occurs more than once, = then any=20 ro or=20 poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence = of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d7"/>

di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for= -use-against-Z by-Z - This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself. + This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herse= lf.

weapon against se= lfexample (in which=20 di is used rather than=20 da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e5d8"/>

@@ -552,38 +552,38 @@ again, this time with an ex= plicit=20 su'o:

su'o something sees= meexample somethingexpressing using = "su'o" FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d1"/>

su'o da zo'u da viska mi For-at-least-one X : X sees me. - Something sees me. + Something sees me.

From this version of=20 , we understand the speaker'= s claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them s= ees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,=20 , says that of all the thing= s that exist, every one of them can see the speaker. =20 numbers= on logical variables Any other number ca= n be used instead of=20 ro or=20 su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims like: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d2"/>

re da zo'u da viska mi For-two-Xes : X sees me. - Two things see me. + Two things see me.

numbers= English contrasted with Lojban on exactness numbersLojban contrasted with English on exactness Thi= s means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the re= levant occasion. In English, we might take=20 Two things see me to mean that at least two things see = the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would h= ave to be made as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d3"/>

su'ore da zo'u da viska mi @@ -600,21 +600,21 @@ .

prenex<= secondary>removing when numeric quantifiers present= The prenex may be removed from=20 and=20 as from the others, leading= to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d4"/>

re da viska mi - Two Xes see me. + Two Xes see me.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d5"/>

su'ore da viska mi At-least-two Xes see me. @@ -639,21 +639,21 @@ da,=20 de, and=20 di have been used up, it does not matter, for there are= ways of getting more variables, discussed in=20 .) So in fact

re prenu cu viska mi - Two persons see me. + Two persons see me.

is short for <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e6d7"/>

re da poi prenu cu viska mi Two Xes which are-persons see me. @@ -676,21 +676,21 @@ distribution of q= uantified sumti indefinite sumtimultiple in sentence Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expre= ssions neither of which is=20 ro or=20 su'o (remembering that=20 su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given)= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d1"/>

ci gerku cu batci re nanmu - Three dogs bite two men. + Three dogs bite two men.

dogs biteexample three dogs bite two menexample multiple i= ndefinite sumtimeaning indefinite sumtimeaning when multiple in sentence The question ra= ised by=20 is, does each of the dogs b= ite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men pe= r dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the n= umber of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker = has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two= and six inclusive. Let us transform=20 step by step as we did with= =20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e7d2"/> @@ -781,21 +781,21 @@ Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field. Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation = might be <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e8d2"/>

ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field. - Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field. + Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.

everyonecontrasted with anyone in assumption of existence anyone<= secondary>contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence anyas a restricted universal claim But there is= a subtle difference between=20 and=20 .=20 tells us that, in fact, the= re are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A s= umti of the type=20 ro da poi klama requires that there are t= hings which=20 klama: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresp= onding existential claims as well.=20 =20 =20 @@ -913,21 +913,21 @@ , the negation of a bridi is= usually accomplished by inserting=20 na at the beginning of the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d1"/>

mi na klama le zarci I [false] go-to the store. It is false that I go to the store. - I don't go to the store. + I don't go to the store.

naku na The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the c= ompound cmavo=20 naku in the prenex, which is identified a= nd compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojba= n grammar,=20 naku is then treated like a sumti. In a p= renex,=20 naku means precisely the same thing as th= e logician's=20 it is not the case that in a similar English context. (= Outside of a prenex,=20 naku is also grammatically treated as a s= ingle entity – the equivalent of a sumti – but does not have th= is exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in=20 .) external bridi ne= gationcompared to internal bridi negation<= /indexterm> internal bridi n= egationcompared to external bridi negation= internal bridi = negationdefinition external bridi negationdefinition bridi negationna before selbri compared to= naku in prenex bridi negationnaku in prenex compared to n= a before selbri To represent a bridi negation using= a prenex, remove the=20 @@ -940,211 +940,211 @@ =20 na. The prenex version of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d2"/>

naku zo'u la djan. klama It is not the case that: John comes. - It is false that: John comes. + It is false that: John comes.

negation in prene= xeffects of position However,= =20 naku can appear at other points in the pr= enex as well. Compare <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d3"/>

naku de zo'u de zutse It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits. It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits. It is false that something sits. - Nothing sits. + Nothing sits.

nothing sitsexample with <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d4"/>

su'ode naku zo'u de zutse For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits. - There is something that doesn't sit. + There is something that doesn't sit.

The relative position of negation and quantification terms withi= n a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we= can have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d5"/>

roda su'ode zo'u da prami de For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y. =20 - Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the = same thing). + Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily= the same thing).

everybody loves s= omethingexample or: something is love= d by everybodyexample FIXME: T= AG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d6"/>

su'ode roda zo'u da prami de There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y. - There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everyb= ody. + There is at least one particular thing that is loved by e= verybody.

The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where th= e negation term is at the beginning of the prenex: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d7"/>

naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X l= oves Y. =20 It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing. - (At least) someone doesn't love anything. + (At least) someone doesn't love anything.

the negation of=20 , and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d8"/>

naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X love= s Y. =20 It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved= by everybody. - There isn't any one thing that everybody loves. + There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.

the negation of=20 . inversion of quan= tifiersdefinition inversion of quantifiersin moving negation boundary negation boundaryeffect= of moving The rules of formal logic require that, = to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must=20 invert any quantifier that the negation boundary passes= across. Inverting a quantifier means that any=20 ro (all) is changed to=20 su'o (at least one) and vice versa. Thus,=20 and=20 can be restated as, respect= ively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d9"/>

su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X lov= es Y. =20 - There is somebody who doesn't love anything. + There is somebody who doesn't love anything.

and: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d10"/>

rode naku roda zo'u da prami de For every Y, it is false that: for every X, X loves Y. - For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it. + For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.

Another movement of the negation boundary produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d11"/>

su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de There is an X such that, for every Y, it is false that X lo= ves Y. - There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.= + There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that t= hing.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d12"/>

rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X l= oves Y. - For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it. + For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.

inversion of quan= tifiers on passing negation boundaryrationale for Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformati= on preserves the meanings of=20 and=20 . negation boundary= and zero zerorelation to negation bou= ndary The quantifier=20 no (meaning=20 zero of) also involves a negation boundary. To transfor= m a bridi containing a variable quantified with=20 no, we must first expand it. Consider <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d13"/>

noda rode zo'u da prami de =20 There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y. - Nobody loves everything. + Nobody loves everything.

which is negated by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d14"/>

naku noda rode zo'u da prami de =20 It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves = Y. - It is false that there is nobody who loves everything. + It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.

naku su'odaas expansion of noda nodaexpanding to naku = su'oda "no" quantifierexpanding expanding "no&q= uot; quantifier We can simplify=20 by transforming the prenex.= To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the=20 no quantifier. Thus=20 for no x means the same thing as=20 it is false for some x, and the corresponding Lojban=20 noda can be replaced by=20 =20 naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we= get: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d15"/>

naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de =20 =20 - It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X lo= ves Y. + It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y:= X loves Y.

Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropp= ed, so this means the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e9d16"/>

su'oda rode zo'u da prami de There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y. - At least one person loves everything. + At least one person loves everything.

which is clearly the desired contradiction of=20 . double negatives<= /primary>effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation= on = interactions between quantifiers and negationeffect The interactions between quantifiers and negation mea= n that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You mus= t first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any = quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated. =20 =20 =20

@@ -1199,82 +1199,82 @@ na negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and= =20 nai negates the second or right-hand one. Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentenc= e can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and join= ing the sentences by a logical connective beginning with=20 i. Thus the following sentence: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d1"/>

mi .e do klama ti - I and you come here. + I and you come here.

can be expanded to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d2"/>

mi klama ti .ije do klama ti - I come here, and, you come here. + I come here, and, you come here.

The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical conn= ective, with any valid combination of=20 na or=20 nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a = transformation. Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence= forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does= negation mean between sentences? negation between = sentencesmeaning of bridi negationcom= pared with negation between sentences negation between sentencescompared with bridi negation The mystery is e= asily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corres= ponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the pre= nex. Thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d3"/>

mi .enai do prami roda - I, and not you, love everything. + I, and not you, love everything.

expands to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d4"/>

mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda I love everything, and-not, you love everything.

and then into prenex form as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d5"/>

roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da - For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the = same) it. + For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love = (the same) it.

quantifier scope<= /primary>in multiple connected sentences= By the rules of predicate logic, the=20 ro quantifier on=20 da has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've = picked a value for=20 da for the first sentence, it stays the same for both s= entences. (The=20 da continues with the same fixed value until a new para= graph or a new prenex resets the meaning.) =20 Thus the following example has the indicated translation: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e10d6"/>

su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false = that: you love that (same) thing. - There is something that I love that you don't. + There is something that I love that you don't.

prenex manipulati= onrules If you remember only t= wo rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong: =20 prenex manipu= lationmoving naku past bound variable Within a prenex, whenever you move=20 naku past a bound variable (da, de, d= i, etc.), you must invert the quantifier. @@ -1309,73 +1309,73 @@ when converted to the external negation form produces: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d3"/>

naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule It is false that some which are children go-to some which a= re schools. - All children don't go to some school (not just some children).= + All children don't go to some school (not just some child= ren).

contradictory neg= ationusing naku before selbri = nakuout= side of prenex negationform for emulating natural language= negation Lojban provides a negation form which mor= e closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting=20 naku before the selbri, instead of a=20 na.=20 naku is clearly a contradictory negation,= given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using=20 naku,=20 can be expressed as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d4"/>

su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.= - Some children don't go to a school. + Some children don't go to a school.

nakucompared with sumti in grammar Although it = is not technically a sumti,=20 naku can be used in most of the places wh= ere a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to naku quantifierseffect of moving naku nakueffect on moving quanti= fiers nakuas creating a negation boundary When you use=20 naku within a bridi, you are explicitly c= reating a negation boundary. As explained in=20 , when a prenex negatio= n boundary expressed by=20 naku moves past a quantifier, the quantif= ier has to be inverted. The same is true for=20 naku in the bridi proper. We can move=20 naku to any place in the sentence where a= sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses= . Thus, the following are equivalent to=20 (no good English translatio= ns exist): <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d5"/>

su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku - For some children, for every school, they don't go to it. + For some children, for every school, they don't go to it.=

su'oda poi verba cu klama naku su'ode poi ckule - Some children don't go to (some) school(s). + Some children don't go to (some) school(s).

naku roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule - It is false that all children go to some school(s). + It is false that all children go to some school(s).

In=20 , we moved the negation boun= dary rightward across the quantifier of=20 de, forcing us to invert it. In=20 we moved the negation bound= ary across the quantifier of=20 da, forcing us to invert it instead.=20 merely switched the selbri = and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers. inverting quantif= ierswith movement relative to fixed negation The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that t= he quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert t= he selbri of=20 and rearrange the sumti to = produce @@ -1441,21 +1441,21 @@ =20 from which we can restore the quantified variables to the senten= ce, giving: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d12"/>

naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule - It is not the case that all children go to some school. + It is not the case that all children go to some school.

or more briefly <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e11d13"/>

ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule All children [false] go-to some school(s). @@ -1653,21 +1653,21 @@

which is the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d9"/>

ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci c= u bajrykla If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false= ] runs. - If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run. + If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.

which then condenses down to=20 . DeMorgan's Lawand internal naku negations internal naku negations= and DeMorgan's Law DeMorgan's Law must a= lso be applied to internal=20 naku negations: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e12d10"/> @@ -1708,21 +1708,21 @@ =20 bu'i with F, G, and H respectively. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d1"/>

su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationshi= p-F to-John. - There's some relationship between Jim and John. + There's some relationship between Jim and John. =20

some relationship= example selbri variablesprenex form a= s indefinite description The translations of=20 show how unidiomatic selbri= variables are in English; Lojban sentences like=20 =20 need to be totally reworded= in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it = is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as=20 su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say=20 bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because= only sumti can appear in the prenex, and=20 su'o bu'a is technically a sumti – = in fact, it is an indefinite description like=20 @@ -1743,21 +1743,21 @@ selbri variables<= /primary>quantified As a result, if the = number before the variable is anything but=20 su'o, the prenex is required: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e13d3"/>

ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan. For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-= John. - Every relationship exists between Jim and John. + Every relationship exists between Jim and John.

and=20 are almost certainly true= : Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at lea= st have the property of being jointly human.=20 =20 is palpably false, however;= if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they wou= ld have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible. =20

@@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@ , but in general consist= of the cmavo=20 xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more le= rfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enc= losed in parentheses. A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been= bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c16e14d2"/>

ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X - Three people are led by one of them. + Three people are led by one of them.

The=20 pa da in=20 does not specify the number= of things to which=20 da refers, as the preceding=20 ci da does. Instead, it selects one of th= em for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of=20 da remains three, but a single one (there is no way of = knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.

diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml index 7404945..69387bb 100644 --- a/todocbook/17.xml +++ b/todocbook/17.xml @@ -157,41 +157,41 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other= hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo=20 bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the v= owel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence sep= arator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when=20 bu follows. Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out u= sing the alphabet above: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d1"/>

ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu - + t a n r u - +

ky. .obu .y'y. .abu - + k o ' a - +

lerfu wordseffect of systematic formulation spelling out wordsLojban contrasted with English in usefulness Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reas= ons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how= a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the En= glish ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words=20 fail and=20 vale sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu wo= rd of either, namely=20 eff or=20 vee, is enough to discriminate easily between them &nda= sh; and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither=20 vail nor=20 fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the = spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling = out words does exist in Lojban. =20 @@ -200,54 +200,54 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. and=20 ) with pauses after them. It= is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to = do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d3"/>

mi cy. claxu I lerfu-=20 c without - I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter=20 - c. + I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter=20 + c.

without a pause after=20 cy would be interprete= d as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e2d4"/>

micyclaxu (Observative:) doctor-without - Something unspecified is without a doctor. + Something unspecified is without a doctor.

A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in=20 y unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in= =20 y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause a= fter all of them.

Upper and lower cases lower case letter= suse in Lojban capital lettersuse in = Lojban stressirregular marked with upper-case<= /indexterm> lower-case lette= rsEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban lower-case letters<= /primary>Lojban usage contrasted with English upper-case lettersEnglish usage contrasted with Lojban upper-case lettersLojban usage contrasted with English = Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) lett= ers in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper= -case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban = to mark irregular stress within names, thus: =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d1"/>

.iVAN. - the name=20 - Ivan in Russian/Slavic pronunciation. + the name=20 + Ivan in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.

to'a ga'e caseupper/lower specification lower-caselerfu wo= rd for upper-caselerfu word for It= would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one= for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo=20 =20 =20 ga'e and=20 =20 to'a representing upper case and lower case respectivel= y. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and= they may be freely interspersed with them. =20 ga'e lower-case wor= deffect on following lerfu words The effect of=20 @@ -284,31 +284,31 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e3d3"/>

tau sy. [single shift] S - S (chemical symbol for sulfur) + S (chemical symbol for sulfur)

tau sy. .ibu [single shift] S i - Si (chemical symbol for silicon) + Si (chemical symbol for silicon)

single-letter shi= ftas toggle If a shift to uppe= r-case is in effect when=20 =20 tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lowe= r case, reversing its usual effect.

The universal=20 <valsi>bu</valsi> lerfu word set ex= tensionwith bu bufor extension of ler= fu word set So far we have seen=20 @@ -331,22 +331,22 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. fa'o may not have=20 =20 bu attached, because they are interpreted before=20 bu detection is done; in particular, <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e4d1"/>

zo bu - the word=20 - bu + the word=20 + bu

bubu word "bu&= quot; = namespause requirement in lerfu words bueffect of multiple is needed when discussing=20 bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach=20 bu to itself, but more than one=20 bu may be attached to a word; thus=20 .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is= not defined, but it is presumably different from=20 .abu.) It does not matter if the word is = a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by=20 bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belo= nging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary= to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absor= b preceding or following words. happy faceexample smiley faceexample logogramswords for smiley faceword for unusual characterswords for The ability to attach=20 @@ -419,27 +419,27 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. quackexample As an example, the English word=20 quack would be spelled in Lojban thus: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d1"/>

ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky. - + q u a c k - +

letters= symbol contrasted with sound for spelling letterssound contrasted with symbol for spelling Note th= at the fact that the letter=20 c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the = Lojban letter=20 c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word = and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban= and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters. =20 A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in lang= uages other than English: ty.bu=C3= =BE (thorn) @@ -495,46 +495,46 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to s= till other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typ= ically be a name representing the alphabet with=20 =20 bu suffixed: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d2"/>

zai .devanagar. bu =20 - Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet + Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet =20

zai .katakan. bu =20 - Japanese katakana syllabary + Japanese katakana syllabary =20 =20 =20 =20

zai .xiragan. bu =20 - Japanese hiragana syllabary + Japanese hiragana syllabary =20 =20 =20 =20 =20

Japanese hiragana= example hiraganaexample Japanese katakana= example katakanaexample Devanagariexample language shiftstandardization of Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not bee= n standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need f= or them. (Note the=20 . characters marking leading and following pauses= .) LAU selma'o ce'= a bold= example italicexample shift wordsfor face shift wordsfor font facespecifying for letters fontspecifying for letters In addition, there may be multiple visible representat= ions within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwr= iting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional=20 @@ -543,33 +543,33 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e5d5"/>

ce'a .xelveticas. bu =20 - Helvetica font + Helvetica font =20 =20

ce'a .xancisk. bu =20 - handwriting + handwriting =20

ce'a .pavrel. bu =20 @@ -610,24 +610,24 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are alwa= ys used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and th= e whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word=20 =C3=A9t=C3=A9, with acute accent marks on both=20 =20 e lerfu, could be spelled as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e6d1"/>

tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi - (=20 + (=20 e acute )=20 t ( acute=20 - e) + e)

ete accent markexample diacritical marksorder of specificati= on within tei=E2=80=A6foi and it does not matter wh= ether=20 akut. bu appears before or after=20 .ebu; the=20 tei ... foi grouping guarantees that the = acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of = precision represented by=20 would rarely be required: i= t might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for e= xact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French. diacritical marks= problem with multiple on one lerfu This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent ma= rk on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which = accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to r= epresent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the = word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolv= ed by further conventions not yet established. =20 =20 @@ -692,58 +692,58 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 han=20 4 zi=20 4 is conventionally written with tw= o characters, but it may be spelled out as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d1"/>

.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo - + h a n 4 z i 4 - +

han^{4}zi^{4} lerfu wor= ds with numeric digitsgrammar considerations numeric digit= s in lerfu wordsgrammar considerations The cmavo=20 vo is the Lojban digit=20 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o = PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu wor= d, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, th= e digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written usi= ng accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in=20 =20 . The Japanese company named=20 Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji= , and could be spelled out in Lojban thus: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e8d2"/>

my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu - + m i t s u b i s h i - +

Mitsubishiexample kanjirepresenting based on strokes Chine= se charactersrepresenting based on strokes= Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu= words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there ar= e about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about = 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character = with a=20 =20 =20 =20 tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (wh= ich is standardized for each character), and a=20 foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.

@@ -755,49 +755,49 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. lerfu stringas pro-sumti A lerfu string may be = used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just lik= e the pro-sumti=20 ko'a,=20 ko'e, and so on: A loves Bexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d1"/>

.abu prami by. - A loves B + A loves B =20

In=20 ,=20 .abu and=20 by. represent specific sumti, but which s= umti they represent must be inferred from context. goi= lerfu stringas pro-sumti assigned by goi Alte= rnatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by=20 goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d2"/>

le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani - The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house. + The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.

lerfu stringas pro-sumtiassumption of reference There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu st= rings more advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment = can be found for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be= assumed to refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins= in Lojban with that lerfu. So=20 can be rephrased: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d3"/>

le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani - The dog is black. G goes to the house. + The dog is black. G goes to the house.

(A less literal English translation would use=20 D for=20 dog instead.) Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings: Alexander Pavlovi= tch Kuznetsovexample Steven Mark Jonesexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d4"/> @@ -813,50 +813,50 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. <para>Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as=20 <oldjbophrase>ru'o.abupyky</oldjbophrase> instead.</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</pr= imary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary><tertiary>for multiple sumti separ= ated by boi</tertiary></indexterm> What about</para> <para> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>A gives BC</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-gJFz"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d5"/>

.abu dunda by. cy. - A gives B C + A gives B C

BOI selma'o boi= boieliding from lerfu strings Does = this mean that A gives B to C? No.=20 =20 by. cy. is a single lerfu string, althoug= h written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpr= etation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, w= e need to introduce the elidable terminator=20 =20 boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate l= erfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these= appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use=20 boi is to attach a free modifier – subscript, par= enthesis, or what have you – to a lerfu string.) The correct version = is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d6"/>

.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi] - A gives B to C + A gives B to C =20

A gives B to Cexample where the two occurrences= of=20 boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurre= nce is not. Likewise: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e9d7"/>

xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami X all persons loves. =20 - X loves everybody. + X loves everybody.

pro-sumtilerfu stringsinteraction with quantifier= s and boi boirequired between pro-sumti lerfu string and qu= antifier requires the first=20 boi to separate the lerfu string=20 xy. from the digit string=20 =20 ro.

References to lerfu @@ -875,36 +875,36 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. .abu refers to. The solution to this prob= lem makes use of the cmavo=20 me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a s= umti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of=20 me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which i= s to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its= value. "a" is = letteralexample FIXME: TAG SPO= T <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d2"/>

me'o .abu cu lerfu - The-expression=20 - a is-a-letteral. + The-expression=20 + a is-a-letteral.

Now we can translate=20 into Lojban: four "e"= ;sexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e10d3"/>

dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-express= ion e. - This sentence contains four=20 - e s. + This sentence contains four=20 + e s.

Since the Lojban sentence has only four=20 e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is = not a literal one – but=20 is a Lojban truth just as= =20 is an English truth. Coinci= dentally, the colloquial English translation of=20 is also true! la'e lu me'o la'e lucompared with me'o me'ocompared with la'= e lu representing lerfulu contrasted with me'o= lucontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu= me'oco= ntrasted with lu=E2=80=A6li'u for representing lerfu me'oc= ontrasted with quotation for representing lerfu quotationc= ontrasted with me'o for representing lerfu The read= er might be tempted to use quotation with=20 lu ... li'u instead of=20 me'o, producing: @@ -951,21 +951,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. mathematical = variableslerfu strings as lerfu stringas mathematical variable A lerfu string as mathema= tical variable: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d1"/>

li .abu du li by. su'i cy. the-number a equals the-number b plus c - a =3D b + c + a =3D b + c

function name= lerfu string as lerfu stringas functi= on name A lerfu string as function name (preceded b= y=20 =20 ma'o of selma'o MAhO): function f of xexample FIXME: TAG SPOT @@ -989,37 +989,37 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. selbrilerfu string as lerfu stringas selbri A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o = MOI): <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d3"/>

le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats - This rat is my Nth rat. + This rat is my Nth rat. =20

Nth ratexample utterance ordinallerfu string as lerfu = stringas utterance ordinal A l= erfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI): =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e11d4"/>

ny.mai - Nthly + Nthly =20

Nthlyexample subscriptslerfu string as= lerfu stringas subscript A lerfu string as su= bscript (preceded by=20 xi of selma'o XI): @@ -1088,88 +1088,88 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. sequel. lerfu wordsas a basis for acronym names acronymsusing = names based on lerfu words In Lojban, a name can be= almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by = a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu wo= rds together, using=20 =20 ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses= are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d1"/>

la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la s= ykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc. - DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

NYCexample SQLexample NATOexample IBMexample CIAexample DNAex= ample acronym names from lerfu wordsassigning final conson= ant There is no fixed convention for assigning the = final consonant. In=20 , the last consonant of the = lerfu string has been replicated into final position. buomitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words acronyms names based on l= erfu wordsomitting bu Some com= pression can be done by leaving out=20 bu after vowel lerfu words (except for=20 .y.bu, wherein the=20 bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is= moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introduci= ng an involuntary (and illegal) pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d2"/>

la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. = .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym. - DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

In=20 , the final consonant=20 m stands for=20 merko, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.= =20 "z" ins= tead of "'"in acronyms names based on lerfu = words acronyms names based on lerfu wordsusing "z&quo= t; instead of "'" in Another approach, wh= ich some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions= of the language that did not have a=20 ' character, is to use the consonant=20 z instead of=20 ': <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d3"/>

la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. = .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz. - DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. + DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC. =20 =20

me<= /indexterm> acronymsas lerfu strings using "me" = lerfu stringsas acronyms using "me" One more alt= ernative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed = with=20 me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d4"/>

la me dy ny. .abu - that-named what-pertains-to=20 + that-named what-pertains-to=20 d n - a + a

This works because=20 la, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as su= mti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is = a (meaningful) name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e12d5"/>

la cribe cu ciska That-named=20 Bear writes. - Bear is a writer. + Bear is a writer.

does not of course refer = to a bear (=20 le cribe or=20 lo cribe) but to something else, probab= ly a person, named=20 Bear. Similarly,=20 me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can b= e used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between= the individual lerfu words. =20

@@ -1185,25 +1185,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy. =20 se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally foll= owed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the = whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character se= t: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c17e13d1"/>

me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII for-the= -mass-of American currency-units. - The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars. + The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollar= s. =20 =20 - - $ represents American dollars. + + $ represents American dollars. =20

$ American dollars ASCIIapplication to lerfu words Understa= nding=20 depends on knowing the valu= e in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the=20 =20 $ character. Therefore, the=20 se'e convention is only intelligible to those who know = the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular charact= er, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural n= eutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to d= escriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them. =20 peace symbol Unicode As another example, the Unicode character set (also kno= wn as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted = trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a= Lojbanist may say: diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml index dd7f438..77fabe1 100644 --- a/todocbook/18.xml +++ b/todocbook/18.xml @@ -96,44 +96,44 @@ PA selma'o hundred<= /primary>expressing as number tenexpressing as = number numbersas compound cmavo <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">digitscma= vo for numbersexpressing simple Th= e simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. Th= ere are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9= are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e2d1"/>

pa re ci one two three

123

- one hundred and twenty three + one hundred and twenty three =20

pa no one zero

10

- ten + ten

pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no one two three four five six seven eight nine zero

1234567890

- one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred= and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. + one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hu= ndred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety. =20

123example numbersgreater than 9 Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for=20 ten,=20 hundred, etc. =20 number wordspattern in There is a pattern to th= e digit cmavo (except for=20 no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5= end in the vowels=20 a,=20 @@ -382,51 +382,51 @@ ma'u ci'i

+=E2=88=9E

ci ka'o re - 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i) + 3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i)

ka'o ci'i infinityexample ka'oas special number compared w= ith as numerical punctuation complex numbersexpressing Note that=20 ka'o is both a special number (meaning=20 =20 i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real a= nd the imaginary parts of a complex number). <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d3"/> <indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></= indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> ci'i no - infinity zero - =E2=84=B50 (a = transfinite cardinal) + infinity zero + =E2=84=B50 (a transfinite cardinal) =20 The special numbers=20 pai and=20 te'o are mathematically important, which is why they ar= e given their own cmavo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d4"/>

pai - pi, =CF=80 <= /en> + pi, =CF=80

<anchor xml:id=3D"c18e4d5"/> te'o

e

@@ -528,36 +528,36 @@ li<= /indexterm> numbersusing for quantification contrasted with talking about numberstalking about contrasted with using for quantification number a= rticleexplanation of use thefor talki= ng about numbers themselves articlenumber The cmavo=20 li is the number article. It is required whenever a sen= tence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quanti= fy things. For example: =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d2"/>

le ci prenu - the three persons + the three persons

requires no=20 li article, because the=20 =20 ci is being used to specify the number of=20 prenu. However, the sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e5d3"/>

levi sfani cu grake li ci This fly masses-in-grams the-number three. - This fly has a mass of 3 grams. + This fly has a mass of 3 grams.

3 grams= example units of measurementexpressing measurements= expressing requires=20 li because=20 ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way = in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of= length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first= place and a number as the second place. Using=20 =20 li for=20 le in=20 would produce @@ -1252,21 +1252,21 @@ all but one, or in ordinal contexts=20 all but the last: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d13"/>

ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu =20 All rats can eat all-but-one rats. - All rats can eat all other rats. + All rats can eat all other rats.

eat themselvesexample (The use of=20 da'a means that=20 does not require that all r= ats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot e= at, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictate= s that=20 =20 itself is, indeed, the=20 other rat.) ni'u ma'u ni'uwith elided number ma'uwith elided number<= /secondary> As mentioned in=20 ,=20 @@ -1338,33 +1338,33 @@ a sufficient part of. definite numbers<= /primary>combined with indefinite indefinite numberscombined with definite Another possibility is = that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. Thi= s usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the gi= ven context: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e8d18"/>

mi viska le rore gerku I saw the all-of/two dogs. - I saw both dogs. + I saw both dogs. =20

mi speni so'ici prenu I am-married-to many/three persons. - I am married to three persons (which is=20 - many in the circumstances). + I am married to three persons (which is=20 + many in the circumstances).

both dogsexample=20 assumes a mostly monogamous= culture by stating that three is=20 many.

Approximation and inexact numbers The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1401,72 +1401,72 @@ ji'i ji'i= effect of placement approximate numbersexpressi= ng The cmavo=20 ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicat= e approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a numbe= r, the whole number is approximate: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d1"/>

ji'i vo no approximation four zero - approximately 40 + approximately 40 =20

approximately 40<= /primary>example approximate numbersexpressing = some exactness of If=20 ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits = following it are approximate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d2"/>

vo no ji'i mu no four zero approximation five zero - roughly 4050 (where the=20 + roughly 4050 (where the=20 four thousand is exact, but the=20 - fifty is approximate) + fifty is approximate)

rounded numbersexpressing truncation of numberexpressi= ng If=20 ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicates that = the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign= cmavo (=20 ma'u or=20 ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or ne= gative infinity respectively. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e9d3"/>

re pi ze re ji'i two point seven two approximation - 2.72 (rounded) + 2.72 (rounded)

re pi ze re ji'i ma'u two point seven two approximation positive-sign - 2.72 (rounded up) + 2.72 (rounded up) =20

re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u two point seven one approximation negative-sign - 2.71 (rounded down) + 2.71 (rounded down) =20

rounded downexample rounded upexample ji'iwith elided number=20 through=20 are all approximations to= =20 te'o (exponential e).=20 ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case it means= =20 approximately the typical value in this context. =20 @@ -1735,21 +1735,21 @@ basevague=20 pi'e is also used where the base of each digit is vague= , as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e10d11"/>

dei jufra panopi'epapamoi This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing. - This is Sentence 10.11. + This is Sentence 10.11.

Special mekso selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mei MOI @@ -1807,21 +1807,21 @@ Some examples: three ratsexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d1"/>

lei mi ratcu cu cimei Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome. My rats are three. - I have three rats. + I have three rats. =20

Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that= is, I have three rats. =20 Another example, with one element this time: singular meexample individualexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d2"/> @@ -1844,39 +1844,39 @@ </place-structure> <para>An example:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-GJsg"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d3"/>

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-r= espect-to the-set-of rats. =20 - The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there = are. + The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats t= here are.

lo'i set of all rat= sexample rats in parkexample fewsomeexample lo'iwith elided quantifiers In=20 , the x2 and x3 places are v= acant, and the x4 place is filled by=20 lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers= are explicitly given) means=20 the whole of the set of all those things which are rats= , or simply=20 the set of all rats. =20 manysomeexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d4"/>

le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome. =20 - There are many rats in the park. + There are many rats in the park.

In=20 , the conversion cmavo=20 se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 i= s the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats a= re=20 many with respect to some unspecified comparison set. =20 More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, a= nd individuals can be found in=20 . moi= ordinal selbri<= /primary>definition ordinal selbriplace structu= re The cmavo=20 @@ -1886,32 +1886,32 @@ x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d5"/>

ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me. - This is my first rat. + This is my first rat. =20

ta romoi le'i mi ratcu That is-the-allth-of the rats associated-with me. - That is my last rat. + That is my last rat.

mi raumoi le velskina porsi I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence =20 @@ -1929,21 +1929,21 @@ x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 Some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d8"/>

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food. - This meal is one-third of my daily food. + This meal is one-third of my daily food.

cu'o probability se= lbriplace structure probability selbridefinition <= primary>one-third of food The cmavo=20 cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is= : =20 =20 event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 probability selbr= ivalues The number must be bet= ween 0 and 1 inclusive. For example: @@ -1969,39 +1969,39 @@ cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case,= 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six p= ositions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions.= Here is an example:

le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre This rose is 9/10-scale red. This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness. =20 - This rose is very red. + This rose is very red.

mo'a du'e rau scale of = rednessexample 8 out of tenexample scale = selbriplace structure effect from subjective numbers proba= bility selbriplace structure effect from subjective nu= mbers portion selbriplace structure effect from subjective= numbers ordinal selbriplace structure effect from subject= ive numbers <= primary>cardinal selbriplace structure effect from sub= jective numbers subjective numberseffect on place structur= e for scale selbri subjective numberseffect on place struc= ture for probability selbri subjective numberseffect on pl= ace structure for portion selbri subjective numberseffec= t on place structure for ordinal selbri subjective numbers= effect on place structure for cardinal selbri When = the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers=20 rau,=20 =20 du'e, or=20 =20 mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additional pla= ce is added for=20 =20 by standard. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d11"/>

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-stan= dard me. - There are too many rats in the park for me. + There are too many rats in the park for me. =20

subjective number= srationale for effect on place structure too many ratsexample The extra place (which for= =20 -mei is the x4 place labeled by=20 fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as=20 ma'i because a specification of the standard for judgme= nt is essential to the meaning of subjective words like=20 =20 enough. subjective number= sspecifying standard for standard for subjective numbersspecifying This place is not nor= mally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a numbe= r. Therefore,=20 @@ -2010,21 +2010,21 @@ too many rats without specifying any standard. =20 lerfu stringswith numerical selbri numerical selbrispe= cialwith lerfu strings It is a= lso grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d12"/>

ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats. - That is my nth rat. + That is my nth rat.

nth rat= example numerical selbrirestriction on numbers = used for numerical selbrigrammar M= ore complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the res= ulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expr= ession is required. me'u ME selma'o= m= e nume= rical selbrialternative to compensate for restriction = on numbers "me"effect of MOI on numerical selbricomplex numerical selbriuse of "me&q= uot; with The cmavo=20 me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti i= nto a selbri. A whole=20 me construction can have a member of MOI added to the e= nd to create a complex mekso selbri: (n+1)-th ratexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d13"/> @@ -2048,21 +2048,21 @@ <valsi>me</valsi> and before a member of MOI, producing strange result= s indeed:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-enCe"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e11d14"/>

le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o<= /jbo> =20 The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-ste= reotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability. =20 - I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. + I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king. =20

PA selma'o MOI = selma'o boi <= primary>me'u snowball's chanceexample boief= fect on elidability of me'u MOI selma'ouse of boi before PA se= lma'oexception on use of boi with MOI boiexception before MOI Note: the elidable termina= tor=20 boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. A= s a result, the=20 me'u in=20 could also be replaced by a= =20 boi, which would serve the same function of preventing = the=20 pa and=20 moi from joining into a compound. @@ -2083,21 +2083,21 @@ =20 for more on Lojban q= uestions.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e12d1"/>

li re su'i re du li xo =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what? - What is 2 + 2? + What is 2 + 2?

le xomoi prenu cu darxi do The what-number-th person hit you? Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you? @@ -2593,21 +2593,21 @@

Here is a classic example of operand logical connection: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d6"/>

=20 go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy= . su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei= by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i r= e bi'epi'i .abu If-and-only-if the-number a-times-(x<= /quote> power two ) plus b-times- x plus c equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ t= he-negation-of( b ) plus or minus the-root-of (b-power-2 min= us four-times- a-times- c ) ] divided-by two-= times- a. - Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then x = =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2=88= =92 4ac) 2a + Iff ax 2 + bx + c =3D 0, then= x =3D -b =C2=B1 =E2=88=9A (b 2 =E2= =88=92 4ac) 2a

quadratic formula= example infix notation mixed with Polishexample Polish notation mixed with infixexample infix notat= ion mixed with Polish Polish notation mixed with infix Note= the mixture of styles in=20 : the negation of b and the = square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precede= nce by prefixed=20 =20 bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group= the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be= removed here in favor of simple=20 =20 fe'a and=20 ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in= the operand. Getting=20 to parse perfectly using th= e current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense wi= th most of the=20 @@ -2616,21 +2616,21 @@ BIhI selma'o<= /primary> JO= I selma'o non-logical connectionof operators non-logical connect= ionof operands Non-logical con= nection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between op= erators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with=20 bi'o to create intervals: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d7"/>

li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one

[0,1)

- the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including= one + the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not incl= uding one =20

mi'i Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginni= ng and end points can be expressed by=20 mi'i: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e17d8"/> @@ -2764,21 +2764,21 @@ a pride of lions: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e18d4"/>

mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo =20 I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions. - I see a pride of lions. + I see a pride of lions. =20

Other uses of mekso The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me'o @@ -2829,21 +2829,21 @@ but false that: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d2"/>

me'o re su'i re du me'o vo The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four. - 2 + 2=3D4 + 2 + 2=3D4

me'orelation to li compared with la/zo relation= lirela= tion to me'o compared with la/zo relation since the= expressions=20 2 + 2 and=20 4 are not the same. The relationship between=20 li and=20 me'o is related to that between=20 la djan., the person named John, and=20 zo .djan., the name=20 John @@ -2880,21 +2880,21 @@ The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four.

2 ? 2 =3D 4

nu'a su'i - plus + plus

In=20 ,=20 na'u mo is an operator question, because= =20 mo is the selbri question cmavo and=20 na'u makes the selbri into an operator.=20 makes the true answer=20 su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with th= e inverse cmavo=20 nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting=20 @@ -2916,59 +2916,59 @@ firstly,=20 =20 secondly, and so on, can be created by suffixing a memb= er of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are c= ompound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cma= vo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewis= e contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e19d7"/>

pamai - firstly + firstly =20

remai - secondly + secondly

romai all-ly - lastly + lastly

ny.mai - nth-ly + nth-ly

pasomo'o - nineteenthly (higher order) + nineteenthly (higher order)

MAI selma'o mo'= o firs= tlyexample chapter numbering mo'ocontrasted= with mai maicontrasted with mo'o = textdiv= ision numbering with -mai The difference between=20 mai and=20 mo'o is that=20 mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each=20 mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and in= ternally numbered with=20 mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each = section would be numbered with=20 mo'o. (See=20 for more on these words= .) @@ -3007,21 +3007,21 @@ A few other points: se<= /indexterm> seuse with operators conversionof operator places=20 se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a s= elbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d1"/>

li ci se vu'u vo du li pa The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one= . - 3 subtracted from 4 equals 1. + 3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.

SE selma'o The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on = operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create= (probably unintelligible) operators as needed. NAhE selma'o<= /primary> negati= onof operator Members of selma= 'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. T= he implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi tr= ue: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d2"/>

li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare @@ -3047,32 +3047,32 @@ lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics t= o get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of sel= ma'o NAhE followed by=20 bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that so= me other operand would make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d4"/>

li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu =20 The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5. - 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5. + 2 + 2 =3D something other than 5.

digits<= secondary>names from digitsrafsi for The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Ad= ditionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as = names: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d5"/>

la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu Those-named Seven who attack that-named Thebes [past] are-men. - The Seven Against Thebes were men. + The Seven Against Thebes were men.

Of course, there is no guarantee that the name=20 zel. is connected with the number rafsi: = an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c18e21d6"/>

la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml index c8316f7..8a2a236 100644 --- a/todocbook/19.xml +++ b/todocbook/19.xml @@ -147,35 +147,35 @@ topic/comment separator

The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the norm= al English sentence which has a subject and a predicate: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d1"/>

mi klama le zarci - I went to the market + I went to the market

topic-commentdescription In Chinese, the normal= sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is m= ade. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attachi= ng a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The = topic says what the sentence is about: <anchor xml:id=3D"c19e4d2"/>

zhe4 xiao1= xi2 wo3 zhi1dao le Navajoexample fu= 'ivlaconsiderations for choosing basis word fu'ivlawith invalid diphthongs invalid diphthongsin= fu'ivla Note the commas in=20 and=20 , used because=20 ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably= , some form of the native name=20 Chosen should have been used instead of the internation= ally known=20 Korea; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. I= n general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severel= y impede understanding:=20 =20 @@ -1402,102 +1402,102 @@ cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other l= anguages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them i= n descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves,= but do not necessarily do so. =20 namesrationale for lojbanizing cmenerationale for lojb= anizing cmeneand analyzability of speech stream namesexamples of cmeneexamples of Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attem= pts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modificatio= n. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzabl= e, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are L= ojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equ= ivalents: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d1"/> djim. - Jim + Jim <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Jane</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d2"/> djein. - Jane + Jane <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Arnold</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d3"/> .arnold. - Arnold + Arnold =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Pete</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d4"/> pit. - Pete + Pete =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Katrina</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d5"/> katrinas. - Katrina + Katrina =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d6"/> kat,r,in. - Catherine + Catherine =20 syllabic consonant= effect on stress determination= (Note that syllabic=20 r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable= , so=20 =20 =20 is stressed on the=20 ka.) <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d7"/> katis. - Cathy + Cathy =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Kate</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d8"/> keit. - Kate + Kate =20 namesunusual stress in cmeneunusual stress in namesstress in cmenestress in namesrules for formation cmenerules for formation= Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant,= and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusu= al stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, ea= ch ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a s= ingle word with no pause. For example, =20  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Brown</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><seco= ndary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> @@ -1567,55 +1567,55 @@ </listitem> </orderedlist> <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>names</primary><s= econdary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"gene= ral-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</seconda= ry></indexterm> Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized fr= om names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmav= o, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</= para> <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjj1" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> <title> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>One</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d11"/>

pav. - the One + the One

from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav,= meaning one <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><second= ary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d12"/>

sol. - the Sun + the Sun

from the gismu solri, meaning solar, or actually pertaining to the Sun <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><seco= ndary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d13"/>

ralj. - Chief as a title + Chief as a title

from the gismu ralju, meaning principal. <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e8d14"/>

nol. - Lord/Lady + Lord/Lady

from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning noble. cmenealgorithm for namesalgorithm for To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the fo= llowing rules: Eliminate double consonants and silent letters. Add a final=20 @@ -3125,33 +3125,33 @@ zei mechanism was devised instead.) The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves n= o change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form C= CVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in= =20 . For example, <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d1"/>

tci'ile - Chilean + Chilean

is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a= Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist i= f they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, bu= t does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo. The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to a= llow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final v= owel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain= five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all = other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d2"/>

tci'ile ke canre tutra Chilean type-of sand territory - Chilean desert + Chilean desert =20

could be represented by the lujvo <anchor xml:id=3D"c4e16d3"/>

tci'ilykemcantutra diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml index 439f832..8220688 100644 --- a/todocbook/5.xml +++ b/todocbook/5.xml @@ -4,69 +4,69 @@

Lojban content words: brivla bridirelation to selbri selbrirelation to bridi selbridefinition brididefinition At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban br= idi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a r= elationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is refe= rred to. The difference between: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d1"/>

do mamta mi You are-a-mother-of me - You are my mother + You are my mother

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d2"/>

do patfu mi You are-a-father-of me. - You are my father. + You are my father.

lies in the different selbri. brivla<= secondary>types brivla as selbri selbribrivla as The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a bri= vla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built i= nto the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of = the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified for= m) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo t= hat can act like brivla; these are mentioned in=20 , and discussed in full in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike.= For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d3"/>

ta bloti That is-a-boat. - That is a boat. + That is a boat.

ta brablo That is-a-large-boat. - That is a ship. + That is a ship.

<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>schooner</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e1d5"/> =20 ta blotrskunri That is-a-(boat)-schooner. - That is a schooner. + That is a schooner. illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivl= a respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word w= hose meaning can be learned independent of its origins. The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example b= rivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind tha= t wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivl= a.

=20

Simple tanru =20 =20 @@ -89,42 +89,42 @@ adverb. English words belonging to any of these categor= ies are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of ta= nru: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d1"/> =20 tu pelnimre tricu That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree). - That is a lemon tree. + That is a lemon tree. <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d2"/>

la djan. barda nanla That-named John is-a-big boy. - John is a big boy. + John is a big boy.

<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>quick runner</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e2d3"/>

mi sutra bajra I quick run - I quickly run./I run quickly. + I quickly run./I run quickly.

Note that=20 pelnimre is a lujvo for=20 lemon; it is derived from the gismu=20 pelxu, yellow, and=20 nimre, citrus. Note also that=20 sutra can mean=20 fast/quick or=20 quickly depending on its use: @@ -378,21 +378,21 @@ Complex tanru grouping =20 tanru groupingcomplex If one element of a tanru= can be another tanru, why not both elements? <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1"/>

do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). - You are a very large dog-catcher. + You are a very large dog-catcher.

In=20 , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 mutce bo barda and tertau=20 gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing o= nce again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other L= ojban tanru: the sense in which the=20 dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 @@ -405,51 +405,51 @@ melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 beautiful.) Here are four ways to group this phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/>

ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of sc= hool. - That is a school for girls who are beautifully small. + That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.

ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school). - That is a girls' school which is beautifully small. + That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.

ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of sc= hool. - That is a school for small girls who are beautiful. + That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.

ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of scho= ol)). - That is a small school for girls which is beautiful. + That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.

bofor right-grouping in tanru tanru groupingwith bo right= -grouping in tanruwith bo right-grouping ruledefinition of=20 uses a construction which h= as not been seen before:=20 cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecu= tive uses of=20 bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 =20 @@ -559,21 +559,21 @@ as terse as=20 . Now how about that fifth grouping? It is <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6"/>

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). - That is a beautiful school for small girls. + That is a beautiful school for small girls.

is distinctly different i= n meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the=20 ke ... ke'e parentheses, the left-group= ing rule is applied to=20 cmalu nixli ckule. tanru groupingwith ke and bo=20 It is perfectly all right to mix=20 bo and=20 ke ... ke'e in a single selbri. For insta= nce,=20 @@ -687,21 +687,21 @@ ke ... ke'e associates brivla more closel= y than=20 je does: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5"/>

barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog - big yellowish-red dog + big yellowish-red dog

With no grouping indicators, we get: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d6"/>

barda je pelxu xunre gerku ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog @@ -783,51 +783,51 @@ logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 for further details. JA selma'o The logical connective=20 je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/>

le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga - the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). + the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).

blanu naja lenku skapi (blue only-if cold) skin - skin which is blue only if it is cold + skin which is blue only if it is cold

xamgu jo tordu nuntavla (good if-and-only-if short) speech - speech which is good if (and only if) it is short + speech which is good if (and only if) it is short

vajni ju pluka nuntavla (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking - speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing + speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing<= /natlang>

In=20 ,=20 ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 je but means=20 or (more precisely,=20 and/or). Likewise,=20 naja means=20 only if in=20 @@ -895,21 +895,21 @@

The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 is distinct from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21"/>

ti blanu xunre bolci - This is a bluish-red ball + This is a bluish-red ball

which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22"/>

ti blanu je xunre bolci @@ -946,21 +946,21 @@ gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 gu'e ... gi, which has in effect the same= scope as=20 bo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24"/>

gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu (both (big and red) and dog) or cat - something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat + something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a = cat

leaves=20 mlatu outside the=20 gu'e ... gi construction. The scope of th= e=20 gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or mor= e brivla connected with=20 bo or=20 ke ... ke'e.

=20 @@ -1003,34 +1003,34 @@ FIXME: TAG SPOT <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>good house</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/>

ti xamgu zdani This is-a-good house. =20 - This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. + This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.

Since=20 xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 necessarily omits informati= on about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however= ! <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2"/>

ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. - This is a house that is good for you by my standards. + This is a house that is good for you by my standards.

BEhO selma'o<= /primary> be= 'o BEI selma'o bei BE selma'o be linked sumtiin tanru seltaufilling sumti places in Here, the gismu=20 xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 be'o (of selma'o BEhO). linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 , with all places filled in:= @@ -1082,21 +1082,21 @@

tanruplace structures of No matter how complex = a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the plac= e structure of <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/>

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule a (pretty and little) (girl school) - a school for girls which is both beautiful and small + a school for girls which is both beautiful and small

is simply that of=20 ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 .) FA selma'o FA tags = and linked sumti linked sumti and FA tags It is possible to= precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags=20 =20 fe,=20 fi,=20 fo, and=20 @@ -1122,46 +1122,46 @@ fe tells us that=20 do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8"/>

ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. - This is a good house by my standards. + This is a good house by my standards. =20

sumti tcita and t= ense tags tense tags and sumti tcita sumti tcita and modal tags = modal tags and sumti tcita sumti tc= ita and linked sumti linked sumti and sumti tcita Similarly= , sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of link= ed sumti just as they can into bridi: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9"/>

ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house. - That is a blue, as I see it, house. + That is a blue, as I see it, house.

The meaning of=20 is slightly different from:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10"/>

ta blanu zdani ga'a mi That is-a-blue house to-observer me. - That is a blue house, as I see it. + That is a blue house, as I see it.

See discussions in=20 of modals and in=20 of tenses for more explanations. be'oeffect of relative clauses on elidability of relative clauses= effect on elidability of be'o be'oelidability o= f el= idability of be'o The terminator=20 be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 =20 be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: @@ -1223,31 +1223,31 @@ co.=20 and=20 mean exactly the same thing= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1"/>

ta blanu zdani That is-a-blue type-of-house. - That is a blue house. + That is a blue house.

ta zdani co blanu That is-a-house of-type blue. - That is a blue house. + That is a blue house.

seltau<= secondary>definition tertaudefinition tanru inversiondefinition This change is called=20 tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 =20 co (=20 zdani in=20 ) is the tertau, and the ele= ment following=20 co (=20 blanu) in=20 @@ -1259,33 +1259,33 @@ be ... bei ... be'o, and in fact=20 and=20 have the same meaning: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3"/>

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. - I try to go to the market from the house. + I try to go to the market from the house. =20

<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>try to go</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4"/>

mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). - I try to go to the market from the house. + I try to go to the market from the house. =20

is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand. Note that in Lojban=20 trying to go is expressed using=20 troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 trying to go is a=20 going type of trying, not a=20 @@ -1304,57 +1304,57 @@ sumti of the bridi at all. tanru inversionwhere allowed tanru inversionin compl= ex tanru When inverting a more complex tanru, it is= possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The= only possible inversion of=20 , for instance, is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5"/>

ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. - That's a girls' school which is small. + That's a girls' school which is small.

tanru groupingeffect of tanru inversion on tanru inversioneffect on tanru grouping=20 Note that the=20 bo of=20 is optional in=20 , because=20 co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 ke ... ke'e parentheses can encompass a= =20 co: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6"/>

ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. - That's a small school for girls which is beautiful. + That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.

tanru inversionrule for removing In=20 , the=20 ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 co from any selbri: change=20 A co B to=20 ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti= following the selbri must be transformed into=20 be ... bei ... be'o form and attached fol= lowing B.) Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7"/>

ckule co melbi nixli school of-type pretty girl - school for beautiful girls + school for beautiful girls

means the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8"/>

ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule (pretty girl) school @@ -1385,45 +1385,45 @@

which by the left-grouping rule is simply <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d11"/>

cmalu nixli ckule little girl school - school for little girls + school for little girls

As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12"/>

mi klama co sutra I am-a-goer of-type quick - I go quickly + I go quickly

cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13"/>

mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. - I go to the store quickly. + I go to the store quickly.

=20

Other kinds of simple selbri The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i @@ -1480,21 +1480,21 @@ go'i you may retort: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d2"/>

la djan. go'i troci John [repeat last] are-a-tryer - John tries to. + John tries to.

is short for: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3"/>

la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci @@ -1528,64 +1528,64 @@

A possible tanru example might be: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>addition problems</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5"/>

mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. - I understand addition problems. + I understand addition problems. =20

MOI selma'o More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathemati= cal expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numeric= al selbri. Details are available in=20 =20 . Here are a few tanru: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Preem Palver</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6"/>

la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. =20 - Preem Palver is the first speaker. + Preem Palver is the first speaker. =20

<indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two brothers</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7"/>

la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. - Anyi and Asun are two brothers. + Anyi and Asun are two brothers. =20 =20

KEI selma'o NU = selma'o Finally, an important type of simple selbr= i which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are= simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidab= le terminator=20 kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 . A few examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8"/>

ti nu zdile kei kumfa This is-an-event-of amusement room. - This is an amusement room. + This is an amusement room.

abstraction bridi= contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in mea= ning=20 is quite distinct in meanin= g from: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d9"/>

ti zdile kumfa @@ -1617,95 +1617,95 @@ x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti] which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1"/>

le ci nolraitru the three noblest-governors - the three kings + the three kings

If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tra= dition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d2"/>

la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of=20 the three kings. - Balthazar is one of the three kings. + Balthazar is one of the three kings.

and likewise <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d3"/>

la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru - Caspar is one of the three kings. + Caspar is one of the three kings.

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4"/>

la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru - Melchior is one of the three kings. + Melchior is one of the three kings.

ducompared with me in effect mecompared with du in e= ffect me/du equivalence If the sumti refers to a single o= bject, then the effect of=20 me is much like that of=20 du: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5"/>

do du la djan. You are-identical-with the-one-called John.<= /gloss> - You are John. + You are John.

means the same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d6"/>

do me la djan. You are-the-referent-of=20 the-one-called John. - You are John. + You are John.

meused with names It is common to use=20 me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 la, as seltau. For example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Chrysler</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7"/>

ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce That (is-a-referent of=20 the-mass-called Chrysler) car. =20 - That is a Chrysler car. + That is a Chrysler car. =20

logical connect= ivesrelative precedence with me'u me'urelative precedence with logical connectives elidability of me'u The elidable terminator=20 me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 =20 =20 ), and if the indef= inite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 =20 @@ -1713,62 +1713,62 @@ ) or a sumti logical conne= ctive (explained in=20 ). Without a=20 me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8"/>

re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi - Two of the group=20 - the three kings and John are white. + Two of the group=20 + the three kings and John are white.

re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi - Two of the three kings, and John, are white. + Two of the three kings, and John, are white.

In=20 the=20 me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the ind= efinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we can= not say which two. In=20 =20 =20 , though, the=20 me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are = said to be white, and so is John. Finally, here is another example requiring=20 me'u: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d10"/>

ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book. - That is the kind of book you were talking about. + That is the kind of book you were talking about.

There are other sentences where either=20 me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expresse= d: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d11"/>

le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating - the Three Kings celebration + the Three Kings celebration =20

requires either=20 ku or=20 me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 be'o in=20 ) the=20 me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.

@@ -1777,47 +1777,47 @@ Conversion of simple selbri xe<= /indexterm> ve= te se SE selma'= o plac= e structurere-ordering by conversion conversion<= secondary>definition tanru and conversion conversion and tanru = Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in= a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cma= vo of FA, as mentioned in=20 , and then rearranging the order i= n which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri i= nto a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1"/>

mi prami do - I love you. + I love you.

is equivalent in meaning to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2"/>

do se prami mi You [swap x1 and x2] love me. - You are loved by me. + You are loved by me.

Conversion is fully explained in=20 . For the purposes of this chapter, the = important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following s= imple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to= be careful! Consider=20 : <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>walk to market</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/>

la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. Alice walkingly goes to the market. - Alice walks to the market. + Alice walks to the market.

To convert this sentence so that=20 le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct = way is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4"/>

le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. @@ -1876,133 +1876,133 @@ . In brief, there are two main typ= es of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:

la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. - Alice doesn't walk to the market. + Alice doesn't walk to the market.

kefor expanding scope of scalar negation meanin= g that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of w= alking there. But if the=20 ke were omitted, the result would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2"/>

la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. - Alice doesn't walk to the market. + Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 negates both=20 cadzu and=20 klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 may be used in place of brivl= a in any of these examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3"/>

la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku Jones is non-1st speaker - Jones is not the first speaker. + Jones is not the first speaker.

Since only=20 pamoi is negated, an appropriate inferenc= e is that he is some other kind of speaker. negationcomplex examples complex negationexamples Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing = the interaction of scalar negation with=20 bo grouping,=20 ke and=20 ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 be and=20 bei: na'econtrasted with na'e ke FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4"/>

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. - I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.<= /en> + I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quic= kly.

In=20 ,=20 na'e negates only=20 sutra. Contrast=20 : <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5"/>

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. - I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.<= /en> + I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my a= rms.

Now consider=20 and=20 , which are equivalent in me= aning, but use=20 ke grouping and=20 bo grouping respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6"/>

mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-= to the market. - I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. + I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly.

mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. - I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slo= wly. + I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly.

However, if we place a=20 na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 and=20 , we get different results:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8"/>

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. - I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quic= kly, and also slowly. + I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than= quickly, and also slowly.

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. - I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my a= rms, and also slowly. + I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using= my arms, and also slowly.

The difference arises because the=20 na'e in=20 negates the whole construct= ion from=20 ke to=20 ke'e, whereas in=20 it negates=20 sutra alone. perils of omittin= g terminators <= primary>omitting terminatorsperils of Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the ex= plicit=20 @@ -2010,34 +2010,34 @@ ke'e is left out in=20 , it is transformed into: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10"/>

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking - using my arms and slowly going to the market. + using my arms and slowly going to the market.

And if both=20 ke'e and=20 be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11"/>

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. - I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, bot= h arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. + I do something other than quickly walking using the goers= , both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.

In=20 , everything after=20 be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 =20 cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 =20 le zarci following the selbri falls into = the nonexistent x4 place of=20 @@ -2050,87 +2050,87 @@

Tenses and bridi negation A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1"/>

mi pu klama le zarci I [past] go to-the market. - I went to the market. + I went to the market.

the cmavo=20 pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 . There are alternative ways= of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in=20 , behave in the same way as ten= ses. Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 . For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2"/>

la djonz. na pamoi cusku Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. - Jones isn't the first speaker. + Jones isn't the first speaker.

Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 doesn't say. There are othe= r ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully i= n=20 . bridi negationrelative order with tense tenserelative = order with bridi negation Various combinations of t= ense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either = order is permissible with no change in meaning: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3"/>

mi na pu klama le zarci mi pu na klama le zarci It is false that I went to the market. - I didn't go to the market. + I didn't go to the market.

na<= /indexterm> bridi negationmultiple It is also possible to = have more than one=20 na, in which case pairs of=20 na cmavo cancel out: <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4"/>

mi na na klama le zarci It is false that it is false that I go to the market. - I go to the market. + I go to the market.

tense and namultiple na and tensemultiple<= /indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multipl= e=20 na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 =20 =20 =20 . <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5"/>

mi na pu na ca klama le zarci I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. I didn't not go to the market. - I went to the market. + I went to the market.

negation cmavoposition relative to selbri modal cmavop= osition relative to selbri tense cmavoposition relative to= selbri Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear= only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. =20

=20

Some types of asymmetrical tanru =20 tanruasymmetrical asymmetrical tanru This section and= =20 @@ -3846,51 +3846,51 @@ naja or=20 jo or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct. It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represe= nt only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence. <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/>

melbi cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school - school for girls who are beautifully small + school for girls who are beautifully small

melbi je cmalu nixli ckule ((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school - school for girls who are beautiful and small + school for girls who are beautiful and small

melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule ((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school - school for girls and for beautifully small things + school for girls and for beautifully small things

ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school - thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl + thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl

melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule ((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls @@ -3908,360 +3908,360 @@ Note: same as

ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule ((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school - thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and s= mall + thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful = and small

melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule ((pretty and little) and girl) and school - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school) - girls' school which is beautifully small + girls' school which is beautifully small

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule (pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school) - girls' school which is beautiful and small + girls' school which is beautiful and small

melbi cmalu nixli je ckule (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school) - something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully sm= all + something which is a girl and a school which is beautiful= ly small

melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule (pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school) - something which is beautifully small and a girls' school + something which is beautifully small and a girls' school<= /natlang>

melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule (pretty and little) type-of (girl and school) - a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a s= chool + a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl an= d a school

melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule (pretty type-of little) and (girl and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl + thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d15"/>

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule (pretty and little) and (girl type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school + thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d16"/>

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule (pretty and little) and (girl and school) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school - school for beautiful girls who are small + school for beautiful girls who are small

melbi cmalu je nixli ckule (pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school - school for beautiful things which are small and are girls + school for beautiful things which are small and are girls=

melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule (pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful and are small girls + school for things which are beautiful and are small girls=

ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school - thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful + thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful=

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule (pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls + school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d22"/>

melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule (pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school - thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d23"/>

ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule (pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a scho= ol + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= school

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule (pretty and (little and girl)) and school - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)) - small school for girls which is beautiful + small school for girls which is beautiful

melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school)) - small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful + small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful=

melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is b= eautiful + thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that= is beautiful

melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school + thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' schoo= l

melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of (little and (girl and school)) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beau= tiful school + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d30"/>

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e] pretty and (little and (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school + thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d31"/>

melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and (little type-of (girl and school)) - beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school + beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school<= /natlang>

melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule pretty and (little and (girl and school)) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school) - beautiful school for small girls + beautiful school for small girls

melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school - beautiful school for things which are small and are girls + beautiful school for things which are small and are girls=

melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school) - beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school + beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school

melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls + thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls

melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beau= tiful school + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d38"/>

melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school) - thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school + thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school

Note: same as <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d39"/>

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' sc= hool + thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girl= s' school

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e] pretty and ((little and girl) and school) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

=20 diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml index dc130e1..1a7a80a 100644 --- a/todocbook/6.xml +++ b/todocbook/6.xml @@ -50,50 +50,50 @@ li. Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/>

e'osai ko sarji la lojban. - Please support Lojban! + Please support Lojban!

exhibits=20 ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 la lojban., a name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d3"/>

mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu - I express=20 - Please! to-the reader. + I express=20 + Please! to-the reader.

le li'u lu =20 exhibits=20 mi, a pro-sumti;=20 lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 le tcidu, a description. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d4"/>

ti mitre li ci This measures-in-meters the-number three. - This is three meters long. + This is three meters long.

li =20 exhibits=20 ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 li ci, a number. Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 ,=20 , and=20 respectively, so this chapter on= ly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 @@ -128,61 +128,61 @@ LA selma'o LE s= elma'o selbrias part of description = descriptoras part of description descriptionscomponents of descriptio= nstypes of The syntax of descr= iptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the co= nfines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in= =20 . However, most descriptio= ns have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, an= d a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not import= ant until=20 .) Furthermore, the selbri is often j= ust a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1"/>

le zarci one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market - the market + the market

lecompared with English the The long gloss for= =20 le is of course far too long to use most of the time, a= nd in fact=20 =20 le is quite close in meaning to English=20 the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 the does not have. descriptionsimportance of selbri first place in= descriptorspurpose of The general purpose of all descript= ors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri be= longing to the description. Thus=20 le zarci conveys something which might be= found in the x1 place of=20 zarci, namely a market. leand truth of selbri leand specificity leimplications of The specific purpose of=20 le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2"/>

le zarci cu barda One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as mark= ets is/are-big. - The market is big. - The markets are big. + The market is big. + The markets are big.

plurals= Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to= markets is to just one (=20 the market) or to more than one (=20 the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 are valid. Only the context= can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no wa= y of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is exp= lained in=20 .) Now consider the following strange-looking example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>The men are women</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3"/>

le nanmu cu ninmu One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as men<= /quote> are women. - The man is a woman. - The men are women. + The man is a woman. + The men are women. =20

lein false-to-fact descriptions=20 is not self-contradictory i= n Lojban, because=20 le nanmu merely means something or other = which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or n= ot it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assume= d to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer obs= ervation.=20 =20 is what I would say to poin= t out my observation to you. =20 descriptionsspecific specific descriptions In all des= criptions with=20 @@ -193,38 +193,38 @@ lo. Unlike=20 le,=20 lo is nonspecific: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4"/>

lo zarci one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets - a market - some markets + a market + some markets

loand truth of selbri locontrasted with le in truth re= quirement lecontrasted with lo in truth requirement lecontrasted with lo in specificity locontraste= d with le in specificity Again, there are two collo= quial English translations. The effect of using=20 lo in=20 is to refer generally to on= e or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 le zarci,=20 lo zarci must refer to something which ac= tually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful= bridi whose selbri is=20 zarci). Thus <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5"/>

lo nanmu cu ninmu - Some man is a woman. - Some men are women. + Some man is a woman. + Some men are women.

must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 =20 true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity lacompared = with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 le descriptions,=20 la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 @@ -232,21 +232,21 @@ .) For example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/>

la cribe pu finti le lisri The-one-named=20 bear [past] creates the story. - Bear wrote the story. + Bear wrote the story.

naming predicate In=20 ,=20 la cribe refers to someone whose naming p= redicate is=20 =20 cribe, i.e.=20 Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 Frank coincides with the English word=20 frank, meaning=20 @@ -267,32 +267,32 @@ the honest one.) lacontrasted with le in implications It is impo= rtant to note the differences between=20 and the following: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d8"/>

le cribe pu finti le lisri One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [pas= t] creates the story. - The bear(s) wrote the story. + The bear(s) wrote the story.

lo cribe pu finti le lisri One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] cre= ates the story. - A bear wrote the story. - Some bears wrote the story. + A bear wrote the story. + Some bears wrote the story.

lacontrasted with lo in implications=20 is about a specific bear or= bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or m= etaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 is about one or more of the= really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each o= f them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one = bear (or=20 bear) is meant. descriptions with= loteddy bear contrasted with real bear (The notion of a=20 really existing, objectively defined bear raises certai= n difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 real bear? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 @@ -306,31 +306,31 @@ is certainly false. Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 and=20 respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d10"/>

le remna pu finti le lisri - The human being(s) wrote the story. + The human being(s) wrote the story.

lo remna pu finti le lisri - A human being wrote the story. - Some human beings wrote the story. + A human being wrote the story. + Some human beings wrote the story.

locontrasted with le in implications lecontrasted with= lo in implications=20 says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 le remna is in effect a shorthand referen= ce to that person.=20 merely says that the author= is human. kuuses of = cueffect on elidability of ku kueffect of following selbri on elidability of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">kuas elid= able terminator for descriptions The elidable termi= nator for all descriptions is=20 ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 , and in the case of a descript= ion immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explici= t=20 @@ -370,21 +370,21 @@ and=20 refer to individuals, wh= ether one or more than one. Consider the following example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1"/>

le prenu cu bevri le pipno One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= =20 - The person(s) carry the piano. + The person(s) carry the piano. =20

(Of course the second=20 le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 le, the one preceding=20 prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. @@ -414,59 +414,59 @@ lai). A classic example of=20 loi use is: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/>

loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. - The lion dwells in Africa. - Lions dwell in Africa. + The lion dwells in Africa. + Lions dwell in Africa.

loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 lei and=20 loi is that=20 lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific in= dividuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass= of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 some part of the mass allows statements like=20 to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the = world. On the other hand,=20 doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa= </primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/>

loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. - The English dwell in Africa. + The English dwell in Africa.

since there is at least one English person living there.=20 explains another method of saying wha= t is usually meant by=20 The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living i= n Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. mass objectspeculiarities of English translation of Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English= plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the si= ngular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by sin= gulars with no article: =20 =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5"/>

loi matne cu ranti =20 Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. - Butter is soft. + Butter is soft.

mass objectas dependent on intention Of course, = some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 part-of implication of=20 loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanis= m works is that the English words like=20 butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 matne is=20 =20 x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 butter is translated as something like=20 @@ -478,21 +478,21 @@ , <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</pr= imary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/>

lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta The-mass-of-those-named=20 bear [past] creates the nearby book. - The Bears wrote this book. + The Bears wrote this book.

laicontrasted with la in implications lacontrasted with= lai in implications in a context where=20 la cribe would be understood as plural, w= ould mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might h= ave written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collabo= rators. Using=20 =20 la instead of=20 lai in=20 would give the implication = that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.

@@ -530,62 +530,62 @@ loi, and=20 lo'i: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/>

lo ratcu cu bunre One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. - Some rats are brown. + Some rats are brown. =20

loi ratcu cu cmalu Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.<= /gloss> - Rats are small. + Rats are small.

lo'icontrasted with lo and loi loicontrasted with lo a= nd lo'i locontrasted with loi and lo'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda The-set-of rats is-large. - There are a lot of rats. + There are a lot of rats.

The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc= e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of = rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess= . =20 setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 fadni is:

x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 am= ong the members of set x3

Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user<= /primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/>

mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. - I am a typical Lojban user. + I am a typical Lojban user. =20

Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or ag= e, or interests, or something else. If=20 lo'i were changed to=20 lo in=20 , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense.

@@ -612,51 +612,51 @@ lo'e means=20 the typical, as in <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/>

lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. - The lion dwells in Africa. + The lion dwells in Africa.

typical objectsand instantiation typical objectsdetermi= ning characteristics of What is this=20 typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2"/>

lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. - The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England= . + The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in En= gland.

le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typ= ical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set o= f lions. There is a similar relationship between=20 le'e and=20 le'i: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/>

le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. =20 - Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. + Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. =20

stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 =20 le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 lo'e cinfo and=20 le'e cinfo may be very fine. @@ -780,35 +780,35 @@ =20 implicit quantifi= eron quotationsdiscussion of Not all sumti have=20 ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the qu= otation in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5"/>

mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. - I say,=20 - You walk on the ice. + I say,=20 + You walk on the ice.

What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation=20 lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 ro. If=20 ro were supplied explicitly, thus: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d6"/>

mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u - I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. + I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

the meaning would be something like=20 I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 means that I express exactl= y one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, = as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least= once. The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 at least is=20 su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 su'o means=20 at least once. (See=20 @@ -818,22 +818,22 @@ implicit quantifi= erfor quotations quotationsimplicit q= uantifier for su'oas implicit quantifier for quotations FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d7"/>

mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unqu= ote]. I say one or more instances of=20 You walk on the ice. - I say=20 - You walk on the ice. + I say=20 + You walk on the ice.

If an explicit ordinary number such as=20 re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact exp= ression, so <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d8"/>

mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u @@ -855,51 +855,51 @@ quantificationbefore description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we ca= n say that exactly two of them are white as follows: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</= primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/>

re le gerku cu blabi Two-of the dogs are-white. - Two of the dogs are white. + Two of the dogs are white.

inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= For example, the context of=20 supposedly told us that=20 le gerku referred to some three specific = dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner= quantifier: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2"/>

re le ci gerku cu blabi Two-of the three dogs are-white. - Two of the three dogs are white. + Two of the three dogs are white.

(As explained in the discussion of=20 , simple numbers like those = in=20 must be exact: it therefore= follows that the third dog cannot be white.) inner quantifier<= /primary>explicit You may also specify a= n explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d3"/>

le ci gerku cu blabi The three dogs are-white. - The three dogs are white. + The three dogs are white.

outer quantifier<= /primary>implicit on descriptors inner quantifierimplicit on descriptors descriptorsimplicit quantifiers = for There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors = specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are= . They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent,= not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table list= s the implicit values: =20 @@ -1015,33 +1015,33 @@ su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as fo= r quotations.

locontrasted with le in implicit quantification= lecont= rasted with lo in implicit quantification From the = English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the fol= lowing example using=20 le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4"/>

[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. - The three dogs are white. + The three dogs are white.

and the corresponding form with=20 lo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5"/>

ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. - Three dogs are white. + Three dogs are white.

looks very peculiar. Why is the number=20 ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 and as an outer quantifier = in=20 ? The number of dogs is the = same in either case. The answer is that the=20 ci in=20 is part of the specificatio= n: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has = in mind. In=20 , however, the dogs referred= to by=20 ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist:= the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we c= annot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much = or too little: in the case of=20 @@ -1074,21 +1074,21 @@ Indefinite descriptions descriptorsomission of loomission of By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor= =20 lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 ; namely, one which has an e= xplicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following ex= ample: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1"/>

ci gerku [ku] cu blabi - Three dogs are white. + Three dogs are white.

indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 ku may still be used. The name=20 indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 =20 =20 lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 @@ -1102,21 +1102,21 @@ =20 su'o ci cutci; another version of that ex= ample using an explicit=20 lo would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d2"/>

mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes - I own three (or more) shoes. + I own three (or more) shoes.

sumti-based descriptions As stated in=20 , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. =20 sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required –= it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.<= /para> @@ -1324,21 +1324,21 @@ lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, lu'eas short for le sinxa be FIXME: TAG SPOT  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>title of book</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/>

mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. - I said the title of this book. + I said the title of this book.

The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d5"/>

mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. @@ -1357,62 +1357,62 @@ =20 vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6"/>

mi troci tu'a le vorme I try some-abstraction-about the door. - I try (to open) the door. + I try (to open) the door.

tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 .  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary= ><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/>

lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu =20 The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. - The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small. + The set of rats is large, but some of its members are sma= ll. =20

lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda =20 Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-= large. - Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large. + Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large. =20

mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentione= d is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence - The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a ma= ss. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. + The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is= a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.

(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: =20 na'ebo F= IXME: TAG SPOT @@ -1429,21 +1429,21 @@ =20 =20 <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-JwCb"> <title> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</prima= ry><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/>

mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. - I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewa= rm food. + I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes l= ukewarm food. =20

(In=20 , the sumti=20 ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than= that referred to by=20 ri. We cannot use=20 ri here, because it would signify=20 la djein., that being the most recent sum= ti available to=20 ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 @@ -1459,93 +1459,93 @@ DOI selma'o COI= selma'o vocative phrasepurpose of T= he purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or t= o indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative = phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explaine= d in more detail in=20 =20 . Sometimes that is all the= re is to the phrase: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1"/>

coi [greetings] - Hello. + Hello.

je'e =20 [acknowledgement] - Uh-huh. - Roger! + Uh-huh. + Roger!

vocative wordphrase following In these cases, t= he person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative = word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by=20 doi, or else just=20 doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds = of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most c= ommon case is a name: coi FIXM= E: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3"/>

coi. djan. - Hello, John. + Hello, John.

A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 doi instead of a pause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4"/>

coi doi djan. - Hello, John. + Hello, John.

doi mean= s exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using=20 doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to att= ract his or her attention: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/>

doi djan. - John! + John!

vocative phraseimplicit descriptor on vocative phrasew= ith sumti without descriptor vocative phraseforms of In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking it= s descriptor, which is understood to be=20 le: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6"/>

coi xunre pastu nixli Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. - Hello, girl with the red dress! + Hello, girl with the red dress!

vocative phraseexplicit quantifiers prohibited on vocative phrase= implicit quantifiers on The listener nee= d not really be a=20 xunre pastu nixli, as long as she underst= ands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri = can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so= the implicit quantifiers=20 su'o le ro are in effect.) Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7"/>

co'o la bab. .e la noras. - Goodbye, Bob and Nora. + Goodbye, Bob and Nora.

vocative phrasewith complete sumti=20 is thus the same as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d8"/>

coi le xunre pastu nixli @@ -1573,77 +1573,77 @@ vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 =20 and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10"/>

doi djan. ko klama mi - John, come to me! + John, come to me!

ko klama mi doi djan. - Come to me, John! + Come to me, John!

As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 , make for more possibilit= ies.

Lojban names Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. name wordsrecognition of namestwo kinds of= First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually = called=20 names when talking about Lojban. The nami= ng predicates of=20 are just ordinary predic= ates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is= a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be r= ecognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Som= e examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1"/>

djan. meris. djein. .alis. - John. Mary. Jane. Alice. + John. Mary. Jane. Alice.

(Note that=20 .alis. begins as well as ends with a paus= e, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pa= use. See=20 for more information.) nameswith LA descriptor namesin vocative phrase namesuses of Names of this kind have two= basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see=20 =20 ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 la,=20 lai, or=20 la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/>

la djonz. klama le zarci Jones goes to-the store. - The Joneses go to-the store. + The Joneses go to-the store.

lai djonz. klama le zarci The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store. - The Joneses go to the store. + The Joneses go to the store.

In=20 , the significance is that a= ll the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name=20 djonz. are going to the store. In=20 , the Joneses are massified,= and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that p= erson need not use the name=20 djonz. at all. LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 and=20 @@ -1661,48 +1661,48 @@ la,=20 lai,=20 la'i, or=20 doi must be preceded by a pause instead: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4"/>

coi .djan. - Hello, John. + Hello, John.

zo .djan. cmene mi The-word John is-the-name-of me. - My name is John. + My name is John.

In=20 and=20 ,=20 .djan. appears with a pause before it as = well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special= cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general wor= d-stream. namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primar= y><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</pri= mary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/>

doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> - John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport Ne= ws. + John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newpo= rt News. =20 =20

name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 =20 =20 ). Thus=20 djeimz. is not a valid ve= rsion of=20 @@ -1746,21 +1746,21 @@ loj- for=20 logji (logical) and=20 ban- for=20 bangu (language) unite to form the name of this languag= e: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/>

lojban. - Lojban + Lojban

names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 =20 s or=20 n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. =20 names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 la followed by a name is=20 su'o, just as for=20 @@ -1784,21 +1784,21 @@ =20 do'o,=20 =20 ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1"/>

mi prami do - I love you. + I love you.

personal pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The p= ersonal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing indi= viduals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 =20 pisu'o rather than=20 =20 ro: in particular,=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 =20 @@ -1819,35 +1819,35 @@ fo'o,=20 fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 defined-as. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2"/>

le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu - The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. + The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.

quantificational = pro-sumti Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 da,=20 de,=20 di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3"/>

ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. - All persons love a fish (each his/her own). + All persons love a fish (each his/her own).

quantificational = pro-sumtiimplicit quantification rules (This is not the same as=20 All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 =20 . Roughly speaking, the quantif= ier is=20 su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, a= nd=20 ro (all) thereafter. reflexive pro-sum= ti Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 vo'a,=20 @@ -1855,35 +1855,35 @@ vo'i,=20 vo'o,=20 vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4"/>

le cribe cu batci vo'a The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. - The bear bites itself. + The bear bites itself.

back-counting pro= -sumti Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 ri,=20 ra,=20 ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5"/>

mi klama la frankfurt. ri I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti - I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route). + I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route)= .

indefinite pro-su= mti Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 zo'e,=20 zu'i,=20 =20 zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6"/> @@ -1903,21 +1903,21 @@ <valsi>ti</valsi>,=20 <valsi>ta</valsi>,=20 <valsi>tu</valsi>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-aqfJ"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7"/>

ko muvgau ti ta tu You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-= that-further-away-place. - Move this from there to over there! + Move this from there to over there!

metalinguistic pr= o-sumti Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 di'u,=20 de'u,=20 =20 da'u,=20 =20 di'e,=20 =20 @@ -1944,34 +1944,34 @@ =20 ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 for a discussion of relat= ive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.= <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9"/>

mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. - I see the cat(s) made of plastic. + I see the cat(s) made of plastic.

question pro-sumt= i The question pro-sumti (=20 =20 ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10"/>

do klama ma You go to-what-sumti? - Where are you going? + Where are you going?

question pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The i= mplicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 =20 su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being= asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. definable pro-sum= tisequences of lerfu words as = In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) c= an also be used as definable pro-sumti. =20

Quotation summary @@ -1979,58 +1979,58 @@ text quotationas internally grammatical text quotations= yntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 lu and followed by=20 li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/>

mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. - I say I'm John. + I say I'm John.

word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. le'u = lo'u FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/>

mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquo= te]. - I say li mi. + I say li mi.

Note that the translation of=20 does not translate the Lojb= an words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they = are ungrammatical). single-word quota= tion Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban wor= d. Compound cmavo are not allowed. =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3"/>

mi cusku zo .ai - I say the-word=20 - ai. + I say the-word=20 + ai.

non-Lojban quotat= ion Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban o= r not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching= . A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before a= nd after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text. <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d4"/>

mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot - I say=20 - I'm John. + I say=20 + I'm John.

quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous t= o=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words.

Number summary number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 @@ -2071,32 +2071,32 @@ me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 and=20 above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4"/>

me'o vo the-expression four - 4 + 4

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d5"/>

me'o re su'i re the-expression two plus two - 2+2 + 2+2

refer to different pieces of text. mathematical expr= essionsimplicit quantifier for= numbersimplicit quantifier for The implicit quantifier fo= r numbers and mathematical expressions is=20 =20 su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears.

diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml index e661b2f..e5909ae 100644 --- a/todocbook/7.xml +++ b/todocbook/7.xml @@ -113,22 +113,22 @@ mi'e assigns=20 mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 do. <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/>

mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u - I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 - I run. + I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 + I run.

do'o ma'a mi'a mi'o= pro-s= umtifor listeners and/or speakers and/or others The cmavo=20 mi'o,=20 mi'a,=20 =20 ma'a, and=20 =20 do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or= the listener and/or other people: =20 @@ -188,53 +188,53 @@ becomes: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d4"/>

ko klama le zarci You [imperative] go to-the store. Make you go to the store true! - Go to the store! + Go to the store!

koin later selbri place in imperative imperativesEngli= sh contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, th= e word=20 ko must be used. However,=20 ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d5"/>

mi viska ko I see you [imperative] Make=20 I see you true! - Be seen by me! + Be seen by me!

koin sub-clause of main bridi In=20 , it is necessary to make th= e verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of=20 ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:<= /para> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d6"/>

mi viska le prenu poi prami ko I see the person that loves you [imperative] Make=20 I see the person that loves you true! Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! - Show me the person who loves you! + Show me the person who loves you!

mi-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= As mentioned in=20 , some pro-sum= ti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equival= ent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.<= /para>

Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -305,21 +305,21 @@ the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 . A correct Lojban transla= tion of=20 is <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2"/>

le vi bloti the here boat - the nearby boat + the nearby boat

using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 .) Another correct translation would= be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3"/>

@@ -435,88 +435,88 @@ =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3"/>

la saimn. cusku di'e =20 Simon expresses the-following-utterance. - Simon says: + Simon says: =20

would typically be follow= ed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of someth= ing Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear= after=20 , and so=20 di'e is appropriate. =20 do'i dei The remaining two cmavo,=20 dei and=20 do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4"/>

dei jetnu jufra This-utterance is-a-true-sentence. - What I am saying (at this moment) is true. + What I am saying (at this moment) is true.

do'i jetnu jufra Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence. - That's true (where=20 - that is not necessarily what was just said). + That's true (where=20 + that is not necessarily what was just said).

The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 utterance is used rather than=20 sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. la'edi'u LAhE s= elma'o la'e Note one very common construction with=20 di'u and the cmavo=20 la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 ) which precedes a sumti a= nd means=20 the thing referred to by (the sumti): <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6"/>

mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= - I love Jane, and I like that. + I love Jane, and I like that.

la'edi'ucontrasted with di'u di'ucontrasted with la'= edi'u The effect of=20 la'e di'u in=20 is that the speaker likes, = not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by t= he previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often = written as a single word:=20 la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up= =20 =20 di'u and=20 la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will gener= ally result: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7"/>

mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u - I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. + I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.

says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.

Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the bro= da-series The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: =20 @@ -638,21 +638,21 @@ he can refer only to males,=20 she only to females (and ships and a few other things),= =20 it only to inanimate things, and=20 they only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have= no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from t= he context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used free= ly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d1"/>

la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu - Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. + Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.

The English gloss=20 it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 =20 ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its ante= cedent is=20 le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent= , in which case=20 means that Alice, not the s= tore, is blue. goi= ko'a-series pro= -sumtiassigning with goi To av= oid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo=20 @@ -706,21 +706,21 @@ . This last form is reminisc= ent of legal jargon: The party of the first part, hereafter known as= Buyer, .... =20 pro-bridias abbreviation for bridi broda-series for pro-bridicompared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti ko'a-series for pro-sumticompared with broda-series for pro-bridi pro-bridibroda-series broda-series pro-bridi Just as the ko'= a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or comp= lex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-= series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:= <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>thingy</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5"/>

ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino = broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu - These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green t= hingy is large. The red thingy is small. + These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The gr= een thingy is large. The red thingy is small.

cei= brodabroda-series = pro-bridiword-form rationale = ceifor b= roda-series pro-bridi assignment broda-series pro-bridia= ssigning with cei goi for ko'a-series assignmentcompared w= ith cei for broda-series assignment cei for broda-series assignmentcompared with goi for ko'a-series assignment antecedentfor pro-bridi The pro-bridi=20 broda has as its antecedent the selbri=20 slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The = cmavo=20 cei performs the role of=20 =20 goi in assigning=20 broda to this long phrase, and=20 broda can then be used just like any other brivla. (In = fact,=20 @@ -730,21 +730,21 @@ brode is the whole bridi=20 mi klama le zarci: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d6"/>

mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode =20 I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1. - I go to the store. You, too. + I go to the store. You, too.

pro-bridioverriding sumti of antecedent bridi for In the second bridi,=20 do brode means=20 do klama le zarci, because=20 brode carries the x2 sumti of=20 mi klama le zarci along with it. It also = potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti=20 do overrides the=20 mi of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or neg= ation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overrid= den by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold = for all pro-bridi that have antecedents. =20 @@ -788,21 +788,21 @@ goi can be used to make an explicit assignment. namesassigning with goi goiuse in assigning name Furthermore,=20 goi can even be used to assign a name: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d9"/>

le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store. - The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store. + The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.

This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even = that the speaker usually calls the woman=20 Sam.=20 Sam is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use i= n the current context only.

Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-s= eries The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -898,71 +898,71 @@ The cmavo=20 ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent a= s the last complete sumti appearing before the=20 ri: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d1"/>

la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room. - Alice sleeps in her room. + Alice sleeps in her room.

The=20 ri in=20 is equivalent to repeating = the last sumti, which is=20 la .alis., so=20 is equivalent to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d2"/>

la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room. - Alice sleeps in Alice's room. + Alice sleeps in Alice's room.

Note that=20 ri does not repeat=20 le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not ye= t complete when=20 ri appears. This prevents=20 ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-referenc= e. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within= other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in = the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like=20 la alis. in=20 is considered to be more re= cent than a higher level sumti that contains it. Certain sumti are ignored by=20 ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and = the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simple= r just to repeat these directly: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d3"/>

mi prami mi I love me. - I love myself. + I love myself.

However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by=20 ri, because you might have changed what you are pointin= g at, so repeating=20 ti may not be effective. Likewise,=20 ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by= a later=20 ri; in fact, a string of=20 ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all rep= eat the same sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d4"/>

la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. - John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. + John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.

Here the second=20 ri has as antecedent the first=20 ri, which has as antecedent=20 le tricu. All three refer to the same thi= ng: a tree. To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in=20 ): @@ -1051,31 +1051,31 @@ ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi tha= t are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions= , are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'= i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affi= rmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8"/>

xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i [True-false?] The-word=20 John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. - Is John your name? Yes. + Is John your name? Yes.

mi klama le zarci .i do go'i I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi]. - I go to the store. You, too. + I go to the store. You, too.

cei= go'i-series pro= -bridiassigning for permanent reference Note that=20 means the same as=20 , but without the bother of = assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term ref= erence, use=20 go'i cei broda or the like, analogously t= o=20 =20 ri goi ko'a in=20 . go'e go'ixire The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provid= ed for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo=20 @@ -1084,21 +1084,21 @@ go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but o= ne. This is useful in conversation: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10"/>

A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'= e =20 A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [= repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one]. - A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A:= You'll go, too. + A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my goin= g. A: You'll go, too.

Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n ):=20 le si'o mi go'i means=20 le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use= the word=20 mi explicitly to replace the x1 of=20 mi klama le zarci, even though it looks l= ike=20 mi is replacing=20 mi? Because B's=20 mi refers to B, whereas A's=20 @@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@ go'e. =20 Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12"/>

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli= The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-p= lace-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice. - The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. + The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. =20

Here the=20 go'i repeats=20 le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and sin= ce=20 le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pl= ace of this bridi is=20 le xekri mlatu,=20 le go'i means=20 le xekri mlatu. @@ -1149,84 +1149,84 @@ =20 no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13"/>

mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba du= nda le zdani le tixnu I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] giv= e the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter - I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give = the house to my daughter. + I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. = Give the house to my daughter.

(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 my in the colloquial English; it leaves t= he fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to impl= icit. To make the fact explicit, use=20 le bersa/tixnu be mi.) For good examples of=20 nei and=20 =20 no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14"/>

mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte =20 I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of= [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting). - I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased= (about ...) before you acted. + I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pl= eased (about ...) before you acted.

mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a =20 I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] - I will go when you do. + I will go when you do.

go'i ra'ocontrasted with go'i Finally,=20 ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series= cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pr= o-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpre= ted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the anteceden= t of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16"/>

mi ba lumci lemi karce - I will wash my car. + I will wash my car.

you might reply either: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d17"/>

mi go'i - I will wash your car. + I will wash your car.

or: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18"/>

mi go'i ra'o =20 - I will wash my car. + I will wash my car.

The=20 ra'o forces the second=20 mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rath= er than the former speaker. This means that=20 go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternat= ive to=20 =20 do go'e in B's statement in=20 =20 . @@ -1236,21 +1236,21 @@ ri-series or=20 go'a-series reference within a quotation = can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotati= ons are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be = broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti with= in it. Here's an example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19"/>

la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku l= u mi go'i li'u John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [= quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. - John says, I am going to the store. Alice says,= Me too. + John says, I am going to the store. Alice = says, Me too.

go'i-series pro-b= ridiin narrative about quotation ri-series pro-sumtiin narrative about quotation Of cour= se, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something with= in a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware o= f what they are doing.

Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'= e-series =20 =20 The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1359,51 +1359,51 @@ zi'oas creating new selbri Note: The use of=20 zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri act= ually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the f= ollowing examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d4"/>

mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood. - I make the building out of wood. + I make the building out of wood.

zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri [without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of= wood. - The building is made out of wood. + The building is made out of wood.

mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.<= /gloss> - I build using wood. + I build using wood.

mi zbasu le dinju zi'o I make the building [without-material]. - I make the building. + I make the building.

If=20 is true, then=20 through=20 must be true also. However,= =20 does not correspond to any = sentence with three regular (non-=20 zi'o) sumti. co'e co'e= as selbri place-holder selbriomitting with co'= e The pro-bridi=20 co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of se= lma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow= the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumt= i may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use = of=20 @@ -1411,21 +1411,21 @@ co'e as a selbri place-holder: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8"/>

mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme =20 I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. - I try the door. + I try the door. =20

The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. co'erationale for word form The form of=20 co'e was chosen to resemble=20 =20 zo'e; the cmavo=20 do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 =20 @@ -1489,53 +1489,53 @@

reciprocal pro-su= mti re= flexive pro-sumti pro-sumtireferring to place of same bridi = with vo'a-series pro-sumtivo'a-series anaphorapro-sumti vo'a-series as The cmavo of the vo'a= -series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a spe= cific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; th= e five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean= different things in different bridi. Some examples: =20 <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>wash self</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1"/>

mi lumci vo'a - I wash myself + I wash myself

mi klama le zarci vo'e - I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]. + I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]= .

vo'e vo'apro-sumtireferring to place of different bridi with go'i-series To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions= like=20 le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to = the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 . SOI selma'o soi= vice = versaEnglishexpressing with vo'a= -series pro-sumti and soi vo'a-series pro-sumtiuse in expre= ssing reciprocity with soi soiuse in expressing reciprocit= y with vo'a-series pro-sumti reciprocityexpressing with vo= 'a-series pro-sumti and soi The cmavo of the vo'a-s= eries are also used with=20 soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, = which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 =20 =20 vice versa:  <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary>= <secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3"/>

mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. =20 =20 - I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 + I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 I and=20 - you). + you).

soi with one follo= wing sumticonvention The signi= ficance of=20 soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still = true even if the x1 (specified by=20 vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 soi is understood to be one of those involved: @@ -1569,21 +1569,21 @@ <valsi>soi</valsi> are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywh= ere. Here is an example where=20 =20 <valsi>se'u</valsi> is required:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-RFBV"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6"/>

mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that - I run to this from that and vice versa. + I run to this from that and vice versa.

sumti and bridi questions:=20 =20 <valsi>ma</valsi> and=20 <valsi>mo</valsi> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

@@ -1603,51 +1603,51 @@ ma and=20 mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/>

do klama ma You go to-what-destination? - Where are you going? + Where are you going?

mo<= /indexterm> go'icompared with mo in overriding of arguments mocom= pared with go'i in overriding of arguments questionsselbri= mo<= /primary>as selbri question The cmavo=20 mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes th= e question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of= the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as t= he go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d2"/>

do mo What predicate is true as applied to you? - How are you? - What are you doing? - What are you? + How are you? + What are you doing? + What are you?

is a truly pregnant questio= n that will have several meanings depending on context. (One thing it probably does not mean is=20 Who are you? in the sense=20 What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed = by: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>what is your name</p= rimary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d3"/>

ma cmene do What sumti is-the-name-of you? - What is your name? + What is your name?

or even <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d4"/>

doi ma O [what sumti?] @@ -1658,34 +1658,34 @@ =20 A further example of=20 mo: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5"/>

lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. - Which person hit you? The big one. + Which person hit you? The big one.

multiple moas multiple questions multiple maas multipl= e questions <= primary>multiple questions in one bridiexpressing When=20 ma or=20 mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simu= ltaneously: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d6"/>

ma djuno ma [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? - Who knows what? + Who knows what?

Relativized pro-sumti:=20 <valsi>ke'a</valsi> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke'a @@ -1697,34 +1697,34 @@ ke'a relative claus= esuse of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in ke'afor relativized sumti in relative clauses pro-sumti= for relativized sumti in relative clauses This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 ) to indicate how the sumt= i being relativized fits within the clause. For example: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>cat of plastic</prim= ary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1"/>

mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing= -being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic. - I see a cat made of plastic. + I see a cat made of plastic.

ke'aambiguity when omitted If=20 ke'a were omitted from=20 , it might be confused with:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d2"/>

mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat]= makes a-mass-of plastic - I see a cat that makes plastic. + I see a cat that makes plastic.

ricontrasted with ke'a in relative clauses ke'acontras= ted with ri in relative clauses The anaphora cmavo= =20 =20 ri cannot be used in place of=20 ke'a in=20 and=20 , because the relativized su= mti is not yet complete when the=20 =20 ke'a appears. @@ -1756,33 +1756,33 @@ ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: <indexterm type=3D"example-imported"><primary>happiness</primary><= secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1"/>

le ka ce'u gleki the property-of (X being-happy) the property of being happy - happiness + happiness =20

and <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d2"/>

le ka gleki ce'u the property-of (being-happy about-X) - the property of being that which someone is happy about + the property of being that which someone is happy about

Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the b= u'a-series The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da KOhA @@ -1826,21 +1826,21 @@ bu'a-series pro-s= umtifor bound variables da-series pro-sumtifor bound variables Bound variables belong to= the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness o= nly. Their semantics is explained in=20 . It is worth mentioning that t= he Lojban translation of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1"/>

la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. - John picked up a stick and shook it. + John picked up a stick and shook it.

Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da'o =20 diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml index f91dde9..3d9ea97 100644 --- a/todocbook/8.xml +++ b/todocbook/8.xml @@ -55,72 +55,72 @@ relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2"/>

ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large. This thing which is a person is big. - This person is big. + This person is big.

ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large. This thing which is a nose is big. - This nose is big. + This nose is big.

ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-bi= g. These things which are nose-pores are big. - These nose-pores are big. + These nose-pores are big.

big nose-poresexample big noseexample big person= example ITas notation convention in relative cl= ause chapter In the literal translations throughout= this chapter, the word=20 IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 through=20 , the cmavo=20 ti) to which the relative clause is attached. ke'anon-initial place use in relative clause Of= course, there is no reason why=20 ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5"/>

tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a= -rat. That thing which the cat dragged is a rat. - What the cat dragged is a rat. + What the cat dragged is a rat.

ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. - That thing that I want to own is a boat. + That thing that I want to own is a boat.

In=20 ,=20 ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 ) within a relative clause. relative clauseeffect of omission of ke'a on= ke'a<= secondary>effect of omission of Like any sumti,=20 ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: @@ -149,21 +149,21 @@ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almos= t always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 <valsi>ku'o</valsi> will not be written in any of the examples unless = it is absolutely required: thus,=20 <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qLt8"/> can be written:</para> <example role=3D"interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id=3D"example-random-i= d-MtNs"> <title> <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d9"/>

ti poi prenu cu barda That which is-a-person is-big. - That person is big. + That person is big.

poidiscussion of translation without any change= in meaning. Note that=20 poi is translated=20 which rather than=20 such-that when=20 ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative= clause bridi. The word=20 which is used in English to introduce English relative = clauses: other words that can be used are=20 who and=20 that, as in: @@ -209,31 +209,31 @@ =20 =20 Consider the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1"/>

le gerku poi blanu cu barda The dog which is-blue is-large. - The dog which is blue is large. + The dog which is blue is large.

le gerku noi blanu cu barda The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large. - The dog, which is blue, is large. + The dog, which is blue, is large.

In=20 , the information conveyed b= y=20 poi blanu is essential to identifying the= dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general = to dogs that are blue. This is why=20 poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In=20 , on the other hand, the dog= which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and t= he relative clause=20 noi blanu just provides additional inform= ation about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then th= e relative clause does not help identify it further.) incidental relati= ve clauseas a parenthetical device commaeffect on relative clause in English relative clausesef= fect of commas in English relative clausesrestricted contr= asted with incidental in English expression In Engl= ish, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is= expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, claus= es with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incide= ntal relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in pu= nctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In add= ition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by=20 =20 @@ -245,64 +245,64 @@ poi and=20 noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the d= istinction. Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3"/>

mi noi jdice cu zvati I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place]. - I, a judge, am present. + I, a judge, am present.

In this example,=20 mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the addition= al information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener'= s edification. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d4"/>

xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. - Do you see my car, which is white? + Do you see my car, which is white?

In=20 , the speaker is presumed to= have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is whit= e. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since=20 le karce can be plural, in which case the= incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 =20 with a restrictive relative= clause: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5"/>

xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi [True?] You see my car which is-white. Do you see my car that is white? - Do you see my white car? + Do you see my white car?

relative clausecompared with tanru Here the spe= aker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumt= i=20 le mi karce (and thereby the listener's a= ttention) to the white one only.=20 means much the same as=20 , which does not use a relat= ive clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d6"/>

xu do viska le mi blabi karce [True?] You see my white car. - Do you see my car, the white one? + Do you see my car, the white one?

relative clausecontrasted with tanru So a restr= ictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as= a description involving a tanru. However,=20 =20 blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat = vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or= even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-nes= s; the restrictive relative clause of=20 =20 can only refer to a car whi= ch is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.

Relative phrases @@ -354,21 +354,21 @@ GOI selma'o relativ= e phraseas an abbreviation of a common relative clause= rel= ative phrasesyntax of relative phrase= rationale for There are types of relative clauses (= those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, a= nd can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phr= ases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo fol= lowed by a single sumti. loose association<= /primary>expressing with pe peas loose associat= ion = pecompared with poi ke'a srana Here is an example of=20 pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1"/>

le stizu pe mi cu blanu The chair associated-with me is-blue. - My chair is blue. + My chair is blue.

<anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d2"/> le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue. @@ -518,52 +518,52 @@ , the listener is presumed n= ot to understand which dog is meant by=20 le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative = phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's frie= nd. , however, assumes that the = listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and s= pecifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be ob= vious). Here is another example of the same contrast: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d12"/>

le tcadu po'u la nu,iork - The city of New York [not another city] + The city of New York [not another city]

la nu,iork po'u le tcadu - New York the city (not the state or some other New York) + New York the city (not the state or some other New York)<= /natlang>

New York stateexample New York cityexample= possessed in re= lative phrasescompared with possessor possessor in relativ= e phrasescompared with possessed The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places app= lies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14"/>

le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu The cup associated-with my friend is small. - My friend's cup is small + My friend's cup is small =20

le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu My friend associated-with the cup is small. - My friend, the one with the cup, is small. + My friend, the one with the cup, is small.

cup's friendexample friend's cupexample=20 is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive –=20 the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – bu= t Lojban has no trouble doing so. =20 incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 @@ -574,49 +574,49 @@ po'u, respectively, as=20 noi does to=20 poi- they provide incidental information:= <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d16"/>

le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.<= /gloss> - The white dog, which is mine, bites you. + The white dog, which is mine, bites you.

In=20 , the white dog is already f= ully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him= or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi= claim. po'ucontrasted with no'u no'ucontrasted with po'u Distinguishing between=20 po'u and=20 no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with sever= al men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I mi= ght say: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d17"/>

le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci =20 The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet. - The man, Jim, is a poet. + The man, Jim, is a poet.

Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally= telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d18"/>

le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci The man who-is Jim is-a-poet. - The man Jim is a poet. + The man Jim is a poet.

is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaki= ng of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean. possessionLojban usage compared with French and German in omission/incl= usion possessionLojban usage contrasted with English in om= ission/inclusion It is worth mentioning that Englis= h sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and th= e point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to = English). The idiomatic English sentence <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d19"/> The man put his hands in his pockets. @@ -648,88 +648,88 @@ ZIhE selma'o<= /primary> multip= le relative clausesattaching with zi'e Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relati= ve clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mo= re relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to = the same sumti. For example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d1"/>

le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama - The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. + The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.

zi'ecompared with English and <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">zi'econtr= asted with logical connectives The most usual trans= lation of=20 zi'e in English is=20 and, but=20 zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of= the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 ), it cannot be converted into = a logical connection between sentences. relative phraseconnecting to relative clause with zi'e relative clauseconnecting to relative phrase with zi'e multiple relative claus= esconnecting different kinds with zi'e It is perfectly correct to use=20 zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d2"/>

le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klam= a The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my frie= nd owns IT) goes. - The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going. + The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.

In=20 , the restrictive clause=20 poi blabi specifies which dog is referred= to, but the incidental clause=20 noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incident= al information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog= from the=20 poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though= not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears= first. zi'euse in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause<= /secondary> It is also possible to connect relative phrases wit= h=20 zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clause: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d3"/>

le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken. - My blue bottle is broken. + My blue bottle is broken.

Note that if the colloquial translation of=20 were=20 My bottle, which is blue, is broken, then=20 noi rather than=20 poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, sinc= e that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bott= le is blue. As written,=20 suggests that I probably ha= ve more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as = the blue one. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4"/>

mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. - I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. + I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. =20

my chairexample=20 illustrates that more than = two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 pe mi, implying that the chair is tempora= rily connected with me, and=20 po do, implying that the chair has a more= permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in wh= ich case the chair would naturally be your property.) Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5"/>

mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e no= i do dunda ke'a mi I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-u= pon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. - I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.<= /en> + I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave= me. =20

Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 <valsi>voi</valsi>

voi @@ -770,22 +770,22 @@ voi is like=20 le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning. As a result, the following two sentences <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d3"/>

le nanmu cu ninmu That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. - The=20 - guy is actually a gal. + The=20 + guy is actually a gal.

<anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d4"/> ti voi nanmu cu ninmu This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. @@ -805,21 +805,21 @@ ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 , if written out with all el= idable terminators, would appear as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1"/>

le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. - The dog which is white is going. + The dog which is white is going.

Here=20 ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 poi and=20 ku with=20 le, and=20 vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. When a simple descriptor using=20 le, like=20 @@ -855,59 +855,59 @@ , two different num= bers (known as the=20 inner quantifier and the=20 outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4"/>

re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two-of the five persons go to-the market. - Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the = market. + Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to= the market. =20

mu is the inner quantifier and=20 re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by atta= ching a relative clause to the sumti=20 re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative cl= ause is=20 poi ninmu (meaning=20 who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d5"/>

re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-t= he market. - Two women out of the five persons go to the market. + Two women out of the five persons go to the market.

re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.= - Two of the five women go to the market. + Two of the five women go to the market. =20

re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.= - Two women out of the five persons go to the market. + Two women out of the five persons go to the market.

As the parentheses show,=20 means that all five of the = persons are women, whereas=20 means that the two who are = going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the re= lative clause comes after the explicit=20 ku, as in=20 , then the sumti as a whole = is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no=20 ku, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit= =20 ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to = everything which the underlying selbri applies to. What about=20 @@ -924,31 +924,31 @@ all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 lo, the difference is quite important: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8"/>

lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the marke= t. - Some people, who are white, go to the market. + Some people, who are white, go to the market.

lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the marke= t. - Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market= . + Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the m= arket.

Both=20 and=20 tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the defaul= t inner quantifier is=20 ro (meaning=20 all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 su'o (meaning=20 at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= @@ -967,34 +967,34 @@ ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 ku is not. Therefore, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10"/>

mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] I see that-named (=20 man which fears the of-IT horse). - I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. + I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.

afraid of horseexample says that the speaker se= es a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horse= s, whereas <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11"/>

mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma. I see that-named(=20 Man) which fears the of-IT horse. - I see the person named=20 - Man who is afraid of his horse. + I see the person named=20 + Man who is afraid of his horse.

refers to one (or more) of those named=20 Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> relative clauses = and indefinite sumtiplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of indefinite sumti on placement= Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 =20 =20 re karce, which means almost the same as= =20 re lo karce (which in turn means the same= as=20 re lo ro karce), can have relative clause= s attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 @@ -1076,36 +1076,36 @@ . Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4"/>

le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. - The man's car is blue. + The man's car is blue.

possessive sumti<= /primary>effect on elidability of ku kueffect o= f possessive sumti on elidability of Note the expli= cit=20 ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents th= e selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main de= scription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. =20 And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5"/>

le li mu jdice se bende The of-the-number-five judging team-member - Juror number 5 + Juror number 5

juror 5= example which is not quite the same as= =20 the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. possessive sumti = with relative clauseseffect of placement relative clauses = with possessive sumtieffect of placement possessive sumti<= /primary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti possessive sumti<= /primary>relative clauses on relative clauseson= possessive sumti A possessive sumti may also have = regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it w= ere not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately follo= wing the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not t= he possessive. For example: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6"/> @@ -1145,51 +1145,51 @@

Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1"/>

li pai noi na'e frinu namcu The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= - The irrational number pi + The irrational number pi =20

irrational number= example relative clauseson quotation<= /secondary> rela= tive clauseson number And here= is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2"/>

lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I = express IT) is-a-sentence. - - I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. + + I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce.

which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. =20 NAhE selma'o<= /primary> LA= hE selma'o NAhE selma'oeffect of relative clause placement w= ith = LAhE selma'oeffect of relative clause placement with relat= ive clauses and NAhEplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of NAhE on placement= relative clauses and LAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact of LAhE on placement In addition, sumti wi= th attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explaine= d in detail in=20 =20 ) can have a relative clau= se appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3"/>

la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. - An old=20 - The Red Pony is in the far room. + An old=20 + The Red Pony is in the far room. =20

red pony= example=20 is a bit complex, and may n= eed some picking apart. The quotation=20 lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the strin= g of words=20 The Red Pony. If the=20 =20 la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 would claim that a certain = string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a stri= ng of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 @@ -1213,39 +1213,39 @@ relative clauses<= /primary>on connected sumti Sometimes, h= owever, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a m= ore complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (ex= plained in=20 =20 ). For example, <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5"/>

la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= - Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. + Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.

The incidental claim in=20 is not that Frank and Georg= e are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative c= lause attaches only to=20 =20 la djordj, the immediately preceding simp= le sumti. =20 VUhO selma'o<= /primary> relati= ve clause scopeextending to preceding sumti with vu'o<= /secondary> To make a relative clause attach to both parts of t= he logically connected sumti in=20 , a new cmavo is needed,=20 vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti = and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relati= ve clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or = non-logical connectives there may be. <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6"/>

la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.<= /gloss> - Frank and George, who are men, go to the house. + Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.

The presence of=20 vu'o here means that the relative clause=20 noi nanmu extends to the entire logically= connected sumti=20 la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, = both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation = shows. relative clauses = on complex sumtiLojban contrasted with English English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in th= e case of=20 and=20 by making use of number:=20 who is rather than=20 @@ -1259,67 +1259,67 @@ is-a-man) were replaced with=20 pu bajra (=20 ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7"/>

la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house. - Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. + Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. - Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. + Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. =20

Relative clauses in vocative phrases DOI selma'o COI= selma'o Vocative phrases are explained in more detai= l in=20 . Briefly, they are a metho= d of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying= the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with c= mavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1"/>

coi. frank. - Hello, Frank. + Hello, Frank.

co'o xirma - Goodbye, horse. + Goodbye, horse.

fi'i la frank. .e la djordj. =20 - Welcome, Frank and George! + Welcome, Frank and George!

Note that=20 says farewell to something = which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply = thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for examp= le) who is named=20 Horse. In a sense,=20 is ambiguous between=20 co'o le xirma and=20 co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic= ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges= . Similarly,=20 @@ -1338,36 +1338,36 @@ to=20 , as sentences by themselves= . vocative phrase w= ith nameplacement of relative clause on relative clausesplacement with vocative phrases = vocative phrasesrelative clauses on relative clauseson vocative p= hrases As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases= is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases all= ow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple= names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just afte= r the names: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d5"/>

coi. frank. poi xunre se bende Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member - Hello, Frank from the Red Team! + Hello, Frank from the Red Team!

The restrictive relative clause in=20 =20 suggests that there is some= other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the = speaker is greeting, must be distinguished. vocative phrase w= ith selbriplacement of relative clause on<= /indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses= either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here = are some examples: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d6"/>

co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse - Goodbye, horse where I am! + Goodbye, horse where I am!

<anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d7"/> co'o xirma poi mi zvati Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it). @@ -1391,21 +1391,21 @@ ke'a with subscri= ptuse for outer sumti reference subscriptsuse with ke'a for outer sumti reference inner sumtire= ferring to from within relative clause within relative clause outer sumtireferring to from within relative clause within relative cla= use = relativized sumtiin relative clauses within relative c= lauses ke'ameaning in relative clause inside relative clau= se However, an ambiguity can exist if=20 ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative cla= use: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer= relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter= . To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 ke'a: <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2"/>

le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. - The person who is in the room which he built is slow. + The person who is in the room which he built is slow. =20

room which he buil= texample Here, the meaning of= =20 IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as pla= in=20 =20 ke'a. prenex<= secondary>use for outer sumti reference outer sumtiprenex = for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in= =20 ), which is syntactically a ser= ies of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml index ed10fee..8149bba 100644 --- a/todocbook/9.xml +++ b/todocbook/9.xml @@ -114,21 +114,21 @@ =20 bridiselbri-first as exceptional selbri-first bridieff= ect on sumti places sumtiomitted first place in selbri-fir= st bridi sumtiorder in selbri-first bridi sumtiorder in selbri The general rule, then, is th= at the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain= their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if th= e selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4"/>

klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. - Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car= ! + Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using th= e car! =20

command= contrasted with observative form observative formcontrasted with command observativedefinition bridiexception to sumti place structure in = bridiomi= tting the first sumti place Here the x1 place is em= pty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In=20 ,=20 klama is glossed=20 a goer rather than=20 go because=20 Go at the beginning of an English sentence would sugges= t a command:=20 Go to Boston!.=20 @@ -224,21 +224,21 @@ fi,=20 fo, and=20 fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x= 5 places respectively: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1"/>

fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. - I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. =20 =20

FA selma'ofor accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number sumti<= /primary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA place struc= tureexplicitly mapping sumti to place with FA place struct= ureeffect of FA on FA selma'oeffect o= n place structure In=20 , the tag=20 fu before=20 le karce clarifies that=20 le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 klama. The use of=20 @@ -297,94 +297,94 @@ fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is= in the x3 place of=20 klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying t= he x2 place, it's easy to get lost. sumtire-ordering with FA selbri-first bridispecifying = first sumti place in with fa place structure ordereffect o= f FA on FA selma'oeffect on place structure order Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in wh= ich they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the p= laces. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order= desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginni= ng: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d3"/>

klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le d= argu go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D t= he road. - Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road. + Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.

selbri-first bridi= effect on use of cu cueffect of selbr= i-first bridi on Note that no=20 cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 , because=20 cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and= =20 has no such sumti. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d4"/>

fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI - Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I. + Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.=

exhibits the reverse of t= he standard bridi form seen in=20 =20 and=20 , but still means exactly th= e same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d5"/>

le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> - The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the rout= e, using me as a means of transport. + The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the= route, using me as a means of transport.

the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical. zo'ecompared with FA for omitting places FA selma'ocom= pared with zo'e for omitting places place structuresomitti= ng places with FA Tagging places with FA cmavo make= s it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones,= without any need for=20 zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d6"/>

klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car. - A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car. + A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.

Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged = with=20 fa or=20 fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse= order. FA selma'oeffect on subsequent non-tagged places What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after= a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically su= cceeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped= : <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7"/>

klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. - Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. =20

In=20 , the=20 fa causes=20 mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untag= ged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism b= y which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for= the x1 place. Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8"/>

mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car. - I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car. + I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.

In=20 ,=20 mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti = in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by v= irtue of the tag=20 =20 fi, and=20 le dargu occupies the x4 place as a resul= t of following=20 la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 @@ -411,21 +411,21 @@ =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10"/>

fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu =20 [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? - Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? + Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?

In=20 , the speaker uses the selbr= i=20 dunda, whose place structure is:

dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3

answers= to place structure questions The tagged = sumti=20 fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes= to know whether the sumti=20 @@ -498,31 +498,31 @@ SE selma'oeffect on place structure numbering N= ote that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in = the usual order, x1 to x5. Consider the following pair of examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1"/>

la bastn. cu se klama mi Boston is-the-destination of-me. Boston is my destination. - Boston is gone to by me. + Boston is gone to by me.

fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi x2 =3D Boston go x1=3DI. - To Boston go I. + To Boston go I.

converted selbri<= /primary>as resetting standard order FA in selbricompared with converted selbri in meaning converted selbricompared with selbri with FA in meaning FA in selbricont= rasted converted selbri with in structure converted selbri= contrasted with selbri with FA in structure=20 and=20 mean the same thing, in the= sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent = and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and mean= s). Structurally, however, they are quite different.=20 =20 has=20 la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 se klama, and uses standard bridi order;= =20 @@ -546,51 +546,51 @@ the go-erexample converted selbrito access non-first p= lace in description descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of following selbri In every case, the description is about something which fits into = the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination = (that is, something fitting the x2 place of=20 klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 se klama, whose x1 place is a destination= . The result is the destinationexample FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4"/>

le se klama - the destination gone to by someone + the destination gone to by someone =20

Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d5"/>

le te klama - the origin of someone's going + the origin of someone's going

le ve klama =20 - the route of someone's going + the route of someone's going

le xe klama - the means by which someone goes + the means by which someone goes

pluta ve klama<= /primary> Mars r= oadexample plutacontrasted with ve kl= ama = ve klamacontrasted with pluta = converted selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricon= trasted with other similar selbri=20 does not mean=20 the route plain and simple: that is=20 le pluta, using a different selbri. It me= ans a route that is used by someone for an act of=20 =20 =20 klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever l= ikely to, may be called=20 @@ -684,21 +684,21 @@ I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 viska such as=20 with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/>

mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing - I see you with the left eye. + I see you with the left eye.

mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. - I see you using my left eye. + I see you using my left eye.

Here the selbri belonging to the modal is=20 se pilno. The conversion of=20 pilno is necessary in order to get the=20 tool place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumt= i. The=20 =20 =20 tool user place is the x2 of=20 se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 @@ -775,21 +775,21 @@ pilno- the tool, not the tool user &ndash= ; the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 may therefore be rewritten = as: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/>

mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla =20 I see you with-tool: the left eye - I see you using my left eye. + I see you using my left eye.

The compound cmavo=20 sepi'o is much shorter than=20 =20 fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought o= f as a single word meaning=20 with-tool. The modal tag=20 pi'o, with no=20 =20 se, similarly means=20 @@ -826,85 +826,85 @@ Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2"/>

la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi =20 Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. =20 - I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. + I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. =20

Avonexample traveling salespersonexample (=20 may seem a bit strained, bu= t it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3"/>

mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd. I walk with-destination Bradford. - I am walking to Bradford. + I am walking to Bradford.

bloti teka'a la nu,IORK. [Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York - A boat from New York! + A boat from New York!

do bajra veka'a lo djine You run with-route a circle. - You are running in circles. + You are running in circles.

mi citka xeka'a le vinji I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane. - I eat in the airplane. + I eat in the airplane.

English prepositi= onscontrasted with modal tags in preciseness modal tagscontrasted with English prepositions in preciseness BAI cmavo= rationale for selection There = are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed use= ful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, b= ecause many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding Englis= h prepositions and preposition compounds such as with,=20 without, and=20 by means of. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more preci= se than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place= structures of the corresponding gismu. =20 BAI selma'oform of cmavo in All BAI cmavo have = the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first conso= nant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gi= smu. The table in=20 shows the exceptions. vague relationship= modal tag for modal tagfor vague rela= tionship There is one additional BAI cmavo that is = not derived from a gismu:=20 do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7"/>

lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu =20 Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. - A man of the north came to the city. + A man of the north came to the city.

modal placeon description = selbri "of"in Englishcompa= red with do'e = do'ecompared with English "of" Here=20 le berti is provided as a modal place of = the selbri=20 nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 of.=20 also illustrates a modal pl= ace bound into a selbri with=20 be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 be are more fully explained in=20 . @@ -981,55 +981,55 @@ =20 ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1"/>

le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water = give to the plant. - The plant grows because you water it. + The plant grows because you water it.

la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga =20 John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of J= ohn wins. - John got the first prize because he won. + John got the first prize because he won.

mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta =20 I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book= . - I took the book because I saw it. + I took the book because I saw it.

la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna =20 Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is= -human. =20 - Socrates died because Socrates is human. + Socrates died because Socrates is human. =20

Socratesexample plant growsexample "because"English wordfour varieties of In=20 through=20 , the same English word=20 because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 , and explore some variation= s on it. causals= claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effe= ct and/or relation abstraction bridieffect on claim of bri= di As written,=20 claims that the plant grows= , but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abst= ractions are explained in=20 @@ -1037,81 +1037,81 @@ ) without actually making a cl= aim. If I express=20 , I have said that the plant= in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that= there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is seman= tically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being wa= tered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could = reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5"/>

do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> - You water the plant; therefore, it grows. + You water the plant; therefore, it grows.

with the=20 ri'a changed to=20 seri'a. In addition, there are also symme= trical forms: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d6"/>

le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu b= anro The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event= -of (the plant grows). - Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the pl= ant, then it grows. + Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water t= he plant, then it grows.

does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relatio= nship between them. So in=20 , I am not saying that the p= lant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial tran= slation shows a form of=20 if-then in English quite distinct from the logical conn= ective=20 if-then explained in=20 . Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7"/>

le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati =20 The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant. - The plant grows because you water it. + The plant grows because you water it.

modal sentence con= nection FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8"/>

do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows. - You water the plant; therefore, it grows. + You water the plant; therefore, it grows.

The compound cmavo=20 .iri'abo and=20 =20 .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as= the initial=20 i indicates. The final=20 bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 taking over the following sumti. If the=20 bo were omitted from=20 we would have: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9"/>

le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. - The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.<= /en> + The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the pl= ant.

Because=20 ri'a do is a modal sumti in=20 =20 =20 , there is no longer an expl= icit sumti in the x1 place of=20 djacu dunda, and the translation must be = changed. modal sentence co= nnectionrelation to modal of second sentence in modal sent= ence connectionrelation to modal of first sentence in<= /secondary> moda= l sentence connectioneffect on modal The effect of sentences like=20 and=20 @@ -1130,42 +1130,42 @@ for a more detailed discussion= of Lojban connectives.)=20 exemplifies only afterthought moda= l connection, illustrated here by: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1"/>

mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. - I grasp the water because I grasp the cup. + I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.

grasp waterexample forethought connectiondefinition aftert= hought connectiondefinition An= afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a comp= ound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Foret= hought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between= the two: the use of=20 =20 both and=20 and in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one). =20 =20 modal sentence con= nectionforethought forethought modal sentence connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojb= an, place the modal plus=20 gi before the first bridi, and=20 gi between the two. No=20 i is used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 is: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2"/>

ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of wa= ter. - Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water. + Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.

forethought modal= sentence connectionrelation to modal of second bridi = in f= orethought modal sentence connectionrelation to modal = of first bridi in forethought modal sentence connection for causalsorder of cause and effect Note that the ca= use, the x1 of=20 rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the= original order of=20 , we could say: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d3"/>

@@ -1198,21 +1198,21 @@ , but there is no idiomatic = English translation that will distinguish it from them.

termset modal con= nection modalstermset connection If = the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termse= t may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 , but are essentially a mechanism = for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5"/>

mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. - I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me. + I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.

means the same as: nu'u nu'i FIXME: TAG SPOT <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d6"/>

nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'= u dunda @@ -1262,32 +1262,32 @@ which doesn't require the extra=20 vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are = shared. operand modal con= nection modal operand connection Finally, mathematical oper= ands can be modally connected. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d10"/>

li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re the number n =3D the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n =3D= the-number 2 + 2. - n =3D 4 because n =3D 2 + 2. + n =3D 4 because n =3D 2 + 2.

can be reduced to: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d11"/>

li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo the-number n =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.<= /gloss> - n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4. + n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.

The cmavo=20 vei and=20 ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are requir= ed so that=20 ni'igi affects more than just the immedia= tely following operand, namely the first=20 re. (The right parenthesis,=20 ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 justice. modal connectives= fi'o prohibited in fi'orestriction on= use Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsin= g algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 @@ -1299,21 +1299,21 @@

Modal selbri Consider the example: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1"/>

mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . - I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. + I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. =20

bai= under compulsio= nexample modal sumtiunspecified modal sum= tileaving vague=20 has two modal sumti, using = the modals=20 =20 =20 bau and=20 bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 to: @@ -1384,34 +1384,34 @@ fi'o modal follow= ed by selbrieffect on eliding fe'u If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using=20 fi'o, then=20 fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the mod= al selbri from colliding: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7"/>

mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do I with-eye see you. - I see you with my eye(s). + I see you with my eye(s).

bai ke see with eye= example modalsexpanding scope over in= ner modal connection modalsexpanding scope over non-logica= l connection = modalsexpanding scope over logical connection= with ke ... ke'e There are two other uses of modal= s. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been = connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see=20 for more on logical and non-lo= gical connections): <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8"/>

mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] =20 I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). - Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.= + Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the= ice.

Here the=20 bai is spread over both=20 klama le zarci and=20 cadzu le bisli, and the=20 ge ... gi represents the logical connecti= on=20 both-and between the two. modalsexpanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentenc= es that have been combined with=20 tu'e and=20 @@ -1580,37 +1580,37 @@ Here are some examples: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/>

la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. - Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. + Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.

likes more thanexample=20 requires that Frank likes B= etty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking= for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 semau because the x2 place of=20 zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. =20 =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8"/>

la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. - Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. + Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.

me'aavoiding in favor of semau mauavoiding in favor of= seme'a Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less= than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It = would be possible to rephrase=20 =20 using=20 me'a rather than=20 =20 semau, and=20 using=20 mau rather than=20 @@ -1630,21 +1630,21 @@ la meiris. and=20 la betis. respectively) would become atta= ched to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 would become: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9"/>

la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. - Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. + Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.

which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense= . bridi-based compa= risoncontrasted with comparison with relative phrasein claims about parts comparison with relative phrasecontrasted with bridi-based comparisoni= n claims about parts comparisonclaims related to based on f= orm Pure comparison, which states only the comparat= ive information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either = Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expre= ssed differently, as: =20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10"/>

@@ -1715,65 +1715,65 @@ mi nelci do and=20 mi nelci la djein. differ only in the fin= al sumti, we can transform=20 into a mixed sumti connecti= on:

=20 <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4"/>

mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. - I like you and/because Jane. + I like you and/because Jane.

mixed modal conne= ctionas proscribed in forethought mixed modal connectionafterthought mixed modal connectionof s= umti Note that this connection is an afterthought o= ne. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must= be either logical or modal. =20 mixed modal conne= ctionof bridi-tails There are = numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can ha= ve modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connect= ed version of=20 would be: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d5"/>

mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein. - I like you and/because like Jane. + I like you and/because like Jane.

The following three complex examples all mean the same thing. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d6"/>

mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'= ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u] I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [eq= ual] I carry the cat.) - I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the c= at, equally. + I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry = the cat, equally.

mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevr= i le mlatu [ke'e] I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal]= carry the cat). - I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the ca= t equally. + I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry t= he cat equally.

mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e= ] I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the d= og). - I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.<= /en> + I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equa= lly.

ke'e ke tu'u tu'e carry s= ackexample In=20 , the=20 tu'e ... tu'u brackets are the equivalent= of the=20 ke ... ke'e brackets in=20 and=20 , because=20 ke ... ke'e cannot extend across more tha= n one sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 .ijeseri'abo to=20 @@ -1847,31 +1847,31 @@ jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 . The following two examples = mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/>

le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). - My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. + My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.

mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi leb= na le cukta] I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, th= e event-of (I take the book)] - I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book. + I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.

modal conversion = without modalas vague=20 , with the bracketed part om= itted, allows us to say that=20 I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is = justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-l= anguage methods of expression. fi'oand modal conversion modal conversion with fi'o N= ote: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BA= I modals and to=20 fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

Modal negation @@ -1881,21 +1881,21 @@ John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negat= ion). modalscontradictory negation of negation of modalscontr= adictory Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo= is performed by appending=20 -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A commo= n use of modals with=20 -nai is to deny a causal relationship: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1"/>

mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi - I like you, but not because you like me. + I like you, but not because you like me.

contradictory neg= ation of modalsexplanation of meaning=20 denies that the relationshi= p between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is no= t asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me= or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my = liking you. modalsscalar negation of negation of modalsscalar Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing=20 na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NA= hE, to the BAI cmavo. <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2"/> @@ -1952,51 +1952,51 @@ BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value fo= r the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickine= ss for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist= (=20 ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3"/>

mi ki tavla - I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). + I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).

fi'oproscribed for sticky modals sticky modalsfi'o pro= scribed from Note: Modals made with=20 fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction.

Logical and non-logical connection of modals =20 non-logical conne= ctionof modals logical connectionof m= odals Logical and non-logical connectives are expla= ined in detail in=20 . For the purposes of this chap= ter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection be= tween two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bri= di with a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 and=20 mean the same thing: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1"/>

la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a l= e zdani Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-= origin the house. - Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house. + Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.

la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house. - Frank runs to and from the house. + Frank runs to and from the house.

je Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of ru= nning is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of ru= nning, you can use the form: <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3"/>

la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-orig= in the-house. --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.